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her first perfume , Black Star , which was followed by her second perfume , Forbidden Rose , in 2010 and her third perfume , Wild Rose , in 2011 . In July 2006 , Lavigne married her boyfriend of two years , Deryck Whibley , lead singer and guitarist for Sum 41 . The marriage lasted four years . In October 2009 , Lavigne filed for divorce . Whibley and Lavigne continued to work together , with Whibley producing her fourth album , as well as Lavigne 's single " Alice " , written for Tim Burton 's film Alice in Wonderland . Lavigne married Nickelback frontman Chad Kroeger in 2013 .
= = Early life and education = =
Lavigne was born in Belleville , Ontario , Canada . Her mother is of English , Scottish , and German descent , and her father , Jean @-@ Claude Joseph Lavigne , is of French @-@ Canadian extraction , and Avril holds a French passport . She was named " Avril " by her father after the French word for the month of April . He and Lavigne 's mother , Judy , recognized their child 's vocal abilities when she was two years old and sang " Jesus Loves Me " on the way home from church . Lavigne has an older brother , Matthew , and a younger sister , Michelle , both of whom teased her when she sang . " My brother used to knock on the wall because I used to sing myself to sleep and he thought it was really annoying . "
When Lavigne was five years old , the family moved to Greater Napanee , Ontario , a town with a population of approximately 5 @,@ 000 . As a child , she was sometimes kicked out of class for misbehaving , her parents supported her singing . Her father bought her a microphone , a drum kit , a keyboard , and several guitars , and converted their basement into a studio ; following his own love for music Jean @-@ Claude led the family to church at Third Day Worship Center in Kingston , Ontario , where he often played bass . When Lavigne was 14 years old , her parents took her to karaoke sessions . Lavigne also performed at country fairs , singing songs by Garth Brooks , the Dixie Chicks , and Shania Twain . She also began writing her own songs . Her first song was called " Can 't Stop Thinking About You " , about a teenage crush , which she described as " cheesy cute " .
= = Music career = =
= = = 1999 – 2001 : Early performances and record deal = = =
In 1999 , Lavigne won a radio contest to perform with the Canadian singer Shania Twain at the Corel Centre in Ottawa , before an audience of 20 @,@ 000 people . Twain and Lavigne sang Twain 's song , " What Made You Say That " , and Lavigne told Twain that she was going to be " a famous singer " . During a performance with the Lennox Community Theatre , Lavigne was spotted by local folksinger Stephen Medd . He invited her to contribute vocals on his song , " Touch the Sky " , for his 1999 album , Quinte Spirit . She later sang on " Temple of Life " and " Two Rivers " for his follow @-@ up album , My Window to You , in 2000 .
In December 1999 , Lavigne was discovered by her first professional manager , Cliff Fabri , while singing country covers at a Chapters bookstore in Kingston , Ontario . Fabri sent out VHS tapes of Lavigne 's home performances to several industry prospects , and Lavigne was visited by several executives . Mark Jowett , co @-@ founder of a Canadian management firm , Nettwerk , received a copy of Lavigne 's karaoke performances recorded in her parents ' basement . Jowett arranged for Lavigne to work with producer Peter Zizzo during the summer of 2000 in New York , where she wrote the song " Why " . Lavigne was noticed by Arista Records during a trip to New York .
In November 2000 , Ken Krongard , an A & R representative , invited Antonio " L.A. " Reid , then head of Arista Records , to Zizzo 's Manhattan studio to hear Lavigne sing . Her 15 @-@ minute audition " so impressed " Reid that he immediately signed her to Arista with a deal worth $ 1 @.@ 25 million for two albums and an extra $ 900 @,@ 000 for a publishing advance . By this time , Lavigne had found that she fit in naturally with her hometown high school 's skater clique , an image that carried through to her first album , but although she enjoyed skateboarding , school left her feeling insecure . Having signed a record deal , and with support from her parents , she left school to focus on her music career . Lavigne 's band was chosen by Nettwerk , as they wanted young performers who were up and coming from the Canadian punk rock scene who would fit with Lavigne 's personality .
= = = 2002 – 03 : Let Go = = =
Reid gave A & R Joshua Sarubin the responsibility of overseeing Lavigne 's development and the recording of her debut album . They spent several months in New York working with different co @-@ writers , trying to forge an individual sound for her . Sarubin told HitQuarters that they initially struggled ; although early collaborations with songwriter @-@ producers including Sabelle Breer , Curt Frasca and Peter Zizzo resulted in some good songs , they did not match her or her voice . It was only when Lavigne then went to Los Angeles in May 2001 and created two songs with The Matrix production team — including " Complicated " , later released as her debut single — that the record company felt she had made a major breakthrough . Lavigne worked further with The Matrix and also with singer @-@ songwriter Cliff Magness . Recording of Lavigne 's debut album , Let Go , finished in January 2002 .
Lavigne released Let Go in June 2002 in the US , where it reached number two on the Billboard 200 albums chart . It peaked at number one in Australia , Canada , and the UK — this made Lavigne , at 17 years old , the youngest female soloist to have a number @-@ one album on the UK Albums Chart at that time . By the end of 2002 , the album was certified four @-@ times platinum by the RIAA , making her the bestselling female artist of 2002 and Let Go the top @-@ selling debut of the year . By May 2003 , Let Go had accumulated over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sales in Canada , receiving a diamond certification from the Canadian Recording Industry Association . By 2009 , the album had sold over 16 million units worldwide , and the RIAA certified the album six @-@ times platinum , denoting shipments of over six million units in the US ( it has sold 6 @.@ 8 million copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan ) .
Lavigne 's debut single , " Complicated " , peaked at number one in Australia and number two in the US . " Complicated " was one of the bestselling Canadian singles of 2002 , and one of the decade 's biggest hits in the US , where subsequent singles " Sk8er Boi " and " I 'm with You " reached the top ten . With these three singles , Lavigne became the second artist in history to have three top @-@ ten songs from a debut album on Billboard 's Mainstream Top 40 chart . Lavigne was named Best New Artist ( for " Complicated " ) at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards , won four Juno Awards in 2003 out of six nominations , received a World Music Award for " World 's Bestselling Canadian Singer " , and was nominated for eight Grammy Awards , including Best New Artist and Song of the Year for " Complicated " .
In 2002 , Lavigne made a cameo appearance in the music video for " Hundred Million " by the pop punk band Treble Charger . In March 2003 , Lavigne posed for the cover of Rolling Stone magazine , and in May she performed " Fuel " during MTV 's Icon tribute to Metallica . During her first headlining tour , the Try to Shut Me Up Tour , Lavigne covered Green Day 's " Basket Case " .
= = = 2004 – 05 : Under My Skin = = =
Lavigne 's second studio album , Under My Skin , was released in May 2004 and debuted at number one in Australia , Canada , Japan , the UK , and the US . The album was certified five @-@ times platinum in Canada and has sold 14 million copies , including 3 @.@ 2 million in the US . Lavigne wrote most of the album 's tracks with Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Chantal Kreviazuk , and Kreviazuk 's husband , Our Lady Peace front man Raine Maida , co @-@ produced the album with Butch Walker and Don Gilmore . Lavigne said that Under My Skin proved her credentials as a songwriter , saying that " each song comes from a personal experience of mine , and there are so much [ sic ] emotions in those songs " . ' Don 't Tell Me ' , the lead single off the album , reached the top five in the UK and Canada and the top ten in Australia . " My Happy Ending " , the album 's second single , was a top five hit in the UK and Australia . In the US , it was a top ten entry on the Billboard Hot 100 and became a number @-@ one pop radio hit . The third single , " Nobody 's Home " , did not manage to make the top 40 in the US and performed moderately elsewhere .
During early 2004 Lavigne went on the ' Live and By Surprise ' acoustic mall tour in the US and Canada to promote ' Under My Skin ' , accompanied by her guitarist Evan Taubenfeld . In late 2004 , Lavigne embarked on her first world tour , the year @-@ long Bonez Tour . Lavigne won two World Music Awards in 2004 , for ' World 's Best Pop / Rock Artist ' and ' World 's Bestselling Canadian Artist ' , and won three Juno Awards from five nominations in 2005 , including ' Artist of the Year ' . She also won in the category of ' Favorite Female Singer ' at the eighteenth annual Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards .
Lavigne co @-@ wrote the song ' Breakaway ' , which was recorded by Kelly Clarkson for the soundtrack to the 2004 film ' The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement ' . ' Breakaway ' was released as a single in mid 2004 and subsequently included as the title track on Clarkson 's second album , ' Breakaway ' . Lavigne performed the Goo Goo Dolls song ' Iris ' with the band 's lead singer John Rzeznik at Fashion Rocks in September 2004 , and she posed for the cover of ' Maxim ' in October 2004 . She recorded the theme song for ' The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie ' ( released in November 2004 ) with producer Butch Walker .
= = = 2006 – 08 : The Best Damn Thing = = =
In February 2006 , Lavigne represented Canada at the closing ceremony of the 2006 Winter Olympics . Fox Entertainment Group approached Lavigne to write a song for the soundtrack to the 2006 fantasy @-@ adventure film Eragon ; her contribution , " Keep Holding On " , was released as a single to promote the film and its soundtrack .
Lavigne 's third album , The Best Damn Thing , was released in April 2007 and debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 , and subsequently achieving platinum status in Canada . The album sold more than 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the US and six million worldwide . Its lead single , " Girlfriend " , became Lavigne 's first number @-@ one single on the US ' Billboard ' Hot 100 and one of the decade 's biggest singles . The single also peaked at number one in Australia , Canada , and Japan , and reached number two in the UK and France . As well as English , " Girlfriend " was recorded in Spanish , French , Italian , Portuguese , German , Japanese , and Mandarin . The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ranked " Girlfriend " as the most @-@ downloaded track worldwide in 2007 , selling 7 @.@ 3 million copies , including the versions recorded in eight different languages . " When You 're Gone " , the album 's second single , reached the top five in Australia and the United Kingdom , the top ten in Canada , and the top forty in the US . " Hot " was the third single and charted only at number 95 in the US , although it reached the top 10 in Canada and the top 20 in Australia .
Lavigne won two World Music Awards in 2007 , for ' World 's Bestselling Canadian Artist ' and ' World 's Best Pop / Rock Female Artist ' . She won her first two MTV Europe Music Awards , received a Teen Choice Award for ' Best Summer Single ' , and was nominated for five Juno Awards . In December 2007 , Lavigne was ranked number eight in Forbes magazine 's list of ' Top 20 Earners Under 25 ' , with annual earnings of $ 12 million . In March 2008 , Lavigne undertook a world tour , The Best Damn World Tour , and appeared on the cover of Maxim for the second time . In mid @-@ August , Malaysia 's Islamic opposition party , the Pan @-@ Malaysian Islamic Party , attempted to ban Lavigne 's tour show in Kuala Lumpur , judging her stage moves " too sexy " . Her concert on 29 August was thought that it would promote wrong values ahead of Malaysia 's independence day on 31 August . On 21 August 2008 , MTV reported that the concert had been approved by the Malaysian government .
= = = 2009 – 11 : Goodbye Lullaby = = =
In January 2010 , Lavigne worked with Disney clothing designs inspired by Tim Burton 's feature film Alice in Wonderland . She recorded a song for its soundtrack , " Alice " , which was played over the end credits and included on the soundtrack album Almost Alice . In February , Lavigne performed at the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics closing ceremony . Lavigne 's song " I 'm with You " was sampled by Rihanna on the track " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " , which is featured on Rihanna 's fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " was released as a single the following year , and Lavigne appeared in its music video . In December 2010 , American singer Miranda Cosgrove released " Dancing Crazy " , a song written by Lavigne , Max Martin and Shellback . It was also produced by Martin .
Lavigne began recording for her fourth studio album , Goodbye Lullaby , in her home studio in November 2008 , its opening track , " Black Star " , was written to help promote her first fragrance of the same name . Lavigne described the album as being about her life experiences rather than focusing on relationships , and its style as less pop rock than her previous material , reflecting her age . The release date for Goodbye Lullaby was delayed several times , which Lavigne said was because of her label . Goodbye Lullaby was released in March 2011 , and its lead single , " What the Hell " , premiered in December 2010 . Goodbye Lullaby sold 368 @,@ 000 copies in the US and received Juno Award nominations for Album of the Year and Pop Album of the Year .
= = = 2012 – present : Avril Lavigne = = =
Three months after the release of Goodbye Lullaby , Lavigne announced that work on her fifth studio album had already begun , describing it as the musical opposite of Goodbye Lullaby and " pop and more fun again " . In late 2011 , she confirmed that she had moved to Epic Records , headed by L. A. Reid . Lavigne contributed two cover songs to the 2012 Japanese animated film One Piece Film : Z : " How You Remind Me " ( originally by Nickelback ) and " Bad Reputation " ( originally by Joan Jett ) .
The lead single from Lavigne 's fifth studio album , " Here 's to Never Growing Up " ( produced by Martin Johnson of the band Boys Like Girls ) , was released in April 2013 and reached top 20 positions on the Billboard Hot 100 , Australia and the UK . The second single , " Rock n Roll " , was released in August 2013 and the third , " Let Me Go " ( featuring Lavigne 's husband Chad Kroeger of Nickelback ) , was released in October 2013 . The album , eponymously titled Avril Lavigne , was released in November 2013 and sold 125 @,@ 000 copies in the US ; in Canada , it was certified gold and received a Juno Award nomination for Pop Album of the Year . During mid 2014 , Lavigne opened for boy band the Backstreet Boys ' In a World Like This Tour and played at the music festival Summer Sonic in Tokyo , Japan .
In an April 2015 interview with Billboard , Lavigne announced plans to release a new single titled " Fly " , which was released on 26 April in association with the 2015 Special Olympics World Summer Games , and to release a Christmas album .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style and songwriting = = =
Themes in Lavigne 's music include messages of self @-@ empowerment from a female or an adolescent view . Lavigne believes her " songs are about being yourself no matter what and going after your dreams even if your dreams are crazy and even if people tell you they 're never going to come true . " On her debut album , Let Go , Lavigne preferred the less mainstream songs , such as " Losing Grip " , instead of her more radio @-@ friendly singles , such as " Complicated " , saying that " the songs I did with the Matrix ... were good for my first record , but I don 't want to be that pop anymore . " Lavigne 's second album , Under My Skin , had deeper personal themes underlying each song , saying that " I 've gone through so much , so that 's what I talk about ... Like boys , like dating or relationships " . In contrast , her third album , The Best Damn Thing , was not personal to her . " Some of the songs I wrote didn 't even mean that much to me . It 's not like some personal thing I 'm going through . " Her objective in writing the album was simply to " make it fun " . Goodbye Lullaby , Lavigne 's fourth album , was much more personal than her earlier records , with Lavigne describing the album as " more stripped down , deeper . All the songs are very emotional " . Ian McKellen defined her as " a punk chanteuse , a post @-@ grunge valkyrie , with the wounded soul of a poet and the explosive pugnacity of a Canadian " on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson in 2007 .
Most critics and publications , such as The New York Times , Rolling Stone , NME , MusicMight , IGN and PopMatters , have identified Lavigne as a mix of alternative rock , pop rock and pop punk , influenced by a post @-@ grunge sound .
While Lavigne denied being angry , her interviews were still passionate about the media 's lack of respect for her songwriting . She said " I am a writer , and I won 't accept people trying to take that away from me " , adding that she had been writing " full @-@ structured songs " since she was 14 . Despite this , Lavigne 's songwriting has been questioned throughout her career . The songwriting trio the Matrix , with whom Lavigne wrote songs for her debut album , claimed that they were the main songwriters of Lavigne 's singles " Complicated " , " Sk8er Boi " and " I 'm with You " . Lavigne denied this , asserting that she was the primary songwriter for every song on the album , saying that " [ N ] one of those songs aren 't from me " . In 2007 , Chantal Kreviazuk , who wrote with Lavigne on her second album , accused Lavigne of plagiarism and criticized her songwriting , saying that " Avril doesn 't really sit and write songs by herself or anything . " Lavigne also disclaimed this , and considered taking legal action against Kreviazuk for " clear defamation " against her character . Kreviazuk later apologized , saying that " Avril is an accomplished songwriter and it has been my privilege to work with her . " Shortly after that , Tommy Dunbar , founder of the band the Rubinoos , sued Lavigne , her publishing company , and Lukasz " Dr. Luke " Gottwald for allegedly stealing parts of " I Wanna Be Your Boyfriend " for her song " Girlfriend " . Gottwald defended Lavigne , stating , " me and Avril wrote the song together ... It has the same chord progressions as ten different Blink @-@ 182 songs , the standard changes you 'd find in a Sum 41 song . It 's the Sex Pistols , not the Rubinoos . " In January 2008 , the lawsuit was closed after a confidential settlement had been reached .
= = = Influences = = =
Lavigne 's earlier influences came from country music acts such as Garth Brooks , the Dixie Chicks and Shania Twain ; and alternative singer @-@ songwriters such as Alanis Morissette , Lisa Loeb , Natalie Imbruglia and Janis Joplin . By the time she left school to focus on her music career , Lavigne was musically more influenced by skate punk , pop punk and punk rock acts such as blink @-@ 182 , Sum 41 , NOFX , Pennywise , Dashboard Confessional , Green Day , the Ramones , the Distillers and Hole . She also enjoyed metal bands such as Marilyn Manson , System of a Down , Incubus and the Used ; as well as alternative bands such as Nirvana , No Doubt , Goo Goo Dolls , Radiohead , Coldplay , Oasis , Third Eye Blind and Matchbox Twenty .
Because of these influences , musical genres , and Lavigne 's personal style , the media often defined her as punk , something she denied being . Lavigne 's close friend and guitarist , Evan Taubenfeld , said , " It 's a very touchy subject to a lot of people , but the point is that Avril isn 't punk , but she never really pretended to claim to come from that scene . She had pop punk music and the media ended up doing the rest " . Lavigne also commented on the matter : " I have been labeled like I 'm this angry girl , [ a ] rebel ... punk , and I am so not any of them . " Although she stated to have punk influences on her music : " I like to listen a lot to punk rock music , you can notice a certain influence of punk in my music . I like an aggressive music , but pretty enough heavy pop @-@ rock , which is what I really do . "
= = Other work = =
= = = Film career = = =
Lavigne became interested in appearing on television and in feature films . The decision , she said , was her own . Although her years of experience in making music videos was to her advantage , Lavigne admitted her experience in singing removed any fear of performing on camera . She specifically mentioned that the video " Nobody 's Home " involved the most " acting " . Her first television appearance was in a 2002 episode of Sabrina , the Teenage Witch , performing " Sk8er Boi " with her band in a nightclub . She later made a cameo appearance in the 2004 film Going the Distance . The main characters bump into her backstage at the MuchMusic Video Awards after her performance of " Losing Grip " .
She moved into feature film acting cautiously , choosing deliberately small roles to begin with . In November 2005 , after going through an audition to land the role , Lavigne travelled to New Mexico to film a single scene in the 2007 film , The Flock . She played Beatrice Bell , the girlfriend of a crime suspect , appearing alongside Claire Danes and Richard Gere . Gere gave Lavigne acting tips between takes . On her role in The Flock , Lavigne said , " I did that just to see how it was and to not jump into [ mainstream
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acting ] too fast " . The Flock was not released in American theatres , and because it was not released in foreign markets until late 2007 , it is not considered Lavigne 's debut . The film made $ 7 million in the foreign box office .
Lavigne 's feature film debut was voicing an animated character in the 2006 film Over the Hedge , based on the comic strip of the same name . She voiced the character Heather , a Virginia opossum . Recording the characters ' voices was devoid of interaction with other actors . Lavigne stated , " All the actors went in individually , and [ director ] Tim and [ screenwriter Karey ] and directors were there with me every time I went in , and they made it go so smoothly ; they made me feel comfortable .... That was the interesting part , going in by yourself , with no one else to kind of feed off of . " Lavigne found the recording process to be " easy " and " natural " , but she kept hitting the microphone as she gestured while acting . " I 'd use my hands constantly and , like , hit the microphone stand and make noises , so Tim and Karey had to tell me to hold still .... It 's hard to be running or falling down the stairs and have to make those sounds come out of your mouth but keep your body still . " Lavigne believed she was hired to perform Heather because of her rock @-@ star status . " [ The director ] thought I 'd give my character ... a bit of attitude " . The film opened on 19 May 2006 , making $ 38 million over its opening weekend . It went on to gross $ 336 million worldwide .
In December 2005 , Lavigne signed to appear in Fast Food Nation , based on the book Fast Food Nation : The Dark Side of the All @-@ American Meal . The fictionalized adaptation , directed by Richard Linklater , traces fast @-@ food hamburgers contaminated with cow feces back to the slaughterhouses . Lavigne played Alice , a high school student intent on freeing the cows . The film opened on 17 November 2006 and remained in theatres for 11 weeks , grossing $ 2 million worldwide .
Both Over the Hedge and Fast Food Nation opened at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival , which Lavigne attended . Lavigne felt honoured to be able to attend and was proud of her work . When asked if she would pursue her film career , she stated that she wanted to take her time and wait for the " right parts and the right movies . " Lavigne was aware of the roles she had chosen . " I wanted to start off small and to learn [ that ] I wouldn 't just want to throw myself into a big part . " In August 2006 , Canadian Business magazine ranked her as the seventh top Canadian actor in Hollywood in their second @-@ annual ranking Celebrity Power List . The results were determined by comparing salary , Internet hits , TV mentions , and press hits .
= = = Fashion design = = =
In July 2008 , Lavigne launched the clothing line Abbey Dawn , featuring a back @-@ to @-@ school collection . It is produced by Kohl 's , which is the brand 's exclusive US retailer . Named after Lavigne 's childhood nickname , Abbey Dawn is designed by Lavigne herself . Kohl 's describes Abbey Dawn as a " juniors lifestyle brand " , which incorporates skull , zebra , and star patterns , purples and " hot pinks and blacks " . Lavigne , who wore some of the clothes and jewellery from her line at various concerts before its official launch , pointed out that she was not merely licensing her name to the collection . " I actually am the designer . What 's really important to me is that everything fits well and is well @-@ made , so I try everything on and approve it all . " The clothing line incorporates Lavigne 's musical style and lyrics , " after the release of my first album , I realized how much fashion was involved in my musical career " .
The designs were also featured on the Internet game Stardoll , where figures can be dressed up as Lavigne . On 14 September 2009 , Lavigne took her then latest collection for her clothing line to be a part of the New York Fashion Week , returning in 2011 . In December 2010 , the clothing line was made available to over 50 countries through the line 's official website . " It 's fun to be a chick and design clothes and things I 'd like for myself . I design things I [ can 't ] find . "
Lavigne released her first fragrance , Black Star , created by Procter & Gamble Prestige Products . The fragrance was announced on Lavigne 's official website on 7 March 2009 . Black Star , which features notes of pink hibiscus , black plum and dark chocolate , was released in summer 2009 in Europe , and later in the US and Canada . When asked what the name meant , Lavigne replied , " I wanted [ the bottle ] to be a star , and my colors are pink and black , and Black Star resembles being different , and standing out in the crowd , and reaching for the stars ; the whole message is just about following your dreams , and it 's okay to be unique and be who you are . " Black Star won the 2010 Best " Women 's Scent Mass " by Cosmetic Executive Women ( CEW ) . Black Star was followed by a second fragrance in July 2010 , Forbidden Rose , which took two years to develop . It features notes of red apple , winepeach , black pepper , lotusflower , heliotrope , shellflower , praline agreement , sandalwood , and vanilla . Its message is an extension of Black Star 's " follow your dreams " , though the tagline for the new perfume is " Dare to Discover " . The commercial takes place in a gothic garden setting , where Lavigne , upon entering the garden , finds a single , purple rose . Lavigne launched a third fragrance , Wild Rose , in August 2011 and filmed the commercial for it in late 2010 . The tagline for the fragrance is " Dare to discover more " . It features notes of mandarin , pink grapefruit , plum , orange blossom , frangipani , blue orchid , musk , sandalwood and crème brûlée .
In January 2010 , Lavigne began working with Disney to incorporate Alice in Wonderland @-@ inspired designs into her Abbey Dawn line of clothing . Her designs were exhibited at the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising in California beginning in May through September , alongside Colleen Atwood 's costumes from the 2010 film .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Lavigne has been involved with many charities , including Make Some Noise , Amnesty International , Erase MS , AmericanCPR.org , Special Olympics , Camp Will @-@ a @-@ Way , Music Clearing Minefields , US Campaign for Burma , Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation and War Child . She has also appeared in ALDO ads with YouthAIDS to raise money to educate people worldwide about HIV / AIDS . Lavigne took part in the Unite Against AIDS concert presented by ALDO in support of UNICEF on 28 November 2007 at the Bell Centre in Montréal , Québec , Canada . In November 2010 , Lavigne attended the Clinton Global Initiative .
Lavigne worked with Reverb , a non @-@ profit environmental organization , for her 2005 east coast tour . She covered " Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door " for War Child 's Peace Songs compilation , and she recorded a cover of the John Lennon song " Imagine " as her contribution to the compilation album Instant Karma : The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur . Released on 12 June 2007 , the album was produced to benefit Amnesty International 's campaign to alleviate the crisis in Darfur .
On 5 December 2009 , Lavigne returned to the stage in Mexico City during the biggest charity event in Latin America , " Teleton " . She performed acoustic versions of her hits " Complicated " and " Girlfriend " with Evan Taubenfeld and band member , Jim McGorman . In 2010 , Lavigne was one of several artists who contributed their voices to a cover of K 'naan 's " Wavin ' Flag " as a benefit single to help raise money for several charity organizations related to the 2010 Haiti earthquake .
On 14 September 2010 , Lavigne introduced her charity , " The Avril Lavigne Foundation " , which aims to help young people with serious illnesses and disabilities and works with leading charitable organizations ; The foundation partners with the Easter Seals , Make @-@ A @-@ Wish foundation and Erase MS , the latter two being charities Lavigne has previously worked with . Her work with the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish foundation was the inspiration behind her own charity , with Lavigne stating , " I just really wanted to do more " . Lavigne said on the foundation 's website , " I have always looked for ways to give back because I think it 's a responsibility we all share " . Philanthropist Trevor Neilson 's 12 @-@ person firm , " Global Philanthropy Group " , advises Lavigne with her foundation as well as several other celebrities , including musician John Legend .
In September 2014 , she launched a personal fundraising campaign for Special Olympics as part of her birthday celebration . Proceeds from her " Team Rockstar " event helped sponsor athletes from around the world competing in the 2015 Special Olympics World Summer Games in Los Angeles . According to an ABILITY Magazine interview with Lavigne , the athletes were the stars of the music video for " Fly " , which was shot in Canada .
= = = Other projects = = =
Lavigne was featured in the 2003 game The Sims : Superstar as a non @-@ playable celebrity .
In mid @-@ 2007 , Lavigne was featured in a two @-@ volume graphic novel , Avril Lavigne 's Make 5 Wishes . She collaborated with artist Camilla d 'Errico and writer Joshua Dysart on the manga , which was about a shy girl named Hana who , upon meeting her hero , Lavigne , learned to overcome her fears . Lavigne said , " I know that many of my fans read manga , and I 'm really excited to be involved in creating stories that I know they will enjoy . " The first volume was released in April 2007 , and the second followed in July 2007 . The publication Young Adult Library Services nominated the series for " Great Graphic Novels for Teens " .
In September 2011 , Lavigne appeared on the Hub Network televised singing competition Majors & Minors as a guest mentor , alongside other singers including Adam Lambert and Leona Lewis .
= = Public image = =
When Lavigne first gained publicity , she was known for her tomboyish style , in particular her necktie @-@ and @-@ tank @-@ top combinations . She preferred baggy clothes , skater shoes or Converses , wristbands , and sometimes shoelaces wrapped around her fingers . During photo shoots , instead of wearing " glittery get @-@ ups " , she preferred wearing " old , crumpled T 's " . In response to her fashion and musical influences , the media called her the " pop punk princess " and the female answer to Blink @-@ 182 . Press and fans regarded her as the " anti @-@ Britney " , in part because of her less commercial and " real " image , but also because she was noticeably headstrong . " I 'm not made up and I 'm not being told what to say and how to act , so they have to call me the anti @-@ Britney , which I 'm not . " By November 2002 , however , Lavigne stopped wearing ties , claiming she felt she was " wearing a costume " . Lavigne made a conscious effort to keep her music , and not her image , at the forefront of her career . " I 'm just saying , I don 't want to sell sex . I feel that 's sort of lame and low . I 've got so much more to say . "
Lavigne eventually took on a more gothic style as she began her second album , Under My Skin , trading her skating outfits for black tutus and developing an image marked by angst . During The Best Damn Thing years , Lavigne changed directions . She dyed her hair blonde with a pink streak , wore feminine outfits , including " tight jeans and heels " , and modelled for magazines such as Harper 's Bazaar . Lavigne defended her new style : " I don 't really regret anything . You know , the ties and the wife @-@ beaters and all ... It had its time and place . And now I 'm all grown up , and I 've moved on " .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Tattoos = = =
Only a few of Lavigne 's tattoos are unique to her ; the rest are matched with those of her friends . Lavigne had a star tattooed on the inside of her left wrist that was created at the same time as friend and musical associate Ben Moody 's identical tattoo . In late 2004 , she had a small pink heart around the letter " D " applied to her right wrist , which represented her then @-@ boyfriend , Deryck Whibley . Lavigne and then @-@ husband Whibley got matching tattoos in March 2010 , in celebration of his 30th birthday . In April 2010 , Lavigne added another tattoo on her wrist , that of a lightning bolt and the number 30 .
Her love of tattoos , however , gained media attention in May 2010 , after Lavigne and Brody Jenner each got matching tattoos of the word " fuck " on their ribs . Lavigne appeared in the June / July cover story for Inked magazine , where she discussed and showed off her tattoos , including an " Abbey Dawn " on her left forearm and an " XXV " and star on her right . Although she confirmed the " fuck " tattoo verbally in the article ( calling it her " favorite word " ) she had it applied after the magazine 's photo shoot . She added that she eventually wanted to get a " big @-@ ass heart with a flag through it with a name ... I 'm going to wait a few years and make sure I still want it then . I have to wait for that special someone to come back into my life . " In July 2010 , Lavigne had her boyfriend 's name , " Brody " , tattooed beneath her right breast . The couple announced that they broke up in January 2012 .
= = = French citizenship = = =
Lavigne 's father being French , she has herself been legally French from birth , as the country applies jus sanguinis . She applied for her French passport and received it in February 2011 . In January 2012 , Lavigne 's house in Bel @-@ Air , on the market since May 2011 , sold , and Lavigne moved to Paris , France , to study the French language . She rented an apartment and attended a Berlitz school . She later held her second wedding in the South of France .
= = = Relationships = = =
= = = = Deryck Whibley = = = =
Lavigne and Sum 41 lead vocalist / rhythm guitarist Deryck Whibley began dating when Lavigne was 19 years old , after being friends since she was 17 . Only a few weeks before they met , Lavigne admitted that she was not meeting boys because her bodyguards were frightening them away . In June 2005 , Whibley surprised Lavigne with a trip to Venice , Italy , including a gondola ride and a romantic picnic , and on 27 June , he proposed to her .
She at first wanted to have a " rock n ' roll , goth wedding " , but admitted that she had doubts about going against tradition . " I 've been dreaming about my wedding day since I was a little girl . I have to wear the white dress ... people thought that I would [ wear a ] black wedding dress , and I would have . But at the same time , I was thinking about the wedding pictures , and I wanted to be in style . I didn 't want to be thinking , 20 years later , ' Oh , why did I wear my hair like that ? ' " The couple married on 15 July 2006 in Montecito , California .
Seven months into their marriage , Lavigne stated that she was " the best thing that 's ever happened to him " , and suggested that she helped Whibley stay off drugs since they had begun dating . " He doesn 't do drugs . Clearly , he used to , because he talked about it , but I wouldn 't be with someone who did , and I made that very clear to him when we first started dating . I 've never done cocaine in my life , and I 'm proud of that . I am 100 percent against drugs . " The marriage lasted four years . It was announced on 17 September 2009 that Lavigne and Whibley had split up and that divorce papers would soon follow . On 9 October 2009 , Lavigne filed for divorce , releasing the statement , " I am grateful for our time together , and I am grateful and blessed for our remaining friendship . " The divorce was finalized on 16 November 2010 .
= = = = Chad Kroeger = = = =
Lavigne began dating fellow Canadian rocker Chad Kroeger , frontman of the band Nickelback , in July 2012 . The relationship blossomed after they began working together in March 2012 to write and record music for Lavigne 's fifth album . Lavigne and Kroeger became engaged in August 2012 , after one month of dating . The couple married at the Château de La Napoule , a reconstructed medieval castle on the Mediterranean in the South of France , on 1 July 2013 ( which is Canada Day ) , after a year of being together . They had their honeymoon in Portofino , Italy . On 2 September 2015 , Lavigne announced her separation from Kroeger via her official Instagram account .
= = = Health issues = = =
In December 2014 , it was reported that Lavigne had privately written to a fan on Twitter that she was suffering from undisclosed health issues , although she denied rumours that she was in rehab . In April 2015 , she revealed to People magazine that she had been diagnosed with Lyme disease . In an interview with Billboard , Lav
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igne said that she was recovering .
= = Accolades = =
Lavigne received eight Grammy Awards nominations in two years , including Best New Artist . She has also received three American Music Awards nominations , one Brit Award nomination , and one MTV Video Music Award . She has received a total of 221 awards and 301 nominations .
By 2013 , Lavigne sold more than 50 million singles and 40 million copies of her albums worldwide , becoming one of the top @-@ selling artists releasing albums in the US , with over 12 @.@ 4 million copies certified by the RIAA . In 2009 , Billboard named Lavigne the number 10 pop artist in the " Best of the 2000s " chart . She was listed as the 28th overall best act of the decade based on album and single chart performance in the US
= = Backing band = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Filmography = =
= = Discography = =
Let Go ( 2002 )
Under My Skin ( 2004 )
The Best Damn Thing ( 2007 )
Goodbye Lullaby ( 2011 )
Avril Lavigne ( 2013 )
= = Concerts = =
= Buried Secrets ( Body of Proof ) =
" Buried Secrets " is the eight episode of the first season of the American medical drama Body of Proof . It was originally broadcast in the United States on ABC on May 10 , 2011 . The episode was directed by David Platt and written by Sunil Nayar and series creator Christopher Murphey .
In this episode , Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) investigates when Joe Salerno ( Derek Russo ) , a friend of Samantha Baker ( Sonja Sohn ) , is found dead , after being run over . However , Megan concludes that he was dead before the car hit him . Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) finds out that Joe was doing freelance work on a cold case involving Lizzy Adler ( Rebecca Blumhagen ) , a student athlete who was murdered . After getting Lizzy 's body exhumed , Megan realizes the same person killed Joe and Lizzy . Meanwhile , Megan asks her mother Joan ( Joanna Cassidy ) to help with the case .
The episode received positive reviews , and was watched by 10 @.@ 11 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , on the Tuesday night it aired in the United States . Critic Christine Orlando of TV Fanatic praised the scenes between Samantha and Ethan Gross ( Geoffrey Arend ) calling them " sweet " , as well as praising the scenes between Megan and Joan , adding that Joan was " a real piece of work " in this episode .
= = Plot = =
Detective Joe Salerno ( Derek Russo ) , a very dear friend of Samantha Baker ( Sonja Sohn ) , is found dead , after being run over by Sara Gonzales ( Diane Guerrero ) . When Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) arrives on scene , she concludes that he was dead before the car hit him , having been thrown off the bridge above the road . A distraught Samantha and Megan visit Joe 's wife Helen ( Kathryn Meisle ) and their daughter Becky ( Fátima Ptacek ) . Helen says that Joe had been distant before he died , after he was under review for assaulting Chuck Foster ( John Magaro ) . Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) discovers Joe was doing freelance work on a cold case involving Lizzy Adler ( Rebecca Blumhagen ) , a student athlete who was murdered , with Chuck being the prime suspect . Megan , Bud , Samantha and Peter Dunlop ( Nicholas Bishop ) talk to Lizzy 's lacrosse coach , Hal Davis , who states that Joe had been visiting the team recently . Megan exhumes Lizzy 's body , without her boss , Kate Murphy 's ( Jeri Ryan ) , permission . Megan gets her judge mother , Joan ( Joanna Cassidy ) to sign the request , who tells Megan that Lizzy is buried in the same graveyard as Megan 's father David , who committed suicide when Megan was twelve . Megan and Peter later visit David 's grave .
Megan receives backlash from Kate for not following procedure , but clay found in both Lizzy and Joe 's pockets match . Samantha realizes that Joe found the crime scene of Lizzy 's murder ; the tennis courts at her school . Kate and Megan study her body and find a hand impression on her back , which matches one of her friends Heather Clayton ( Meg Chambers Steedle ) . Heather killed Lizzy after she broke her finger during a lacrosse game . Lizzy 's body was found elsewhere , meaning Heather had help moving the body , so Megan finds out that Lou helped Heather . Lou also admits killing Joe , as he was getting too close to the truth . After they arrest them , Megan revisits her mother Joan , asking to exhume her father ’ s body . Joan declines the request , telling Megan to leave him be . Megan and Samantha revisit Helen and Becky , revealing that Joe had an undiagnosed brain disorder , causing the emotional distance from the two , telling them that Joe helped solve the Lizzy Adler case .
= = Production = =
" Buried Secrets " was written by Sunil Nayar and series creator Christopher Murphey and directed by David Platt , most known for directing television series such as Law & Order and its spinoff Law & Order : Special Victims Unit . Platt has been nominated for three Emmy 's whilst working on Law & Order . Daniel Licht who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for the episode . Actor John Magaro – best known for his role in the film My Soul to Take – guest starred in the episode as Chuck Foster . Recurring cast member Joanna Cassidy returned in this episode , with this being Cassidy 's first appearance since season one 's sixth episode " Society Hill " , however she was mentioned in this episode 's previous episode , " All in the Family " . Radio Times listed Mary Mouser as appearing as Lacey Fleming , however she did not appear in this episode .
" Buried Secrets " , along with the eight episode 's from Body of Proof 's first season , were released on a two @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 20 , 2011 . The sets included brief audio commentaries from various crew and cast members for several episode 's , a preview of season 2 and a 10 @-@ minute " featurette " on the making of the show , with commentaries from the medical consultants who helped with the script , as well as a " Contaminated Evidence " blooper reel .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on May 10 , 2011 , " Buried Secrets " was seen by 10 @.@ 11 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 9 share . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This episode achieved a lower number of viewers than the previous episode , " All in the Family " , as well as a lower amount than subsequent episode " Broken Home " . Body of Proof came seventh in the ratings on Tuesday night , it was outperformed by CBS 's NCIS , NCIS : Los Angeles , an episode of The Good Wife , two airings of ABC 's Dancing with the Stars and NBC 's The Voice . " Buried Secrets " was watched by 1 @.@ 77 million viewers upon its airing on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical response = = =
This episode received positive reviews . Christine Orlando from TV Fanatic said of the episode ; " Buried Secrets " left me wondering if there was even more to Megan 's father 's death than a simple suicide . There must be a story there and I hope we get to hear more of it . It would be nice to see Megan get her answers , no matter what they may be " . Orlando called Joan " a real piece of work " saying that she could not understand why Joan would not allow Megan to exhume her father 's body . She added that Joan was " cold " saying this adding , " I suddenly understood why Megan avoids Mom like the plague " . Of the conversation between Samantha and Ethan Gross ( Geoffrey Arend ) she said , " Ethan 's story about losing his guinea pig as a child was sad and sweet . In his own strange way he was trying to relate to Samantha and the death of her friend . Plus , it painted a heart @-@ breaking picture of a sad , lonely boy " . She added that the death of the episode " caused a ripple effect , touching everyone who came near it " , including Kate , who she said that she admired Megan for exhuming the body , as " she 's not allowed to flaunt the rules the way Megan is prone to do .
= Battle of Kings Mountain =
The Battle of Kings Mountain was a decisive victory in South Carolina for the Patriot militia over the Loyalist militia in the Southern campaign of the American Revolutionary War . The battle took place on October 7 , 1780 , 9 miles ( 14 km ) south of the present @-@ day town of Kings Mountain , North Carolina in rural Cherokee County , South Carolina , where the Patriot militia defeated the Loyalist militia commanded by British Major Patrick Ferguson of the 71st Foot .
Ferguson had arrived in North Carolina in early September 1780 to recruit troops for the Loyalist militia and protect the flank of Lord Cornwallis ' main force . Ferguson issued a challenge to the rebel militias to lay down their arms or suffer the consequences . In response , the Patriot militias led by Benjamin Cleveland , James Johnston , William Campbell , John Sevier , Joseph McDowell and Isaac Shelby rallied for an attack on Ferguson .
Receiving intelligence on the oncoming attack , Ferguson decided to retreat to the safety of Lord Cornwallis ' army . However , the Patriots caught up with the Loyalists at Kings Mountain near the border with South Carolina . Achieving a complete surprise , the Patriot militiamen attacked and surrounded the Loyalists , inflicting heavy casualties . After an hour of battle , Ferguson was fatally shot while trying to break the rebel line , after which his men surrendered . Some Patriots gave no quarter until the rebel officers re @-@ established control over their men ; they were said to be seeking revenge for alleged killings by Banastre Tarleton 's men of militiamen at the Battle of Waxhaws , under the slogan " Remember Tarleton 's Quarter . " Although victorious , the Patriots had to retreat quickly from the area for fear of Cornwallis ' advance . Later they executed nine Loyalist prisoners after a short trial .
The battle was a pivotal moment in the Southern campaign . The surprising victory over the American Loyalist militia came after a string of rebel defeats at the hands of Lord Cornwallis , and greatly raised the Patriots ' morale . With Ferguson dead and his Loyalist militia destroyed , Cornwallis was forced to abandon his plan to invade North Carolina and retreated into South Carolina .
= = Prelude to battle = =
Major Patrick Ferguson was appointed Inspector of Militia on May 22 , 1780 . His task was to march to the old Tryon County area , raise and organize Loyalist units from the Tory population of the Carolina Backcountry , and protect the left flank of Lord Cornwallis ' main body at Charlotte , North Carolina .
= = = Battle of Musgrove 's Mill = = =
On the evening of August 18 , 1780 two hundred mounted Patriot partisans under joint command of Colonels Isaac Shelby , James Williams , and Elijah Clarke prepared to raid a Loyalist camp at Musgrove ’ s Mill , which controlled the local grain supply and guarded a ford of the Enoree River . The Battle of Musgrove Mill , August 19 , 1780 occurred near a ford of the Enoree River , near the present @-@ day border between Spartanburg , Laurens and Union Counties in South Carolina . The Patriots anticipated surprising a garrison of about an equal number of Loyalists , but a local farmer informed them that the Tories had recently been reinforced by about a hundred Loyalist militia and two hundred provincial regulars on their way to join British Major Patrick Ferguson . The whole battle took perhaps an hour and within that period , sixty @-@ three Tories were killed , an unknown number wounded , and seventy were taken prisoner . The Patriots lost only about four dead and twelve wounded .
Some Whig leaders briefly considered attacking the Tory stronghold at Ninety Six , South Carolina ; but they hurriedly dispersed after learning that a large Patriot army had been defeated at Camden three days previous .
= = = Pursuit of Shelby = = =
Shelby ’ s forces covered sixty miles with Ferguson in hot pursuit before making their escape . In the wake of General Horatio Gates ’ blundering defeat at Camden , the victory at Musgrove Mill heartened the Patriots and served as further evidence that the South Carolina backcountry could not be held by the Tories .
Shelby and his Overmountain Men crossed back over the Appalachian Mountains and retreated back into the territory of the Watauga Association at Sycamore Shoals in present day Elizabethton , Tennessee , and by the next month on September 25 , 1780 , Colonels Shelby , John Sevier , and Charles McDowell and their 600 Overmountain Men had combined forces with Col. William Campbell and his 400 Virginia men at the Sycamore Shoals muster in advance of the October 7 , 1780 Battle of Kings Mountain north of present day Blacksburg , South Carolina in North Carolina .
On September 2 , Ferguson and the militia he had already recruited marched west in pursuit of Shelby toward the Appalachian Mountain hill country on what is now the Tennessee / North Carolina border . By September 10 , Ferguson had established a base camp at Gilbert Town , North Carolina and , according to Shelby issued a challenge to the Patriot leaders to lay down their arms or he would " lay waste to their country with fire and sword . "
North Carolina Patriot militia leaders Isaac Shelby and John Sevier , from the Washington District ( now present day northeast Tennessee ) , met and agreed to lead their militiamen against him .
= = = Muster at Sycamore Shoals = = =
Patriot leaders also sent word to a Virginia militia leader , William Campbell , asking him to join them at Sycamore S Campbell called on Benjamin Cleveland to bring his Wilkes County , North Carolina militia to the rendezvous . The detachments of Shelby , Sevier and Campbell were met by 160 North Carolina militiamen led by Charles McDowell and his brother Joseph . Campbell 's cousin , Arthur Campbell , brought 200 more Virginians . About 1 @,@ 100 volunteers from southwest Virginia and today 's northeast Tennessee , known as the " Overmountain Men " because they had settled into the wilderness west of the Appalachian Mountains ridgeline , mustered at the rendezvous on September 25 , 1780 , at Sycamore Shoals near the modern city of Elizabethton , Tennessee . Their movement had been made possible by easing tensions with the Cherokee , thanks to diplomacy by Benjamin Cleveland 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Indian agent Joseph Martin . The Overmountain Men crossed Roan Mountain the next day , and proceeded in a southerly direction for about thirteen days in anticipation of fighting the British Loyalist forces . By September 30 , they had reached Quaker Meadows , the Burke County , North Carolina home of the McDowell brothers , where they united with Benjamin Cleveland and 350 men . Now 1400 strong , the Patriots marched to South Mountain , North Carolina , The five colonels leading the Patriot force ( Shelby , Sevier , William Campbell , Joseph McDowell and Cleveland ) chose William Campbell as the nominal commander , but they agreed that all five would act in council to command their combined army .
Meanwhile , two deserters from the Patriot militia reached Patrick Ferguson and informed him of the large body of militia advancing towards him . Waiting three days for reasons that are still unclear , Ferguson ordered a retreat to Lord Cornwallis and the British main forces in Charlotte , sending a message to Cornwallis requesting reinforcements . The request did not reach Cornwallis until one day after the battle . On October 1 , Ferguson reached North Carolina 's Broad River , where he issued another pugnacious public letter , calling the local militia to join him lest they be " pissed upon by a set of mongrels " ( the Overmountain Men ) .
On October 4 , the Patriot militia reached Ferguson 's former camp at Gilbert Town , where thirty Georgia militiamen joined them , anxious for action . On October 6 , they reached Cowpens , South Carolina , ( site of the future Battle of Cowpens ) , where they received word that Ferguson was east of them , heading towards Charlotte and Cornwallis . They hurried to catch him . Rebel spies reported Ferguson was making camp on Kings Mountain with some 1200 men . Ferguson , rather than pushing on until he reached Charlotte and safety ( just a day 's march away ) , camped at Kings Mountain and sent Cornwallis another letter asking for reinforcements . Kings Mountain is one of many rocky forested hills in the upper Piedmont , near the border between North and South Carolina . It is shaped like a footprint with the highest point at the heel , a narrow instep , and a broad rounded toe . The Loyalists camped on a ridge west of Kings Pinnacle , the highest point on Kings Mountain .
Needing to hurry , the Patriot militia put 900 men on horseback and rode for Kings Mountain . They left immediately , marching through the night of the 6th and morning of the 7th , even though the rain never stopped . By sunrise of the 7th , they forded the Broad River , fifteen miles from Kings Mountain . By early afternoon they arrived and immediately surrounded the ridge and attacked .
= = Battle = =
The battle opened about 3 p.m. , when the 900 Patriots ( including John Crockett , father of Davy Crockett ) , approached the steep base of the western ridge . They formed eight detachments of 100 to 200 men each . Ferguson was unaware that the Patriots had caught up to him and his 1 @,@ 100 men . He was the only regular British soldier in his command , composed entirely of Loyalist Carolina militia ( except for the 100 or so red @-@ uniformed Loyalist soldiers from New York ) . He had not thought it necessary to fortify his camp .
The Patriots caught the Loyalists by surprise . Loyalist officer Alexander Chesney later wrote he didn 't know the Patriots were anywhere near them until the shooting started . As the screaming Patriots charged up the hill , Captain DePeyster turned to Ferguson and said , " These things are ominous — these are the damned yelling boys ! " Two parties , led by Colonels John Sevier and William Campbell , assaulted the mountains " heel " — the smallest in area , but its highest point . The other detachments , led by Colonels Shelby , Williams , Lacey , Cleveland , Hambright , Winston and McDowell , attacked the main Loyalist position , surrounding the " ball " base beside the " heel " crest of the mountain .
No one in the Patriot army held command once the fighting started . Each detachment fought independently under the previously agreed to plan to surround and destroy the Loyalists . The Patriots crept up the hill and fired from behind rocks and trees . Ferguson rallied his troops and launched a desperate bayonet @-@ charge against Campbell and Sevier . Lacking bayonets , the Patriots ran down the hill and into the woods . Campbell soon rallied his troops , returned to the hill , and resumed firing . Ferguson ordered two more bayonet charges during the battle . This became the pattern of the battle ; the Patriots would charge up the hill , then the Tories would charge down the hill with fixed bayonets , driving the Patriots off the slopes and into the woods . Once the charge was spent and the Tories returned to their positions , the Patriots would reform in the woods , return to the base of the hill , and charge up the hill again . During one of the charges , Colonel Williams was killed , and Colonel McDowell was wounded . Firing was difficult for the Loyalists , since the Patriots constantly moved using cover and concealment to their advantage . Furthermore , the downhill angle of the hill contributed to the Loyalists overshooting their marks .
After an hour of combat , Loyalist casualties were heavy . Ferguson rode back and forth across the hill , blowing a silver whistle he used to signal charges . Shelby , Sevier and Campbell reached the top of the hill behind the Loyalist position and attacked Ferguson 's rear . The Loyalists were driven back into their camp , where they began to surrender . Ferguson drew his sword and hacked down any small white flags that he saw popping up , but he appeared to know that the end was near . In an attempt to rally his faltering men , Ferguson shouted out " Hurrah , brave boys , the day is ours ! " [ sic ] He gathered a few officers together and tried to cut through the Patriot ring , but Sevier 's men fired a volley and Ferguson was shot and dragged by his horse behind the Patriot line . There he was confronted by an opposing officer , who demanded a surrender from the major . Ferguson shot and killed the man with his pistol , but was shot dead by multiple Patriots on the spot . When the Patriots recovered his corpse , they counted seven bullet wounds .
Seeing their leader fall , the Loyalists began to surrender . Some Patriots did not want to take prisoners , as they were eager to avenge the Battle of Waxhaws or ' Tarleton 's Quarter , ' in which Banastre Tarleton 's forces killed a sizable number of Abraham Buford 's Continental soldiers after the latter tried to surrender . ( At Waxhaws , Tarleton 's horse was shot , pinning him to the ground and leading his men to believe their commanding officer had been killed under a white flag of surrender . ) Also , other Patriots were seemingly unaware that the Loyalists were trying to surrender .
Loyalist Captain Abraham DePeyster , in command after Ferguson was killed , sent out an emissary with a white flag , asking for quarter . For several minutes , the Patriots rejected DePeyster 's white flag and continued firing , many of them shouting , " Give ' em Tarleton 's Quarter ! " and " Give them Buford 's play ! " A significant number of the surrendering Loyalists were killed . When DePeyster sent out a second white flag , a few of the rebel officers , including Campbell and Sevier , ran forward and took control by ordering their men to cease fire . They took about 800 Loyalist prisoners .
= = Aftermath = =
The Battle of Kings Mountain lasted 65 minutes . The Loyalists suffered 290 killed , 163 wounded , and 668 taken prisoner . The Patriot militia suffered 29 killed and 58 wounded . The Patriots had to move out quickly for fear that Cornwallis would advance to meet them . Loyalist prisoners well enough to walk were herded to camps several miles from the battlefield . The dead were buried in shallow graves and wounded were left on the field to die . Ferguson 's corpse was later reported to have been desecrated and wrapped in oxhide before burial . Both victors and captives came near to starvation on the march due to a lack of supplies in the hastily organized Patriot army .
On October 14 , the retreating Patriot force held drumhead courtmartials of various Loyalists on various charges ( treason , desertion from Patriot militias , incitement of Indian rebellion ) . Passing through the Sunshine community in what is now Rutherford County , N.C. , the retreat halted on the property of the Biggerstaff family . Aaron Biggerstaff , a Loyalist , had fought in the battle and been mortally wounded . His brother Benjamin was a Patriot and was being held as a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war on a British ship docked at Charleston , S.C. Their cousin John Moore was the Loyalist commander at the earlier Battle of Ramsour 's Mill ( modern Lincolnton , N.C. ) , in which many of the same troops had participated on both sides .
While stopped on the Biggerstaff land , the rebels convicted 36 Loyalist prisoners . Some were testified against by Patriots who had previously fought alongside them and later changed sides . Nine of the prisoners were hanged before Isaac Shelby brought an end to the proceedings . His decision to halt the executions came after an impassioned plea for mercy from one of the Biggerstaff women , although accounts vary as to whether it was Martha Biggerstaff , Aaron 's wife , or Mary Van Zant Biggerstaff , Benjamin 's wife . As the Patriot army dispersed , all but 130 Loyalist prisoners escaped , while being led single file through the woods , over the next few days before the column finally reached camp at Salem , North Carolina .
Kings Mountain was a pivotal moment in the history of the American Revolution . Coming after a series of disasters and humiliations in the Carolinas — the fall of Charleston and capture of the American army there , the destruction of another American army at the Battle of Camden , the Waxhaws Massacre — the surprising , decisive victory at Kings Mountain was a great boost to Patriot morale . The Tories of the Carolina back country were broken as a military force . Additionally , the destruction of Ferguson 's command and the looming threat of Patriot militia in the mountains caused Lord Cornwallis to cancel his plans to invade North Carolina ; he instead evacuated Charlotte and retreated to South Carolina . He would not return to North Carolina until early 1781 , when he was chasing Nathanael Greene after the Americans had dealt British forces another defeat at the Battle of Cowpens .
In The Winning of the West , Theodore Roosevelt wrote of Kings Mountain , " This brilliant victory marked the turning point of the American Revolution . " Thomas Jefferson called it , " The turn of the tide of success . " President Herbert Hoover at Kings Mountain said ,
" This is a place of inspiring memories . Here less than a thousand men , inspired by the urge of freedom , defeated a superior force intrenched in this strategic position . This small band of Patriots turned back a dangerous invasion well designed to separate and dismember the united Colonies . It was a little army and a little battle , but it was of mighty portent . History has done scant justice to its significance , which rightly should place it beside Lexington , Bunker Hill , Trenton and Yorktown . "
In 1931 , the Congress of the United States created the Kings Mountain National Military Park at the site of the battle . The park headquarters is in Blacksburg , South Carolina , and hosts hundreds of thousands of people each year .
= Charles Edward Magoon =
Charles Edward Magoon ( December 5 , 1861 – January 14 , 1920 ) was an American lawyer , judge , diplomat , and administrator who is best remembered as a governor of the Panama Canal Zone , Minister to Panama , and an occupation governor of Cuba . He was also the subject of several scandals during his career .
As a legal advisor working for the United States Department of War , he drafted recommendations and reports that were used by Congress and the executive branch in governing the United States ' new territories following the Spanish – American War . These reports were collected as a published book in 1902 , then considered the seminal work on the subject . During his time as a governor , Magoon worked to put these recommendations into practice .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Magoon was born in Owatonna , Minnesota . His family moved with him to Nebraska when he was still a small child . In 1876 , he enrolled in the " prep " program at the University of Nebraska at Lincoln and studied there for two years before officially enrolling in 1878 . He left school in 1879 to study law independently with a prominent law firm . In 1882 , he was admitted to the bar and practiced law in Lincoln , Nebraska . Eventually , he was made a partner in the firm . He also became the judge advocate of the Nebraska National Guard and continued to use the title of " Judge " throughout the remainder of his career .
= = = War Department and the " Magoon Incident " = = =
By 1899 , Magoon was sought out to join the law office of the newly created Division of Customs and Insular Affairs , later renamed the Bureau of Insular Affairs , in the U.S. Department of War under Secretary of War Russell A. Alger .
Legal and political controversy had arisen regarding whether the people of the newly acquired territories were automatically granted the same rights under the United States Constitution as American citizens . Magoon prepared a report to Alger in May 1899 that would have established the official departmental policy as " the Constitution follows the flag . "
Under this view , the moment the treaty transferring the territories to U.S. sovereignty was signed , the residents of Puerto Rico , the Philippines , and other territories became subject to all the rights granted by the Constitution . For the new territories following the Spanish – American War , this would have been from the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10 , 1898 . With the resignation of Secretary Alger , this incomplete report was not released to Congress .
In August 1899 , Elihu Root became the new secretary of war , and the unreleased report was scrapped . Magoon drafted a new report which came to precisely the opposite conclusion from the first : the Constitution did not apply in new territories until the United States Congress specifically passed legislation to authorize it . It argued that precedent was set when Congress passed legislation to apply the Constitution to the Northwest Territory and the Louisiana Purchase . This revised report was dated February 12 , 1900 , and released to Congress as a policy document expressing the Department 's official stance on the issue . This view was largely adopted by the Supreme Court of the United States beginning in 1901 in the so @-@ called " Insular Cases . "
During this period , Congress was debating a Puerto Rico Tariff Act that would have been unconstitutional had the first definition been kept . This was a largely partisan issue at the time — the Republicans were in favor of this Act , but it was strongly denounced by Democrats . During the ensuing debate , the existence of the original report was discovered by the Democrats , who requested that the War Department release the earlier report to them so they could be compared " side by side " . The request was refused , but a copy of the report was leaked , allowing Minority Leader James D. Richardson to read it aloud on the Senate floor , prior to the vote . These efforts failed ; the vote remained along party lines and the measure was passed .
This small scandal , with Magoon at the center , was termed the " Magoon Incident " by the Chicago Tribune and resulted in harsh words against him from both parties . Fellow Republicans urged that Magoon was only a " subordinate clerk " , with no right to express any opinion except the opinion of the Department , and therefore the first report should carry no weight . Democrats similarly were against the second version of the report . It is unclear which version , if any , actually represented Magoon 's personal views rather than the views of the current secretary of war .
After this incident , Magoon remained with the Department of War . In 190
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of about 52 ° S. The archipelago , with an area of 4 @,@ 700 square miles ( 12 @,@ 000 square kilometres ) , comprises East Falkland , West Falkland and 776 smaller islands . As a British overseas territory , the Falklands have internal self @-@ governance , and the United Kingdom takes responsibility for their defence and foreign affairs . The islands ' capital is Stanley on East Falkland .
Controversy exists over the Falklands ' discovery and subsequent colonisation by Europeans . At various times , the islands have had French , British , Spanish , and Argentine settlements . Britain reasserted its rule in 1833 , although Argentina maintains its claim to the islands . In April 1982 , Argentine forces temporarily occupied the islands . British administration was restored two months later at the end of the Falklands War . Most Falklanders favour that the archipelago remain a UK overseas territory , but its sovereignty status is part of an ongoing dispute between Argentina and the United Kingdom .
The population ( 2 @,@ 932 inhabitants in 2012 ) primarily consists of native @-@ born Falkland Islanders , the majority of British descent . Other ethnicities include French , Gibraltarian and Scandinavian . Immigration from the United Kingdom , the South Atlantic island of Saint Helena , and Chile has reversed a population decline . The predominant ( and official ) language is English . Under the British Nationality ( Falkland Islands ) Act 1983 , Falkland Islanders are British citizens .
The islands lie on the boundary of the subantarctic oceanic and tundra climate zones , and both major islands have mountain ranges reaching 2 @,@ 300 feet ( 700 m ) . They are home to large bird populations , although many no longer breed on the main islands because of competition from introduced species . Major economic activities include fishing , tourism and sheep farming , with an emphasis on high @-@ quality wool exports . Oil exploration , licensed by the Falkland Islands Government , remains controversial as a result of maritime disputes with Argentina .
= = Etymology = =
The Falkland Islands take their name from the Falkland Sound , a strait separating the archipelago 's two main islands . The name " Falkland " was applied to the channel by John Strong , captain of an English expedition which landed on the islands in 1690 . Strong named the strait in honour of Anthony Cary , 5th Viscount of Falkland , the Treasurer of the Navy who sponsored their journey . The Viscount 's title originates from the town of Falkland , Scotland , whose name comes from " folkland " ( land held by folk @-@ right ) . The name was not applied to the islands until 1765 , when British captain John Byron of the Royal Navy , claimed them for King George III as " Falkland 's Islands " . The term " Falklands " is a standard abbreviation used to refer to the islands .
The Spanish name for the archipelago , Islas Malvinas , derives from the French Îles Malouines — the name given to the islands by French explorer Louis @-@ Antoine de Bougainville in 1764 . Bougainville , who founded the islands ' first settlement , named the area after the port of Saint @-@ Malo ( the point of departure for his ships and colonists ) . The port , located in the Brittany region of western France , was in turn named after St. Malo ( or Maclou ) , the Christian evangelist who founded the city .
At the twentieth session of the United Nations General Assembly , the Fourth Committee determined that , in all languages other than Spanish , all UN documentation would designate the territory as Falkland Islands ( Malvinas ) . In Spanish , the territory was designated as Islas Malvinas ( Falkland Islands ) . The nomenclature used by the United Nations for statistical processing purposes is Falkland Islands ( Malvinas ) .
= = History = =
Although Fuegians from Patagonia may have visited the Falkland Islands in prehistoric times , the islands were uninhabited at the time of their discovery by Europeans . Claims of discovery date back to the 16th century , but no consensus exists on whether these early explorers discovered the Falklands or other islands in the South Atlantic . The first recorded landing on the islands is attributed to English captain John Strong , who , en route to Peru 's and Chile 's littoral in 1690 , discovered the Falkland Sound and noted the islands ' water and game .
The Falklands remained uninhabited until the 1764 establishment of Port Louis on East Falkland by French captain Louis Antoine de Bougainville , and the 1766 foundation of Port Egmont on Saunders Island by British captain John MacBride . Whether or not the settlements were aware of each other 's existence is debated by historians . In 1766 , France surrendered its claim on the Falklands to Spain , which renamed the French colony Puerto Soledad the following year . Problems began when Spain discovered and captured Port Egmont in 1770 . War was narrowly avoided by its restitution to Britain in 1771 .
Both the British and Spanish settlements coexisted in the archipelago until 1774 , when Britain 's new economic and strategic considerations led it to voluntarily withdraw from the islands , leaving a plaque claiming the Falklands for King George III . Spain 's Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata became the only governmental presence in the territory . West Falkland was left abandoned , and Puerto Soledad became mostly a prison camp . Amid the British invasions of the Río de la Plata during the Napoleonic Wars in Europe , the islands ' governor evacuated the archipelago in 1806 ; Spain 's remaining colonial garrison followed suit in 1811 , except for gauchos and fishermen who remained voluntarily .
Thereafter , the archipelago was visited only by fishing ships ; its political status was undisputed until 1820 , when Colonel David Jewett , an American privateer working for the United Provinces of the River Plate , informed anchored ships about Buenos Aires ' 1816 claim to Spain 's territories in the South Atlantic . Since the islands had no permanent inhabitants , in 1823 Buenos Aires granted German @-@ born merchant Luis Vernet permission to conduct fishing activities and exploit feral cattle in the archipelago . Vernet settled at the ruins of Puerto Soledad in 1826 , and accumulated resources on the islands until the venture was secure enough to bring settlers and form a permanent colony . Buenos Aires named Vernet military and civil commander of the islands in 1829 , and he attempted to regulate sealing to stop the activities of foreign whalers and sealers . Vernet 's venture lasted until a dispute over fishing and hunting rights led to a raid by the American warship USS Lexington in 1831 , when United States Navy commander Silas Duncan declared the dissolution of the island 's government .
Buenos Aires attempted to retain influence over the settlement by installing a garrison , but a mutiny in 1832 was followed the next year by the arrival of British forces who reasserted Britain 's rule . The Argentine Confederation ( headed by Buenos Aires Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas ) protested Britain 's actions , and Argentine governments have continued since then to register official protests against Britain . The British troops departed after completing their mission , leaving the area without formal government . Vernet 's deputy , the Scotsman Matthew Brisbane , returned to the islands that year to restore the business , but his efforts ended after , amid unrest at Port Louis , gaucho Antonio Rivero led a group of dissatisfied individuals to murder Brisbane and the settlement 's senior leaders ; survivors hid in a cave on a nearby island until the British returned and restored order . In 1840 , the Falklands became a Crown colony , and Scottish settlers subsequently established an official pastoral community . Four years later , nearly everyone relocated to Port Jackson , considered a better location for government , and merchant Samuel Lafone began a venture to encourage British colonisation .
Stanley , as Port Jackson was soon renamed , officially became the seat of government in 1845 . Early in its history , Stanley had a negative reputation due to cargo @-@ shipping losses ; only in emergencies would ships rounding Cape Horn stop at the port . Nevertheless , the Falklands ' geographic location proved ideal for ship repairs and the " Wrecking Trade " , the business of selling and buying shipwrecks and their cargoes . Aside from this trade , commercial interest in the archipelago was minimal due to the low @-@ value hides of the feral cattle roaming the pastures . Economic growth began only after the Falkland Islands Company , which bought out Lafone 's failing enterprise in 1851 , successfully introduced Cheviot sheep for wool farming , spurring other farms to follow suit . The high cost of importing materials , combined with the shortage of labour and consequent high wages , meant the ship repair trade became uncompetitive . After 1870 , it declined as the replacement of sail ships by steamships was accelerated by the low cost of coal in South America ; by 1914 , with the opening of the Panama Canal , the trade effectively ended . In 1881 , the Falkland Islands became financially independent of Britain . For more than a century , the Falkland Islands Company dominated the trade and employment of the archipelago ; in addition , it owned most housing in Stanley , which greatly benefited from the wool trade with the UK .
In the first half of the 20th century , the Falklands served an important role in Britain 's territorial claims to subantarctic islands and a section of Antarctica . The Falklands governed these territories as the Falkland Islands Dependencies starting in 1908 , and retained them until their dissolution in 1985 . The Falklands also played a minor role in the two world wars as a military base aiding control of the South Atlantic . In the First World War Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914 , a Royal Navy fleet defeated an Imperial German squadron . In the Second World War , following the December 1939 Battle of the River Plate , the battle @-@ damaged HMS Exeter steamed to the Falklands for repairs . In 1942 , a battalion en route to India was redeployed to the Falklands as a garrison amid fears of a Japanese seizure of the archipelago . After the war ended , the Falklands economy was affected by declining wool prices and the political uncertainty resulting from the revived sovereignty dispute between the United Kingdom and Argentina .
Simmering tensions between the UK and Argentina increased during the second half of the century , when Argentine President Juan Perón asserted sovereignty over the archipelago . The sovereignty dispute intensified during the 1960s , shortly after the United Nations passed a resolution on decolonisation which Argentina interpreted as favourable to its position . In 1965 , the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 2065 , calling for both states to conduct bilateral negotiations to reach a peaceful settlement of the dispute . From 1966 until 1968 , the UK confidentially discussed with Argentina the transfer of the Falklands , assuming its judgement would be accepted by the islanders . An agreement on trade ties between the archipelago and the mainland was reached in 1971 and , consequently , Argentina built a temporary airfield at Stanley in 1972 . Nonetheless , Falklander dissent , as expressed by their strong lobby in the UK Parliament , and tensions between the UK and Argentina effectively limited sovereignty negotiations until 1977 .
Concerned at the expense of maintaining the Falkland Islands in an era of budget cuts , the UK again considered transferring sovereignty to Argentina in the early Thatcher government . Substantive sovereignty talks again ended by 1981 , and the dispute escalated with passing time . In April 1982 , the disagreement became an armed conflict when Argentina invaded the Falklands and other British territories in the South Atlantic , briefly occupying them until a UK expeditionary force retook the territories in June . After the war , the United Kingdom expanded its military presence , building RAF Mount Pleasant and increasing the size of its garrison . The war also left some 117 minefields containing nearly 20 @,@ 000 mines of various types , including anti @-@ vehicle and anti @-@ personnel mines . Due to the large number of deminer casualties , initial attempts to clear the mines ceased in 1983 .
Based on Lord Shackleton 's recommendations , the Falklands diversified from a sheep @-@ based monoculture into an economy of tourism and , with the establishment of the Falklands Exclusive Economic Zone , fisheries . The road network was also made more extensive , and the construction of RAF Mount Pleasant allowed access to long haul flights . Oil exploration has also begun , with indications of possible commercially exploitable deposits in the Falklands basin . Landmine clearance work restarted in 2009 , in accordance with the UK 's obligations under the Ottawa Treaty , and Sapper Hill Corral was cleared of mines in 2012 , allowing access to an important historical landmark for the first time in 30 years . Argentina and the UK re @-@ established diplomatic relations in 1990 ; relations have since deteriorated as neither has agreed on the terms of future sovereignty discussions . Disputes between the governments have led " some analysts [ to ] predict a growing conflict of interest between Argentina and Great Britain ... because of the recent expansion of the fishing industry in the waters surrounding the Falklands " .
= = Government = =
The Falkland Islands are a self @-@ governing British Overseas Territory . Under the 2009 Constitution , the islands have full internal self @-@ government ; the UK is responsible for foreign affairs , retaining the power " to protect UK interests and to ensure the overall good governance of the territory " . The Monarch of the United Kingdom is the head of state , and executive authority is exercised on the monarch 's behalf by the Governor , who in turn appoints the islands ' Chief Executive on the advice of members of the Legislative Assembly . Both the Governor and Chief Executive serve as the head of government . Governor Colin Roberts was appointed in April 2014 ; Chief Executive Keith Padgett was appointed in March 2012 . The UK minister responsible for the Falkland Islands since 2012 , Hugo Swire , administers British foreign policy regarding the islands .
The Governor acts on the advice of the islands ' Executive Council , composed of the Chief Executive , the Director of Finance and three elected members of the Legislative Assembly ( with the Governor as chairman ) . The Legislative Assembly , a unicameral legislature , consists of the Chief Executive , the Director of Finance and eight members ( five from Stanley and three from Camp ) elected to four @-@ year terms by universal suffrage . All politicians in the Falkland Islands are independent ; no political parties exist on the islands . Since the 2013 general election , members of the Legislative Assembly have received a salary and are expected to work full @-@ time and give up all previously held jobs or business interests .
Due to its link to the UK , the Falklands are part of the overseas countries and territories of the European Union . The islands ' judicial system , overseen by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office , is largely based on English law , and the constitution binds the territory to the principles of the European Convention on Human Rights . Residents have the right of appeal to the European Court of Human Rights and the Privy Council . Law enforcement is the responsibility of the Royal Falkland Islands Police ( RFIP ) , and military defence of the islands is provided by the United Kingdom . A British military garrison is stationed on the islands , and the Falkland Islands government funds an additional company @-@ sized light infantry Falkland Islands Defence Force . The territorial waters of the Falklands extend to 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) from its coastal baselines , based on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ; this border overlaps with the maritime boundary of Argentina .
= = = Sovereignty dispute = = =
The United Kingdom and Argentina both claim the Falkland Islands . The UK 's position is that the Falklanders have not indicated a desire for change , and that there are no pending issues to resolve concerning the islands . The UK bases its position on its continuous administration of the islands since 1833 ( except for 1982 ) and the islanders ' " right to self @-@ determination as set out in the UN Charter " . Argentine policy maintains that Falkland Islanders do not have a right to self @-@ determination , claiming that in 1833 the UK expelled Argentine authorities ( and settlers ) from the Falklands with a threat of " greater force " and , afterwards , barred Argentines from resettling the islands . Argentina posits that it acquired the Falklands from Spain when it achieved independence in 1816 , and that the UK illegally occupied them in 1833 .
In 2009 , British prime minister Gordon Brown had a meeting with Argentine president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner , and said that there would be no further talks over the sovereignty of the Falklands . In March 2013 , the Falkland Islands held a referendum on its political status , with 99 @.@ 8 percent of voters favoured remaining under British rule . Argentina does not recognise the Falkland Islands as a partner in negotiations ; consequently , it dismissed the Falkland Islands ' sovereignty referendum .
= = Geography = =
The Falkland Islands have a land area of 4 @,@ 700 square miles ( 12 @,@ 000 km2 ) and a coastline estimated at 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) . Two main islands , West Falkland and East Falkland , and about 776 smaller islands constitute the archipelago . The islands are predominantly mountainous and hilly , with the major exception the depressed plains of Lafonia ( a peninsula forming the southern part of East Falkland ) . The Falklands are continental crust fragments resulting from the break @-@ up of Gondwana and the opening of the South Atlantic that began 130 million years ago . The islands are located in the South Atlantic Ocean , on the Patagonian Shelf , about 300 miles ( 480 km ) east of Patagonia in southern Argentina .
The Falklands are situated approximately at latitude 51 ° 40 ′ – 53 ° 00 ′ S and longitude 57 ° 40 ′ – 62 ° 00 ′ W. The archipelago 's two main islands are separated by the Falkland Sound , and its deep coastal indentations form natural harbours . East Falkland houses Stanley ( the capital and largest settlement ) , the UK military base at RAF Mount Pleasant , and the archipelago 's highest point : Mount Usborne , at 2 @,@ 313 feet ( 705 m ) . Outside of these significant settlements is the area colloquially known as " Camp " , which is derived from the Spanish term for countryside ( Campo ) .
The climate of the islands is cold , windy and humid maritime . Variability of daily weather is typical throughout the archipelago . Rainfall is common over half of the year , averaging 610 millimetres ( 24 in ) in Stanley , and sporadic light snowfall occurs nearly all year . The temperature is generally between 21 @.@ 1 and − 11 @.@ 1 ° C ( 70 @.@ 0 and 12 @.@ 0 ° F ) in Stanley , but can vary to 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) early in the year and − 1 ° C ( 30 ° F ) in July . Strong westerly winds and cloudy skies are common . Although numerous storms are recorded each month , conditions are normally calm .
= = Biodiversity = =
The Falkland Islands are a biogeographical part of the mild Antarctic zone , with strong connections to the flora and fauna of Patagonia in mainland South America . Land birds make up most of the Falklands ' avifauna ; 63 species breed on the islands , including 16 endemic species . There is also abundant arthropod diversity on the islands . The Falklands ' flora consists of 163 native vascular species . The islands ' only native terrestrial mammal , the warrah , was hunted to extinction by European settlers .
The islands are frequented by marine mammals , such as the southern elephant seal and the South American fur seal , and various types of cetaceans ; offshore islands house the rare striated caracara . The Falklands are also home to five different penguin species and a few of the largest albatross colonies on the planet . Endemic fish around the islands are primarily from the genus Galaxias . The Falklands are treeless and have a wind @-@ resistant vegetation predominantly composed of a variety of dwarf shrubs .
Virtually the entire land area of the islands is used as pasture for sheep . Introduced species include reindeer , hares , rabbits , Patagonian foxes , brown rats and cats . The detrimental impact several of these species have caused to native flora and fauna has led authorities to attempt to contain , remove or exterminate invasive species such as foxes , rabbits and rats . Endemic land animals have been the most affected by introduced species . The extent of human impact on the Falklands is unclear , since there is little long @-@ term data on habitat change .
= = Economy = =
The economy of the Falkland Islands is ranked the 222nd largest out of 229 in the world by GDP ( PPP ) , but ranks 10th worldwide by GDP ( PPP ) per capita . The unemployment rate was 4 @.@ 1 percent in 2010 , and inflation was last calculated at 1 @.@ 2 percent rate in 2003 . Based on 2010 data , the islands have a high Human Development Index of 0 @.@ 874 and a moderate Gini coefficient for income inequality of 34 @.@ 17 . The local currency is the Falkland Islands pound , which is pegged to the British pound sterling .
Economic development was advanced by ship resupplying and sheep farming for high @-@ quality wool . The main sheep breeds in the Falkland Islands are Polwarth and Corriedale . During the 1980s , although synthetic fibres and ranch underinvestment hurt the sheep @-@ farming sector , the government established a major revenue stream with the establishment of an exclusive economic zone and the sale of fishing licenses to " anybody wishing to fish within this zone " . Since the end of the Falklands War in 1982 , the islands ' economic activity has increasingly focused on oil field exploration and tourism .
The port city of Stanley has regained the islands ' economic focus , with an increase in population as workers migrate from Camp . Fear of dependence on fishing licences and threats from overfishing , illegal fishing and fish market price fluctuations have increased interest on oil drilling as an alternative source of revenue ; exploration efforts have yet to find " exploitable reserves " . Development projects in education and sports have been funded by the Falklands government , without aid from the United Kingdom .
The primary sector of the economy accounts for most of the Falkland Islands ' gross domestic product , with the fishing industry alone contributing between 50 % and 60 % of annual GDP ; agriculture also contributes significantly to GDP and employs about a tenth of the population . A little over a quarter of the workforce serves the Falkland Islands government , making it the archipelago 's largest employer . Tourism , part of the service economy , has been spurred by increased interest in Antarctic exploration and the creation of direct air links with the United Kingdom and South America . Tourists , mostly cruise ship passengers , are attracted by the archipelago 's wildlife and environment , as well as activities such as fishing and wreck diving ; the majority are based in accommodation found in Stanley . The islands ' major exports include wool , hides , venison , fish and squid ; its main imports include fuel , building materials and clothing .
= = Demographics = =
The Falkland Islands are a homogeneous society , with the majority of inhabitants descended from Scottish and Welsh immigrants who settled the territory in 1833 . The 2006 census listed some Falklands residents as descendants of French , Gibraltarians and Scandinavians . That census indicated that one @-@ third of residents were born on the archipelago , with foreign @-@ born residents assimilated into local culture . The legal term for the right of residence is " belonging to the islands " . The British Nationality Act of 1983 gave British citizenship to Falkland Islanders .
A significant population decline affected the archipelago in the twentieth century , with many young islanders moving overseas in search of education , a modern lifestyle , and better job opportunities , particularly to the British city of Southampton , which came to be nicknamed " Stanley north " . In recent years , the island 's population decline has steadied , thanks to immigrants from the United Kingdom , Saint Helena , and Chile . In the 2012 census , a majority of residents listed their nationality as Falkland Islander ( 59 percent ) , followed by British ( 29 percent ) , Saint Helenian ( 9 @.@ 8 percent ) , and Chilean ( 5 @.@ 4 percent ) . A small number of Argentines also live on the islands .
The Falkland Islands have a low population density . According to the 2012 census , the average daily population of the Falklands was 2 @,@ 932 , excluding military personnel serving in the archipelago and their dependents . A 2012 report counted 1 @,@ 300 uniformed personnel and 50 British Ministry of Defence civil servants present in the Falklands . Stanley ( with 2 @,@ 121 residents ) is the most @-@ populous location on the archipelago , followed by Mount Pleasant ( 369 residents , primarily air @-@ base contractors ) and Camp ( 351 residents ) . The islands ' age distribution is skewed towards working age ( 20 – 60 ) . Males outnumber females ( 53 to 47 percent ) , and this discrepancy is most prominent in the 20 – 60 age group . In the 2006 census most islanders identified themselves as Christian ( 67 @.@ 2 percent ) , followed by those who refused to answer or had no religious affiliation ( 31 @.@ 5 percent ) . The remaining 1 @.@ 3 percent ( 39 people ) were adherents of other faiths .
Education in the Falkland Islands , which follows England 's system , is free and compulsory for residents aged between 5 and 16 years . Primary education is available at Stanley , RAF Mount Pleasant ( for children of service personnel ) and a number of rural settlements . Secondary education is only available in Stanley , which offers boarding facilities and 12 subjects to General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) level . Students aged 16 or older may study at colleges in England for their GCE Advanced Level or vocational qualifications . The Falkland Islands government pays for older students to attend institutions of higher education , usually in the United Kingdom .
= = Culture = =
Falklands culture is " based on the British culture brought with the settlers from the British Isles " , although it has been influenced by the cultures of Hispanic South America . Some terms and place names used by the islands ' former Gaucho inhabitants are still applied in local speech . The Falklands ' predominant and official language is English , with the foremost dialect being British English ; nonetheless , inhabitants also speak Spanish and other languages . According to naturalist Will Wagstaff , " the Falkland Islands are a very social place , and stopping for a chat is a way of life " .
The islands have two weekly newspapers : Teaberry Express and The Penguin News , and television and radio broadcasts generally feature programming from the United Kingdom . Wagstaff describes local cuisine as " very British in character with much use made of the homegrown vegetables , local lamb , mutton , beef , and fish " . Common between meals are " home made cakes and biscuits with tea or coffee " . Social activities are , according to Wagstaff , " typical of that of a small British town with a variety of clubs and organisations covering many aspects of community life " .
= Pat Morton =
Philip Henry ( Pat ) Morton ( 28 October 1910 – 18 January 1999 ) was an Australian businessman and politician . Born in Lismore in Northern New South Wales to a prominent political family and educated at Lismore High School , Morton left school at fourteen to be employed in a legal firm , before branching out into various businesses . Moving to Sydney , Morton first entered politics in 1944 as an Alderman on Mosman Municipal Council , rising to be Mayor in 1946 . Morton then entered the New South Wales Legislative Assembly on 3 May 1947 , representing the Electoral district of Mosman for the Liberal Party of Australia .
Morton soon rose through the party ranks , becoming touted as a possible leader . When the Liberals lost their third election under party leader Vernon Treatt , Morton contested the leadership in July 1954 . Although Morton was defeated , Treatt did not stay long , resigning in August . Morton then stood , but was deadlocked against party whip , Robert Askin , and Askin then asked Murray Robson to take the leadership . Robson proved ineffective and was deposed in September 1955 in a party spill and Morton was elected to succeed him as Leader of the New South Wales Opposition .
Morton contested as Leader the 195
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along its length . The first section opened on 1 May 1850 , and the whole on 20 May 1851 . The Buckinghamshire Railway intended to extend the line south to the station at Aylesbury but the extension was not built .
On 6 August 1860 the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway , with the 3rd Duke ( then still Marquess of Chandos ) as chairman and Sir Harry Verney as deputy chairman , was incorporated by Act of Parliament to connect the Buckinghamshire Railway ( now operated by the LNWR ) to Aylesbury . The 2nd Duke ensured the new route ran via Quainton , near his estates around Wotton , instead of a more direct route via Pitchcott . Beset by financial difficulties , the line took over eight years to build , eventually opening on 23 September 1868 . The new line was connected to the Wycombe Railway 's Aylesbury station , and joined the Buckinghamshire Railway where the Oxford – Bletchley line and the line to Buckingham met . A junction station was built . With no nearby town after which to name the new station , it was named Verney Junction railway station after Sir Harry . Aylesbury now had railway lines to the east , north and southwest , but no line southeast towards London and the Channel ports .
= = Construction and early operations = =
With a railway near the border of Wotton House estate , the 3rd Duke decided to build a small @-@ scale agricultural railway to connect the estate to the railway . His intended route ran on his own land other than a small stretch west of the Aylesbury and Buckingham line . This land was owned by the Winwood Charity Trust , an operator of almshouses in Quainton of which the Duke was a trustee . The Duke agreed to pay an annual rent of £ 12 ( about £ 1 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , in return for permission to run trains . With the consent of the Winwood Charity the route did not require Parliamentary approval , and construction could begin immediately .
The Duke envisaged a tramway west from Quainton Road railway station across his Wotton estate . The line was intended for transport of construction materials and agricultural produce and not for passengers . It would not have a junction with the Aylesbury and Buckingham railway but would have its own station at Quainton Road at a right angle to the A & B 's line . A turntable at the end of the tramway would link to a spur from the A & B 's line . The line was to run roughly southwest from Quainton Road to Wotton near Wotton Underwood . Just west of the station at Wotton the line split . One section would run west to Wood Siding near Brill . A short stub called Church Siding would run northwest into Wotton Underwood itself , terminating near the parish church , and a 1 mile 57 chains ( 2 @.@ 8 km ) siding would run north to a coal siding near Kingswood . The branch to Kingswood was routed to pass a pond , to allow the horses working the line to drink .
Ralph Augustus Jones was appointed Manager of the project , and construction began on 8 September 1870 . Twenty labourers from the Wotton estate who would otherwise have been unemployed following harvest were employed six days a week to build the line , each paid 11 s per week . They carried out all the construction except laying the track , which was by the specialists , Lawford & Houghton . The line was built using the cheapest materials and winding around hills to avoid expensive earthworks . Ballast was a mix of burnt clay and ash . The stations were crude earth banks 6 inches ( 150 mm ) high , held in place by wooden planks . As the Duke intended that the line be worked only by horse @-@ drawn carriages , the line was built with longitudinal sleepers to reduce the risk of horses tripping . A 13 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) diameter turntable was installed at Quainton Road to link the tramway to the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway .
= = = Opening = = =
On 1 April 1871 the section between Quainton Road and Wotton was formally opened by the Duke of Buckingham in a ceremony in which coal from the first goods wagon to arrive at Wotton was distributed to the poor . At its opening the line was unnamed , although it was referred to as " The Quainton Tramway " in internal correspondence . The extension from Wotton to Wood Siding was complete by 17 June 1871 ; the opening date of the northern branch to Kingswood is not recorded , but it was not fully open in February 1873 . The London and North Western Railway began a dedicated service from Quainton Road , with three vans a week of milk collected from the Wotton estate shipped to the London terminus at Broad Street . The only passengers were estate employees and people accompanying livestock .
The Duke and Jones intended to run no more than one train on each section of the line so the line was not built with passing loops or signalling . When more than one horse @-@ drawn train or locomotive was in operation , the Tramway operated a token system using colour @-@ coded staffs to ensure only one train could be on a section . Drivers between Quainton Road and Wotton carried a blue staff , those on west of Wotton and the Kingswood siding a red staff .
On 26 August 1871 an excursion ran from Wood Siding to London hauled by the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) . It carried around 150 people , for a total of 1051 ⁄ 2 passenger fares ( with each child counted as half an adult ) , and was drawn by horses between Wood Siding and Quainton Road and by locomotive from Quainton Road to Aylesbury where the carriages were attached to the 7 @.@ 30 am GWR service via Princes Risborough to London , arriving at 10 @.@ 00 am . The experiment was not a success . Sharp overhanging branches posed a danger to passengers and had to be cut back in the week before the excursion . The day was wet and ticket sales were lower than expected . The return from London to Quainton Road was delayed in Slough , and the excursion arrived back at Wood Siding at 2 @.@ 00 am .
The surveyors designing the line had worked on the assumption that the wagons would have a load on each wheel of 2 1 ⁄ 2 long tons ( 2 @.@ 54 t ; 2 @.@ 80 short tons ) and had designed the line accordingly . As it turned out , the four @-@ wheeled wagons used had an average weight of 3 1 ⁄ 2 long tons ( 3 @.@ 56 t ; 3 @.@ 92 short tons ) and each carried 6 – 7 long tons ( 6 @.@ 10 – 7 @.@ 11 t ; 6 @.@ 72 – 7 @.@ 84 short tons ) of goods , meaning this limit was regularly exceeded . The coal wagons used on the line weighed 5 long tons ( 5 @.@ 08 t ; 5 @.@ 60 short tons ) each and carried 10 long tons ( 10 @.@ 16 t ; 11 @.@ 20 short tons ) of coal , meaning a load on each wheel of 3 3 ⁄ 4 long tons ( 3 @.@ 81 t ; 4 @.@ 20 short tons ) .
As well as damaging the track the loads strained the horses , and soon the line began to suffer with derailments , particularly in wet weather . On 20 October 1871 Jones wrote to the Duke that " The traffic is now becoming so heavy that I would , most respectfully , venture to ask your Grace to consider the subject as to whether an Engine would not be the least expensive and most efficient power to work it . "
= = = Extension to Brill and conversion to steam = = =
In late 1871 residents of Brill petitioned the Duke to extend the route to Brill and open a passenger service . The Duke agreed ; it is likely he had already planned passenger services to Brill , as correspondence from early 1871 mentions passenger facilities at " the Brill terminus " . In January 1872 a scheduled passenger timetable was published and the line was named the " Wotton Tramway " . ( Although officially named the " Wotton Tramway " , it was commonly known as the " Brill Tramway " from the time of its conversion to passenger use . ) The new terminus of Brill railway station , at the foot of Brill Hill approximately 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) north of the town , opened in March 1872 . Although it was now a passenger railway , goods traffic continued to be the primary purpose of the line . The line was heavily used to ship bricks from the brickworks around Brill , and cattle and milk from farms on the Wotton estate . By 1875 the line was carrying around 40 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 180 @,@ 000 l ; 48 @,@ 000 US gal ) of milk each year . The inbound delivery of linseed cake to the dairy farms and of coal to the area 's buildings were also important . The line began to carry manure from London to the area 's farms , carrying 3 @,@ 200 long tons ( 3 @,@ 300 t ; 3 @,@ 600 short tons ) in 1872 . The tramway also opened a cartage business to handle the onward shipment of goods and parcels unloaded at Brill and Wotton stations .
With horses unable to cope , Jones and the Duke decided to convert at least part of the railway for locomotives . The lightly laid track with longitudinal sleepers limited them to 9 long tons ( 9 @.@ 14 t ; 10 @.@ 08 short tons )
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, and it was thus necessary to use the lightest locomotives possible . Two traction engines converted for railway use were bought from Aveling and Porter for £ 398 ( about £ 32 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) each . They were chosen for weight and reliability , and had a top speed on the level of 8 miles per hour ( 13 km / h ) . They took 95 – 98 minutes between Brill and Quainton Road , an average of 4 miles per hour ( 6 @.@ 4 km / h ) . With an unusual configuration in which a flywheel drove chains which in turn drove the wheels , the locomotives were noisy and were nicknamed " Old Chainey " by locals .
The first of the new locomotives , given serial number 807 by Aveling and Porter and numbered 1 by the Tramway , was delivered to Wotton station on 27 January 1872 . On the day of its delivery , the now @-@ redundant horses had been sent away . Nobody at Wotton could operate the locomotive so a horse had to be hired from Aylesbury until the driver arrived . After the delivery of the second locomotive on 7 September 1872 , all passenger services were drawn by locomotive except on Thursdays , when locomotives were replaced by horses to allow for maintenance . The line carried 104 passengers in January 1872 , rising to 224 in April , and 456 in August 1872 .
With steam came the need for water . Plans to dig a well near Wotton came to nothing , and the Duke 's expedient of drawing water from a pond near Quainton Road did not impress the pond 's owner . By March 1872 Jones recorded that " The party to whom the pond near the Quainton Station belongs is making complaints about our having water and I expect he will be using force to prevent our getting any " . A wooden water tower was built at Brill station , and a large water tower known as the Black Tank was built in the fork of the main line and Church Siding .
While the engines proved adequate , they were slow . On 6 February 1872 , Jones timed one as taking 41 minutes to travel roughly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from Quainton Road to Wotton hauling 42 tons ( 43 t ) . They were also low @-@ powered , and when pulling a heavy load their front wheels would lift off the track . The Duke 's cost @-@ cutting led to poor maintenance of track and equipment , and the service was often interrupted by derailments and accidents .
In 1876 the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway raised its prices for coal haulage . All coal hauled on the Tramway needed to pass along the A & BR from Verney Junction or Aylesbury and Jones had to raise prices to cover the surcharge or keep prices stable despite the loss of profits . Road @-@ hauled coal from Bicester was already undercutting the Tramway and the unreliable engines had given the Tramway a poor reputation . Jones kept prices fixed and absorb the increased costs , wrecking the Tramway 's already declining business .
In 1873 the 3rd Duke attempted to have the Wotton Tramway recognised as a railway , and William Yolland inspected the line in April 1873 . The Railway Regulation Act 1844 defined minimum standards of travel , one of which was that the trains travel at an average of 12 miles per hour ( 19 km / h ) , which the Aveling and Porter locomotives could not manage . None of the stopping places had adequate station buildings , and the line had no signals . Yolland permitted the line to continue as a tramway , but refused to recognise it as a railway .
= = Improvement and diversification = =
By the mid @-@ 1870s the slow locomotives and their unreliability and inability to handle heavy loads were major problems . In 1874 Ferdinand de Rothschild bought a 2 @,@ 700 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 100 ha ) site near Waddesdon station from John Spencer @-@ Churchill , 7th Duke of Marlborough , for his planned Waddesdon Manor . Jones and the Duke recognised that construction would increase the haulage of heavy goods and that the engines would not cope .
Engineer William Gordon Bagnall had established the locomotive firm of W. G. Bagnall in 1875 . Bagnall wrote to the Duke offering to hire his first locomotive for trials . On 18 December 1876 the locomotive , Buckingham , was delivered . It entered service on 1 January 1877 , mainly on the steep section of the line between Wotton and Brill . Although Jones was unhappy with some aspects of Buckingham , he recognised the improvement and ordered a locomotive from Bagnall for £ 640 ( about £ 54 @,@ 300 in 2016 ) . Wotton was delivered on 28 December 1877 and Buckingham was returned to Bagnall in February 1878 .
Buckingham and Wotton were more reliable than the Aveling and Porter engines . With modern locomotives on the Brill – Quainton Road route ( the Kingswood branch generally remained worked by horses , and occasionally by the Aveling and Porter engines ) , traffic rose . The figure for milk traffic rose from 40 @,@ 000 gallons carried in 1875 to 58 @,@ 000 gallons ( 260 @,@ 000 l ; 70 @,@ 000 US gal ) in 1879 , and in 1877 the Tramway carried 20 @,@ 994 tons ( 21 @,@ 331 t ) of goods . In early 1877 it appeared on Bradshaw maps and from May 1882 Bradshaw listed the timetable .
Despite frequent derailments , low speed meant Wotton Tramway had a good safety record . The locomotives occasionally ran over stray sheep , and on 12 September 1888 sparks from one of the Aveling and Porter engines blew back into one of the train 's cattle trucks , igniting the straw bedding and badly burning two cows . The line had one serious accident , in which Ellen Maria Nickalls , a servant at Wotton House , was struck by a locomotive near Church Siding and killed . The coroner returned a verdict of accidental death , absolving driver James Challis .
= = = Passenger services = = =
Jones increased scheduled passenger journeys from two to three each day in each direction . With locomotives generally occupied with goods , many passenger services were drawn by horse . While the increased passenger journeys boosted revenues , the Tramway no longer owned enough horses and had to hire them . By 1881 the passenger service was losing £ 11 ( about £ 1 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) a month , although reduced use of locomotives lowered maintenance costs . Although reliability had improved , services were still slow . Horse @-@ drawn passenger services took 60 – 70 minutes to travel 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) between Quainton Road and Brill . The locomotive @-@ hauled mixed trains , with frequent stops to load and unload , were timetabled at 11 ⁄ 2 to 23 ⁄ 4 hours to make the same journey , slower than walking .
Jones hoped to increase passenger revenue by promoting Brill as a spa . The chalybeate springs of Dorton Spa outside Brill were known for supposed healing powers , and a resort had been built around the Spa in the 1830s , featuring a modern pump house and eight baths , set in 12 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) of parkland . Despite the redevelopment and the building of modern hotels in Brill , Dorton Spa was unfashionable and by the late 19th century was little used . Jones and the Spa 's owners hoped Queen Victoria would visit during her 1890 stay at Waddesdon Manor and thus boost Brill as a spa town . Although such a visit was arranged , Victoria changed her mind and visited the spa at Cheltenham instead . The spa traffic never materialised .
= = = Waddesdon Manor = = =
In 1876 Ferdinand de Rothschild began work on Waddesdon Manor , a short distance south of the Tramway 's station at Waddesdon ( later renamed Waddesdon Road ) . The top of Lodge Hill , a landmark , was levelled to provide a site and sloping drives were cut into the hill to provide access to the construction site . Transport of materials was by horse , but the contractors had to get enormous stone blocks up the hill . Rothschild 's contractors built a line , known as the Winchendon Branch , which turned off the Tramway between Waddesdon and Westcott stations and ran south to the foot of Lodge Hill . From there a cable tram ran on narrow gauge rails up the hill to a gully close to the building site . Materials were hauled along the cable tramway in tubs by a steam @-@ powered winch . The Winchendon Branch was hastily and cheaply built ; after one of the Tramway 's locomotives derailed there on 5 July 1876 Jones refused to allow his engines on it , and from then on materials were hauled along the branch by horses .
The building of Waddesdon Manor generated huge business for the Tramway . Large numbers of bricks from Poore 's Brickworks at Brill were shipped . By July 1877 the entire output of the brickworks was going to supply the Waddesdon Manor works , with 25 @,@ 000 bricks a week being used . Additional bricks were also shipped via Quainton Road , along with 7 @,@ 000 tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) of Bath Stone from Corsham . The manor also required power and in 1883 a gasworks was built to the west . A siding from Westcott station ran south to the gasworks , to carry coal . Waddesdon Manor chose not to use the Tramway for supplying coal to the gasworks and
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El Dorado Lions of the Cotton States League , but a back injury caused him to miss nearly the entire season . After recovering from the injury , Tucker continued to progress through the minors , spending 1938 with two separate clubs ; he played 55 games for the Abbeville A 's of the Evangeline Baseball League and 50 games for the Greenville Bucks of the Cotton States League . He remained in the Cotton States League for 1939 , playing for the Clarksdale Red Sox , at the time a minor league affiliate of the Boston Red Sox . In 136 games for Clarksdale , Tucker had a .298 batting average and 10 triples . During his first few years in the minor leagues , one manager asked him to take up clowning due to his resemblance to Joe E. Brown and his nickname as a result , Joe E. Tucker objected due to his serious nature and the idea was later dropped .
Tucker 's breakthrough minor league year came in 1940 , his second with Clarksdale . By the end of June , he was leading the Cotton State League with a batting average of .374 . After playing in 97 games , finishing with an average of .390 , Tucker was promoted and played in 40 games for the Oklahoma City Indians . At the end of the season , Chicago White Sox farm manager Billy Webb was impressed enough to purchase Tucker 's contract from Oklahoma City . At the beginning of the 1941 season , Tucker failed to win the final outfield spot on the White Sox roster from Dave Short , and consequently spent 1941 at Oklahoma City , where he was coached by Rogers Hornsby . In 141 games for the Indians , Tucker had a batting average of .246 and 12 triples .
At spring training for the 1942 season , Tucker competed against Dave Philley for the final outfield spot . White Sox management liked Tucker 's defensive abilities , leading to them adding Tucker to their 1942 major league roster ; Tucker made his major league debut on April 14 , 1942 . After playing two games for the White Sox , Tucker was sent down to the Fort Worth Cats of the Texas League , where he spent most of the season and hit .313 in 144 games . When the minor league season ended , Tucker returned to the major league squad , and finished the year having played seven games for the White Sox .
= = Chicago White Sox = =
Of the Chicago White Sox outfielders at the beginning of the 1943 season , only Wally Moses was assured of a place on the team . During spring training , manager Jimmy Dykes was impressed by Tucker , who was competing for the starting center fielder position alongside Moose Solters . Consequently , after spring training Tucker became the starting center fielder for 1943 , and the team 's leadoff hitter . Partway through the season , Tucker 's performance caught the eye of American League President Will Harridge , who noted him as someone the public came out to watch in the absence of stars serving in World War II . Among Tucker 's achievements during the year were a walk @-@ off home run on July 26 to win a game against the New York Yankees 2 – 1 . Tucker finished the season with a .235 batting average , six triples , and 79 walks in 135 games . He also stole 29 bases , the third best total in the AL , and was caught stealing 17 times , which was second in the league .
Tucker passed a physical examination for the United States Navy before the 1944 season began . Although expected to be called up to serve in the war that year , he was able to play the entire season for the White Sox . Tucker hit very well during the first month of 1944 ; he had a .403 batting average on May 16 , which led the American League . His hitting and fielding abilities impressed critics : sportswriter Fred Lieb noted him as a breakout performer that year , and manager Jimmy Dykes called Tucker the finest defensive outfielder in the American League . Tucker and Dixie Walker led their respective leagues in batting average throughout June ; at the end of the month , Tucker had an average of .369 in the American League while Walker had an average of .377 in the National League . Owing to his achievements , Tucker was added to the 1944 All @-@ Star roster for the only time in his career . He was the leadoff hitter in the 1944 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game , but went hitless in four at @-@ bats .
Tucker 's form faded after the All @-@ Star Game ; in early July , he had a hitless streak of 28 at @-@ bats , causing his batting average to shrink from .375 to .327 , resulting in losing his status as league leader . When his average fell to .320 after recording one base hit in 35 at @-@ bats , he was removed from the starting lineup for a weekend matchup against the Detroit Tigers in an attempt to halt his decline . Tucker returned to the starting lineup shortly after being removed , and finished the season with a batting average of .287 and six triples . At the end of July that season , both Tucker and George Case participated in a 75 @-@ yard dash as part of the White Sox 's annual benefit for the war effort ; Tucker lost the race to Case by a yard . After the season ended , Tucker formally joined the Navy , and spent the 1945 season serving in the war .
When the players returned to their teams at the end of the war , Tucker was slated to be the starting center fielder for the 1946 season , working alongside Wally Moses and Taffy Wright . Unlike the previous season , he struggled with the bat at first , and was relegated to his original status on the White Sox roster as a good fielder but a poor hitter . At the end of June , Tucker had a batting average of .229 , nearly 150 points lower than his average at the same point in 1944 . His form recovered in the second half of the season and he finished the year with a batting average of .288 and 20 doubles , both career highs . As the 1947 Chicago White Sox season began , Tucker remained in his center field position after hitting .400 in the last month of the 1946 season , while rookie Dave Philley played in left field and Taffy Wright and Bob Kennedy platooned in right field . However , he started the year by missing some playing time due to a stomach ailment , and did not play regularly for the White Sox until the middle of May . After returning to regular play , Tucker alternated playing time with Philley , and he finished the season with a .236 batting average in 89 games .
= = Cleveland Indians = =
On January 27 , 1948 , Tucker was traded to the Cleveland Indians for Ralph Weigel ; the Indians front office regarded Tucker as " the finest defensive player in baseball . " He started off the year as the starting center fielder for the Indians , and in one early matchup against the Detroit Tigers , was the only player not to record a hit in an 8 – 2 victory . He missed three weeks of playing time in June after breaking a finger when he was hit by a pitch . Upon returning to the lineup , Tucker spent most of the second half of the season as a fourth outfielder , splitting time with Allie Clark and playing in the outfield alongside Larry Doby and Dale Mitchell . He finished the season with a .260 batting average and 52 runs in 83 games , and ended the season with a perfect fielding percentage of 1 @.@ 000 . Tucker participated in game six of the 1948 World Series , scoring a run in the sixth inning on a walk en route to a 4 – 3 win for the Indians .
The Indians planned to use Tucker as their fourth outfielder for the 1949 season when he served mostly as backup to Doby . He was relegated mostly to pinch hitting duties , and finished the season with a .244 batting average in 20 games and under 200 at @-@ bats . Due to his hitting struggles , Indians manager Lou Boudreau tried converting Tucker to a switch hitter to start off the 1950 season . Tucker was again set to be a backup outfielder in 1950 . His performances during the year included hitting a home run , the only one he hit that season , in an 8 – 5 victory over the Brooklyn Dodgers ; the teams raised $ 60 @,@ 000 in that game to benefit sandlot teams in Cleveland . Tucker finished the season with a .178 batting average in 54 games , the lowest mark of his career .
Tucker and Allie Clark both attempted to make the Indians roster to begin the 1951 season , as the additions of Harry Simpson and Minnie Miñoso made it likely that one or both of them would be traded or released . Tucker played only one game for the Indians , on April 29 when he recorded a strikeout in his lone at @-@ bat . In early May , the Indians sent him to their Triple @-@ A minor league affiliate , the San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League ; his last major league game was April 29 .
= = Later life = =
After being sent to the Padres , Tucker completed the 1951 season with them . In 88 games , Tucker had two triples and a .222 batting average . In the offseason , Tucker operated his own taxicab in Texas , and he contemplated retirement from baseball during a contract dispute in February 1952 . He eventually played 47 games for the now @-@ unaffiliated Padres , hitting .225 in the process . In mid @-@ June , the Padres sold his contract to the Oklahoma City Indians . Tucker played in 72 games for the Indians that season , hitting .263 . He retired from baseball before the 1953 season , and did not play with any professional team during that time .
Tucker returned to baseball in 1954 to play for the Lubbock Hubbers of the West Texas – New Mexico League . He played part @-@ time for the team , serving as a replacement when players needed time off , whether through injury or to spend time with their families . He hit .360 in 25 games for the Hubbers . The following year , he served as player @-@ manager for the Carlsbad Potashers of the Longhorn League . Tucker hit .275 in 114 games for the Potashers , including 25 doubles and eight home runs . He continued as player @-@ manager for the Potashers in 1956 , but the management considered firing him during a 14 @-@ game losing streak . He finished the year with a .306 batting average in 128 games . The following season , he was the player @-@ manager of the Hobbs Sports , but only played in 16 games for them , hitting .273 . In 1958 , he ended his playing career , and became the general manager of the Hobbs team .
After retiring , Tucker became an insurance agent and lived in Oklahoma City . He married and had four children ; his son Ronald served in the Vietnam War . In 1962 , he also became one of the Houston Astros ' first scouts . Tucker died on May 7 , 1993 , in Oklahoma City and is buried at Gordon Cemetery in his hometown of Gordon , Texas .
= Ed Wood ( film ) =
Ed Wood is a 1994 American biographical period comedy @-@ drama film directed and produced by Tim Burton , and starring Johnny Depp as cult filmmaker Ed Wood . The film concerns the period in Wood 's life when he made his best @-@ known films as well as his relationship with actor Bela Lugosi , played by Martin Landau . Sarah Jessica Parker , Patricia Arquette , Jeffrey Jones , Lisa Marie , and Bill Murray are among the supporting cast .
The film was conceived by writers Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski when they were students at the USC School of Cinematic Arts . Irritated at being thought of solely as writers for family films with their work on Problem Child and its sequel , Alexander and Karaszewski struck a deal with Burton and Denise Di Novi to produce the Ed Wood biopic , and Michael Lehmann as director . Due to scheduling conflicts with Airheads , Lehmann had to vacate the director 's position , which was taken over by Burton .
Ed Wood was originally in development at Columbia Pictures , but the studio put the film in ' turnaround ' over Burton 's decision to shoot in black @-@ and @-@ white . Ed Wood was taken to the Walt Disney Studios , which produced the film through the studio 's Touchstone Pictures division . The film was released to critical acclaim , but was a box office bomb , making only $ 5 @.@ 9 million against an $ 18 million budget . It won two Academy Awards : Best Supporting Actor for Landau and Best Makeup for Rick Baker ( who designed Landau 's prosthetic makeup ) , Ve Neill and Yolanda Toussieng .
= = Plot = =
In 1952 , Ed Wood is struggling to join the film industry . Upon hearing of an announcement in Variety magazine that producer George Weiss is trying to purchase Christine Jorgensen 's life story , Ed wants to meet Weiss . Weiss explains that Variety 's announcement was a news leak , and it is impossible to purchase Jorgensen 's rights . The producer decides to fictionalize the film , titled I Changed My Sex ! . Ed tries to convince Weiss that he is perfect to direct the film because he is a transvestite , but is unsuccessful since Weiss wants a director with experience . Ed meets his longtime idol Bela Lugosi and the two become friends . Wood persuades Weiss to let him direct the film by convincing him that having a star in the film would sell tickets , and they could sign Bela for a low price .
Ed and Weiss argue over the film 's title and subject matter : Weiss has the poster printed , which Ed changes to Glen or Glenda and writes the film about a transvestite rather than a sex change . Weiss allows Ed to shoot whatever he wants as long as the film meets the required length . Ed takes to film production with an unusual approach ; shooting only one take per scene , giving actors very little direction and using stock footage to fill in gaps . The movie is released to critical and commercial failure . Because of this , Ed is unsuccessful in getting a job at Screen Classics , but Ed 's girlfriend , Dolores Fuller , tells him that he should try financing his next film independently . Ed is unsuccessful in finding money for Bride of the Atom , but is introduced to the psychic The Amazing Criswell who gives him advice on how to sell himself better .
Ed meets Loretta King , who he thinks has enough money to fund Bride of the Atom and ends up casting her as the lead instead of Dolores as planned . Filming begins , but is halted when it is revealed that Loretta is actually poor , and Ed has no money to continue production . Ed convinces meat packing industry tycoon Don McCoy to take over funding the film , who agrees as long as the film stars his son Tony as the leading man and the film ends with an explosion . The filming finishes with the title being changed to Bride of the Monster , but Dolores breaks up with Ed after the wrap party because of his circle of friends , his work , and transvestism . Bela attempts to conduct a double suicide with Ed after the government cuts off his unemployment , but is talked out of it . Bela checks himself into rehab , and Ed meets Kathy O 'Hara , who is visiting her father there . Ed takes her on a date and reveals to her his transvestism , which she accepts .
Ed shoots a film with Bela outside his home . When Ed and company attend the premiere for Bride of the Monster , an angry mob chases them out of the theater . Bela passes away , leaving Ed without a star . Ed convinces a church leader named Reynolds that funding Ed 's script for Grave Robbers from Outer Space would result in a box office success , and generate enough money for Reynolds ' dream project . Dr. Tom Mason , Kathy 's chiropractor , is chosen to be Bela 's stand @-@ in for resembling Lugosi . Ed and the Baptists have conflicts over the title and content of the script which they want to have changed to Plan 9 from Outer Space , along with Ed 's B movie directing style , his casting decisions and his transvestism . Ed leaves the set to go to the nearest bar , where he encounters his idol , Orson Welles . Filming for Plan 9 finishes with Ed taking action against his producers . Plan 9 is premiered and Ed and Kathy go to Las Vegas to get married .
= = Cast = =
Johnny Depp as Ed Wood : Burton approached Depp and " within 10 minutes of hearing about the project , I was committed , " the actor remembers . At the time , Depp was depressed about films and filmmaking . By accepting this part , it gave him a " chance to stretch out and have some fun " , and working with Martin Landau , " rejuvenated my love for acting " . Depp was already familiar with some of Wood 's films through John Waters , who had shown him Plan 9 from Outer Space and Glen or Glenda . To get a handle on how to portray Wood , Depp studied the performance of Jack Haley as the Tin Man in The Wizard of Oz , and the acting of Mickey Rooney , Ronald Reagan and Casey Kasem . He watched several Reagan speeches because the actor felt he had a kind of blind optimism that was perfect for Ed Wood . Depp also borrowed some of Kasem 's cadence and " that utterly confident , breezy salesman quality in his voice " .
Martin Landau as Bela Lugosi : An old A @-@ list horror film actor whom Ed brings back into the spotlight . Rick Baker created the prosthetic makeup designs . Baker did not use extensive make @-@ up applications , only enough to resemble Lugosi and allow Landau to use his face to act and express emotion . For research , Landau watched 25 of Lugosi 's films and seven interviews between the years of 1931 and 1956 . Landau did not want to deliver an over @
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for Best Film in Telugu . The Telugu version was featured at the 1957 International Film Festival of India and the Indonesian Film Festival . Mayabazar was dubbed into Kannada with the same name in 1965 ; it remained the last Indian film to be dubbed into Kannada until the announcement of a dubbed version of Kochadaiiyaan ( 2014 ) after 50 years .
Dasari Narayana Rao remade the film later with the same title . Mayabazar was shown at the Public Gardens in Hyderabad on 7 April 2007 for the film 's 50th anniversary , at a celebration organised by the Andhra Pradesh Department of Culture , the Film , TV and Theatre Development Corporation and Kinnera Art Theatres . Nageswara Rao and C. Narayana Reddy , who were associated with the film , were honoured on the occasion . The former released a book written by Raavi Kondala Rao at Lalitha Kala Thoranam located in the Public Gardens . Kondala Rao novelised the film 's script based on Venkata Reddy 's screenplay .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film received positive reviews from critics , particularly for the work of its technical crew . In 2006 , W. Chandrakanth of The Hindu wrote :
The greatness of the director lies here – he successfully reduces all characters to ordinary mortals displaying all the follies of human beings except Ghatothkacha or Krishna . And then he injects into the Yadava household a Telugu atmosphere , full with its simile , imagery , adage , sarcasm and wit . The result – a feast for the eyes and soul . That is Mayabazar for you .
Vijaysree Venkatraman wrote for The Hindu in 2008 that the " special effects in this summer 's Hollywood superhero movies were spectacular , but , for me , the mythological Maya Bazaar [ sic ] hasn 't lost any of its magic " , adding , " If watching the genial half @-@ demon polish off a wedding feast single @-@ handedly remains a treat , seeing the greedy duo from the groom 's side get whacked alternately by the furniture and the wilful carpet has me in splits " . The Hindu film critic M. L. Narasimham wrote : " Though there were several movie versions in various Indian languages , the 1957 Vijaya Productions ' Mayabazar is still considered the best for its all round excellence " . According to The Times of India , " With a powerful cast and a strong script , this movie is a stealer . Savitri , NTR [ N. T. Rama Rao ] , ANR [ Akkineni Nageswara Rao ] , SV Rangarao and not to mention Suryakantam add layers to their characters . Of course , the language and the dialogues , simply unbeatable . Some of the scenes are simply hilarious . "
In his 2013 book , Bollywood Nation : India through Its Cinema , Vamsee Juluri wrote , " Maya Bazar 's appeal is of course as much in its story as in its stars . But the performances and the beautiful songs and sets aside , the film also reveals an interesting feature of the Telugu mythological in its Golden Age — it is a story about something not very important from a doctrinal view of religion at all " . Juluri also termed Ranga Rao 's performance as " mighty and majestic " . In April 2013 , CNN @-@ News18 referred to Mayabazar as a " pioneer in every sense " . They praised its cinematography and music , adding that Rama Rao " proved his calibre as a method actor " . In their 2015 book , Transcultural Negotiations of Gender : Studies in ( Be ) longing , Saugata Bhaduri and Indrani Mukherjee opined that Mayabazar " both breaks and perpetuates the stereotypes for masculine and feminine bhavas by making a single female actor Savitri perform both the set of emotions " .
= = Digitisation and colourisation = =
Mayabazar was the first colourised Telugu film , with its audio remastered from monaural to a DTS 5 @.@ 1 @-@ channel system . In late November 2007 a Hyderabad company , Goldstone Technologies , acquired world negative rights to 14 Telugu films produced by Vijaya Vauhini Studios , including that of Mayabazar , to digitally remaster them in colour . C. Jagan Mohan of Goldstone Technologies ' experience at All India Radio gave him the idea of converting the film 's audio to DTS . The audio was restored , sound effects remastered , distortion eliminated , and the volume of the vocals increased , and musicians re @-@ recorded the film 's background music on seven tracks instead of one .
A team of 165 people worked for eight months ; Mohan used 180 @,@ 000 shades of colour to create a tone similar to human skin , and employed 16 @.@ 7 @-@ million @-@ shade colour technology . Apart from colouring clothing and jewellery , Mohan said that the song " Vivaha Bhojanambu " and the wedding scene in the climax were the most challenging sequences , and that the food should look more realistic after colourisation . In the wedding scene , Mohan explained : " Each and every rose petal strewn on the pathway had to be coloured . Further , each frame in the climax has many actors . In technical parlance , we refer to a set of colours used for skin tone , clothes , jewelry and so on as different masks . If five or six masks were used on one character , the presence of many actors in a frame called for that much more work . " Three songs ( " Bhali Bhali Deva " , " Vinnavamma Yashodha " and " Choopulu Kalisina Subha Vela " ) and many poems were cut from the remastered colour version to maintain print quality .
With an estimated digitalisation budget of ₹ 75 million ( valued at about US $ 1 @.@ 7 million in 2010 ) , Mayabazar was released in colour on 30 January 2010 in 45 Andhra Pradesh theatres . The colourised version was distributed by R. B. Choudary under his production banner , Super Good Films . Nageswara Rao , Gummadi Venkateswara Rao , Mikkilineni Radhakrishna Murthy and Sita were the only cast members still alive for the release of the digitally remastered version . The colour version received positive reviews and was commercially successful . M. L. Narasimham of The Hindu called the new version " laudable , but the soul was missing " , adding , " Get a DVD of the original ( Black & White ) movie , watch it and you will agree with ANR [ Akkineni Nageswara Rao ] who while talking about Mayabazar once exclaimed , ' What a picture it was ! ' " .
According to a 29 January 2010 government order , the remastered version was exempted from entertainment tax , although theatre owners charged full price because they and other film producers were uncertain of the order 's validity . Despite Mayabazar 's success , Mohan decided not to remaster the remaining 14 films ; according to him , most producers who sold negative rights to TV channels lost control of them , and he cited legal and copyright issues .
The Film Heritage Foundation announced in March 2015 that they would be restoring Mayabazar , along with a few other Indian films from 1931 to 1965 , as a part of their restoration projects carried out in India and abroad in accordance with international parameters . The foundation opposed digital colourisation , stating that they " believe in the original repair as the way the master or the creator had seen it " .
= = Legacy = =
Mayabazar is considered a classic of Telugu cinema , particularly in its use of technology . The film is memorable for Nagendra Rao 's dialogue : " Evaru puttinchakunte maatalela pudathayi " ( " How would words emerge if no one invented them ? " ) and " Subhadra , aagadalu , aghaaityalu naaku paniki raavu " ( " Subhadra , these atrocities mean nothing to me . " ) . Various words and phrases , such as " antha alamalame kada " ( " Is everything fine ? " ) , " Asamadiyulu " ( " Friends " ) , " Tasamadiyulu " ( " Enemies " ) , " Gilpam " and " Gimbali " ( " bed- " and " room @-@ mat " ) , later became part of Telugu vernacular . The success of Donga Ramudu ( 1955 ) and Mayabazar prompted Venkata Reddy to produce the 1958 Telugu film Pellinaati Pramanalu ( Vazhkai Oppantham in Tamil ) . It recovered its investment and won the silver medal at the annual National Film Awards .
A 1987 Telugu film directed by Jandhyala Subramanya Sastry and a 2011 Telugu film directed by Veerabhadram Chowdary were named after the song " Aha Naa Pellanta " from the film ; both were successful . Jandhyala Subramanya Sastry named his 1988 Telugu films Vivaaha Bhojanambu and Choopulu Kalisina Shubhavela after the songs of the same name . Telugu comedian Mallikarjuna Rao considered Mayabazar to be the " greatest comedy film ever " , adding that it represents " one of the most transcendental and joyful experiences any movie @-@ lover can hope for " . Telugu director Mohan Krishna Indraganti named his second film Mayabazar ( 2006 , also a fantasy film ) . Regarding his title , Indraganti said he was a fan of Mayabazar and named his film ( produced by B. Satyanarayana ) at the insistence of writer D. V. Narasaraju .
In January 2007 , M. L. Narasimham of The Hindu listed Mayabazar with Mala Pilla ( 1938 ) , Raithu Bidda ( 1939 ) , Vara Vikrayam ( 1939 ) , Bhakta Potana ( 1942 ) , Shavukaru ( 1950 ) , Malliswari ( 1951 ) Peddamanushulu ( 1954 ) and Lava Kusa ( 1963 ) as films that have had an impact on society and Telugu cinema . Rama Rao reprised the role of Krishna in several films over a two @-@ decade career .
Singeetam Srinivasa Rao used Mayabazar 's storyline in his 2008 multilingual animation film , Ghatothkach . Director Krishna Vamsi called Mayabazar more an " epic , than a mere classic " and said that the film 's tagline , " Sasirekha Parinayam " , inspired the title of his 2009 Telugu film . In February 2010 , acting coach and director L. Satyanand compared Mayabazar to films such as The Ten Commandments ( 1956 ) , Ben @-@ Hur ( 1959 ) , Sholay ( 1975 ) and Avatar ( 2009 ) , saying that they " are evergreen and never fade away from the mind " , with continued appeal . Satyanand praised Bartley 's cinematography , saying that the film
... was definitely ahead of its time . It is still a mystery how Marcus Bartley could morph Sasirekha through the ripples in the pond . It was an absolute masterpiece , considering the equipment in use , those days . In the absence of hi @-@ def cameras , computer generated visual effects and high @-@ end computers , the direction , cinematography and visual effects were efforts of sheer human genius .
In the period drama Rajanna ( 2011 ) , the central character Mallamma ( played by Baby Annie ) listens to Mayabazar 's songs . Although this was criticised as anachronistic , director K. V. Vijayendra Prasad said that Rajanna was set in 1958 , a year after Mayabazar 's release . In Ram Gopal Varma 's Katha Screenplay Darsakatvam Appalaraju ( 2011 ) , its protagonist Appalaraju ( played by Sunil ) , an aspiring director , is shown enjoying a sequence from the song " Lahiri Lahiri " in the song " Mayabazaaru " . In her article " The making of Tollywood " , commemorating the 81st anniversary of the Indian Telugu film industry , Sunita Raghu of The New Indian Express called Mayabazar the " tour de force " of Telugu cinema . In November 2012 , The Times of India listed Mayabazar along with other unrelated films such as Missamma , Gundamma Katha , Narthanasala , and Bommarillu ( 2006 ) in the list " Telugu classics to watch along with family this Deepavali " . For the April 2013 centennial of Indian cinema , CNN @-@ News18 included Mayabazar in its list of " The 100 greatest Indian films of all time " , and a May 2013 CNN @-@ News18 poll ranked it the greatest Indian film of all time . In commemoration of the centennial of Indian cinema , The Hindu listed Mayabazar along with Pathala Bhairavi ( 1951 ) , Missamma ( 1955 ) , Gundamma Katha ( 1962 ) , Maduve Madi Nodu ( 1965 ) , Ram Aur Shyam ( 1967 ) , Julie ( 1975 ) , and Shriman Shrimati ( 1982 ) as the iconic films produced by Nagi Reddy .
CNN @-@ News18 included Mayabazar on its February 2014 list of " 12 Indian films that would make great books " , and in May 2014 Rediff included the film on its list of " The Best Mythological Films of Tamil Cinema " . The Tamil film Kalyana Samayal Saadham ( 2013 ) was named after the song of the same name . The Andhra Pradesh state government planned to introduce the film as part of the tenth standard English syllabus in 2014 . The fourth unit of the
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out of danger . Treves was honoured with a baronetcy ( which Edward had arranged before the operation ) and appendix surgery entered the medical mainstream . Edward was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 9 August 1902 by the 80 @-@ year @-@ old Archbishop of Canterbury , Frederick Temple , who died only four months later .
Edward refurbished the royal palaces , reintroduced the traditional ceremonies , such as the State Opening of Parliament , that his mother had forgone , and founded new honours , such as the Order of Merit , to recognise contributions to the arts and sciences . In 1902 , the Shah of Persia , Mozzafar @-@ al @-@ Din , visited England expecting to receive the Order of the Garter . Edward refused to bestow the honour on the Shah because the order was meant to be in his personal gift and the Foreign Secretary , Lord Lansdowne , had promised it without his consent . Edward also objected to inducting a Muslim into a Christian order of chivalry . His refusal threatened to damage British attempts to gain influence in Persia , but Edward resented his ministers ' attempts to reduce the King 's traditional powers . Eventually , he relented and Britain sent a special embassy to the Shah with a full Order of the Garter the following year .
= = " Uncle of Europe " = =
As king , Edward 's main interests lay in the fields of foreign affairs and naval and military matters . Fluent in French and German , he made a number of visits abroad , and took annual holidays in Biarritz and Marienbad . One of his most important foreign trips was an official visit to France in May 1903 as the guest of President Émile Loubet . Following a visit to the Pope in Rome , this trip helped create the atmosphere for the Anglo @-@ French Entente Cordiale , an agreement delineating British and French colonies in North Africa , and ruling out any future war between the two countries . The Entente was negotiated between the French foreign minister , Théophile Delcassé , and the British foreign secretary , Lord Lansdowne . Signed in London on 8 April 1904 by Lansdowne and the French ambassador Paul Cambon , it marked the end of centuries of Anglo @-@ French rivalry and Britain 's splendid isolation from Continental affairs , and attempted to counterbalance the growing dominance of the German Empire and its ally , Austria @-@ Hungary .
Edward was related to nearly every other European monarch and came to be known as the " uncle of Europe " . Kaiser Wilhelm II was his nephew ; Tsar Nicholas II was his nephew @-@ by @-@ marriage ; Queen Victoria Eugenia of Spain , Crown Princess Margaret of Sweden , Crown Princess Marie of Romania , Crown Princess Sophia of Greece , and Empress Alexandra of Russia were his nieces ; Haakon VII of Norway was both his nephew by marriage and his son @-@ in @-@ law ; Frederick VIII of Denmark and George I of Greece were his brothers @-@ in @-@ law ; Albert I of Belgium , Ferdinand of Bulgaria , and Charles I and Manuel II of Portugal were his second cousins . Edward doted on his grandchildren , and indulged them , to the consternation of their governesses . However , there was one relation whom Edward did not like : Wilhelm II . Edward 's difficult relationship with his nephew exacerbated the tensions between Germany and Britain .
In April 1908 , during Edward 's annual stay at Biarritz , he accepted the resignation of British Prime Minister Sir Henry Campbell @-@ Bannerman . In a break with precedent , Edward asked Campbell @-@ Bannerman 's successor , H. H. Asquith , to travel to Biarritz to kiss hands . Asquith complied , but the press criticised the action of the King in appointing a prime minister on foreign soil instead of returning to Britain . In June 1908 , Edward became the first reigning British monarch to visit the Russian Empire , despite refusing to visit in 1906 , when Anglo @-@ Russian relations were strained in the aftermath of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , the Dogger Bank incident , and the Tsar 's dissolution of the Duma . The previous month , Edward visited the Scandinavian countries , becoming the first British monarch to visit Sweden .
= = Political opinions = =
While Prince of Wales , Edward had to be dissuaded from breaking with constitutional precedent by openly voting for Gladstone 's Representation of the People Bill ( 1884 ) in the House of Lords . On other matters he was less progressive : he did not , for example , favour giving votes to women , although he did suggest that the social reformer Octavia Hill serve on the Commission for Working Class Housing . He was also opposed to Irish Home Rule , instead preferring a form of dual monarchy .
As Prince of Wales , he had come to enjoy warm and mutually respectful relations with W. E. Gladstone , whom his mother detested . But Gladstone 's son , Home Secretary Herbert Gladstone , angered the King by planning to permit Roman Catholic priests in vestments to carry the Host through the streets of London , and by appointing two ladies , Lady Frances Balfour and Mrs H. J. Tennant , to serve on a Royal Commission on reforming divorce law – Edward thought divorce could not be discussed with " delicacy or even decency " before ladies . Edward 's biographer Philip Magnus suggests that Gladstone may have become a whipping @-@ boy for the King 's general irritation with the Liberal government . Gladstone was sacked in the reshuffle the following year and the King agreed , with some reluctance , to appoint him Governor @-@ General of South Africa .
Edward involved himself heavily in discussions over army reform , the need for which had become apparent with the failings of the Boer War . He supported the redesign of army command , the creation of the Territorial Force , and the decision to provide an Expeditionary Force supporting France in the event of war with Germany . Reform of the Royal Navy was also suggested , partly due to the ever @-@ increasing Naval Estimates , and because of the emergence of the Imperial German Navy as a new strategic threat . Ultimately a dispute arose between Admiral Lord Charles Beresford , who favoured increased spending and a broad deployment , and the First Sea Lord Admiral Sir John Fisher , who favoured efficiency savings , scrapping obsolete vessels , and a strategic realignment of the Royal Navy relying on torpedo craft for home defence backed by the new dreadnoughts .
The King lent support to Fisher , in part because he disliked Beresford , and eventually Beresford was dismissed . Beresford continued his campaign outside of the navy and Fisher ultimately announced his resignation in late 1909 , although the bulk of his policies were retained . The King was intimately involved in the appointment of Fisher 's successor as the Fisher @-@ Beresford feud had split the service , and the only truly qualified figure known to be outside of both camps was Sir Arthur Knyvet Wilson , who had retired in 1907 . Wilson was reluctant to return to active duty , but Edward persuaded him to do so , and Wilson became First Sea Lord on 25 January 1910 .
Edward was rarely interested in politics , although his views on some issues were notably liberal for the time . During his reign he said use of the word nigger was " disgraceful " despite it then being in common parlance . In 1904 , during an Anglo @-@ German summit in Kiel between Wilhelm II and Edward , Wilhelm with the Russo @-@ Japanese War in mind started to go on about the " Yellow Peril " , which he called " the greatest peril menacing ... Christendom and European civilisation . If the Russians went on giving ground , the yellow race would , in twenty years time , be in Moscow and Posen " . Wilhelm went on to attack his British guests for supporting Japan against Russia , suggesting that the British were committing " race treason " . In response , Edward stated that he " could not see it . The Japanese were an intelligent , brave and chivalrous nation , quite as civilised as the Europeans , from whom they only differed by the pigmentation of their skin " .
Edward lived a life of luxury that was often far removed from that of the majority of his subjects . However , his personal charm with people at all levels of society and his strong condemnation of prejudice went some way to assuage republican and racial tensions building during his lifetime .
= = Constitutional crisis = =
In the last year of his life , Edward became embroiled in a constitutional crisis when the Conservative majority in the House of Lords refused to pass the " People 's Budget " proposed by the Liberal government of Prime Minister H. H. Asquith . The crisis eventually led – after Edward 's death – to the removal of the Lords ' right to veto legislation .
The King was displeased at Liberal attacks on the peers , which included a polemical speech by David Lloyd George at Limehouse . Cabinet minister Winston Churchill publicly demanded a general election , for which Asquith apologised to the King 's adviser Lord Knollys and rebuked Churchill at a Cabinet meeting . Edward was so depressed at the tone of class warfare – although Asquith told him that party rancour had been just as bad over the First Home Rule Bill in 1886 – that he introduced his son to Secretary of State for War Richard Haldane as " the last King of England " . After the King 's horse Minoru won the Derby on 26 July 1909 , he returned to the racetrack the following day , and laughed when a man shouted : " Now , King . You 've won the Derby . Go back home and dissolve this bloody Parliament ! "
In vain , the King urged Conservative leaders Arthur Balfour and Lord Lansdowne to pass the Budget , which Lord Esher had advised him was not unusual , as Queen Victoria had helped to broker agreements between the two Houses over Irish disestablishment in 1869 and the Third Reform Act in 1884 . On Asquith 's advice , however , he did not offer them an election ( at which , to judge from recent by @-@ elections , they were likely to gain seats ) as a reward for doing so .
The Finance Bill passed the Commons on 5 November 1909 but was rejected by the Lords on 30 November ; they instead passed a resolution of Lord Lansdowne 's stating that they were entitled to oppose the bill as it lacked an electoral mandate . The King was annoyed that his efforts to urge passage of the budget had become public knowledge and had forbidden his adviser Lord Knollys , who was an active Liberal peer , from voting for the budget , although Knollys had suggested that this would be a suitable gesture to indicate royal desire to see the Budget pass . In December 1909 , a proposal to create peers ( to give the Liberals a majority in the Lords ) or give the prime minister the right to do so was considered " outrageous " by Knollys , who thought the King should abdicate rather than agree to it .
The January 1910 election was dominated by talk of removing the Lords ' veto . During the election campaign Lloyd George talked of " guarantees " and Asquith of " safeguards " that would be necessary before forming another Liberal government , but the King informed Asquith that he would not be willing to contemplate creating peers until after a second general election . Balfour refused to be drawn on whether or not he would be willing to form a Conservative government , but advised the King not to promise to create peers until he had seen the terms of any proposed constitutional change . During the campaign the leading Conservative Walter Long had asked Knollys for permission to state that the King did not favour Irish Home Rule , but Knollys refused on the grounds that it was not appropriate for the monarch 's views to be known in public .
The election resulted in a hung parliament , with the Liberal government dependent on the support of the third largest party , the Irish nationalists . The King suggested a compromise whereby only 50 peers from each side would be allowed to vote , which would also redress the large Conservative majority in the Lords , but Lord Crewe , Liberal leader in the Lords , advised that this would reduce the Lords ' independence as only peers who were loyal party supporters would be picked . Pressure to remove the Lords ' veto now came from the Irish nationalist MPs , who wanted to remove the Lords ' ability to block the introduction of Irish Home Rule . They threatened to vote against the Budget unless they had their way ( an attempt by Lloyd George to win their support by amending whisky duties was abandoned as the Cabinet felt this would recast the Budget too much ) . Asquith now revealed that there were no " guarantees " for the creation of peers . The Cabinet considered resigning and leaving it up to Balfour to try to form a Conservative government .
The King 's Speech from the Throne on 21 February made reference to introducing measures restricting the Lords ' power of veto to one of delay , but Asquith inserted a phrase " in the opinion of my advisers " so the King could be seen to be distancing himself from the planned legislation .
The Commons passed resolutions on 14 April that would form the basis for the Parliament Act : to remove the power of the Lords to veto money bills , to replace their veto of other bills with a power to delay , and to reduce the term of Parliament from seven years to five ( the King would have preferred four ) . But in that debate Asquith hinted – to ensure the support of the nationalist MPs – that he would ask the King to break the deadlock " in that Parliament " ( i.e. contrary to Edward 's earlier stipulation that there be a second election ) . The Budget was passed by both Commons and Lords in April .
By April the Palace was having secret talks with Balfour and the Archbishop of Canterbury , who both advised that the Liberals did not have sufficient mandate to demand the creation of peers . The King thought the whole proposal " simply disgusting " and that the government was " in the hands of Redmond & Co " . Lord Crewe announced publicly that the government 's wish to create peers should be treated as formal " ministerial advice " ( which , by convention , the monarch must obey ) although Lord Esher argued that the monarch was entitled in extremis to dismiss the government rather than take their " advice " . Esher 's view has been called " obsolete and unhelpful " .
= = Death = =
Edward habitually smoked twenty cigarettes and twelve cigars a day . In 1907 , a rodent ulcer , a type of cancer affecting the skin next to his nose , was cured with radium . Towards the end of his life he increasingly suffered from bronchitis . He suffered a momentary loss of consciousness during a state visit to Berlin in February 1909 . In March 1910 , he was staying at Biarritz when he collapsed . He remained there to convalesce , while in London Asquith tried to get the Finance Bill passed . The King 's continued ill health was unreported and he attracted criticism for staying in France while political tensions were so high . On 27 April he returned to Buckingham Palace , still suffering from severe bronchitis . Alexandra returned from visiting her brother , King George I of Greece , in Corfu a week later on 5 May .
The following day , the King suffered several heart attacks , but refused to go to bed , saying , " No , I shall not give in ; I shall go on ; I shall work to the end . " Between moments of faintness , his son the Prince of Wales ( shortly to be King George V ) told him that his horse , Witch of the Air , had won at Kempton Park that afternoon . The King replied , " Yes , I have heard of it . I am very glad " : his final words . At 11 : 30 p.m. he lost consciousness for the last time and was put to bed . He died 15 minutes later .
Alexandra refused to allow the King 's body to be moved for eight days afterwards , though she allowed small groups of visitors to enter his room . On 11 May , the late King was dressed in his uniform and placed in a massive oak coffin , which was moved on 14 May to the throne room , where it was sealed and lay in state , with four guardsmen standing at each corner of the bier . Despite the time that had elapsed since his death , Alexandra noted the King 's body remained " wonderfully preserved " . On the morning of 17 May , the coffin was placed on a gun carriage and drawn by black horses to Westminster Hall , with the new King and his family walking behind . Following a brief service , the royal family left , and the hall was opened to the public ; over 400 @,@ 000 people filed past the coffin over the next two days .
As Barbara Tuchman noted in The Guns of August , his funeral , held on 20 May 1910 , marked " the greatest assemblage of royalty and rank ever gathered in one place and , of its kind , the last . " A royal train conveyed the King 's coffin from London to Windsor Castle , where Edward VII was buried at St George 's Chapel .
= = Legacy = =
Before his accession to the throne , Edward was the longest @-@ serving heir apparent in British history . He was surpassed by his great @-@ great @-@ grandson Charles , Prince of Wales , on 20 April 2011 . The title Prince of Wales is not automatically held by the heir apparent ; it is bestowed by the reigning monarch at a time of his or her choosing . Edward is the longest @-@ serving holder of that title ; he was Prince of Wales for 59 years . Charles has held the title since 1958 .
As king , Edward VII proved a greater success than anyone had expected , but he was already past the average life expectancy and had little time left to fulfil the role . In his short reign , he ensured that his second son and heir , George V , was better prepared to take the throne . Contemporaries described their relationship as more like affectionate brothers than father and son , and on Edward 's death George wrote in his diary that he had lost his " best friend and the best of fathers ... I never had a [ cross ] word with him in my life . I am heart @-@ broken and overwhelmed with grief " .
Edward has been recognised as the first truly constitutional British sovereign and the last sovereign to wield effective political power . Though lauded as " Peacemaker " , he had been afraid his nephew , the German Emperor Wilhelm II , would tip Europe into war . Four years after Edward 's death , World War I broke out . The naval reforms he had supported and his part in securing the Triple Entente between Britain , France and Russia , as well as his relationships with his extended family , fed the paranoia of the German Emperor , who blamed Edward for the war . Publication of the official biography of Edward was delayed by its author , Sidney Lee , who feared German propagandists would select material to portray Edward as an anti @-@ German warmonger . Lee was also hampered by the extensive destruction of Edward 's personal papers ; Edward had left orders that all his letters should be burned on his death . Subsequent biographers have been able to construct a more rounded picture of Edward by using material and sources that were unavailable to Lee .
Edward received criticism for his apparent pursuit of self @-@ indulgent pleasure but he received great praise for his affable and kind good manners , and his diplomatic skill . As his grandson Edward VIII wrote , " his lighter side ... obscured the fact that he had both insight and influence . " " He had a tremendous zest for pleasure but he also had a real sense of duty " , wrote J. B. Priestley . Lord Esher wrote that Edward was " kind and debonair and not undignified – but too human " .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
9 November – 8 December 1841 : His Royal Highness The Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay
8 December 1841 – 22 January 1901 : His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales
22 January 1901 – 6 May 1910 : His Majesty The King
= = = Honours = = =
British honours
8 December 1841 : Knight of the Order of the Garter
25 June 1861 : Knight Companion of the Order of the Star of India
12 February 1863 : Fellow of the Royal Society
8 December 1863 : Member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
10 February 1865 : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
28 March 1866 : Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India
24 May 1867 : Knight of the Order of the Thistle
18 March 1868 : Knight of the Order of St Patrick
21 April 1868 : Member of the Privy Council of Ireland
30 May 1877 : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
21 June 1887 : Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
6 May 1896 : Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
22 June 1897 : Great Master of the Order of the Bath
Foreign honours
May 1852 : Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece of Spain
March 1859 : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword of Portugal
March 1863 : Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour of France
27 September 1864 : Knight of the Order of the Seraphim of Sweden .
13 June 1867 : Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
1869 : Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle of Prussia
January 1874 : Knight of the Order of St Andrew of Russia
8 October 1874 : Grand Cross of the Order of St Olav of Norway
May 1876 : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III of Spain
September 1901 : Grand Commander of the Order of the Dannebrog of Denmark
9 October 1901 : Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Ethiopia
13 June 1902 : Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum of Japan
June 1902 : Order of the Hanedan @-@ i @-@ Ali @-@ Osman of the Ottoman Empire
Knight of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Knight of St John of Germany
Knight of the Order of the Elephant of Denmark
Knight of the Order of St Hubert of Bavaria
Knight of the Order of the Southern Cross of Brazil
Order of the White Elephant of Siam
Order of the Annunciation of Italy
Honorary foreign military appointments
1870 : Honorary Colonel of the Guard Hussar Regiment ( Denmark )
1883 : Field Marshal ( Generalfeldmarschall ) of the German Army
5 February 1901 : Honorary Colonel of the 27th ( King Edward 's ) Regiment of Dragoons of Kiev
26 June 1902 : Admiral of the Fleet ( Großadmiral ) à la suite of the Imperial German Navy
Honorary Captain General of the Spanish Army
Honorary Admiral of the Spanish Navy
Colonel @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Blücher Hussar Regiment
Colonel @-@ in @-@ Chief 1st Guards Dragoons " Queen of Great Britain and Ireland "
Honorary Colonel of the Infantry Regiment " Zamora " No. 8 ( Spain )
= = = Arms = = =
As Prince of Wales , Edward 's coat of arms was the royal arms differenced by a label of three points argent , and an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony , representing his father . When he acceded as King , he gained the royal arms undifferenced .
= = Issue = =
= = Ancestry = =
= Sea surface temperature =
Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 04 in ) and 20 metres ( 70 ft ) below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 metres ( 100 ft ) of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi @-@ decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans .
Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm @-@ up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .
= = Measurement = =
There are a variety of techniques for measuring this parameter that can potentially yield different results because different things are actually being measured . Away from the immediate sea surface , general temperature measurements are accompanied by a reference to the specific depth of measurement . This is because of significant differences encountered between measurements made at different depths , especially during the daytime when low wind speed and high sunshine conditions may lead to the formation of a warm layer at the ocean 's surface and strong vertical temperature gradients ( a diurnal thermocline ) . Sea surface temperature measurements are confined to the top portion of the ocean , known as the near @-@ surface layer .
= = = Thermometers = = =
SST was one of the first oceanographic variables to be measured . Benjamin Franklin suspended a mercury thermometer from a ship while travelling between the United States and Europe in his survey of the Gulf stream in the late eighteenth century . SST was later measured by dipping a thermometer into a bucket of water that was manually drawn from the sea surface . The first automated technique for determining SST was accomplished by measuring the temperature of water in the intake port of large ships , which was underway by 1963 . These observations have a warm bias of around 0 @.@ 6 ° C ( 1 ° F ) due to the heat of the engine room . This bias has led to changes in the perception of global warming since 2000 . Fixed weather buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Measurements of SST have had inconsistencies over the last 130 years due to the way they were taken . In the nineteenth century , measurements were taken in a bucket off of a ship . However , there was a slight variation in temperature because of the differences in buckets . Samples were collected in either a wood or an uninsulated canvas bucket , but the canvas bucket cooled quicker than the wood bucket . The sudden change in temperature between 1940 and 1941 was the result of an undocumented change in procedure . The samples were taken near the engine intake because it was too dangerous to use lights to take measurements over the side of the ship at night . Many different drifting buoys exist around the world that vary in design , and the location of reliable temperature sensors varies . These measurements are beamed to satellites for automated and immediate data distribution . A large network of coastal buoys in U.S. waters is maintained by the National Data Buoy Center ( NDBC ) . Between 1985 and 1994 , an extensive array of moored and drifting buoys was deployed across the equatorial Pacific Ocean designed to help monitor and predict the El Niño phenomenon .
= = = Weather satellites = = =
Weather satellites have been available to determine sea surface temperature information since 1967 , with the first global composites created during 1970 . Since 1982 , satellites have been increasingly utilized to measure SST and have allowed its spatial and temporal variation to be viewed more fully . Satellite measurements of SST are in reasonable agreement with in situ temperature measurements . The satellite measurement is made by sensing the ocean radiation in two or more wavelengths within the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum or other parts of the spectrum which can then be empirically related to SST . These wavelengths are chosen because they are :
within the peak of the blackbody radiation expected from the Earth , and
able to transmit adequately well through the atmosphere
The satellite @-@ measured SST provides both a synoptic view of the ocean and a high frequency of repeat views , allowing the examination of basin @-@ wide upper ocean dynamics not possible with ships or buoys . NASA 's ( National Aeronautic and Space Administration ) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) SST satellites have been providing global SST data since 2000 , available with a one @-@ day lag . NOAA 's GOES ( Geostationary Orbiting Earth Satellites ) satellites are geo @-@ stationary above the Western Hemisphere which enables to them to deliver SST data on an hourly basis with only a few hours of lag time .
There are several difficulties with satellite @-@ based absolute SST measurements . First , in infrared remote sensing methodology the radiation emanates from the top " skin " of the ocean , approximately the top 0 @.@ 01 mm or less , which may not represent the bulk temperature of the upper meter of ocean due primarily to effects of solar surface heating during the daytime , reflected radiation , as well as sensible heat loss and surface evaporation . All these factors make it somewhat difficult to compare satellite data to measurements from buoys or shipboard methods , complicating ground truth efforts . Secondly , the satellite cannot look through clouds , creating a cool bias in satellite @-@ derived SSTs within cloudy areas . However , passive microwave techniques can accurately measure SST and " see " through clouds . Within atmospheric sounder channels on weather satellites , which peak just above the ocean 's surface , knowledge of the sea surface temperature is important to their calibration .
= = Local variation = =
The SST has a diurnal range , just like the Earth 's atmosphere above , though to a lesser degree due to its greater specific heat . On calm days , the temperature can vary by 6 ° C ( 10 ° F ) . The temperature of the ocean at depth lags the Earth 's atmosphere temperature by 15 days per 10 metres ( 33 ft ) , which means for locations like the Aral Sea , temperatures near its bottom reach a maximum in December and a minimum in May and June . Near the coastline , offshore winds move the warm waters near the surface offshore , and replace them with cooler water from below in the process known as Ekman transport . This pattern increases nutrients for marine life in the region . Offshore river deltas , freshwater flows over the top of the denser seawater , which allows it to heat faster due to limited vertical mixing . Remotely sensed SST can be used to detect the surface temperature signature due to tropical cyclones . In general , an SST cooling is observed after the passing of a hurricane primarily as the result of mixed layer deepening and surface heat losses . In the wake of several day long Saharan dust outbreaks across the adjacent northern Atlantic ocean , sea surface temperatures are reduced 0 @.@ 2 C to 0 @.@ 4 C ( 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 7 F ) . Other sources of short @-@ term SST fluctuation include extratropical cyclones , rapid influxes of glacial fresh water and concentrated phytoplankton blooms due to seasonal cycles or agricultural run @-@ off .
= = = Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation = = =
The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) is important for how external forcings are linked with North Atlantic SSTs .
= = Regional variation = =
El Niño is defined by prolonged differences in Pacific Ocean surface temperatures when compared with the average value . The accepted definition is a warming or cooling of at least 0 @.@ 5 ° C ( 0 @.@ 9 ° F ) averaged over the east @-@ central tropical Pacific Ocean . Typically , this anomaly happens at irregular intervals of 2 – 7 years and lasts nine months to two years . The average period length is 5 years . When this warming or cooling occurs for only seven to nine months , it is classified as El Niño / La Niña
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seven playoff games . Miller had his most productive season in 1998 – 99 . After scoring a career @-@ high 18 points in 76 games , Miller participated in 19 playoff games , with a career best five assists and six points . He would only play in 53 games the next season , but did suit up for every playoff game , scoring a goal and an assist in 17 games .
After 56 games with the Avalanche during the 2000 – 01 season , where he had 13 points , Miller was traded for the second time in his career . On February 21 , 2001 Miller was sent to the Los Angeles Kings by the Colorado Avalanche with Adam Deadmarsh , a player later to be named ( Jared Aulin , who would be traded on March 22 , 2001 ) and Colorado 's 1st round choices in the 2001 ( Dave Steckel ) and 2003 ( Brian Boyle ) Entry Drafts for Rob Blake and Steven Reinprecht . Miller was not originally meant to be traded , but the Kings insisted he be part of the deal .
= = = Los Angeles Kings and Vancouver Canucks = = =
Miller would finish the 2000 – 01 season with the Kings . In the final 13 games of the regular season , he had five assists , finishing with a career @-@ best 14 assists and matching his career high of 18 points in one season . He contributed an assist in 13 playoff games as the Kings played the Avalanche , Miller 's former team , who defeated Los Angeles as they went on to win the Stanley Cup for the second time .
In his first full season with the Kings , Miller played in 74 games for the team , scoring five goals and adding 12 assists during the 2001 – 02 season . At the conclusion of the regular season , Miller was named the winner of several Kings team awards : best defenseman , best defensive player and the teams unsung hero . During the playoffs , he went pointless while playing in all seven of the Kings ' games . Abdominal surgery and a broken foot limited Miller to 49 games with the Kings the next season , recording one goal and five assists for six points .
In a game against the Atlanta Thrashers on December 10 , 2003 , Miller injured his neck . It would lead him to miss most of the 2003 – 04 season , appearing in 35 games and scoring one goal and two assists . The 2004 – 05 NHL lockout resulted in a cancelled 2004 – 05 season . Unlike many other players , Miller did not play in a different league . He returned to play for the 2005 – 06 season and earned eight assists in 56 games . For the first time in his career , Miller played in all 82 games during the 2006 – 07 season , again scoring eight assists .
As an unrestricted free agent , Miller signed a one @-@ year contract for $ 1 @.@ 5 million with the Vancouver Canucks on July 9 , 2007 , ending his time with the Kings . On December 18 , 2007 , Miller scored a goal against Martin Brodeur of the New Jersey Devils , his first goal in 193 games , a span lasting over four years . The goal , the game @-@ winner , marked the longest stretch of Miller 's career between scoring goals . In a game on March 6 against the Nashville Predators , Miller injured his shoulder and ended up missing the remainder of the season . Following the conclusion of the 2007 – 08 season , in which he had eight assists in addition to the goal , Miller retired from hockey . In 2000 Miller had his first child , Grace Miller
= = International play = =
Aaron Miller has appeared for the United States in several international tournaments . His first appearance was at the 1991 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . He scored a goal and an assist in eight games . Miller was also chosen to play in the 2002 Olympic Winter Games in Salt Lake City . In six games , Miller went pointless as the Americans won the silver medal , and experience he referred to as " best part of [ his ] career . " Two years later , he joined the bronze medal @-@ winning American team at the 2004 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships . He contributed an assist in nine games . Later that year he participated in the 2004 World Cup of Hockey , and appeared in 5 games . Miller made a return to the World Championships in 2005 , playing seven games and scoring two assists . He was named to the 2006 Olympic Winter Games in Turin , but pulled out due to back problems .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
All stats taken from NHL.com
= = Awards = =
= = = NCAA = = =
= = = Los Angeles Kings team awards = = =
= = Post @-@ Playing Career = =
Miller resides in Burlington , Vermont and is the owner of six Buffalo Wild Wings franchises with his business partner in Burlington , Concord , NH , Waterbury , CT , Plattsburgh , NY and Southington , CT . He also provided color commentary for select Vermont Catamounts men 's ice hockey radio broadcasts from 2009 to 2010 on AM 620 , WVMT .
= Brownsea Castle =
Brownsea Castle , also known historically as Branksea Castle , was originally a Device Fort constructed by Henry VIII between 1545 and 1547 to protect Poole Harbour in Dorset , England , from the threat of French attack . Located on Brownsea Island , it comprised a stone blockhouse with a hexagonal gun platform . It was garrisoned by the local town with six soldiers and armed with eight artillery pieces . The castle remained in use after the original invasion scare had passed and was occupied by Parliament during the English Civil War of the 1640s . By the end of the century , however , it had fallen into disuse .
In 1726 the castle was converted into a private residence by William Benson , despite complaints from the town of Poole . Benson and the subsequent owners extended the original blockhouse to form a country house , landscaping the surrounding island to create ornamental gardens and lakes . The 19th century saw continued building work by the castle 's occupants , including the entrepreneur Colonel William Waugh , who erected various Jacobethan @-@ styled extensions . A serious fire in 1896 gutted the castle , which was restored by Major Kenneth Robert Balfour . The wealthy stockbroker Charles Van Raalte led a lavish lifestyle at Brownsea at the start of the 20th century , using it to house his collection of antique musical instruments .
Brownsea Castle was purchased by Mary Bonham @-@ Christie in 1927 . She allowed the property to fall into disrepair and by the time of her death in 1961 it was in a very poor condition . It was then purchased by the National Trust and leased to the John Lewis Partnership , who restored it over many years . In the 21st century it is still used by the Partnership as a corporate hotel for their employees and former staff .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
Brownsea Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a small role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry then broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon and remarry . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . Henry responded in 1539 by ordering , through an instruction called a " device " , the construction of fortifications along the most vulnerable parts of the coast . The immediate threat passed , but resurfaced in 1544 , with France threatening an invasion across the Channel , backed by her allies in Scotland . Henry therefore issued another device in 1544 to further improve the country 's defences , particularly along the south coast .
The castle was built on the south @-@ east corner of Brownsea Island between 1545 and 1547 to protect the entrance of the busy Poole Harbour . The island belonged to the Crown , having been confiscated from Cerne Abbey during the Dissolution of the Monasteries a few years before . It was a conservative design , being a one @-@ storey , square blockhouse , reported in 1552 to be 44 feet ( 13 m ) across , able to support guns on its roof and sub @-@ divided into three rooms ; the blockhouse was originally intended to have been two storeys in height , but this was not achieved . The blockhouse was surrounded on the seaward side by a hexagonal gun platform , with a moat around the other three sides and a 24 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) drawbridge on the south @-@ west side to allow access .
The construction was paid for by a combination of the Crown and the local town of Poole , who took on the responsibility of garrisoning and maintaining it ; in the early years of Elizabeth 's reign , the normal garrison was described as comprising six men and was equipped with eight artillery pieces .
Additional work on the gun platform costing £ 56 was carried out in 1548 , and further work was carried out in 1552 to develop the castle 's defences , at the cost to Poole of £ 133 . The castle needed regular investment : 101 piles were driven in during 1551 , probably to combat coastal erosion , and in 1561 the town petitioned the Crown for help with further repairs and the provision of new cannons . Another petition was made for similar help in 1571 , resulting in repairs two years later costing £ 520 and requiring 4 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ; 4 @,@ 400 short tons ) of stone . More work followed in 1585 , including building an additional 4 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wall around the castle .
In 1576 , Elizabeth I granted the castles of Brownsea and Corfe for life to Sir Christopher Hatton , making him the Admiral of Purbeck . Hatton argued with the town of Poole , claiming that he had the right to search and inspect ships going into Poole Harbour , as well as the rights to the revenues from the local ferry service ; he lost his legal case around the ferrying rights in 1581 . In 1589 , the Bountiful Gift refused to pull in for inspection , arguing that it had had a valid pass to leave , and Brownsea Castle fired on the vessel , killing two of the crew . The castle 's captain , Walter Partridge , was tried and conflicted of manslaughter , but ultimately pardoned . The rest of the island , but not the castle , was leased out to various landowners over the next few years .
= = = 17th - 18th centuries = = =
The castle was garrisoned throughout most of the 17th century . In the civil war of the 1640s between the supporters of Charles I and Parliament , the castle was held for Parliament , under the control of the Governor of Poole . The castle was refortified and in 1644 , Parliament ordered that four pieces of artillery and four chests of muskets be sent to the castle , which by 1646 had a garrison of 20 men . During the Interregnum , the wealthy merchant Sir Robert Clayton bought the surrounding island . Clayton probably did not live in the castle , however , and it fell into disrepair ; by the end of the century the town of Poole refused to garrison the decaying defences .
The amateur architect William Benson bought the island from Clayton 's heirs in 1726 for £ 300 . Benson set about converting the castle into a private residence , amid complaints from the authorities in Poole . The town took the matter to the Attorney General , where they argued that Benson had not bought the rights to the castle itself , only the island , and that the castle was a national fortification , originally built by Henry VIII and owned by Poole . Benson argued that the building had not originally been a castle but rather a lodging house ; it had not been built by Henry and therefore the Crown had no particular rights over it - rather , the previous owners of the island had simply allowed the town and the government to place artillery there . The matter was eventually dropped and Benson demolished the external fortifications , created a Great Hall and planted trees and rare plants around the island .
The castle was sold to a Mr Chamberlayne and then onto Sir Gerard Sturt in 1762 and Gerard 's cousin , Sir Humphrey Sturt , in 1765 . Humphrey extended the castle around its 16th century core to form a Palladian styled , four @-@ storey tower with battlements , with new wings stretching away on three sides . He also built a walled courtyard with hot houses beside the castle , and landscaped the island with two lakes and a large number of fir trees at a cost of £ 50 @,@ 000 . His son , Charles Sturt , made the castle his primary home , although he was often living elsewhere as a result of his involvement in the Napoleonic Wars .
= = = 19th - 21st centuries = = =
Charles Sturt 's son , also called Charles , inherited the property and sold it to Sir Charles Chad in 1817 . Chad invested significantly in the castle and Prince George visited in 1818 , arriving to a salute from the castle guns . The diplomat Sir Augustus Foster acquired the castle in 1840 on his retirement ; he committed suicide at the castle 1848 , having been in what his inquest termed a state of temporary insanity following a " disease of the heart and lungs " .
A retired Indian Amy officer , Colonel William Waugh , bought the island in 1852 , hoping to turn it into a profitable pottery works . He carried out restoration work on the castle and built up a new Jacobethan @-@ styled range around the south and east sides of the castle . Waugh also constructed the crenelated gatehouse and clocktower at the entrance to the courtyard , and the Jacobethan @-@ styled family pier by the sea below the castle . The commercial venture was a failure and Waugh fled his creditors to Spain in 1857 .
After a period of ownership by a Mr Faulkner , who continued the pottery scheme , the property was eventually resold in 1873 to the politician and lawyer George Cavendish @-@ Bentinck for £ 30 @,@ 000 , who furnished the castle with an extensive collection of Italian Renaissance sculpture . Cavendish @-@ Bentinck closed the pottery works and gave the island as a family home to his son , William , paying for the castle to be extensively renovated ; William and his wife Ruth moved into it in 1888 . Cavendish @-@ Bentinck died in 1891 with extensive debts , forcing William to sell the castle and island to Major Kenneth Robert Balfour .
The castle caught fire on 26 January 1896 and the interiors were gutted by the blaze . Balfour rebuilt the property with the services of the architect Philip Brown , softening the more complex aspects of the castle 's design . Balfour 's wife , Margaret Anne , fell ill and he decided to sell the island in 1901 to the stockbroker Charles van Raalte .
Van Raalte maintained a lavish lifestyle at the castle , which by now had 38 bedrooms , holding grand house @-@ parties during the summer months , complete with servants and a part @-@ time musical band and assembling a rare collection of around 250 historical musical instruments from Europe , Asia and Africa at the castle . Charles died in 1908 but his wife Florence stayed until 1925 . On Florence 's death in 1927 the castle was sold to Sir Arthur Wheeler , who promptly decided to auction off the remaining contents with the intent of demolishing the property . The sale , which included some of Van Raalte 's collection of instruments , paintings and a 5 @,@ 000 book library , produced £ 22 @,@ 300 .
The castle was not demolished as planned and instead was purchased by Mary Bonham @-@ Christie for £ 125 @,@ 000 later that year . She decided to live in a nearby house rather than the castle itself , allowing the island to return to nature and the castle to fall into disrepair . By the time of Bonham @-@ Christie 's death in 1961 the roof had partially collapsed and a tree was growing up through the centre of the building . Facing large death duties , Bonham @-@ Christie 's grandson put the island up for sale , before agreeing to donate it to the state in lieu of taxes .
The National Trust took on ownership of the castle and island in 1962 but considered the castle to be of " little antiquity or architectural interest " . The John Lewis Partnership leased the castle from the Trust for use as a corporate hotel by their employees , gradually restoring the buildings in stages and they remain the current tenants . Some of the 19th century interior features still survive , including wood panelling and ornamental ceilings , with some carved stone fireplaces from Venice ; the castle also has four cannons , probably dating from the 17th or early 18th century . The castle is protected under UK law as a Grade II listed building .
= Iran – Contra affair =
The Iran – Contra affair ( Persian : ماجراي ایران @-@ کنترا , Spanish : caso Irán @-@ Contra ) , also referred to as Irangate , Contragate or the Iran – Contra scandal , was a political scandal in the United States that occurred during the second term of the Reagan Administration . Senior administration officials secretly facilitated the sale of arms to Iran , which was the subject of an arms embargo . They hoped thereby to secure the release of several U.S. hostages and to fund the Contras in Nicaragua . Under the Boland Amendment , further funding of the Contras by the government had been prohibited by Congress .
The scandal began as an operation to free the seven American hostages being held in Lebanon by Hezbollah , a paramilitary group with Iranian ties connected to the Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution . It was planned that Israel would ship weapons to Iran , and then the United States would resupply Israel and receive the Israeli payment . The Iranian recipients promised to do everything in their power to achieve the release of the U.S. hostages . Large modifications to the plan were devised by Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North of the National Security Council in late 1985 , in which a portion of the proceeds from the weapon sales was diverted to fund anti @-@ Sandinista and anti @-@ communist rebels , or Contras , in Nicaragua .
While President Ronald Reagan was a supporter of the Contra cause , the evidence is disputed as to whether he authorized the diversion of the money raised by the Iranian arms sales to the Contras . Handwritten notes taken by Defense Secretary Caspar Weinberger on December 7 , 1985 , indicate that Reagan was aware of potential hostage transfers with Iran , as well as the sale of Hawk and TOW missiles to " moderate elements " within that country . Weinberger wrote that Reagan said " he could answer to charges of illegality but couldn 't answer to the charge that ' big strong President Reagan passed up a chance to free the hostages ' " . After the weapon sales were revealed in November 1986 , Reagan appeared on national television and stated that the weapons transfers had indeed occurred , but that the United States did not trade arms for hostages . The investigation was impeded when large volumes of documents relating to the scandal were destroyed or withheld from investigators by Reagan administration officials . On March 4 , 1987 , Reagan returned to the airwaves in a nationally televised address , taking full responsibility for any actions that he was unaware of , and admitting that " what began as a strategic opening to Iran deteriorated , in its implementation , into trading arms for hostages " .
Several investigations ensued , including those by the U.S. Congress and the three @-@ person , Reagan @-@ appointed Tower Commission . Neither found any evidence that President Reagan himself knew of the extent of the multiple programs . Ultimately the sale of weapons to Iran was not deemed a criminal offense but charges were brought against five individuals for their support of the Contras . Those charges , however , were later dropped because the administration refused to declassify certain documents . The indicted conspirators faced various lesser charges instead . In the end , fourteen administration officials were indicted , including then @-@ Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger . Eleven convictions resulted , some of which were vacated on appeal . The rest of those indicted or convicted were all pardoned in the final days of the presidency of George H. W. Bush , who had been vice @-@ president at the time of the affair .
= = Background = =
Contra militants based in Honduras waged a guerrilla war to topple the Sandinista National Liberation Front ( FSLN ) revolutionary government of Nicaragua . Direct U.S. funding of the Contras insurgency was made illegal through the Boland Amendment , the name given to three U.S. legislative amendments between 1982 and 1984 aimed at limiting U.S. government assistance to the Contra 's militants . Funding ran out for the Contras by July 1984 and in October a total ban was placed in effect . In violation of the Boland Amendment , senior officials of the Reagan administration continued to secretly arm and train the Contras and provide arms to Iran , an operation they called " the Enterprise " . Ironically , military aid to the Contras was reinstated with Congressional consent in October 1986 , a month before the scandal broke .
= = Arms sales to Iran = =
Michael Ledeen , a consultant of National Security Adviser Robert McFarlane , requested assistance from Israeli Prime Minister Shimon Peres for help in the sale of arms to Iran . Having been designated a State Sponsor of Terrorism since January 1984 , Iran was in the midst of the Iran – Iraq War and could find few Western nations willing to supply it with weapons . The idea behind the plan was for Israel to ship weapons through an intermediary ( identified as Manucher Ghorbanifar ) to the Islamic republic as a way of aiding a supposedly moderate , politically influential faction within the regime of Ayatollah Khomeini who was believed to be seeking a rapprochement with the United States ; after the transaction , the United States would reimburse Israel with the same weapons , while receiving monetary benefits . The Israeli government required that the sale of arms meet high level approval from the United States government , and when McFarlane convinced them that the U.S. government approved the sale , Israel obliged by agreeing to sell the arms .
In 1985 , President Reagan entered Bethesda Naval Hospital for colon cancer surgery . While the President was recovering in the hospital , McFarlane met with him and told him that representatives from Israel had contacted the National Security Agency to pass on confidential information from what Reagan later described as the " moderate " Iranian faction opposed to the Ayatollah 's hardline anti @-@ American policies . According to Reagan , these Iranians sought to establish a quiet relationship with the United States , before establishing formal relationships upon the death of the aging Ayatollah . In Reagan 's account , McFarlane told Reagan that the Iranians , to demonstrate their seriousness , offered to persuade the Hezbollah militants to release the seven U.S. hostages . McFarlane met with the Israeli intermediaries ; Reagan claimed that he allowed this because he believed that establishing relations with a strategically located country , and preventing the Soviet Union from doing the same , was a beneficial move . Although Reagan claims that the arms sales were to a " moderate " faction of Iranians , the Walsh Iran / Contra Report states that the arms sales were " to Iran " itself , which was under the control of the Ayatollah .
Following the Israeli – U.S. meeting , Israel requested permission from the United States to sell a small number of BGM @-@ 71 TOW antitank missiles to Iran , claiming that this would aid the " moderate " Iranian faction , by demonstrating that the group actually had high @-@ level connections to the U.S. government . Reagan initially rejected the plan , until Israel sent information to the United States showing that the " moderate " Iranians were opposed to terrorism and had fought against it . Now having a reason to trust the " moderates " , Reagan approved the transaction , which was meant to be between Israel and the " moderates " in Iran , with the United States reimbursing Israel . In his 1990 autobiography An American Life , Reagan claimed that he was deeply committed to securing the release of the hostages ; it was this compassion that supposedly motivated his support for the arms initiatives . The president requested that the " moderate " Iranians do everything in their capability to free the hostages held by Hezbollah .
The following arms were supplied to Iran :
August 20 , 1985 – 96 TOW anti @-@ tank missiles
September 14 , 1985 – 408 more TOWs
November 24 , 1985 – 18 Hawk anti @-@ aircraft missiles
February 17 , 1986 – 500 TOWs
February 27 , 1986 – 500 TOWs
May 24 , 1986 – 508 TOWs , 240 Hawk spare parts
August 4 , 1986 – More Hawk spares
October 28 , 1986 – 500 TOWs
= = = First arms sale = = =
On August 20 , 1985 , Israel sent 100 American @-@ made TOW missiles to Iran through an arms dealer named Manucher Ghorbanifar . Subsequently , on September 14 , 1985 , 408 more TOW missiles were delivered . On September 15 , 1985 , following the second delivery , Reverend Benjamin Weir was released by his captors , the Islamic Jihad Organization .
= = = Modifications in plans = = =
Robert McFarlane resigned on December 4 , 1985 , citing that he wanted to spend more time with his family . He was replaced by Admiral John Poindexter .
Two days later , Reagan met with his advisors at the White House , where a new plan was introduced . This one called for a slight change in the arms transactions : instead of the weapons going to the " moderate " Iranian group , they would go to " moderate " Iranian army leaders . As the weapons were delivered from Israel by air , the hostages held by Hezbollah would be released . Israel would continue to be reimbursed by the United States for the weapons . Though staunchly opposed by Secretary of State George Shultz and Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger , the plan was authorized by Reagan , who stated that , " We were not trading arms for hostages , nor were we negotiating with terrorists " . Now retired National Security Advisor McFarlane flew to London to meet with Israelis and Ghorbanifar in an attempt to persuade the Iranian to use his influence to release the hostages before any arms transactions occurred ; this plan was rejected by Ghorbanifar .
On the day of McFarlane 's resignation , Oliver North , a military aide to the United States National Security Council ( NSC ) , proposed a new plan for selling arms to Iran , which included two major adjustments : instead of selling arms through Israel , the sale was to be direct , and a portion of the proceeds would go to Contras , or Nicaraguan paramilitary fighters waging guerrilla warfare against the democratically @-@ elected Sandinista government , at a markup . North proposed a $ 15 million markup , while contracted arms broker Ghorbanifar added a 41 % markup of his own . Other members of the NSC were in favor of North 's plan ; with large support , Poindexter authorized it without notifying President Reagan , and it went into effect . At first , the Iranians refused to buy the arms at the inflated price because of the excessive markup imposed by North and Ghorbanifar . They eventually relented , and in February 1986 , 1 @,@ 000 TOW missiles were shipped to the country . From May to November 1986 , there were additional shipments of miscellaneous weapons and parts .
Both the sale of weapons to Iran , and the funding of the Contras , attempted to circumvent not only stated administration policy , but also the Boland Amendment . Administration officials argued that regardless of the Congress restricting the funds for the Contras , or any affair , the President ( or in this case the administration ) could carry on by seeking alternative means of funding such as private entities and foreign governments . Funding from one foreign country , Brunei , was botched when North 's secretary , Fawn Hall , transposed the numbers of North 's Swiss bank account number . A Swiss businessman , suddenly $ 10 million richer , alerted the authorities of the mistake . The money was eventually returned to the Sultan of Brunei , with interest .
On January 7 , 1986 , John Poindexter proposed to the president a modification of the approved plan : instead of negotiating with the " moderate " Iranian political group , the United States would negotiate with " moderate " members of the Iranian government . Poindexter told Reagan that Ghorbanifar had important connections within the Iranian government , so with the hope of the release of the hostages , Reagan approved this plan as well . Throughout February 1986 , weapons were shipped directly to Iran by the United States ( as part of Oliver North 's plan , without the knowledge of President Reagan ) and none of the hostages were released . Retired National Security Advisor McFarlane conducted another international voyage , this one to Tehran ; bringing with him a gift of a bible having a handwritten inscription by Ronald Reagan ; and , according to George Cave a cake baked in the shape of a key . Howard Teicher described the cake as a joke between North and Ghorbanifar . He met directly with the " moderate " Iranian political group that sought to establish U.S.-Iranian relations in an attempt to free the four remaining hostages . This meeting also failed . The members requested concessions such as Israel 's withdrawal from the Golan Heights , which the United States rejected .
= = = Subsequent dealings = = =
In late July 1986 , Hezbollah released another hostage , Father Lawrence Jenco , former head of Catholic Relief Services in Lebanon . Following this , William Casey , head of the CIA , requested that the United States authorize sending a shipment of small missile parts to Iranian military forces as a way of expressing gratitude . Casey also justified this request by stating that the contact in the Iranian government might otherwise lose face or be executed , and hostages might be killed . Reagan authorized the shipment to ensure that those potential events would not occur .
In September and October 1986 three more Americans — Frank Reed , Joseph Cicippio , and Edward Tracy — were abducted in Lebanon by a separate terrorist group , who referred to them simply as " G.I. Joe , " after the popular American toy . The reasons for their abduction are unknown , although it is speculated that they were kidnapped to replace the freed Americans . One more original hostage , David Jacobsen , was later released . The captors promised to release the remaining two , but the release never happened .
= = Discovery and scandal = =
After a leak by Mehdi Hashemi , a senior official in the Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution , the Lebanese magazine Ash @-@ Shiraa exposed the arrangement on November 3 , 1986 . This was the first public reporting of the weapons @-@ for @-@ hostages deal . The operation was discovered only after an airlift of guns ( Corporate Air Services HPF821 ) was downed over Nicaragua . Eugene Hasenfus , who was captured by Nicaraguan authorities after surviving the plane crash , initially alleged in a press conference on Nicaraguan soil that two of his coworkers , Max Gomez and Ramon Medina , worked for the Central Intelligence Agency . He later said he did not know whether they did or not . The Iranian government confirmed the Ash @-@ Shiraa story , and ten days after the story was first published , President Reagan appeared on national television from the Oval Office on November 13 , stating :
My purpose was ... to send a signal that the United States was prepared to replace the animosity between [ the U.S. and Iran ] with a new relationship ... At the same time we undertook this initiative , we made clear that Iran must oppose all forms of international terrorism as a condition of progress in our relationship . The most significant step which Iran could take , we indicated , would be to use its influence in Lebanon to secure the release of all hostages held there .
The scandal was compounded when Oliver North destroyed or hid pertinent documents between November 21 and November 25 , 1986 . During North 's trial in 1989 , his secretary , Fawn Hall , testified extensively about helping North alter , shred , and remove official United States National Security Council ( NSC ) documents from the White House . According to the New York Times , enough documents were put into a government shredder to jam it . North 's explanation for destroying some documents was to protect the lives of individuals involved in Iran and Contra operations . It was not until 1993 , years after the trial , that North 's notebooks were made public , and only after the National Security Archive and Public Citizen sued the Office of the Independent Counsel under the Freedom of Information Act .
During the trial , North testified that on November 21 , 22 , or 24 , he witnessed Poindexter destroy what may have been the only signed copy of a presidential covert @-@ action finding that sought to authorize CIA participation in the November 1985 Hawk missile shipment to Iran . U.S. Attorney General Edwin Meese admitted on November 25 that profits from weapons sales to Iran were made available to assist the Contra rebels in Nicaragua . On the same day , John Poindexter resigned , and President Reagan fired Oliver North . Poindexter was replaced by Frank Carlucci on December 2 , 198
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6 .
In his exposé Veil : The Secret Wars of the CIA 1981 – 1987 , journalist Bob Woodward chronicles the role of the CIA in facilitating the transfer of funds from the Iran arms sales to the Nicaraguan Contras spearheaded by Oliver North . According to Woodward , then Director of the CIA , William J. Casey , admitted to him February 1987 that he was aware of the diversion of funds to the contras . The controversial admission occurred while Casey was hospitalized for a stroke , and , according to his wife , was unable to communicate . On May 6 , 1987 , William Casey died the day after Congress began its public hearings on Iran – Contra . Independent Counsel , Lawrence Walsh later wrote : " Independent Counsel obtained no documentary evidence showing Casey knew about or approved the diversion . The only direct testimony linking Casey to early knowledge of the diversion came from [ Oliver ] North . "
= = Tower Commission = =
On November 25 , 1986 , President Reagan announced the creation of a Special Review Board to look into the matter ; the following day , he appointed former Senator John Tower , former Secretary of State Edmund Muskie , and former National Security Adviser Brent Scowcroft to serve as members . This Presidential Commission took effect on December 1 and became known as the Tower Commission . The main objectives of the commission were to inquire into " the circumstances surrounding the Iran @-@ Contra matter , other case studies that might reveal strengths and weaknesses in the operation of the National Security Council system under stress , and the manner in which that system has served eight different presidents since its inception in 1947 " . The Tower Commission was the first presidential commission to review and evaluate the National Security Council .
President Reagan appeared before the Tower Commission on December 2 , 1986 , to answer questions regarding his involvement in the affair . When asked about his role in authorizing the arms deals , he first stated that he had ; later , he appeared to contradict himself by stating that he had no recollection of doing so . In his 1990 autobiography , An American Life , Reagan acknowledges authorizing the shipments to Israel .
The report published by the Tower Commission was delivered to the president on February 26 , 1987 . The Commission had interviewed 80 witnesses to the scheme , including Reagan , and two of the arms trade middlemen : Manucher Ghorbanifar and Adnan Khashoggi . The 200 @-@ page report was the most comprehensive of any released , criticizing the actions of Oliver North , John Poindexter , Caspar Weinberger , and others . It determined that President Reagan did not have knowledge of the extent of the program , especially about the diversion of funds to the Contras , although it argued that the president ought to have had better control of the National Security Council staff . The report heavily criticized Reagan for not properly supervising his subordinates or being aware of their actions . A major result of the Tower Commission was the consensus that Reagan should have listened to his National Security Advisor more , thereby placing more power in the hands of that chair .
= = Congressional committees investigating the Iran – Contra affair = =
The Democratic @-@ controlled United States Congress issued its own report on November 18 , 1987 , stating that " If the president did not know what his national security advisers were doing , he should have " . The congressional report wrote that the president bore " ultimate responsibility " for wrongdoing by his aides , and his administration exhibited " secrecy , deception and disdain for the law " . It also read that " the central remaining question is the role of the President in the Iran – Contra affair . On this critical point , the shredding of documents by Poindexter , North and others , and the death of Casey , leave the record incomplete " .
= = Aftermath = =
Reagan expressed regret regarding the situation during a nationally televised address from the Oval Office on March 4 , 1987 , and two other speeches ; Reagan had not spoken to the American people directly for three months amidst the scandal . President Reagan told the American people the reason he did not update them on the scandal :
The reason I haven 't spoken to you before now is this : You deserve the truth . And as frustrating as the waiting has been , I felt it was improper to come to you with sketchy reports , or possibly even erroneous statements , which would then have to be corrected , creating even more doubt and confusion . There 's been enough of that .
He then took full responsibility for the acts committed :
First , let me say I take full responsibility for my own actions and for those of my administration . As angry as I may be about activities undertaken without my knowledge , I am still accountable for those activities . As disappointed as I may be in some who served me , I 'm still the one who must answer to the American people for this behavior .
Finally , the president stated that his previous assertions that the U.S. did not trade arms for hostages were incorrect :
A few months ago I told the American people I did not trade arms for hostages . My heart and my best intentions still tell me that 's true , but the facts and the evidence tell me it is not . As the Tower board reported , what began as a strategic opening to Iran deteriorated , in its implementation , into trading arms for hostages . This runs counter to my own beliefs , to administration policy , and to the original strategy we had in mind .
To this day , Reagan 's role in the transactions is not definitively known ; it is unclear exactly what Reagan knew and when , and whether the arms sales were motivated by his desire to save the U.S. hostages . Oliver North wrote that " Ronald Reagan knew of and approved a great deal of what went on with both the Iranian initiative and private efforts on behalf of the contras and he received regular , detailed briefings on both ... I have no doubt that he was told about the use of residuals for the Contras , and that he approved it . Enthusiastically . " Handwritten notes by Defense Secretary Weinberger indicate that the President was aware of potential hostages transfers with Iran , as well as the sale of Hawk and TOW missiles to what he was told were " moderate elements " within Iran . Notes taken on December 7 , 1985 , by Weinberger record that Reagan said that " he could answer charges of illegality but he couldn 't answer charge [ sic ] that ' big strong President Reagan passed up a chance to free hostages ' " . The Republican @-@ written " Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran @-@ Contra Affair " concluded , that
There is some question and dispute about precisely the level at which he chose to follow the operation details . There is no doubt , however , ... [ that ] the President set the US policy towards Nicaragua , with few if any ambiguities , and then left subordinates more or less free to implement it .
Domestically , the scandal precipitated a drop in President Reagan 's popularity as his approval ratings saw " the largest single drop for any U.S. president in history " , from 67 % to 46 % in November 1986 , according to a New York Times / CBS News poll . The " Teflon President " , as Reagan was nicknamed by critics , survived the scandal , however , and by January 1989 a Gallup poll was " recording a 64 % approval rating " , the highest ever recorded for a departing President at that time .
Internationally , the damage was more severe . Magnus Ranstorp wrote , " U.S. willingness to engage in concessions with Iran and the Hezbollah not only signaled to its adversaries that hostage @-@ taking was an extremely useful instrument in extracting political and financial concessions for the West but also undermined any credibility of U.S. criticism of other states ' deviation from the principles of no @-@ negotiation and no concession to terrorists and their demands " .
In Iran , Mehdi Hashemi , the leaker of the scandal , was executed in 1987 , allegedly for activities unrelated to the scandal . Though Hashemi made a full video confession to numerous serious charges , some observers find the coincidence of his leak and the subsequent prosecution highly suspicious .
= = = Indictments = = =
Caspar Weinberger , Secretary of Defense , was indicted on two counts of perjury and one count of obstruction of justice on June 16 , 1992 . Weinberger received a pardon from George H. W. Bush on December 24 , 1992 , before he was tried .
Robert C. McFarlane , National Security Adviser , convicted of withholding evidence , but after a plea bargain was given only two years of probation . Later pardoned by President George H. W. Bush .
Elliott Abrams , Assistant Secretary of State , convicted of withholding evidence , but after a plea bargain was given only two years probation . Later pardoned by President George H. W. Bush .
Alan D. Fiers , Chief of the CIA 's Central American Task Force , convicted of withholding evidence and sentenced to one year probation . Later pardoned by President George H. W. Bush .
Clair George , Chief of Covert Ops @-@ CIA , convicted on two charges of perjury , but pardoned by President George H. W. Bush before sentencing .
Oliver North , member of the National Security Council convicted of accepting an illegal gratuity , obstruction of a congressional inquiry , and destruction of documents , but the ruling was overturned since he had been granted immunity .
Fawn Hall , Oliver North 's secretary , was given immunity from prosecution on charges of conspiracy and destroying documents in exchange for her testimony .
Jonathan Scott Royster , Liaison to Oliver North , was given immunity from prosecution on charges of conspiracy and destroying documents in exchange for his testimony .
National Security Advisor John Poindexter was convicted of five counts of conspiracy , obstruction of justice , perjury , defrauding the government , and the alteration and destruction of evidence . A panel of the D.C. Circuit overturned the convictions on November 15 , 1991 by a vote of 2 to 1 and the Supreme Court refused to hear the case .
Duane Clarridge . An ex @-@ CIA senior official , he was indicted in November 1991 on seven counts of perjury and false statements relating to a November 1985 shipment to Iran . Pardoned before trial by President George H. W. Bush .
Richard V. Secord . Former Air Force major general , who was involved in arms transfers to Iran and diversion of funds to Contras , he pleaded guilty in November 1989 to making false statements to Congress and was sentenced to two years of probation . As part of his plea bargain , Secord agreed to provide further truthful testimony in exchange for the dismissal of remaining criminal charges against him .
Albert Hakim . A businessman , he pleaded guilty in November 1989 to supplementing the salary of North by buying a $ 13 @,@ 800 fence for North with money from " the Enterprise , " which was a set of foreign companies Hakim used in Iran @-@ Contra . In addition , Swiss company Lake Resources Inc . , used for storing money from arms sales to Iran to give to the Contras , plead guilty to stealing government property . Hakim was given two years of probation and a $ 5 @,@ 000 fine , while Lake Resources Inc. was ordered to dissolve .
Oliver North and John Poindexter were indicted on multiple charges on March 16 , 1988 . North , indicted on 16 counts , was found guilty by a jury of three felony counts . The convictions were vacated on appeal on the grounds that North 's Fifth Amendment rights may have been violated by the indirect use of his testimony to Congress , which had been given under a grant of immunity . In 1990 , Poindexter was convicted on several felony counts of conspiracy , lying to Congress , obstruction of justice , and altering and destroying documents pertinent to the investigation . His convictions were also overturned on appeal on similar grounds . Arthur L. Liman served as chief counsel for the Senate during the Iran – Contra Scandal .
The Independent Counsel , Lawrence E. Walsh , chose not to re @-@ try North or Poindexter . In total , several dozen people were investigated by Walsh 's office .
During his election campaign in 1988 , Vice President Bush denied any knowledge of the Iran – Contra affair by saying he was " out of the loop " . Though his diaries included that he was " one of the few people that know fully the details " , he repeatedly refused to discuss the incident and won the election . However , a book published in 2008 by Israeli journalist and terrorism expert Ronen Bergman asserts that Bush was personally and secretly briefed on the affair by Amiram Nir , counterterrorism adviser to the then Israeli Prime Minister , when Bush was on a visit to Israel . " Nir could have incriminated the incoming President . The fact that Nir was killed in a mysterious chartered airplane crash in Mexico in December 1988 has given rise to numerous conspiracy theories " , writes Bergman . On December 24 , 1992 , nearing the end of his term in office after being defeated by Bill Clinton the previous month , Bush pardoned six administration officials , namely Elliott Abrams , Duane Clarridge , Alan Fiers , Clair George , Robert McFarlane , and Caspar Weinberger .
In Poindexter 's hometown of Odon , Indiana , a street was renamed to John Poindexter Street . Bill Breeden , a former minister , stole the street 's sign in protest of the Iran – Contra affair . He claimed that he was holding it for a ransom of $ 30 million , in reference to the amount of money given to Iran to transfer to the Contras . He was later arrested and confined to prison , making him , as satirically noted by Howard Zinn , " the only person to be imprisoned as a result of the Iran – Contra Scandal " .
= = Reports and documents = =
The 100th Congress formed a joint committee ( Congressional Committees Investigating The Iran @-@ Contra Affair ) and held hearings in mid @-@ 1987 . Transcripts were published as : Iran @-@ Contra Investigation : Joint Hearings Before the Senate Select Committee on Secret Military Assistance to Iran and the Nicaraguan Opposition and the House Select Committee to Investigate Covert Arms Transactions with Iran ( U.S. GPO 1987 @-@ 88 ) . A closed Executive Session heard classified testimony from North and Poindexter ; this transcript was published in a redacted format . The joint committee 's final report was Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran @-@ Contra Affair With Supplemental , Minority , and Additional Views ( U.S. GPO November 17 , 1987 ) . The records of the committee are at the National Archives , but many are still non @-@ public .
Testimony was also heard before the House Foreign Affairs Committee , House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence , and Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and can be found in the Congressional Record for those bodies . The Senate Intelligence Committee produced two reports : Preliminary Inquiry into the Sale of Arms to Iran and Possible Diversion of Funds to the Nicaraguan Resistance ( February 2 , 1987 ) and Were Relevant Documents Withheld from the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran @-@ Contra Affair ? ( June 1989 ) .
The Tower Commission Report was published as the Report of the President 's Special Review Board . U.S. GPO February 26 , 1987 . It was also published as The Tower Commission Report , Bantam Books , 1987 , ISBN 0 @-@ 553 @-@ 26968 @-@ 2
The Office of Independent Counsel / Walsh investigation produced four interim reports to Congress . Its final report was published as the Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran / Contra Matters . Walsh 's records are available at the National Archives .
= USS Mahopac ( 1864 ) =
USS Mahopac was a single @-@ turreted Canonicus @-@ class monitor built for the Union Navy during the American Civil War . The vessel was assigned to the James River Flotilla of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron upon completion in September 1864 . The ship spent most of her time stationed up the James River where she could support operations against Richmond and defend against sorties by the Confederate ironclads of the James River Squadron . She engaged Confederate artillery batteries during the year and later participated in both attacks on Fort Fisher , defending the approaches to Wilmington , North Carolina , in December 1864 – January 1865 . Mahopac returned to the James River after the capture of Fort Fisher and remained there until Richmond , Virginia was occupied in early April .
A few days later , the monitor was transferred to Washington , D. C. and decommissioned in June and recommissioned in early 1866 for service on the East Coast and in the Caribbean . Mahopac generally remained active until 1889 when she was permanently placed in reserve . She was sold for scrap in 1902 .
= = Description and construction = =
The ship was 225 feet ( 68 @.@ 6 m ) long overall , had a beam of 43 feet 3 inches ( 13 @.@ 2 m ) and had a maximum draft of 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) . She had a tonnage of 1 @,@ 034 tons burthen and displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew consisted of 100 officers and enlisted men .
Mahopac was powered by a two @-@ cylinder horizontal vibrating @-@ lever steam engine that drove one propeller using steam generated by two Stimers horizontal fire @-@ tube boilers . The 320 @-@ indicated @-@ horsepower ( 240 kW ) engine gave the ship a top speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . She carried 140 – 150 long tons ( 140 – 150 t ) of coal . Mahopac 's main armament consisted of two smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading , 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single gun turret . Each gun weighed approximately 43 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) . They could fire a 350 @-@ pound ( 158 @.@ 8 kg ) shell up to a range of 2 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 7 ° .
The exposed sides of the hull were protected by five layers of one @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) wrought iron plates , backed by wood . The armor of the gun turret and the pilot house consisted of ten layers of one @-@ inch plates . The ship 's deck was protected by armor 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick . A 5 @-@ by @-@ 15 @-@ inch ( 130 by 380 mm ) soft iron band was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent shells and fragments from jamming the turret as had happened to earlier monitors during the First Battle of Charleston Harbor in April 1863 . The base of the funnel was protected to a height of six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) by eight inches ( 203 mm ) of armor . A " rifle screen " of 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) armor three feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) high was installed on the top of the turret to protect the crew against Confederate snipers based on a suggestion by Commander Tunis A. M. Craven , captain of her sister ship Tecumseh .
The contract for Mahopac , named after Lake Mahopac in New York , was awarded to Secor & Co . ; the ship was laid down in 1862 by the primary subcontractor Joseph Colwell at his Jersey City , New Jersey shipyard . She was launched on 17 May 1864 and commissioned on 22 September 1864 with Commander William A. Parker in command . The ship 's construction was delayed by multiple changes ordered while she was being built that reflected battle experience with earlier monitors . This included the rebuilding of the turrets and pilot houses to increase their armor thickness from 8 inches ( 203 mm ) to 10 inches and to replace the bolts that secured their armor plates together with rivets to prevent them from being knocked loose by the shock of impact from shells striking the turret . Other changes included deepening the hull by 18 inches ( 457 mm ) to increase the ship 's buoyancy , moving the position of the turret to balance the ship 's trim and replacing all of the ship 's deck armor . The ship ultimately cost a total of $ 701 @,@ 624 , although the builder appealed for recompense for additional costs caused by the government 's delays and changes . The case was dismissed on 31 March 1919 . No modifications are known to have been made after the ship 's completion .
= = Service = =
Mahopac was fitting out at the Brooklyn Navy Yard until 4 October 1864 when , towed by two tugboats , she departed for Hampton Roads , Virginia and arrived there on 6 October . The ship arrived at City Point , Virginia on 3 November for service with the James River Flotilla . She engaged a Confederate artillery battery at Howlett 's Farm on 5 and 6 December together with her sisters Saugus and Canonicus . Mahopac was hit five times and lightly damaged ; she fired 41 shells in return , of which only six had any effect on the Confederate forces .
Escorted by the sidewheel gunboat Santiago de Cuba , Mahopac , now commanded by Lieutenant Commander E. E. Potter , was ordered on 11 December to steam for Beaufort , South Carolina to prepare for the first bombardment of Fort Fisher on 24 – 25 December . Plagued by steering problems as the bombardment began , the ship open fire late on the first day of the battle and fired 41 shells . The one hit that she received that day damaged her steering gear . Mahopac participated in the second day of the battle and was not damaged . After Butler ordered his men re @-@ embarked onto their transports on 26 December , the monitor was towed to Beaufort by the gunboat Fort Jackson .
Again towed by the Fort Jackson , Mahopac , now under the command of Lieutenant Commander A. W. Weaver , arrived back at Fort Fisher on 13 January 1865 . Together with Canonicus and Saugus , the double @-@ turreted monitor Onondaga and the armored frigate New Ironsides , she bombarded the fort for three days until it was captured by Union troops . On her second shot at the beginning of the battle , one of her 15 @-@ inch guns burst at the muzzle . Despite the loss of one gun , the ship fired 204 shells at the fort ; she was hit several times in return , but suffered neither damage nor casualties .
Transferred to the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron , Mahopac was ordered to Charleston , South Carolina on 17 January , towed by the gunboat Nereus . The ship remained there on picket duty until 8 March when she returned to Chesapeake Bay and rejoined the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron . She contributed boats for clearing the James River of " torpedoes " after the Confederate ships were scuttled on the night of 2 / 3 April and Richmond occupied . On 5 April , Mahopac and Saugus were to ordered report to the Washington Navy Yard . She was decommissioned in June and laid up there .
Mahopac was recommissioned on 15 January 1866 and served on the East Coast . Renamed Castor on 15 June 1869 , she resumed her original name on 10 August . The ship was placed in reserve on 11 March 1872 at Hampton Roads , but was recommissioned on 21 November 1873 . The ship was based at Key West , Florida until 1876 when she was transferred to Port Royal , South Carolina . Mahopac was transferred to Norfolk , Virginia in July 1877 and then moored at Brandon , Virginia , and at City Point , before being placed in ordinary at Richmond from 1889 to 1895 . The ship was transferred to League Island , Philadelphia in 1895 . She was struck from the Navy List on 14 January 1902 and was sold on 25 March 1902 .
= Travelers ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Travelers " is the fifteenth episode of the fifth season of American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and the 111th episode of the series overall . It was written by John Shiban and Frank Spotnitz , directed by William A. Graham and aired in the United States on March 29 , 1998 on the Fox network . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 9 , being watched by 15 @.@ 06 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this flashback episode , a young Fox Mulder visits retired FBI Agent Arthur Dales ( Darren McGavin ) , who tells him about one of the first X @-@ Files , a case that Mulder 's father , Bill , was involved in .
" Travelers " was written as a tribute to Howard Dimsdale , a screenwriter who was victimized by Hollywood blacklist in the 1950s and explored the idea that " the witch @-@ hunt [ of the 1950s ] was actually a smoke screen to conceal something else " . Noted actor Darren McGavin appears as Arthur Dales . McGavin was requested for the part especially by Chris Carter and had been approached to play various characters on the series before . In order to create a " convincing period movie " , various special effects were used , including a special facial appliance that allowed the " alien spider " to crawl out of Skur 's mouth and into his victim , and a bleaching job for the final film to give it an aged feel .
= = Plot = =
In 1990 in Caledonia , Wisconsin , a man named Edward Skur is shot by a police officer during an eviction and the last word he speaks is " Mulder " . Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) , at this point working with the FBI 's Behavioral Science Unit , believes that the man may have had some connection to his father , Bill . Mulder discovers that Skur was reported to have died in 1952 . He seeks out Arthur Dales ( Darren McGavin ) , a retired FBI agent who investigated Skur in the 1950s . At first , Dales is reluctant to discuss the case and warns Mulder away . However , Mulder 's threat of a subpoena persuades Dales to tell his story .
In a flashback to the 1950s , Dales ( Fredric Lane ) and his partner Hayes Michel are sent to arrest Skur ( Garret Dillahunt ) for being a communist . When Dales is told that Skur hanged himself while in custody , he feels guilty and returns to Skur 's house to apologize to his wife . While there , he sees Skur alive and tries to recapture him . In the following struggle , an appendage emerges from Skur 's mouth . Skur is forced to flee when a neighbor interrupts the fight . Dales ' partner and Roy Cohn warn Dales to change his report about the attack . He does so , but feels guilty about it .
Later , Dales and Michel are called to investigate the death of a German doctor in Chevy Chase , Maryland . The local police deny calling them , and Dales finds a coaster for a bar with " come alone " written on the back . At the bar , Dales meets Bill Mulder , an agent from the State Department . Bill tells him that Skur was experimented on along with two other men , and those two men later killed themselves . Skur killed the German doctor in revenge for what was done to him , and he will kill Dales and Michel too because Skur believes they are part of the plot . Dales tries to warn Michel but he is too late and Skur kills him . Dales tries to investigate but Mr. Cohn covers it up .
A secretary at the FBI office , Dorothy Bahnsen ( played by Jane Perry ) , helps Dales find a file that mentions Gissing , one of the two men who committed suicide . ( She explains that she files all the unsolved cases under X because there is more room under X than U. ) Gissing 's body is still in the morgue and Dales convinces the technician to cut open the body where they find a strange creature has been sewn into Gissing 's chest . Dales goes to Skur 's wife and tells her what was done to her husband and that he wants to expose the experiments . Skur 's wife goes down into the backyard bomb shelter to tell Skur , but he is overcome by his parasite and kills her .
Cohn picks up Dales and takes him to the office of the Director who gives him a speech about patriotism and convinces him to help bring in Skur . They take Dales back to the bar to meet Skur , who attacks Dales . Bill Mulder and the other agent wait outside until they think Dales is dead before rushing in to find that Dales has handcuffed Skur and is still alive .
Back in the present Fox Mulder is dismayed to hear what his father was involved in . He asks Dales how Skur escaped and Dales speculates that someone might have helped Skur escape hoping that the truth of what was done to him may one day be revealed . The episode ends with a final flashback of Bill Mulder driving down a road with Skur and giving Skur the keys to the car and walking away .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
The episode was written as a tribute to Howard Dimsdale , a screenwriter who was victimized by Hollywood blacklist in the 1950s . Dimsdale wrote several movies under the pseudonym " Arthur Dales " , and thus , his name was the inspiration for the character of the same name in " Travelers " . For many years , Dimsdale had taught at the American Film Institute in Los Angeles ; two of his students were executive producer Frank Spotnitz and co @-@ producer John Shiban . The two decided to combine many of Dimsdale 's stories of " paranoia , treachery , and double @-@ dealing " with the idea that " the witch @-@ hunt was actually a smoke screen to conceal something else " . The writers soon realized that by setting the episode in the past , they would be able to " trace the roots of both Fox Mulder and the X @-@ Files " .
This episode does not feature Scully , as Gillian Anderson was busy still filming her final parts of Fight the Future . Noted actor Darren McGavin appears as Arthur Dales . He was requested for the part especially by Chris Carter . Casting director Rick Millikan noted , " McGavin was Chris 's inspiration for writing this series . He always had Darren in mind to use somewhere , and that was really his doing . He said ' I want Darren McGavin for this , ' and he happened to be available , and we got him . " McGavin had originally been casting directors ' first choice for the role of Senator Matheson for the second season opener " Little Green Men " . McGavin was later sought out to be Mulder 's dad , but he again eluded the staff . In the end , McGavin finally agreed to appear on the show playing Dales , the agent who originally founded the X @-@ Files .
= = = Filming = = =
Due to the time crunches of the fifth season , a " convincing period movie " was created in " less time than humanly possible " by members of The X @-@ Files 's production staff . Costume designer Jenni Gullet set about renting and creating vintage clothing from the fifties ; art director Gary Allen collected older copies of National Geographic to make J. Edgar Hoover 's office seem realistic to the period . Allen also constructed the bomb shelter , because his father was a contractor who had actually built several .
Special effects supervisor Toby Lindala created the " alien spider " as well as a special facial appliance that allowed the creature to crawl out of Skur 's mouth and into his victim . The final film was slightly bleached in post @-@ production to give it a " vintage appearance " . The production staff was pleased with the final product , noting that it does justice to both " the painful controversies of the 1950s " and The X @-@ Files as a " contemporary TV series " . The episode also contained several in @-@ jokes . The song playing in the German doctor 's house is a specially recorded cover of the popular song " Lili Marleen " ; the song 's record cover reads " Paula Rabwini " , a reference to one of the series ' producers , Paul Rabwin . Agent Hayes Michel was named after the fiancé of Mary Astadourian , one of series creator Chris Carter 's executive assistants .
= = = Continuity = = =
In several shots , Mulder can be seen wearing a wedding band . This was David Duchovny 's idea ; he explained " That was just me , you know , fooling around . I had recently gotten married , and I wanted to wear it . " He later described the situation as " so Mulder to never have mentioned that he was married " . Series creator Chris Carter later told Duchovny that the situation " creates a problem . If we ever do a show that takes place seven years ago , you 'll have to be married . " However , Duchovny reassured Carter by pointing out that there were not very many episodes , if any , that had been planned to take place seven years prior to the events in this episode . The inclusion of the detail caused an " Internet frenzy " and the minor detail was never resolved on screen .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Travelers " premiered in the US on the Fox network on March 19 , 1998 and in the United Kingdom on February 3 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 9 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 15 @.@ 06 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Travelers " received mixed reviews from critics . In a 2000 review of season five for the New Straits Times , Francis Dass noted that the episode possessed a " nice retro feel throughout " . Dass was also complimentary towards the fact that " Mulder senior is shown in action " during the episode . Todd VanDerWerff from The A.V. Club gave the episode a B and wrote positively of it , noting that , although the entry was designed as a " stall " , it felt like a " weird backdoor pilots for [ a show ] that never happened . " He noted that the episode " isn ’ t as good as it could have been " but argued that the story was " still a mostly fun " . In addition , VanDerWerff wrote positively of McGavin 's guest starring role and was complimentary towards the " alien spider thing " , describing it as " wonderfully gross " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five and called it " fresh and urgent " . The two wrote that , while the episode was a stopgap , it " cannot be better placed . " They argued that " Travlers " ' s use of the " Communist witch hunt " conceit and its idea that " serving " means being a patriot , whereas " resisting " means being a traitor — a reference to the previous episode 's tagline — themes were well
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Murphree is the only person to have been the president of both of Florida 's original state universities , the University of Florida and Florida State University , and he played an important role in the organization , growth and ultimate success of both institutions .
= = Early life and education = =
Murphree was born near Chepultepec , Alabama in 1870 . His father was Jesee Ellis Murphree , a Confederate veteran of the Civil War ; his mother was Emily Helen Cornelius . His parents raised him in a family of ten children in Walnut Grove , Alabama , where he attended community schools and a local two @-@ year college . He graduated from the University of Nashville with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1894 , and taught mathematics at several high schools and small colleges in Alabama , Tennessee and Texas . In 1895 , he became a mathematics instructor at the West Florida Seminary ( now known as Florida State University ) in Tallahassee , Florida , and two years later , its board of trustees appointed him as the seminary 's third president in 1897 , at the age of 27 . Later , Murphree married Jennie Henderson , the daughter of one of the seminary 's trustees . He subsequently started and completed the academic work for a Master of Arts degree while serving as president of the seminary , renamed Florida State College in 1901 .
= = Professor and university president = =
As President of West Florida Seminary , Murphree worked to create Florida 's first liberal arts college by 1897 , and in 1901 it was reorganized into the Florida State College with four departments : the College , the College Academy , the School for Teachers and the School of Music . Under his leadership , the Florida State College produced the state 's first Rhodes Scholar in 1905 , Frederic " Fritz " Buchholz ( 1885 @-@ 65 ) .
In 1905 , several prominent political backers advanced Murphree 's name to be the first president of the new University of the State of Florida located in Gainesville , Florida , which was the newly consolidated men 's university and land @-@ grant college created by the Florida Legislature 's passage of the Buckman Act , which segregated Florida 's schools of higher learning by race and gender . Instead , the Florida Board of Control selected Andrew Sledd , then the president of the University of Florida in Lake City , to be the first president of the new men 's university . Murphree continued to serve as the president of Florida State College , which became the all @-@ female Florida Female College under the Buckman Act . From 1905 to 1909 , Murphree emphasized greater academic expectations for his female students , while upgrading and expanding the college 's curriculum to meet modern university standards . In 1909 , Murphree convinced the legislature to change the name of the college to the Florida State College for Women .
When the first president of the University of Florida , Andrew Sledd , was not re @-@ appointed for the 1909 – 10 school year because of a conflict over what the new governor and members of the Florida Board of Education believed were Sledd 's inflexible admissions standards that were impeding the growth of the university , Murphree 's name was once again advanced as a replacement . This time , the Board of Control voted unanimously to approve his appointment . Murphree assumed his new duties during the summer of 1909 , and worked diligently with his predecessor to ensure a smooth transition that capitalized on previous successes . In a surprise to some of his previous political supporters , Murphree endorsed Sledd 's admissions standards , and thereafter actually tightened the requirements for entry again in 1912 .
Beginning in 1910 , Murphree reorganized the university 's administration into four academic colleges : the College of Arts and Sciences , the College of Law , the College of Agriculture , and the College of Engineering , as well as the Graduate School . Murphree took particular interest in the " School of Graduate Studies , " and the university awarded its first master 's degree in 1910 . He later oversaw the addition of the College of Education in 1912 , the School of Pharmacy in 1924 , the School of Architecture in 1925 , and the College of Commerce and Journalism in 1927 . During Murphree 's term , he oversaw the construction of ten new major buildings , including such historical landmarks as Flint Hall ( Science Department ) , Floyd Hall ( College of Agriculture ) , Peabody Hall ( College of Education ) , the University Auditorium , and the new University Library ( now known as Smathers Library East ) . The University of Florida 's enrollment grew from 186 students in 1909 to over 2 @,@ 000 in 1927 .
Murphree is reported to have taken pride in knowing every Florida student by name . Under Murphree , student leaders formed the Florida Blue Key leadership society in 1923 , the university celebrated its first homecoming parade in 1924 , and students organized the first Gator Growl pep rally and variety show in 1925 .
While president of Florida , Murphree became a friend of William Jennings Bryan , the former U.S. Representative from Nebraska and the Democratic Party nominee for President in 1896 , 1900 and 1908 . Bryan established a winter residence in Miami , Florida in 1912 , and became a full @-@ time Florida resident in 1921 . Bryan was a frequent speaker throughout Florida , and first met Murphree at a speech at the university in 1916 . As a result of his friendship with Murphree , Bryan volunteered to be the fund @-@ raising drive chairman for the construction of the university 's new Florida Union building ( now known as Dauer Hall ) .
Murphree 's name was floated as a possible gubernatorial candidate on several occasions , but he publicly disavowed any personal interest in elected office . Without consulting Murphree in advance , on January 13 , 1924 , William Jennings Bryan announced his candidacy to be a delegate to the 1924 Democratic National Convention , where , if elected , he would nominate Murphree as the party 's candidate for President of the United States in the 1924 election . Bryan campaigned vigorously despite Murphree 's steadfast refusal to do so as a candidate . Murphree stated that he was flattered by Bryan 's effort , but " Nobody expects a Southern man to be nominated President , much less a Florida man . " Florida newspapers urged Murphree to run , but few others took his candidacy seriously . Bryan was elected as a delegate to the Democratic Convention , pledged to support Murphree 's nomination , but Bryan was greeted by boos and jeers at the convention because of his nomination of Murphree . Bryan later told Senator J. Thomas Heflin that his reception by his fellow convention delegates was the most humiliating of his life .
Murphree was elected president of the National Association of State Universities in 1927 .
= = Death and legacy = =
Murphree died unexpectedly in his sleep , at the age of 57 , in Gainesville on December 20 , 1927 . His wife Jennie had died six years earlier in 1921 . They are both buried in St. John 's Episcopal Church cemetery in downtown Tallahassee , only a few blocks from Florida State University . Murphree and his wife were survived by four children – – two sons , John A.H. Murphree and Albert A. Murphree , Jr . , and two daughters , Alberta Murphree Worth and Martha Murphree Wallace . Murphree 's daughter Martha graduated from Florida State College for Women with a bachelor 's degree in 1925 . His son and namesake , Albert A. " Waddy " Murphree , Jr . , graduated from the University of Florida with a bachelor 's degree in 1929 , earned a master 's degree from Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar from 1929 to 1933 , and would later serve as a professor of English literature at the university from 1941 to 1974 .
Murphree , who was the second choice to be the first president of the University of Florida , served longer as the second leader of the university than all but one of its other ten presidents . While he was not the founding president , Murphree built upon the solid academic standards , faculty selections and planning of his predecessor , Andrew Sledd , and greatly expanded and improved upon them ; he imposed the university 's modern organizational structure and was responsible for the beginnings of many of its traditions .
After his death , Murphree was widely praised on the editorial pages of newspapers throughout the state and region . He was credited with helping the University of Florida grow from a small state college into a rapidly expanding regional university in his eighteen years as its president .
The two universities that Murphree nurtured in their infancy continued to grow and prosper after his death . In 2010 , Florida State University had a total enrollment of over 41 @,@ 000 undergraduate , graduate and professional students ; the University of Florida enrolled over 50 @,@ 000 total students . In a little over one hundred years , the two national research universities , in whose early expansion and improvement Murphree had played a fundamental role , had grown to take their places among the largest single @-@ campus universities in the United States , the University of Florida among the ten largest .
In honor of its second president , the
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noting : " Other biographers and historians have argued that John Tyler was a hapless and inept chief executive whose presidency was seriously flawed . " In The Republican Vision of John Tyler ( 2003 ) , Dan Monroe observed that the Tyler presidency " is generally ranked as one of the least successful " . Seager wrote that Tyler " was neither a great president nor a great intellectual , " adding that despite a few achievements , " his administration has been and must be counted an unsuccessful one by any modern measure of accomplishment " . A survey of 65 historians , conducted by C @-@ SPAN in 2009 , ranked Tyler as 35th of 42 men to hold the office .
Tyler 's assumption of complete presidential powers " set a hugely important precedent " , according to a biographical sketch by the University of Virginia 's Miller Center of Public Affairs . Tyler 's successful insistence that he was president , and not a caretaker or acting president , was a model for the succession of seven other presidents over the 19th and 20th centuries . Tyler 's action of assuming both the title of the presidency and its full powers would be legally recognized in 1967 , when it was codified in the Twenty @-@ fifth Amendment .
Some scholars in recent years have praised Tyler 's foreign policy . Monroe credits him with " achievements like the Webster – Ashburton treaty which heralded the prospect of improved relations with Great Britain , and the annexation of Texas , which added millions of acres to the national domain . " Crapol argued that Tyler " was a stronger and more effective president than generally remembered " , while Seager wrote , " I find him to be a courageous , principled man , a fair and honest fighter for his beliefs . He was a president without a party . " Author Ivan Eland , in an update of his 2008 book Recarving Rushmore , rated all 44 US presidents by the criteria of peace , prosperity , and liberty ; with the finished ratings , John Tyler was ranked the best president of all time . Louis Kleber , in his article in History Today , pointed out that Tyler brought integrity to the White House at a time when many in politics lacked it , and refused to compromise his principles to avoid the anger of his opponents . Crapol argues that Tyler 's allegiance to the Confederacy overshadows much of the good he did as president , " John Tyler 's historical reputation has yet to fully recover from that tragic decision to betray his loyalty and commitment to what he had once defined as ' the first great American interest ' — the preservation of the Union . "
Norma Lois Peterson , in her book on Tyler 's presidency , suggested that Tyler 's general lack of success as president was due to external factors , that would have rebounded upon whoever was in the White House . Chief among them was Henry Clay , who was determined to realize the vision he had for America , and who would brook no opposition . In the aftermath of Jackson 's determined use of the powers of the Executive Branch , the Whigs wanted the president to be dominated by Congress , and Clay treated Tyler as a subordinate . Tyler resented this , leading to the conflict between the branches that dominated his presidency . Pointing to Tyler 's advances in foreign policy , she deemed Tyler 's presidency " flawed ... but it was not a failure " .
While academics have both praised and criticized Tyler , the general American public has little awareness of him at all . Several writers have portrayed Tyler as among the nation 's most obscure presidents . As Seager remarked , " His countrymen generally remember him , if they have heard of him at all , as the rhyming end of a catchy campaign slogan . "
= Molybdenum =
Molybdenum is a chemical element with symbol Mo and atomic number 42 . The name is from Neo @-@ Latin molybdaenum , from Ancient Greek Μόλυβδος molybdos , meaning lead , since its ores were confused with lead ores . Molybdenum minerals have been known throughout history , but the element was discovered ( in the sense of differentiating it as a new entity from the mineral salts of other metals ) in 1778 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele . The metal was first isolated in 1781 by Peter Jacob Hjelm .
Molybdenum does not occur naturally as a free metal on Earth ; it is found only in various oxidation states in minerals . The free element , a silvery metal with a gray cast , has the sixth @-@ highest melting point of any element . It readily forms hard , stable carbides in alloys , and for this reason most of world production of the element ( about 80 % ) is used in steel alloys , including high @-@ strength alloys and superalloys .
Most molybdenum compounds have low solubility in water , but when molybdenum @-@ bearing minerals contact oxygen and water , the resulting molybdate ion MoO2 −
4 is quite soluble . Industrially , molybdenum compounds ( about 14 % of world production of the element ) are used in high @-@ pressure and high @-@ temperature applications as pigments and catalysts .
Molybdenum @-@ bearing enzymes are by far the most common bacterial catalysts for breaking the chemical bond in atmospheric molecular nitrogen in the process of biological nitrogen fixation . At least 50 molybdenum enzymes are now known in bacteria and animals , although only bacterial and cyanobacterial enzymes are involved in nitrogen fixation . These nitrogenases contain molybdenum in a form different from other molybdenum enzymes , which all contain fully oxidized molybdenum in a molybdenum cofactor . These various molybdenum cofactor enzymes are vital to the organisms , and molybdenum is a essential element for life in all higher eukaryote organisms , though not in all bacteria .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
In its pure form , molybdenum is a silvery @-@ grey metal with a Mohs hardness of 5 @.@ 5 . It has a melting point of 2 @,@ 623 ° C ( 4 @,@ 753 ° F ) ; of the naturally occurring elements , only tantalum , osmium , rhenium , tungsten , and carbon have higher melting points . Weak oxidation of molybdenum starts at 300 ° C ( 572 ° F ) . It has one of the lowest coefficients of thermal expansion among commercially used metals . The tensile strength of molybdenum wires increases about 3 times , from about 10 to 30 GPa , when their diameter decreases from ~ 50 – 100 nm to 10 nm .
= = = Isotopes = = =
There are 35 known isotopes of molybdenum , ranging in atomic mass from 83 to 117 , as well as four metastable nuclear isomers . Seven isotopes occur naturally , with atomic masses of 92 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , and 100 . Of these naturally occurring isotopes , only molybdenum @-@ 100 is unstable .
Molybdenum @-@ 98 is the most abundant isotope , comprising 24 @.@ 14 % of all molybdenum . Molybdenum @-@ 100 has a half @-@ life of about 1019 y and undergoes double beta decay into ruthenium @-@ 100 . Molybdenum isotopes with mass numbers from 111 to 117 all have half @-@ lives of approximately 150 ns . All unstable isotopes of molybdenum decay into isotopes of niobium , technetium , and ruthenium .
As also noted below , the most common isotopic molybdenum application involves molybdenum @-@ 99 , which is a fission product . It is a parent radioisotope to the short @-@ lived gamma @-@ emitting daughter radioisotope technetium @-@ 99m , a nuclear isomer used in various imaging applications in medicine . In 2008 , the Delft University of Technology applied for a patent on the molybdenum @-@ 98 @-@ based production of molybdenum @-@ 99 .
= = = Compounds and chemistry = = =
Molybdenum is a transition metal with an electronegativity of 2 @.@ 16 on the Pauling scale and a standard atomic weight of 95 @.@ 95 g / mol . It does not visibly react with oxygen or water at room temperature , and the bulk oxidation occurs at temperatures above 600 ° C , resulting in molybdenum trioxide :
2 Mo + 3 O
2 → 2 MoO
3
The trioxide is volatile and sublimes at high temperatures . This prevents formation of a continuous protective ( passivating ) oxide layer , which would stop the bulk oxidation of metal . Molybdenum has several oxidation states , the most stable being + 4 and + 6 ( bolded in the table at left ) . The chemistry and the compounds show more similarity to tungsten than to chromium ; the instability of molybdenum ( III ) and tungsten ( III ) compounds , for example , contrasts with the stability of the chromium ( III ) compounds . The highest oxidation state is seen in molybdenum ( VI ) oxide ( MoO3 ) , while the normal sulfur compound is molybdenum disulfide MoS2 .
Molybdenum ( VI ) oxide is soluble in strong alkaline water , forming molybdates ( MoO42 − ) . Molybdates are weaker oxidants than chromates , but they show a similar tendency to form complex oxyanions by condensation at lower pH values , such as [ Mo7O24 ] 6 − and [ Mo8O26 ] 4 − . Polymolybdates can incorporate other ions , forming polyoxometalates . The dark @-@ blue phosphorus @-@ containing heteropolymolybdate P [ Mo12O40 ] 3 − is used for the spectroscopic detection of phosphorus . The broad range of oxidation states of molybdenum is reflected in various molybdenum chlorides :
Molybdenum ( II ) chloride MoCl2 ( yellow solid )
Molybdenum ( III ) chloride MoCl3 ( dark red solid )
Molybdenum ( IV ) chloride MoCl4 ( black solid )
Molybdenum ( V ) chloride MoCl5 ( dark green solid )
Molybdenum ( VI ) chloride MoCl6 ( brown solid )
The structure of the MoCl2 is clusters of Mo6Cl84 + and four chloride ions compensating the charge .
Like chromium and some other transition metals , molybdenum forms quadruple bonds , such as in Mo2 ( CH3COO ) 4 . This compound can be transformed into Mo2Cl84 − , which also has a quadruple bond .
The oxidation state 0 is possible with carbon monoxide as ligand , such as in molybdenum hexacarbonyl , Mo ( CO ) 6 .
= = History = =
Molybdenite — the principal ore from which molybdenum is now extracted — was previously known as molybdena . Molybdena was confused with and often utilized as though it were graphite . Like graphite , molybdenite can be used to blacken a surface or as a solid lubricant . Even when molybdena was distinguishable from graphite , it was still confused with the common lead ore PbS ( now called galena ) ; the name comes from Ancient Greek Μόλυβδος molybdos , meaning lead . ( The Greek word itself has been proposed as a loanword from Anatolian Luvian and Lydian languages ) .
Although ( reportedly ) molybdenum was deliberately alloyed with steel in one 14th @-@ century Japanese sword ( mfd. ca . 1330 ) , that art was never employed widely and was later lost . In the West in 1754 , Bengt Andersson Qvist examined a sample of molybdenite and determined that it did not contain lead and thus was not galena .
By 1778 Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele stated firmly that molybdena was ( indeed ) neither galena nor graphite . Instead , Scheele correctly proposed that molybdena was an ore of a distinct new element , named molybdenum for the mineral in which it resided , and from which it might be isolated . Peter Jacob Hjelm successfully isolated molybdenum using carbon and linseed oil in 1781 .
For the next century , molybdenum had no industrial use . It was relatively scarce , the pure metal was difficult to extract , and the necessary techniques of metallurgy were immature . Early molybdenum steel alloys showed great promise of increased hardness , but efforts to manufacture the alloys on a large scale were hampered with inconsistent results , a tendency toward brittleness , and recrystallization . In 1906 , William D. Coolidge filed a patent for rendering molybdenum ductile , leading to applications as a heating element for high @-@ temperature furnaces and as a support for tungsten @-@ filament light bulbs ; oxide formation and degradation require that molybdenum be physically sealed or held in an inert gas . In 1913 , Frank E. Elmore developed a froth flotation process to recover molybdenite from ores ; flotation remains the primary isolation process .
During the World War I , demand for molybdenum spiked ; it was used both in armor plating and as a substitute for tungsten in high speed steels . Some British tanks were protected by 75 mm ( 3 in ) manganese steel plating , but this proved to be ineffective . The manganese steel plates were replaced with much lighter 25 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) molybdenum steel plates allowing for higher speed , greater maneuverability , and better protection . The Germans also used molybdenum @-@ doped steel for heavy artillery , like in the super @-@ heavy howitzer Big Bertha , because traditional steel melts at the temperatures produced by the propellant of the one ton shell . After the war , demand plummeted until metallurgical advances allowed extensive development of peacetime applications . In World War II , molybdenum again saw strategic importance as a substitute for tungsten in steel alloys .
= = Occurrence and production = =
Molybdenum is the 54th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust and the 25th most abundant element in its oceans , with an average of 10 parts per billion ; it is the 42nd most abundant element in the Universe . The Russian Luna 24 mission discovered a molybdenum @-@ bearing grain ( 1 × 0 @.@ 6 µm ) in a pyroxene fragment taken from Mare Crisium on the Moon . The comparative rarity of molybdenum in the Earth 's crust is offset by its concentration in a number of water @-@ insoluble ores , often combined with sulfur in the same way as copper , with which it is often found . Though molybdenum is found in such minerals as wulfenite ( PbMoO4 ) and powellite ( CaMoO4 ) , the main commercial source is molybdenite ( MoS2 ) . Molybdenum is mined as a principal ore and is also recovered as a byproduct of copper and tungsten mining .
The world 's production of molybdenum was 250 @,@ 000 tonnes in 2011 , the largest producers being China ( 94 @,@ 000 t ) , United States ( 64 @,@ 000 t ) , Chile ( 38 @,@ 000 t ) , Peru ( 18 @,@ 000 t ) and Mexico ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) . The total reserves are estimated at 10 million tonnes , and are mostly concentrated in China ( 4 @.@ 3 Mt ) , US ( 2 @.@ 7 Mt ) and Chile ( 1 @.@ 2 Mt ) . By continent , 93 % of world molybdenum production is about evenly shared between North America , South America ( mainly in Chile ) , and China . Europe and the rest of Asia ( mostly Armenia , Russia , Iran and Mongolia ) produce the remainder .
In molybdenite processing , the ore is first roasted in air at a temperature of 700 ° C ( 1 @,@ 292 ° F ) . The process gives gaseous sulfur doxide and the molybdenum ( VI ) oxide :
2 MoS2 + 7 O2 → 2 MoO3 + 4 SO2
The oxidized ore is then usually extracted with aqueous ammonia to give ammonium molybdate :
MoO3 + 2 NH3 + H2O → ( NH4 ) 2 ( MoO4 ) + H2O
Copper , an impurity in molybdenite , is less soluble in ammonia . To completely remove it from the solution , it is precipitated with hydrogen sulfide . Ammonium molybdate converts to ammonium dimolybdate , which is isolated as a solid . Heating this solid gives molybdenum trioxide :
( NH4 ) 2Mo2O7 → 2 MoO3 + 2 NH3 + H2O
The crude trioxide can be further purified by sublimation at 1 @,@ 100 ° C ( 2 @,@ 010 ° F ) .
Metallic molybdenum is produced by reduction of the oxide with hydrogen :
MoO3 + 3 H2 → Mo + 3 H2O
The molybdenum for steel production is reduced by the aluminothermic reaction with addition of iron to produce ferromolybdenum . A common form of ferromolybdenum contains 60 % molybdenum .
Molybdenum has a value of approximately $ 30 @,@ 000 per tonne as of August 2009 . It maintained a price at or near $ 10 @,@ 000 per tonne from 1997 through 2003 , and reached a peak of $ 103 @,@ 000 per tonne in June 2005 . In 2008 the London Metal Exchange announced that molybdenum would be traded as a commodity on the exchange .
= = = History of molybdenum mining = = =
Historically , the Knaben mine in southern Norway , opened in 1885 , was the first dedicated molybdenum mine . It was closed from 1973 to 2007 , but was reopened that year. and now produces 100 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 98 long tons ; 110 short tons ) of molybdenum disulfide per year . Large mines in Colorado ( such as the Henderson mine and the Climax mine ) and in British Columbia yield molybdenite as their primary product , while many porphyry copper deposits such as the Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah and the Chuquicamata mine in northern Chile produce molybdenum as a byproduct of copper mining .
= = Applications = =
= = = Alloys = = =
About 86 % of molybdenum produced is used in metallurgy , with the rest used in chemical applications . The estimated global use is structural steel 35 % , stainless steel 25 % , chemicals 14 % , tool & high @-@ speed steels 9 % , cast iron 6 % , molybdenum elemental metal 6 % , and superalloys 5 % .
Molybdenum can withstand extreme temperatures without significantly expanding or softening , making it useful in environments of intense heat , including military armor , aircraft parts , electrical contacts , industrial motors , and filaments .
Most high @-@ strength steel alloys ( for example , 41xx steels ) contain 0 @.@ 25 % to 8 % molybdenum . Even in these small portions , more than 43 @,@ 000 tonnes of molybdenum are used each year in stainless steels , tool steels , cast irons , and high @-@ temperature superalloys .
Molybdenum is also valued in steel alloys for its high corrosion resistance and weldability . Molybdenum contributes corrosion resistance to type @-@ 300 stainless steels ( specifically type @-@ 316 ) and especially so in the so @-@ called superaustenitic stainless steels ( such as alloy AL @-@ 6XN , 254SMO or 1925hMo ) . Molybdenum increases lattice strain , thus increasing the energy required to dissolve iron atoms from the surface . Molybdenum is also used to enhance the corrosion resistance of ferritic ( for example grade 444 ) and martensitic ( for example 1 @.@ 4122 and 1 @.@ 4418 ) stainless steels .
Because of its lower density and more stable price , molybdenum is sometimes used in place of tungsten . An example is the ' M ' series of high @-@ speed steels such as M2 , M4 and M42 as substitution for the ' T ' steel series , which contain tungsten . Molybdenum can also be used as a flame @-@ resistant coating for other metals . Although its melting point is 2 @,@ 623 ° C ( 4 @,@ 753 ° F ) , molybdenum rapidly oxidizes at temperatures above 760 ° C ( 1 @,@ 400 ° F ) making it better @-@ suited for use in vacuum environments .
TZM ( Mo ( ~ 99 % ) , Ti ( ~ 0 @.@ 5 % ) , Zr ( ~ 0 @.@ 08 % ) and some C ) is a corrosion @-@ resisting molybdenum superalloy that resists molten fluoride salts at temperatures above 1 @,@ 300 ° C ( 2 @,@ 370 ° F ) . It has about twice the strength of pure Mo , and is more ductile and more weldable , yet in tests it resisted corrosion of a standard eutectic salt ( FLiBe ) and salt vapors used in molten salt reactors for 1100 hours with so little corrosion that it was difficult to measure .
Other molybdenum @-@ based alloys that do not contain iron have only limited applications . For example , because of its resistance to molten zinc , both pure molybdenum and molybdenum / tungsten alloy ( 70 % / 30 % ) are used for piping , stirrers and pump impellers that come into contact with molten zinc .
= = = Other applications as the pure element = = =
Molybdenum powder is used as a fertilizer for some plants , such as cauliflower .
Elemental molybdenum is used in NO , NO2 , NOx analyzers in power plants for pollution controls . At 350 ° C ( 662 ° F ) , the element acts as a catalyst for NO2 / NOx to form NO molecules for detection by infrared light .
Molybdenum anodes replace tungsten in certain low voltage X @-@ ray sources for specialized uses such as mammography .
The radioactive isotope molybdenum @-@ 99 is
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Church of England
Anglican Church of Korea
Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui ( also known as the Hong Kong Anglican Church )
= = Works and publications = =
= = = Published during Traherne 's life and times = = =
1673 : Roman Forgeries , Or , A True Account of False Records Discovering the Impostures and Counterfeit Antiquities of the Church of Rome ( London : Printed by S. & B. Griffin for Jonathan Edwin , 1673 ) .
1675 : Christian Ethicks : Or , Divine Morality . Opening the Way to Blessedness , By the Rules of Vertue and Reason ( London : Printed for Jonathan Edwin , 1675 ) .
1699 : A Serious and Pathetical Contemplation of the Mercies of God , In Several Most Devout and Sublime Thanksgivings for the same ( London : Printed for Samuel Keble , 1699 ) .
1717 : Meditations on the Creation , in A Collection of Meditations and Devotions , in Three Parts . ( London : Published by Nathaniel Spinkes . Printed for D. Midwinter , 1717 ) .
= = = Later compilations and editions = = =
1903 : The Poetical Works of Thomas Traherne 1636 ? – 1674 ( edited by Bertram Dobell ) ( London : Dobell , 1903 ) .
1908 : Centuries of Meditations ( edited by Dobell ) ( London : Dobell , 1908 ; Cosimo Inc . , 2007 ) ISBN 1602067252
1910 : Traherne 's Poems of Felicity ( edited by H. I. Bell ) ( Oxford : Clarendon Press , 1910 ) .
1932 : The Poetical Works of Thomas Traherne , faithfully reprinted from the Author 's Original Manuscript , together with Poems of Felicity , reprinted from the Burney manuscript , and Poems from Various Sources ( edited by Gladys I. Wade ) ( London : P. J. & A. E. Dobell , 1932 ) .
1941 : A Serious and Pathetical Contemplation of the Mercies of God , In Several most Devout and Sublime Thanksgivings for the same ( edited by Roy Daniells ) ( Toronto : University of Toronto Press , 1941 ) .
1958 : Centuries , Poems , and Thanksgivings 2 volumes ( edited by H. M. Margoliouth ) ( Oxford : Clarendon Press , 1958 ) .
1966 : Meditations on the Six Days of the Creation ( edited by George Robert Guffey ) ( Los Angeles : William Andrews Clark Memorial Library , University of California , 1966 ) .
1966 : Poems , Centuries , and Three Thanksgivings ( edited by Anne Ridler ) ( London : Oxford University Press , 1966 ) .
1968 : Christian Ethicks ( edited by Carol L. Marks and Guffey ) ( Ithaca : Cornell University Press , 1968 ) .
1989 : Commentaries of Heaven : The Poems ( edited by D. D. C. Chambers ) ( Salzburg : Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik Universitat Salzburg , 1989 ) . ISBN 9780773405844
2005 – 2017 : The Works of Thomas Traherne ( series edited by Jan Ross ) ( Melton , Suffolk , UK : D.S.Brewer ) in 9 volumes . ISBN 9781843840473 ( complete set ) Volume I : Inducements to Retirednes , A Sober View of Dr Twisses his Considerations , Seeds of Eternity or the Nature of the Soul , The Kingdom of God ( 2005 ) . ISBN 9781843840374
Volume II : Commentaries of Heaven , part 1 : Abhorrence to Alone ( 2007 ) ISBN 9781843841357
Volume III : Commentaries of Heaven , part 2 : Al @-@ Sufficient to Bastard ( 2007 ) ISBN 9781843841364
Volume IV : Church 's Year @-@ Book , A Serious and Pathetical Contemplation of the Mercies of GOD , [ Meditations on the Six Days of the Creation ] ( 2009 ) ISBN 9781843841968
Volume V : Centuries of Meditations and Select Meditations ( 2013 ) ISBN 9781843843276
Volume VI : Verse : from the Dobell Folio , Poems of Felicity , The Ceremonial Law ( not yet published )
Volume VII : Roman Forgeries , Christian Ethicks : or , Divine Morality ( not yet published )
Volume . VIII : Commentary and Index ( not yet published )
Volume IX : Notebooks ( not yet published )
= Akutan Zero =
The Akutan Zero , also known as Koga 's Zero and the Aleutian Zero , was a type 0 model 21 Mitsubishi A6M Zero Japanese fighter plane that crash @-@ landed on Akutan Island , Alaska Territory , during World War II . It was found intact by the Americans in July 1942 and became the first flyable Zero acquired by the United States during the war . It was repaired and flown by American test pilots . As a result of information gained from these tests , American tacticians were able to devise ways to defeat the Zero , which was the Imperial Japanese Navy 's primary fighter plane throughout the war .
The Akutan Zero has been described as " a prize almost beyond value to the United States " , and " probably one of the greatest prizes of the Pacific war " . Japanese historian Masatake Okumiya stated that the acquisition of the Akutan Zero " was no less serious " than the Japanese defeat at the Battle of Midway , and that it " did much to hasten Japan 's final defeat " . On the other hand , John Lundstrom is among those who challenge " the contention that it took dissection of Koga 's Zero to create tactics that beat the fabled airplane " .
The Akutan Zero was destroyed in a training accident in 1945 . Parts of it are preserved in several museums in the United States .
= = Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter = =
The Second Sino @-@ Japanese War began in 1937 . Attacks by Chinese fighter planes on Japanese bombers caused the Japanese to develop the concept of fighter escorts . The limited range of the Mitsubishi A5M " Claude " fighter used to escort the bombers caused the Japanese Navy Air staff to commission the Mitsubishi A6M Zero as a long @-@ range land- and carrier @-@ based fighter .
The Zero , which first flew in 1939 , was exceedingly agile and lightweight , with maneuverability and range superior to any other fighter in the world at that time . The Zero was superior to any Allied fighter it would encounter for the first two years of the war . To achieve this , however , Japanese engineers had traded off durability . The Zero was very lightly built ; it had no armor and no self @-@ sealing fuel tanks . According to American author Jim Rearden , " The Zero was probably the easiest fighter of any in World War II to bring down when hit ... The Japanese ... were not prepared to or weren 't capable of building more advanced fighters in the numbers needed to cope with increasing numbers and quality of American fighters " . The Zero was the primary Japanese Navy fighter throughout the war . During the war , the Japanese manufactured roughly 10 @,@ 500 Zeros .
In 1940 Claire Lee Chennault , leader of the Flying Tigers , wrote a report on the Zero 's performance . However , United States Department of War analysts rejected it as " arrant nonsense " and concluded the performance attributed to the Zero was an aerodynamic impossibility . Early in the war , the Zero outclassed any Allied fighter it encountered . According to American flying ace William N. Leonard , " In these early encounters and on our own we were learning the folly of dogfighting with [ the Zero ] " .
During the attack on Pearl Harbor , nine Zeros were shot down . From these wrecks , the Allies learned that the Zero lacked armor and self @-@ sealing fuel tanks , but little else about its capabilities . The Zero 's flight performance characteristics — crucial to devising tactics and machinery to combat it — remained a mystery .
Prior to recovery of the Akutan Zero , technical information from three other downed Zeros was available to the Allies . One Zero ( serial number 5349 ) , piloted by Hajime Toyoshima , crashed on Melville Island in Australia following the bombing of Darwin . The Zero was heavily damaged , and Toyoshima became Australia 's first Japanese prisoner of the Pacific war . Another Zero , piloted by Yoshimitsu Maeda , crashed near Cape Rodney , New Guinea . The team sent to recover the plane erred when they chopped off the wings , severing the wing spars and rendering the hulk unflyable . The third came from China , where Gerhard Neumann was able to reconstruct a working Zero . He used a partly intact Zero ( serial number 3372 ) that had landed in Chinese territory , repaired with salvaged pieces from other downed Zeros . However , bad conditions and the long delivery time from China prevented Neumann 's Zero from reaching the United States for testing until after the recovery of the Akutan Zero .
= = Petty Officer Koga 's final mission = =
In June 1942 , as part of the Japanese Midway operation , the Japanese attacked the Aleutian islands , off the south coast of Alaska . A Japanese task force led by Admiral Kakuji Kakuta bombed Dutch Harbor on Unalaska Island twice , once on June 3 and again the following day .
Tadayoshi Koga , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old flight petty officer first class , was launched from the Japanese aircraft carrier Ryūjō as part of the June 4 raid . Koga was part of a three @-@ plane section ; his wingmen were Chief Petty Officer Makoto Endo and Petty Officer Tsuguo Shikada . Koga and his comrades attacked Dutch Harbor , shooting down an American PBY @-@ 5A Catalina flying boat piloted by Bud Mitchell and strafing its survivors in the water . In the process , Koga 's plane ( serial number 4593 ) was damaged by small arms fire .
Tsuguo Shikada , one of Koga 's wingmen , published an account in 1984 in which he claimed the damage to Koga 's plane occurred while his section was making an attack against two American Catalinas anchored in the bay . This account omits any mention of shooting down Mitchell 's PBY . Both American and Japanese records contradict his claims ; there were no PBYs in the bay that day . However , his claims do match American records from the attack against Dutch Harbor the previous day ( June 3 ) . Rearden noted , " It seems likely that in the near half @-@ century after the event Shikada 's memory confused the raids of June 3 and June 4 ... It also seems likely that in his interview , Shikada employed selective memory in not mentioning shooting down Mitchell 's PBY and then machine gunning the crew on the water " .
It is not known who fired the shot that brought down Koga 's plane , though numerous individuals have claimed credit . Photographic evidence strongly suggests it was hit by ground fire . Members of the 206th Coast Artillery Regiment , which had both 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns and .50 caliber machine guns in position defending Dutch Harbor , claimed credit , in addition to claims made by United States Navy ships that were present . Physical inspection of the plane revealed it was hit with small arms fire — .50 caliber bullet holes and smaller , from both above and below .
= = = Crash = = =
The fatal shot severed the return oil line , and Koga 's plane immediately began trailing oil . Koga reduced speed to prevent the engine 's seizing for as long as possible .
The three Zeros flew to Akutan Island , 25 miles east of Dutch Harbor , which had been designated for emergency landings . Waiting near the island was a Japanese submarine assigned to pick up downed pilots . At Akutan , the three Zeros circled a grassy flat half a mile inland from Broad Bight . Shikada thought the ground was firm beneath the grass , but in his second pass he noticed water glistening . He suddenly realized Koga should make a belly landing . But by then Koga had lowered his landing gear and was almost down .
The plane 's landing gear mired in the water and mud , causing the plane to flip upside down and skid to a stop . Although the aircraft survived the landing nearly intact , Petty Officer Koga died instantly on impact , probably from a broken neck or a blunt @-@ force blow to his head . Koga 's wingmen , circling above , had orders to destroy any Zeros that crash @-@ landed in enemy territory , but as they did not know if Koga was still alive , they could not bring themselves to strafe his plane . They decided to leave without firing on it . The Japanese submarine stationed off Akutan Island to pick up pilots searched for Koga in vain before being driven off by the destroyer USS Williamson .
= = Recovery = =
The crash site , which was out of sight of standard flight lanes and not visible by ship , remained undetected and undisturbed for over a month . On July 10 , 1942 , an American PBY Catalina piloted by Lieutenant William " Bill " Thies spotted the wreckage . Thies 's Catalina had been patrolling by dead reckoning and had become lost . On spotting the Shumagin Islands , he reoriented his plane and began to return to Dutch Harbor by the most direct course — over Akutan Island . The plane 's captain , Albert Knack , spotted Koga 's wreck . Thies 's plane circled the crash site for several minutes , noted its position on the map , and returned to Dutch Harbor to report it . Thies convinced his commanding officer , Paul Foley , to let him return with a salvage team . The next day ( July 11 ) , the team flew out to inspect the wreck . Navy photographer 's mate Arthur W. Bauman took pictures as they worked .
Thies 's team extracted Koga 's body from the plane by having Knack ( the smallest crew member ) crawl up inside the plane and cut his safety harness with a knife . They searched it for anything with intelligence value , and buried Koga in a shallow grave near the crash site . Thies returned with his team to Dutch Harbor , where he reported the plane as salvageable . The next day ( July 12 ) , a salvage team under Lieutenant Robert Kirmse was dispatched to Akutan . This team gave Koga a Christian burial in a nearby knoll and set about recovering the plane , but the lack of heavy equipment ( which they had been unable to unload after the delivery ship lost two anchors ) meant their efforts failed . On July 15 , a third recovery team was dispatched . This time , with proper heavy equipment , the team was able to free the Zero from the mud and hauled it overland to a nearby barge , without further damaging it . The Zero was taken to Dutch Harbor , turned right @-@ side up , and cleaned .
The Akutan Zero was loaded into the USS St. Mihiel and transported to Seattle , arriving on August 1 . From there , it was transported by barge to Naval Air Station North Island near San Diego where repairs were carefully carried out . These repairs " consisted mostly of straightening the vertical stabilizer , rudder , wing tips , flaps , and canopy . The sheared off landing struts needed more extensive work . The three @-@ blade Sumitomo propeller was dressed and re @-@ used . " The Zero 's red Hinomaru roundel was repainted with the American blue circle @-@ white star insignia . The whole time , the plane was kept under 24 @-@ hour military police guard in order to deter would @-@ be souvenir hunters from damaging the plane . The Zero was fit to fly again on September 20 .
= = Analysis of the Zero = =
Data from the captured Zero had been transmitted to the Bureau of Aeronautics and Grumman Aircraft . After careful study , Roy Grumman decided that he could match or surpass the Zero in most respects , except in range , without sacrificing pilot armor , self @-@ sealing tanks and fuselage structure . The new F6F Hellcat would compensate for the extra weight with additional power .
On September 20 , 1942 ( 2 months after the Zero 's capture ) , Lieutenant Commander Eddie R. Sanders took the Akutan Zero up for its first test flight . He would make 24 test flights between September 20 and October 15 . According to Sanders ' report :
These flights covered performance tests such as we do on planes undergoing Navy tests . The very first flight exposed weaknesses of the Zero which our pilots could exploit with proper tactics ... immediately apparent was the fact that the ailerons froze up at speeds above 200 knots so that rolling maneuvers at those speeds were slow and required much force on the control stick . It rolled to the left much easier than to the right . Also , its engine cut out under negative acceleration due to its float @-@ type carburetor . We now had the answer for our pilots who were being outmaneuvered and unable to escape a pursuing Zero : Go into a vertical power dive , using negative acceleration if possible to open the range while the Zero 's engine was stopped by the acceleration . At about 200 knots , roll hard right before the Zero pilot could get his sights lined up .
In later test flights , Anacostia Naval Air Station director of flight testing Frederick M. Trapnell flew the Akutan Zero in performance while Sanders simultaneously flew American planes performing identical maneuvers , simulating aerial combat . Following these , USN test pilot Lieutenant Melvin C. " Boogey " Hoffman conducted more dogfighting tests between himself flying the Akutan Zero and recently commissioned USN pilots flying newer Navy aircraft .
Following its tests by the Navy , the Zero was transferred from Naval Air Station North Island to Anacostia Naval Air Station in 1943 . The aircraft painted in U.S. Navy blue with star insignia was displayed at Washington National Airport as a war prize . In 1944 , it was recalled to North Island for use as a training plane for rookie pilots being sent to the Pacific . A model 52 Zero , captured during the liberation of Guam , was later used as well .
Data and conclusions from these tests were published in Informational Intelligence Summary 59 , Technical Aviation Intelligence Brief # 3 , Tactical and Technical Trends # 5 ( published prior to the first test flight ) , and Informational Intelligence Summary 85 . These results tend to somewhat understate the Zero 's capabilities .
= = Consequences = =
Data from the captured aircraft was submitted to BuAer and Grumman Aircraft for study in 1942 . The U.S. carrier @-@ borne fighter plane that succeeded the F4F Wildcat , the F6F , would be tested in its first experimental mode as the XF6F @-@ 1 prototype with an under @-@ powered Wright R @-@ 2600 Twin Cyclone 14 @-@ cylinder , two @-@ row radial engine on 26 June 1942 . Shortly before the XF6F @-@ 1 's first flight , and based on combat accounts of encounters between the F4F Wildcat and A6M Zero , on 26 April 1942 , BuAer directed Grumman to install the more powerful 18 @-@ cylinder Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 2800 Double Wasp radial engine — already powering Chance Vought 's Corsair design since its own beginnings in 1940 — in the second XF6F @-@ 1 prototype . Grumman complied by redesigning and strengthening the F6F airframe to incorporate the 2 @,@ 000 hp ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) R @-@ 2800 @-@ 10 , driving a three @-@ bladed Hamilton Standard propeller . With this combination Grumman estimated the XF6F @-@ 3s performance would increase by 25 % over that of the XF6F @-@ 1 . This first Double Wasp @-@ equipped Hellcat airframe , bearing BuAer serial number 02982 , first flew on 30 July 1942 . The F6F @-@ 3 subtype had been designed with specific " Wildcat vs Zero " input from Battle of the Coral Sea and Battle of Midway veteran F4F pilots such as Jim Flatley and Jimmy Thach , respectively , among several others , obtained during a meeting with Grumman Vice President Jake Swirbul at Pearl Harbor on 23 June 1942 , with the first production F6F @-@ 3 making its own first flight just over three months later , on October 3 , 1942 . While the captured Zero 's tests did not drastically influence the Hellcat 's design , they did give knowledge of the Zero 's handling characteristics , including its limitations in rolling right and diving . That information , together with the improved capabilities of the Hellcat , were credited with helping American pilots " tip the balance in the Pacific " . American aces Kenneth A. Walsh and R. Robert Porter , among others , credited tactics derived from this knowledge with saving their lives . James Sargent Russell , who commanded the PBY Catalina squadron that discovered the Zero and later rose to the rank of admiral , noted that Koga 's Zero was " of tremendous historical significance . " William N. Leonard concurred , describing it thus : " The captured Zero was a treasure . To my knowledge , no other captured machine has ever unlocked so many secrets at a time when the need was so great . "
Some historians dispute the degree to which the Akutan Zero influenced the outcome of the air war in the Pacific . For example , the Thach Weave , a tactic created by John Thach and used with great success by American airmen against the Zero , was devised by Thach prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor , based on intelligence reports on the Zero 's performance in China .
The capture and flight tests of Koga 's Zero is usually described as a tremendous coup for the Allies as it revealed the secrets of that mysterious aircraft and led directly to its downfall . According to this viewpoint , only then did Allied pilots learn how to deal with their nimble opponents . The Japanese could not agree more ... Yet those naval pilots who fought the Zero at Coral Sea , Midway , and Guadalcanal without the benefit of test reports would beg to differ with the contention that it took dissection of Koga 's Zero to create tactics that beat the fabled airplane . To them the Zero did not long remain a mystery plane . Word quickly circulated among the combat pilots as to its particular attributes . Indeed on 6 October while testing the Zero , [ Akutan Zero test pilot Frederick M. ] Trapnell made a highly revealing statement : '
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have been a blending of the Quo Vadis story with some information given by Jerome in a letter .
Modern historians have seen political overtones in the pagan reaction . The historian D. P. Kirby sees Eadbald 's actions as a repudiation of his father 's pro @-@ Frankish policies . Alcuin , a later medieval writer , wrote that Laurence was " censured by apostolic authority " . This may have been a letter from Pope Adeodatus I , commanding Laurence to stay in Kent . Kirby goes on to argue that it was Justus , not Laurence , who converted Eadbald , and this while Justus was archbishop , sometime around 624 . Not all historians agree with this argument , however . Nicholas Brooks states that the king was converted during Laurence 's archiepiscopate , within a year of him succeeding his father . The historian Barbara Yorke argues that there were two co @-@ rulers of Kent after Æthelberht 's death , Eadbald and a Æthelwald , and that Eadbald was converted by Laurence while Æthelwald was converted by Justus after his return to Rochester . Another factor in the pagan reaction was Laurence 's objection to Eadbald 's marriage to his father 's widow , something that Christians considered to be unlawful .
All efforts to extend the church beyond Kent encountered difficulties due to the attitude of King Rædwald of East Anglia , who had become the leading king in the south after Æthelberht 's death . Rædwald was converted before the death of Æthelberht , perhaps at the urging of Æthelberht , but his kingdom was not , and Rædwald seems to have converted only to the extent of placing a Christian altar in his pagan temple . It proved impossible for Mellitus to return to London as bishop , although Justus did resume his duties at Rochester .
= = Death and legacy = =
Laurence died on 2 February 619 , and was buried in the abbey of St Peter and Paul in Canterbury , later renamed St Augustine 's ; his relics , or remains , were moved , or translated , to the new church of St Augustine 's in 1091 . His shrine was in the axial chapel of the abbey church , flanking the shrine of Augustine , his predecessor . Laurence came to be regarded as a saint , and was given the feast day of 3 February . The ninth century Stowe Missal commemorates his feast day , along with Mellitus and Justus . A Vita ( or Life ) was written about the time of his translation , by Goscelin , but it is mainly based on information in Bede . His tomb was opened in 1915 . Besides his feast day , the date of his translation , 13 September , was also celebrated after his death . Laurence 's tenure as archbishop is mainly remembered for his failure to secure a settlement with the Celtic church , and for his reconversion of Eadbald following Æthelbert 's death . He was succeeded as archbishop by Mellitus , the Bishop of London .
= Remember 11 : The Age of Infinity =
Remember 11 : The Age of Infinity is a visual novel video game developed by KID . It was originally released on March 18 , 2004 for the PlayStation 2 , and has later been ported to Microsoft Windows , PlayStation Portable , iOS , and Android . The game is the third entry in the Infinity series ; it is preceded by Never 7 : The End of Infinity and Ever 17 : The Out of Infinity , and followed by 12Riven : The Psi @-@ Climinal of Integral and Code _ 18 .
The game follows Cocoro Fuyukawa and Satoru Yukidoh , who frequently experience a phenomenon that makes their minds switch place with each other , putting them in the other person 's body . Cocoro is stuck in a blizzard in an emergency cabin on a mountain together with three other people , while Satoru is in an institute for the treatment of mentally ill criminals , having lost his memory . The player takes the role of Cocoro , and reads the story while occasionally making choices that affect the course of the story , attempting to keep her alive for seven days ; after doing so , they are able to play through the seven days from Satoru 's perspective as well .
The development team included director Takumi Nakazawa , scenario writer Kotaro Uchikoshi , music composers Takeshi Abo and Chiyomura Shikura , and character designer Hidari . The game was originally planned to be titled Parasite and be unrelated to the Infinity series , but when production started it was given the project name Project Infinity 3 . Nakazawa and Uchikoshi had creative differences regarding the game 's ending , each having their own idea for how the game should end ; because of this and time constraints , the ending was left in an unfinished state , with the development team planning to develop a sequel that would conclude the game 's story . The game was positively received by reviewers at Famitsu and RPGFan , with the former complimenting the game system and plot , and the latter liking the character design and music .
= = Gameplay = =
Remember 11 is a visual novel in which the player makes progress by reading the game 's story . At certain points , they are able to pick one of a number of options , which affects the course of the game 's story , leading to different endings . The game takes place over the course of seven days , and the goal is to make choices that keep the player characters alive . At first , the player can only play through the game as the character Cocoro Fuyukawa ( 冬川こころ , Fuyukawa Kokoro ) ; after surviving a week as her , they also get to play as Satoru Yukidoh ( 優希堂悟 , Yūkidō Satoru ) . The game includes a " Back Jump " function which causes the game to start over from the beginning of the current scene . Various terms used throughout the game are explained in a glossary , referred to as the " TIPS " system .
Throughout the course of the game , a " personality transfer " phenomenon frequently causes Cocoro 's and Satoru 's minds to switch places with each other , leaving them in the other person 's body . As the player only learns what their current character experiences , they need to play the game as both characters in order to access all information . Choices the player makes as one of the characters also affect what happens in a playthrough as the other ; for instance , if the player chooses to drink water as Satoru , there will be no water left if they play through the game as Cocoro , and if they get into an argument with a character as Cocoro , their relationship to that character becomes strained when they play the game as Satoru .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Remember 11 takes place in 2011 and 2012 concurrently , from January 11 to January 17 , in two places in Japan : an emergency cabin on Mount Akakura in the Hakkōda mountain range , and the Specified Psychiatric Hospital for Isolation and Aegis ( SPHIA ) institution on the fictional island of Aosagi , in which mentally ill criminals are treated . The player takes the roles of Cocoro Fuyukawa , a third @-@ year sociology major who is stranded on Akakura after surviving a plane crash , and Satoru Yukidoh , a graduate student in the field of quantum physics engineering who lives in SPHIA and has lost his memory . Yuni Kusuda ( 楠田ゆに , Kusuda Yuni ) , a young boy who survived the plane crash , appears in both the cabin and at SPHIA .
Among other survivors of the plane crash are : Lin Mayuzumi ( 黛鈴 , Mayuzumi Rin ) , a lawyer and the girlfriend of Satoru ; and Seiji Yomogi ( 黄泉木聖司 , Yomogi Seiji ) , a professional mountain hiker . The player also encounters two characters at SPHIA : Kali Utsumi ( 内海カーリー , Utsumi Kārī ) , an elementary school teacher who is employed at SPHIA as a psychologist ; and a girl assumed to suffer from dissociative identity disorder , who has been confined at SPHIA since being acquitted of murder charges on grounds of insanity . Her birth records identify her as Keiko Inubushi ( 犬伏景子 , Inubushi Keiko ) , but she claims that she does not recognize the name " Keiko Inubushi " and that her name is Hotori Suzukage ( 涼蔭穂鳥 , Suzukage Hotori ) ; this is the name of one of the passengers on the crashed plane .
= = = Story = = =
The game begins in 2011 with Cocoro traveling to SPHIA to interview Inubushi , when her plane experiences turbulence and crashes on Mount Akakura . Yuni and Yomogi get the unconscious Cocoro and Mayuzumi to an emergency cabin to take shelter from the blizzard . In 2012 , Satoru falls from the SPHIA facility 's clock tower and loses consciousness . Cocoro wakes up in a room and is relieved to find that Yuni is safe . Yuni does not recognize her ; when looking at herself in a mirror , she sees a man 's body . Similarly , Satoru wakes up in a woman 's body . Both eventually switch back to their respective bodies , but the phenomenon continues , with their minds moving between their bodies ; they conclude that their consciousnesses are transcending time and space . In the cabin , a news article dated July 4 , 2011 is found , which says that Yuni was the only survivor , with the other three having died in an avalanche on January 17 . Satoru finds a key in his room , but does not know what it unlocks .
As the week goes on , the people in the cabin are running out of food , while Satoru is subjected to multiple attempts on his life by an unknown assailant . As days pass , Satoru notices that he can see the same lunar phase at SPHIA and at the cabin and that both areas are surrounded by a body of water . It is revealed that the Yuni in the cabin is from the year 2012 , while the Yuni at SPHIA is from 2011 . Satoru finds a locked room in the basement of SPHIA , where he encounters a man named Enomoto , monitoring the facility through cameras . Enomoto tells Satoru that it is not consciousnesses that are transferred but the entire area within a 110 @-@ metre radius that is transported across time and space , with their consciousnesses left behind . Satoru attempts to destroy the facility , and Enomoto tries to stop him . A set of transfers occur , and Enomoto is killed by someone using Satoru 's body .
Reviewing the camera footage , Satoru concludes that a third personality and location are part of the transfers . He leaves SPHIA and waits ; the transfer occurs , and the third transfer point appears , in which there is a large cubical structure . The player can enter using the key from Satoru 's room , or wait outside . If Satoru enters , he finds it empty except for a bed and a black sphere . The Enomoto of 2011 enters the structure , asking Satoru for his name ; Satoru answers , after which Enomoto panics , saying that " the project " is ruined . He says that Satoru 's memory has been transplanted from someone called " That Guy " , that the sphere is the transfer device , and that the third transfer point is a relay between the mountain and the island , to level air pressure during transfers ; he also reveals that this was where Utsumi was when she was hospitalized in 2011 . Another person , who is identical to Satoru , enters and stabs Satoru . While Satoru dies , the killer calls the person thought to be Enomoto " Satoru " , who in turn calls the killer " Enomoto " .
If the player instead waits , the cabin gets transported to Aosagi Island . Yomogi , Mayuzumi , and Cocoro avoid the avalanche that was mentioned in the newspaper . The Yuni from 2011 is left at Akakura to be rescued by the rescue team in 2011 , and to go to SPHIA in 2012 to repeat the loop , making sure that Cocoro , Yomogi , and Mayuzumi survive the week . Satoru reviews his theory regarding Inubushi ; he thinks that she , too , was experiencing the transfer phenomenon , and that her consciousness ended up at Mount Akakura in the dying body of Hotori . He thinks the consciousness of Hotori inhabited Inubushi 's body , rendering it free of homicidal tendencies , but realizes that since both his and Inubushi 's consciousnesses remain at the island , Hotori cannot occupy Inubushi 's body when he occupies his ; Cocoro runs towards Inubushi , who is holding Utsumi 's infant child over the edge of a cliff while singing . The game ends with Satoru meeting Mayuzumi , who says she does not recognize him .
= = Development = =
The game was directed by Takumi Nakazawa , while Kotaro Uchikoshi was in charge of the scenario writing , and Hidari designed the characters . The game was originally conceived by Nakazawa in May 2002 , at the end of the development of Ever 17 : The Out of Infinity ; he planned the plot together with Uchikoshi in January 2003 . The first game in the Infinity series , Never 7 : The End of Infinity , had a focus on dating , with light science fiction elements , but as the science fiction elements were positively received by reviewers , the series gradually moved away from the dating aspects ; with Remember 11 , the focus was entirely on science fiction , with no dating elements at all . At first , the game was titled Parasite , and was meant to be unrelated to the Infinity series , but when development began in May 2003 , it was codenamed Project Infinity 3 . In September of the same year , they added the subtitle The Age of Infinity . Several characters in the game were based on Jungian archetypes : Cocoro and Satoru represent the anima and animus , respectively ; Mayuzumi represents the persona ; Yomogi represents the wise old man ; Utsumi represents the great mother ; Inubushi represents the shadow ; and Yuni represents the trickster .
Development was troubled by creative differences between Nakazawa and Uchikoshi ; Nakazawa was unhappy with Uchikoshi 's idea for the game 's ending , and had a different ending in mind , which they were having disagreements over . They also did not have the time to write everything that they had wanted , so they ended up with an ending that Uchikoshi described as only being half @-@ finished . At the time of the game 's release , a sequel was planned , which would have included a conclusion to the game 's story . In 2013 , Uchikoshi looked back on the game , saying that while he would have liked to rewrite some portions of the scenario that he felt were boring or that did not advance the story much , he would not have changed or added anything in terms of the content of the game ; he felt that his ending was still in the story , and still felt happy with it .
The game 's soundtrack was composed by Takeshi Abo , and features " geometric music " because of the game 's theoretical and science fiction elements . Prior to composing the music , he read through the game 's story , to understand the setting and each character 's personality as much as possible . He would write his impressions of the plot , with a focus on the " emotional flow " and the events that occur throughout the story ; he valued his first impressions as very important for this . According to Abo , this method takes longer time , but allows him to make better music with a stronger relation to the game 's world than if he had just designated different songs to different points of the game . Because he enjoyed the story , the music strongly reflects Abo 's own musical tastes . The opening and ending themes , titled " Little Prophet " and " Darkness of Chaos " , were composed by Chiyomura Shikura ; the opening was performed by Kaori . The PlayStation Portable version features new opening and ending themes , performed by Ui Miyazaki . They are titled " Uchū no Stencil " ( 宇宙のステンシル , Uchū no Sutenshiru ) and " Kirenai Knife " ( キレナイナイフ , Kirenai Naifu ) , respectively .
= = Release = =
Remember 11 was originally released for the PlayStation 2 on March 18 , 2004 , in both a standard and a limited edition ; the latter included a booklet with material related to the game , and a " special voice CD " . An updated version of the game , with seven new CG sequences added , was released by Success in 2005 as part of their budget series Superlite 2000 . The game was later released for Microsoft Windows as a part of the Infinity Plus box set on April 4 , 2008 . It was also released for the PlayStation Portable on April 16 , 2009 , and for iOS in 2012 .
Other media based on the game has been released . A novelization was published by Enterbrain in two parts : Remember 11 Ue Cocoro @-@ hen on April 1 , 2004 , and Remember 11 Shita Satoru @-@ hen on June 1 , 2004 . A music album with the game 's soundtrack was released on March 24 , 2004 , by Scitron , with the title Remember 11 : The Age of Infinity - Sound Collection . Another album , which features songs with vocals about or inspired by the game , was released with the title Remember 11 : The Age of Infinity - Vocal Collection on September 23 , 2004 , also by Scitron . Scitron also released a drama CD based on the game on May 19 , 2004 .
= = Reception = =
Remember 11 was the 16th best selling video game in Japan during its debut week . By the end of 2004 , the game was the 393rd best selling game of the year in Japan , with 24 @,@ 508 copies sold . By 2009 , more
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County Fair is held annually in September at the Harney County Fairgrounds . The fair , which lasts about a week , includes a rodeo , carnival , talent show , horse races , parade , and other events , including those sponsored by 4 @-@ H and Future Farmers of America .
The Harney County Historical Museum in Burns offers displays of relics , documents , and photographs from the region 's past . Established in 1960 at the site of a former brewery , laundry , and wrecking yard , the museum is open five days a week ( Tuesday through Saturday ) from April through September and at other times by appointment .
= = Government = =
Burns has a mayor – council government . Craig LaFollette , one of seven elected members of the council , is the mayor . The city 's public works department , consisting of a director and four full @-@ time workers , maintains the water lines , sewers , and streets of Burns . The police department includes a chief of police , an office assistant , and three full @-@ time officers who work for Hines as well as Burns . City officers and employees include a city manager , city clerk , municipal judge doubling as the utilities clerk , and an office assistant .
A tribal council governs the Burns Paiute Tribe , immediately northwest of Burns . The tribe has its own police , court , and health and other services , including a tribal community center .
The Harney County Courthouse is in Burns . County officials include a judge and two commissioners , a clerk , treasurer , assessor , district attorney , justice of the peace , sheriff , and circuit court judge .
Harney County voters in 2012 voted heavily Republican . In the general election in November , Republican Mitt Romney won about 73 percent of the votes for U.S. President to about 23 percent for Democrat Barack Obama , while other candidates and parties shared the remaining 4 percent . In the contest for the U.S. Congressional 2nd District Representative , Republican Greg Walden garnered about 83 percent of the vote . In races for state offices , Republican candidates won between 63 and 69 percent of the vote in Harney County .
= = Education = =
Harney District No. 3 provides public education in Burns and Hines at Henry L. Slater Grade School in Burns , Hines Middle School , and Burns High School . The district sponsors the Silvies River Charter School , which offers a home @-@ school program for kindergarten through second grade and an online curriculum for older students .
Formed in 1903 by the Ladies Afternoon Club , the Harney County Library in Burns has grown from an initial collection of 12 books to more than 30 @,@ 000 items in 2013 . Library offerings include public computers , wireless Internet , video conferencing equipment , meeting spaces , and public programs , as well as books , magazines , newspapers , audio books , videos , DVDs , and access to Interlibrary Loan .
= = Media = =
The weekly Burns Times @-@ Herald is the only newspaper in the city . In 2006 , five members of the Times @-@ Herald staff formed Survival Media LLC , which bought the newspaper from its former out @-@ of @-@ state owners . According to Survival Media , this was the first staff buyout of a newspaper in Oregon . Two commercial radio stations , KORC ( 92 @.@ 7 FM ) and KBNH ( 1230 AM ) , are licensed to broadcast from Burns .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Burns Municipal Airport provides general aviation services . The airport , with 5 @,@ 100 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) of lighted runway , is 6 miles ( 10 km ) east of the city . Pony Express provides air freight service .
Public Oregon Intercity Transit ( POINT ) is an intercity bus system that includes service between Bend and Ontario , Oregon . It departs from Burns once daily in each direction . The buses are wheelchair accessible , can seat up to 20 passengers , and can be used for package delivery as well as public transport .
= = = Health care = = =
Harney District Hospital in Burns is a general medical and surgical hospital with 20 patient beds . HDH Family Care and Mountain Sage Medical operate medical clinics in the city . The Burns – Hines VA Clinic in Burns provides general medical services to military veterans . Emergency medical services include AirLink Critical Care Transport via helicopter or airplane to the nearest appropriate treatment center .
= = Notable people = =
Kellen Clemens – NFL quarterback
Norma Paulus – former Oregon politician
Robert Smith – Congressman / Speaker of the Oregon House
Gene Timms - former Oregon politician and businessman
= Tropical Depression One ( 1979 ) =
Tropical Depression One brought severe flooding to Jamaica in June 1979 . The second tropical cyclone of the Atlantic hurricane season , the depression developed from a tropical wave to the south of Grand Cayman on June 11 . Tracking generally northward , the depression passed west of Jamaica . On June 12 , the depression peaked with maximum sustained winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , never having reached tropical storm status . The following day , it made landfall in Cuba , where minimal impact was recorded . Early on June 14 , the depression emerged into the western Atlantic Ocean and then moved parallel to the east coast of Florida for a few days . The depression made another landfall in South Carolina on June 16 and dissipated shortly thereafter .
The slow movement of the depression to the west of Jamaica resulted in torrential rainfall , peaking at 32 in ( 810 mm ) in Friendship , a city in Westmoreland Parish . Throughout western Jamaica , about 1 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed or severely damage , while up to 40 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . The city of New Market was submerged for at least six months . Crops , electricity , telephones , buildings , and railways also suffered damage during the disaster . There were 40 deaths and approximately $ 27 million ( 1979 USD ) in damage . The depression also brought heavy precipitation to Cuba and the Bahamas , while farther north , light rainfall and rough seas plagued the East Coast of the United States . One individual in South Carolina went missing and was later presumed to have died after their boat was torn loose from its mooring .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on May 30 . Minimal development occurred as the wave tracked westward across much of the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea . However , by June 11 , the system began to interact with a stationary trough of low pressure in the western Caribbean Sea . Based on ship and land observations , a tropical depression developed at 12 : 00 UTC that day while located about 230 miles ( 370 km ) south of Grand Cayman . Initially the depression was forecast to move northwestward at about 5 mph ( 8 km / h ) ; instead , it drifted to the northeast . Minimal intensification occurred , as satellite imagery , weather stations , and a reconnaissance aircraft indicated the depression remained below tropical storm status . Around 18 : 00 UTC on June 12 , the depression attained its maximum sustained wind speeds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) .
Early on June 13 , satellite and weather radar showed heavy rainbands moving across Jamaica and eastern Cuba . Due its interaction with the two islands , the depression weakened slightly . Later on June 13 , the storm made landfall near Venezuela , Cuba with winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . Moving northward , it emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near Cayo Santa María early the next day . Around 12 : 00 UTC on June 14 , the system re @-@ strengthened and again attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Despite moving back over open waters , the depression failed to intensify further . Operationally , the system was thought to have made landfall in east @-@ central Florida , but later analysis revealed that the center remained over water . The depression continued northward until striking near Charleston , South Carolina late on June 16 , still with the same intensity . It degenerated into a remnant low pressure area about six hours later . Its remnants continued northeastward across the Southeastern United States , the Mid @-@ Atlantic , and New England until dissipating fully on June 18 .
= = Impact = =
The depression 's slow movement resulted in torrential rainfall on the island of Jamaica . Precipitation peaked at 32 inches ( 810 mm ) in Friendship , located in Westmoreland Parish . As the flooding began , several shelters were open in the parish . Residents in the Savanna @-@ la @-@ Mar area were forced to evacuate by boats or makeshift rafts . The flooding also ruined crops . Sugar cane , which was already 70 – 80 percent harvested , suffered about $ 2 @.@ 25 million ( 1979 USD ) in damage . It was estimated that 4 million lb ( 1 @.@ 8 million kg ) of bananas were lost , worth nearly $ 1 million . In total , agricultural interests incurred $ 5 @.@ 89 million in damage , chiefly f which was in Westmoreland Parish . The storm affected an estimated 300 mi ( 480 km ) of roadways impacted , with about 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 610 m ) of highway completely washed out . Three bridges collapsed , while 10 others sustained damage .
The increasing height and volume of the Bluefields River led to debris flow and created a colluvium – an unconsolidated deposit of sediments – near the mouth of the river . In the valley areas , temporary lakes were formed and small dams were overtopped . The cities of Chigwell , Enfield , Exeter , Leamington , and New Market were all submerged during the flooding . New Market was inundated with as much as 80 ft ( 24 m ) of water during the disaster , which did not completely recede until more than six months later . This resulted in extreme damage to or complete loss of crops , livestock , and household possessions . Extensive impact to property was reported , including to electricity , telephones , buildings , and railways , with a " conservative " estimate of $ 39 @.@ 3 million in damage . At least 1 @,@ 000 homes were severely damaged or destroyed . As many as 40 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Overall , there were 40 deaths and approximately $ 27 million in damage .
Following the storm , Hanover , Saint Elizabeth , Saint James , and Westmoreland parishes were considered disaster areas . A task force was established by the Prime Minister Michael Manley for reconstruction efforts . About 7 @,@ 758 families , a total of 36 @,@ 391 people , required assistance with food supplies for over 13 weeks . The Housing Task Force called for the construction of 582 new houses , 300 of which for those left homeless . The houses constructed for the people rendered homeless were prefabricated by the Ministry of Housing and then erected by the local authorities , under the guidance of the Ministry of Local Government . In response to the disaster , the Government of Jamaica established the Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management in July 1980 .
The depression and its remnants also brought rainfall and high tides to the eastern United States . In South Carolina , precipitation peaked at 6 @.@ 89 in ( 175 mm ) in Cheraw . Along the coast , waves reached 13 ft ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) in height , strong enough to tear a boat from its mooring at Surfside Beach . One person was listed as missing and later presumed to have died .
= Royal intermarriage =
Royal intermarriage is the practice of members of ruling dynasties marrying into other reigning families . It was more commonly done in the past as part of strategic diplomacy for national interest . Although sometimes enforced by legal requirement on persons of royal birth , more often it has been a matter of political policy and / or tradition in monarchies .
In Europe , the practice was most prevalent from the medieval era until the outbreak of World War I , but evidence of intermarriage between royal dynasties in other parts of the world can be found as far back as the Late Bronze Age . Monarchs were often in pursuit of national and international aggrandisement on behalf of themselves and their dynasties , thus bonds of kinship tended to promote or restrain aggression . Marriage between dynasties could serve to initiate , reinforce or guarantee peace between nations . Alternatively , kinship by marriage could secure an alliance between two dynasties which sought to reduce the sense of threat from or to initiate aggression against the realm of a third dynasty . It could also enhance the prospect of territorial acquisition for a dynasty by procuring legal claim to a foreign throne , or portions of its realm ( e.g. , colonies ) , through inheritance from an heiress whenever a monarch failed to leave an undisputed male heir .
In parts of Europe , royalty continued to regularly marry into the families of their greatest vassals as late as the 16th century , thenceforth , tending to marry internationally . In other parts of the world royal intermarriage was less prevalent and the number of instances waxed and waned over time , depending on the culture and foreign policy of the era .
= = Royal marriage as international policy = =
While the contemporary Western ideal sees marriage as a unique bond between two people who are in love , families in which heredity is central to power or inheritance ( such as royal families ) have often seen marriage in a different light . There are often political or other non @-@ romantic functions that must be served , and the relative wealth and power of the potential spouses may be considered . Marriage for political , economic , or diplomatic reasons , the marriage of state , was a pattern seen for centuries among European rulers .
= = = Africa = = =
At times , marriage between members of the same dynasty has been common in Central Africa . Marriages between the Swazi , Zulu and Thembu royal houses of southern Africa are common . For example , the daughter of former South African president and Thembu royal Nelson Mandela , Zenani Mandela , in 1977 married Prince Thumbumuzi Dlamini , a brother of Mswati III , King of Swaziland .
Examples of historical , mythical and contemporary royal intermarriages throughout Africa include :
Mantfombi Dlamini , sister of Mswati III of Swaziland , and Goodwill Zwelithini , King of the Zulus , as his Great Royal Wife ( 1977 )
The Toucouleur emperor Umar Tall and the daughter of the sultan Muhammed Bello of Sokoto
= = = Asia = = =
= = = = Thailand = = = =
The Chakri Dynasty of Thailand has included marriages between royal relatives , but marriages between dynasts and foreigners , including foreign royals , are rare . This is in part due to Section 11 of 1924 Palace Law of Succession which excludes members of the royal family from the line of succession if they marry a non @-@ Thai national .
The current king , Bhumibol Adulyadej is a first @-@ cousin once removed of his wife , Sirikit , the two being , respectively , a grandson and a great @-@ granddaughter of Chulalongkorn . Chulalongkorn married a number of his half @-@ sisters , including Savang Vadhana and Sunandha Kumariratana ; all shared the same father , Mongkut .
= = = = Vietnam = = = =
The Lý dynasty which ruled Dai Viet ( Vietnam ) married its princesses off to regional rivals to establish alliances with them . One of these marriages was between a Lý princess ( Lý Chiêu Hoàng ) and a member of the Chinese Trần ( Chen ) clan ( Trần Thái Tông ) , which enabled the Trần to then topple the Lý and established their own Trần dynasty .
A Lý princess also married into the Hồ family , which was also of Chinese origin and later established the Hồ dynasty which also took power after having a Tran princess marry one of their members , Hồ Quý Ly .
= = = = Cambodia = = = =
The Cambodian King Chey Chettha II married the Vietnamese Nguyễn lord Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn , a daughter of Lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên , in 1618 . In return , the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài ( now Bà Rịa ) , in the region of Prey Nokor — which they colloquially referred to as Sài Gòn , and which later became Ho Chi Minh City .
= = = = China = = = =
Marriage policy in imperial China differed from dynasty to dynasty . Several dynasties practiced Heqin , which involved marrying off princesses to other royal families .
The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side . The older sister of the Chanyu ( the Xiongnu ruler ) was married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin , the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty . The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General Li Ling after he surrendered and defected . The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling . Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Chanyu .
The Xianbei Tuoba royal family of Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the royal family in the 480s . Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei . Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to Han Chinese elites , the Han Chinese Liu Song royal Liu Hui 刘辉 , married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei , Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏 , a descendant of Jin dynasty ( 265 – 420 ) royalty , Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔 , Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to Xiao Baoyin 萧宝夤 , a member of Southern Qi royalty . Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei 's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang 's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜 .
When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi 司馬楚之 as a refugee . A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi , giving birth to Sima Jinlong 司馬金龍 . Northern Liang King Juqu Mujian 's daughter married Sima Jinlong .
The Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses , Khagan Yujiulü Anagui 's daughter Princess Ruru 蠕蠕公主 to be married to the Han Chinese ruler Gao Huan of the Eastern Wei .
The Kingdom of Gaochang was made out of Han Chinese colonists and ruled by the Han Chinese Qu family which originated from Gansu . Jincheng commandery 金城 ( Lanzhou ) , district of Yuzhong 榆中 was the home of the Qu Jia . The Qu family was linked by marriage alliances to the Turks , with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya .
Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) emperors gave princesses in marriage to rulers of the Uyghur Khaganate to consolidate the special trade and military relationship that developed after the Khaganate supported the Chinese during the An Lushan Rebellion . At least three Tang imperial princesses are known to have married khagans between 758 and 821 . These unions temporarily stopped in 788 , which is believed in part to be because stability within the Chinese empire meant that they were politically unnecessary ; however , threats from Tibet in the west , and a renewed need for Uyghur support , precipitated the marriage of Princess Taihe to Bilge Khagan .
The ethnically Chinese Cao family ruling Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of the Ganzhou Kingdom , with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers . The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan 's daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916 .
The Chinese Cao family ruling Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Saka Kingdom of Khotan , with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotanese rulers . A Khotanese princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu .
The Khitan Liao dynasty arranged for women from the Khitan royal consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han Chinese Han 韓 clan , which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Khitan and becoming part of the Han Chinese elite of the Liao .
Han Chinese Geng family intermarried with the Khitan and the Han 韓 clan provided two of their women as wives to Geng Yanyi and the second one was the mother of Geng Zhixin . Empress Rende 's sister , a member of the Xiao clan , was the mother of Han Chinese General Geng Yanyi .
Han Durang ( Yelu Longyun ) was the father of Queen dowager of State Chen , who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb in Zhaoyang in Liaoning . His wife was also known as " Madame Han " . The Geng 's tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying .
Emperors of the proceeding Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) tended to marry from within their own borders . Tang emperors , mainly took their wives from high @-@ ranking bureaucratic families , but the Song dynasty did not consider rank important when it came to selecting their consorts . It has been estimated that only a quarter of Song consorts were from such families , with the rest being from lower status backgrounds . For example , Liu , consort of Emperor Zhenzong , had been a street performer and consort Miao , wife of Emperor Renzong was the daughter of his own wet nurse .
During the Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1912 ) , emperors chose their consorts primarily from one of the eight Banner families , administrative divisions that divide all native Manchu families . To maintain the ethnic purity of the ruling dynasty , after the Kangxi Period ( 1662 – 1722 ) , emperors and princes were forbidden to marry non @-@ Manchu wives . Imperial daughters however were not covered by this ban , however , and as with their preceding dynasties , were often married to Mongol princes to gain political or military support , especially in the early years of the Qing dynasty ; three of the nine daughters of Emperor Nurhaci and twelve of Emperor Hongtaiji 's daughters were married to Mongol Princes .
The Manchu Imperial Aisin Gioro clan practiced marriage alliances with Han Chinese Ming Generals and Mongol princes . Aisin Gioro women were married to Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu side during the Manchu conquest of China . The Manchu leader Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General Li Yongfang 李永芳 after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618 and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1 @,@ 000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto 岳托 ( Prince Keqin ) and Hongtaiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups . Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese Generals Sun Sike ( Sun Ssu @-@ k 'o ) 孫思克 , Geng Jimao ( Keng Chi @-@ mao ) , Shang Kexi ( Shang K 'o @-@ hsi ) , and Wu Sangui ( Wu San @-@ kuei ) .
Nurhaci 's son Abatai 's daughter was married to Li Yongfang . The offspring of Li received the " Third Class Viscount " ( 三等子爵 ; sān děng zǐjué ) title . Li Yongfang was the great great great grandfather of Li Shiyao 李侍堯 .
The " Dolo efu " 和碩額駙 rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses . Geng Zhongming , a Han bannerman , was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan , and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons Geng Jingzhong and Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 become court attendants under the Shunzhi Emperor and get married to Aisin Gioro women , with Prince Abatai 's granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 and Haoge 's ( a son of Hong Taiji ) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong . A daughter 和硕柔嘉公主 of the Manchu Aisin Gioro Prince Yolo 岳樂 ( Prince An ) was wedded to Geng Juzhong 耿聚忠 who was another son of Geng Jingmao .
The 4th daughter of Kangxi ( 和硕悫靖公主 ) was wedded to the son ( 孫承恩 ) of the Han Chinese Sun Sike ( Sun Ssu @-@ k 'o ) 孫思克 .
= = = = Japan and Korea = = = =
The Silla Kingdom had a practice that limited the succession to the throne to members of the seonggol , or " sacred bone " , rank . To maintain their " sacred bone " rank , members of this caste often intermarried with one another in the same fashion that European royals intermarried to maintain a " pure " royal pedigree .
After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea , Joseon Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince Dorgon . In 1650 , Dorgon married the Korean Princess I @-@ shun ( 義願 ) . The Princess ' name in Korean was Uisun and she was Prince Yi Gaeyoon 's ( Geumnimgun ) daughter . Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan .
The Japanese may not have seen intermarriage between them and the royal dynasties of the Korean Empire damaging to their prestige either . According to the Shoku Nihongi , an imperially commissioned record of Japanese history completed in 797 , Emperor Kanmu who ruled from 781 to 806 was the son of a Korean concubine , Takano no Niigasa , who was descended from King Muryeong of Baekje , one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea .
In 1920 , Crown Prince Yi Un of Korea married Princess Masako of Nashimoto and , in May 1931 , Yi Geon , grandson of Gojong of Korea , was married to Matsudaira Yosiko , a cousin of Princess Masako . The Japanese saw these marriages as a way to secure their colonial rule of Korea and introduce Japanese blood in to the Korean royal House of Yi .
= = = Europe = = =
= = = = Medieval and Early Modern Europe = = = =
Careful selection of a spouse was important to maintain the royal status of a family : depending on the law of the land in question , if a prince or king was to marry a commoner who had no royal blood , even if the first @-@ born was acknowledged as a son of a sovereign , he might not be able to claim any of the royal status of his father .
Traditionally , many factors were important in arranging royal marriages . One such factor was the amount of territory that the other royal family governed or controlled . Another , related factor was the stability of the control exerted over that territory : when there was territorial instability in a royal family , other royalty would be less inclined to marry into that family . Another factor was political alliance : marriage was an important way to bind together royal families and their countries during peace and war and could justify many important political decisions .
The increase in royal intermarriage often meant that lands passed into the hands of foreign houses , when the nearest heir was the son of a native dynast and a foreign royal . The Habsburgs , for example , expanded their influence through arranged marriages and by gaining political privileges in what would become Switzerland , and in the 13th century the house aimed its marriage policy at families in Upper Alsace and Swabia . Given the success of the Habsburgs ' territorial acquisition @-@ via @-@ inheritance policy , a motto came to be associated with their dynasty : Bella gerant alii , tu , felix Austria , nube ! ( " Let others wage war . You , happy Austria , marry ! " )
Monarchs sometimes went to great lengths to prevent this . On her marriage to Louis XIV of France , Maria Theresa , daughter of Philip IV of Spain , was forced to renounce her claim to the Spanish throne . When monarchs or heirs apparent wed other monarchs or heirs , special agreements , sometimes in the form of treaties , were negotiated to determine inheritance rights . The marriage contract of Philip II of Spain and Mary I of England , for example , stipulated that the maternal possessions , as well as Burgundy and the Low Countries , were to pass to any future children of the couple , whereas the remaining paternal possessions ( including Spain , Naples
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approached . Moments later , a group of Liverpool fans charged into section Z , causing the fans there to retreat . As they had nowhere to go , they moved towards the side perimeter wall . As more people moved up against the wall , it collapsed , which resulted in 39 deaths and injuries to 600 people . At the other end of the ground , Juventus fans began to riot in retaliation for the events in section Z. They advanced down the pitch towards the Liverpool fans and were stopped by the police . The resulting confrontation lasted two hours and was still ongoing when the match kicked @-@ off .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
The match was delayed for over an hour as a result of the disaster , but was played because officials felt that abandoning the match would result in further violence . Two minutes into the match , Liverpool defender Mark Lawrenson was substituted for Gary Gillespie after Lawrenson suffered a recurrence of a shoulder injury . Juventus deployed Zbigniew Boniek on the right @-@ hand side of the pitch and Massimo Briaschi on the left . Juventus ' plan was to use the pace of Briaschi to threaten Liverpool full @-@ back Phil Neal . Juventus ' first chance came in the 30th minute when Antonio Cabrini , who advanced from the left @-@ back position and his shot was saved by Liverpool goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar . Liverpool immediately countered – John Wark ran onto Ronnie Whelan 's chipped pass , but his shot was saved by Juventus goalkeeper Stefano Tacconi . Minutes later , Liverpool had another chance , but Whelan 's shot was pushed over the Juventus goal by Tacconi .
Five minutes before half @-@ time , Juventus were awarded a free @-@ kick . Boniek , who had beaten three Liverpool players with a run , was brought down outside the Liverpool penalty area by Wark , who received a yellow card for the foul . The resulting free @-@ kick came to nothing , and at half @-@ time the score was 0 – 0 . Almost immediately after the restart , Liverpool suffered another injury . Paul Walsh stretched to reach a pass from Neal , aggravated a stomach strain and was replaced by Craig Johnston . Juventus were gaining an ascendancy in the match , and in the 56th minute they were awarded a penalty kick . Boniek again went on a run through the centre of the Liverpool defence and was brought down by Gillespie . Liverpool believed that the foul was outside the area , but the Swiss referee , from some 25 yards ( 22 @.@ 86 m . ) behind the ball , awarded the penalty . Michel Platini scored the subsequent penalty to give Juventus a 1 – 0 lead .
Liverpool tried to find a way back into the match . With 16 minutes left , Whelan was brought down in the Juventus penalty area by Massimo Bonini , but the referee decided that it was not a foul . Liverpool created more chances near the end of the match ; Tacconi saved a shot from Whelan . Wark and Steve Nicol saw headers go wide of the Juventus goal . No further goals were scored and at full @-@ time the score was 1 – 0 to Juventus , who had won their first European Cup and became the first club to win all three seasonal UEFA competitions .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Despite being considered , from a sporting point of view , as one of the better European finals played until then , after the match , much discussion centred on the disaster that occurred before kick @-@ off . UEFA was adamant that the Liverpool fans were responsible ; UEFA official Gunter Schneider stated , " Only the English fans were responsible . Of that there is no doubt . " British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher put pressure on The Football Association to withdraw English clubs from European competition and two days later , UEFA banned English clubs for " an indeterminate period of time " . On 6 June , FIFA extended the ban to worldwide matches , but this was modified a week later to exclude friendly matches and did not affect the English national team .
English clubs were banned indefinitely from European competition , with a condition that when the ban was lifted , Liverpool would serve an extra three @-@ year ban . The ban eventually lasted for five years , clubs returning to European competition in the 1990 – 91 season . Liverpool returned to European competition a season later in the 1991 – 92 UEFA Cup .
= Borobudur =
Borobudur , or Barabudur , is a 9th @-@ century Mahayana Buddhist Temple in Magelang , Central Java , Indonesia . The monument consists of nine stacked platforms , six square and three circular , topped by a central dome . The temple is decorated with 2 @,@ 672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues . The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues , each seated inside a perforated stupa . It is the world 's largest Buddhist temple , as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world .
Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty , the temple was designed in Javanese Buddhist architecture , which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult of ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana . The temple also demonstrates the influences of Gupta art that reflects India 's influence on the region , yet there are enough indigenous scenes and elements incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian . The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage . The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the monument and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology : Kāmadhātu ( the world of desire ) , Rupadhatu ( the world of forms ) and Arupadhatu ( the world of formlessness ) . The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1 @,@ 460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades . Borobudur has the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world .
Evidence suggests Borobudur was constructed in the 9th century and abandoned following the 14th @-@ century decline of Hindu kingdoms in Java and the Javanese conversion to Islam . Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles , then the British ruler of Java , who was advised of its location by native Indonesians . Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations . The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO , following which the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage ; once a year , Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate Vesak at the monument , and Borobudur is Indonesia 's single most visited tourist attraction .
= = Etymology = =
In Indonesian , ancient temples are referred to as candi ; thus locals refer to " Borobudur Temple " as Candi Borobudur . The term candi also loosely describes ancient structures , for example gates and baths . The origins of the name Borobudur , however , are unclear , although the original names of most ancient Indonesian temples are no longer known . The name Borobudur was first written in Sir Thomas Raffles 's book on Javan history . Raffles wrote about a monument called Borobudur , but there are no older documents suggesting the same name . The only old Javanese manuscript that hints the monument called Budur as a holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama , written by Mpu Prapanca , a Buddhist scholar of Majapahit court , in 1365 .
Most candi are named after a nearby village . If it followed Javanese language conventions and was named after the nearby village of Bore , the monument should have been named " BudurBoro " . Raffles thought that Budur might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda ( " ancient " ) — i.e. , " ancient Boro " . He also suggested that the name might derive from boro , meaning " great " or " honourable " and Budur for Buddha . However , another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name ( Budur ) comes from Javanese term bhudhara ( " mountain " ) .
Another possible etymology suggests that Borobudur is a corrupted simplified local Javanese pronunciation of Biara Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara Buddha Uhr . The term Buddha @-@ Uhr could mean " the city of Buddhas " , while another possible term Beduhur is probably an Old Javanese term , still survived today in Balinese vocabulary , which means " a high place " , constructed from the stem word dhuhur or luhur ( high ) . This suggests that Borobudur means vihara of Buddha located on a high place or on a hill .
The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building — possibly a reference to Borobudur — was mentioned in two inscriptions , both discovered in Kedu , Temanggung Regency . The Karangtengah inscription , dated 824 , mentioned a sacred building named Jinalaya ( the realm of those who have conquered worldly desire and reached enlightenment ) , inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani , daughter of Samaratungga . The Tri Tepusan inscription , dated 842 , is mentioned in the sima , the ( tax @-@ free ) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan ( Pramodhawardhani ) to ensure the funding and maintenance of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra . Kamūlān is from the word mula , which means " the place of origin " , a sacred building to honor the ancestors , probably those of the Sailendras . Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra , which in Sanskrit means " the mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood " , was the original name of Borobudur .
= = Location = =
= = = The three temples = = =
Approximately 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) northwest of Yogyakarta and 86 kilometres ( 53 mi ) west of Surakarta , Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes , Sundoro @-@ Sumbing and Merbabu @-@ Merapi , and two rivers , the Progo and the Elo . According to local myth , the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese " sacred " place and has been dubbed " the garden of Java " due to its high agricultural fertility . During the restoration in the early 20th century , it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region , Borobudur , Pawon and Mendut , are positioned along a straight line . A ritual relationship between the three temples must have existed , although the exact ritual process is unknown .
= = = Ancient lake = = =
Speculation about the lake 's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the 20th century . In 1931 , a Dutch artist and scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture , W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp , developed a theory that the Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake . It has been claimed that Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill , 265 m ( 869 ft ) above sea level and 15 m ( 49 ft ) above the floor of a dried @-@ out paleolake .
Dumarçay together with Professor Thanikaimoni had taken soil samples in 1974 and again in 1977 from trial trenches that had been dug into the hill , as well as from the plain immediately to the south . These samples were later analysed by Professor Thanikaimoni , who examined their pollen and spore content in order to identify the type of vegetation that had grown in the area around the time of Borobudur 's construction . They were unable to discover any pollen or spore samples that were characteristic of any vegetation known to grow in an aquatic environment such as a lake , pond or marsh . The area surrounding Borobudur appears to have been surrounded by agricultural land and palm trees at the time of the monument 's construction , as is still the case today . Caesar Voûte and the geomorphologist Dr J.J. Nossin in 1985 – 86 field studies re @-@ examined the Borobudur lake hypothesis and concluded the absence of a lake around Borobudur at the time of its construction and active use as a sanctuary . These findings A New Perspective on Some Old Questions Pertaining to Borobudur were published in the 2005 UNESCO publication titled " The Restoration of Borobudur " .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
There is no written record of who built the Borobudur or of its intended purpose . The construction time has been estimated by comparison between carved reliefs on the temple 's hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the 8th and 9th centuries . Borobudur was likely founded around 800 CE . This corresponds to the period between 760 and 830 CE , the peak of the Sailendra dynasty rule of Mataram kingdom in central Java , when it was under the influence of the Srivijayan Empire . The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years and was completed during the reign of Samaratungga in 825 .
There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time . The Sailendras were known as ardent followers of Buddhism , though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto suggest they may have been Hindus . It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain . The Buddhist monuments , including Borobudur , were erected around the same period as the Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound . In 732 CE , the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned a Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Wukir hill , only 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) east of Borobudur .
Construction of Buddhist temples , including Borobudur , at that time was possible because Sanjaya 's immediate successor , Rakai Panangkaran , granted his permission to the Buddhist followers to build such temples . In fact , to show his respect , Panangkaran gave the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community , as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 CE . This has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion in Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument ; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise . However , it is likely that there were two rival royal dynasties in Java at the time — the Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite Sanjaya — in which the latter triumphed over their rival in the 856 battle on the Ratubaka plateau . This confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at the Prambanan complex , which was believed to have been erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the Sanjaya dynasty 's reply to Borobudur , but others suggest that there was a climate of peaceful coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang .
= = = Abandonment = = =
Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth . The facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery . It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased . Sometime between 928 and 1006 , King Mpu Sindok moved the capital of the Medang Kingdom to the region of East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions ; it is not certain whether this influenced the abandonment , but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment . The monument is mentioned vaguely as late as c . 1365 , in Mpu Prapanca 's Nagarakretagama , written during the Majapahit era and mentioning " the vihara in Budur " . Soekmono ( 1976 ) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the 15th century .
The monument was not forgotten completely , though folk stories gradually shifted from its past glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery . Two old Javanese chronicles ( babad ) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with the monument . According to the Babad Tanah Jawi ( or the History of Java ) , the monument was a fatal factor for Mas Dana , a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I , the king of Mataram in 1709 . It was mentioned that the " Redi Borobudur " hill was besieged and the insurgents were defeated and sentenced to death by the king . In the Babad Mataram ( or the History of the Mataram Kingdom ) , the monument was associated with the misfortune of Prince Monconagoro , the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757 . In spite of a taboo against visiting the monument , " he took what is written as the knight who was captured in a cage ( a statue in one of the perforated stupas ) " . Upon returning to his palace , he fell ill and died one day later .
= = = Rediscovery = = =
Following its capture , Java was under British administration from 1811 to 1816 . The appointed governor was Lieutenant Governor @-@ General Thomas Stamford Raffles , who took great interest in the history of Java . He collected Javanese antiques and made notes through contacts with local inhabitants during his tour throughout the island . On an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814 , he was informed about a big monument deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro . He was not able to make the discovery himself and sent H.C. Cornelius , a Dutch engineer , to investigate . In two months , Cornelius and his 200 men cut down trees , burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the monument . Due to the danger of collapse , he could not unearth all galleries . He reported his findings to Raffles , including various drawings . Although the discovery is only mentioned by a few sentences , Raffles has been credited with the monument 's recovery , as one who had brought it to the world 's attention .
Hartmann , a Dutch administrator of the Kedu region , continued Cornelius 's work , and in 1835 , the whole complex was finally unearthed . His interest in Borobudur was more personal than official . Hartmann did not write any reports of his activities , in particular , the alleged story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa . In 1842 , Hartmann investigated the main dome , although what he discovered is unknown and the main stupa remains empty .
The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned F.C. Wilsen , a Dutch engineering official , who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches . J.F.G. Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument , which was completed in 1859 . The government intended to publish an article based on Brumund 's study supplemented by Wilsen 's drawings , but Brumund refused to cooperate . The government then commissioned another scholar , C. Leemans , who compiled a monograph based on Brumund 's and Wilsen 's sources . In 1873 , the first monograph of the detailed study of Borobudur was published , followed by its French translation a year later . The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1872 by a Dutch @-@ Flemish engraver , Isidore van Kinsbergen .
Appreciation of the site developed slowly , and it served for some time largely as a source of souvenirs and income for " souvenir hunters " and thieves . In 1882 , the chief inspector of cultural artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the relocation of reliefs into museums due to the unstable condition of the monument . As a result , the government appointed Groenveldt , an archeologist , to undertake a thorough investigation of the site and to assess the actual condition of the complex ; his report found that these fears were unjustified and recommended it be left intact .
Borobudur was considered as the source of souvenirs , and parts of its sculptures were looted , some even with colonial @-@ government consent . In 1896 King Chulalongkorn of Siam visited Java and requested and was allowed to take home eight cartloads of sculptures taken from Borobudur . These include thirty pieces taken from a number of relief panels , five buddha images , two lions , one gargoyle , several kala motifs from the stairs and gateways , and a guardian statue ( dvarapala ) . Several of these artifacts , most notably the lions , dvarapala , kala , makara and giant waterspouts are now on display in the Java Art room in The National Museum in Bangkok .
= = = Restoration = = =
Borobudur attracted attention in 1885 , when Yzerman , the Chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta , made a discovery about the hidden foot . Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were made in 1890 – 1891 . The discovery led the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to safeguard the monument . In 1900 , the government set up a commission consisting of three officials to assess the monument : Brandes , an art historian , Theodoor van Erp , a Dutch army engineer officer , and Van de Kamer , a construction engineer from the Department of Public Works .
In 1902 , the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the government . First , the immediate dangers should be avoided by resetting the corners , removing stones that endangered the adjacent parts , strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches , archways , stupas and the main dome . Second , after fencing off the courtyards , proper maintenance should be provided and drainage should be improved by restoring floors and spouts . Third , all loose stones should be removed , the monument cleared up to the first balustrades , disfigured stones removed and the main dome restored . The total cost was estimated at that time around 48 @,@ 800 Dutch guilders .
The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911 , using the principles of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp . The first seven months of restoration were occupied with excavating the grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha heads and panel stones . Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper three circular platforms and stupas . Along the way , Van Erp discovered more things he could do to improve the monument ; he submitted another proposal , which was approved with the additional cost of 34 @,@ 600 guilders . At first glance , Borobudur had been restored to its old glory . Van Erp went further by carefully reconstructing the
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794 to 1805 , and was originally planned as a branch of the Ashton Canal . It connected the Portland Basin with the Peak District and cost £ 177 @,@ 000 ( £ 13 million as of 2016 ) . The Huddersfield Narrow Canal was built between 1794 and 1811 , to enable cross @-@ Pennine trade between Manchester and Kingston upon Hull ; the cost of construction was £ 400 @,@ 000 .
The advent of the railways in the 19th century signalled the decline of the canal system . The new railways were quicker and more economical than the canals , and the waterways declined . The Huddersfield Canal was bought by the Huddersfield and Manchester Railway in 1844 . Along with the Ashton and Peak Forest canals , the Huddersfield canal was later bought by the Sheffield , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and Manchester Railway Company . The canals remained in use throughout the 19th century on a smaller scale than in their heyday , but by the mid @-@ 20th century all commercial traffic had ceased . Following an extended period of closure & dereliction , when the Huddersfield canal was in parts filled @-@ in or built over , a complete restoration was undertaken resulting in the full reopening of the canal in 2001 . They are now used for leisure craft and are still maintained and in good condition .
= = = Railways = = =
Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne railway station sees regular services on the Huddersfield Line between Manchester ( Victoria ) and Huddersfield .
The present station , known historically as Ashton ( Charlestown ) as was opened by the Ashton , Stalybridge and Liverpool Junction Railway ( AS & LJR ) on 13 April 1846 . The AS & LJR was absorbed by the Manchester and Leeds Railway in 1847 , which was then renamed the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway ( LYR ) . The LYR renamed it Ashton ( Charlestown ) in 1874 . The LYR amalgamated with the London and North Western Railway at the start of 1922 , and these in turn amalgamated with several other companies on 1 January 1923 , to form the London , Midland and Scottish Railway during the 1923 Grouping . It then passed to the London Midland Region of British Railways on nationalisation in 1948 . The station was renamed Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne on 6 May 1968 .
There were once three stations in the town : Charlestown , Park Parade ( closed 1956 ) and Oldham Road ( closed 1959 ) on the Oldham , Ashton and Guide Bridge Railway . Also , Guide Bridge , a few miles away , was known as Ashton & Hooley Hill and then Ashton in its earliest years .
The Sheffield , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and Manchester Railway Company was founded in 1836 with the purpose of building a line linking Manchester and Sheffield . The line was opened in stages and by 1845 was complete . It included a branch to the nearby town of Stalybridge , the former Ashton Park Parade station was included on this branch .
= = = Trams = = =
In 1881 , a tramway with horse @-@ drawn tramcars was opened between Stalybridge and Audenshaw , through Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne . The first tramway of its kind in Tameside , it was later extended to Manchester . The Oldham , Ashton and Hyde Electric Tramway Company , founded in 1899 , operated 13 km ( 8 mi ) of tram lines with electric tramcars . It was the first line around Manchester to use electricity . A line from Stalybridge to Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne was opened in 1903 and operated by the Stalybridge , Hyde , Mossley & Dukinfield Tramways & Electricity Board . The first bus service from Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne ran in 1923 and the 1920s saw a period of decline for the tramways as they suffered from the competition from buses . The last electric tram service in the town ran in 1938 .
After a 75 @-@ year absence , trams returned to Ashton in October 2013 , when the Manchester Metrolink tram system opened the East Manchester Line to the town : Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne tram stop in the town centre , lies alongside Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne bus station and is the terminus for the East Manchester Line , which runs to Manchester Piccadilly station and Manchester city @-@ centre . Away from the town centre towards Manchester there is also Ashton West tram stop and Ashton Moss tram stop .
= = Education = =
There are eight nursery schools , fifteen primary schools , and two secondary schools in Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne . In 2006 , the council began a scheme to develop education in the borough by opening six new secondary schools . Among the changes proposed as part of the £ 160M scheme was the closure of Hartshead Sports College and Stamford Community High School , to be replaced by a 1 @,@ 350 @-@ pupil academy with 300 members of sixth form . The new school is named New Charter Academy after its sponsor , the New Charter Housing Trust . In 2007 , Hartshead Sports College was placed on " special measures " after it failed to achieve its targets for General Certificate of Secondary Education results and was criticised by Ofsted for its teaching standard . Originally expected to open in September 2009 , the academy opened in September 2008 .
The other secondary school in the town is St Damian 's RC Science College , which was founded in 1963 , and provides education for 800 pupils aged 11 – 16 . As part of the BSF Project , they created plans for a new school building ( built by Carillion ) and the pupils moved into this new building in May 2011 . Dale Grove School has 60 pupils and offers education for pupils aged 5 – 16 with special needs . Ashton Sixth Form College is a centre for further education with 1 @,@ 650 pupils aged 16 – 18 . Tameside College also provides opportunities for further education and operates in Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Droylsden , and Hyde . Founded in 1954 and expanded in 1957 and 1964 , it was originally called Ashton College .
= = Public services = =
In the early 19th century , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne 's growth made it necessary to find a new water supply . Before the introduction of piped water the town 's inhabitants drew water from wells and the nearby River Tame . Industrial processes had polluted the river however , and the wells could not sustain a rapidly expanding population . From 1825 , a private company was responsible for piping water from reservoirs , but there were still many homes without proper drainage or water supply . Today , waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the local authority via the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority . The first power station in Tameside was built in 1899 , providing power for the area . Ashton 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is United Utilities ; there are no power stations in the town . United Utilities also manages the drinking and waste water .
Home Office policing in Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne is provided by the Greater Manchester Police . The force 's Tameside Division have their divisional headquarters for policing Tameside in the town . Public transport in the area is co @-@ ordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester . Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , which has one station on Slate Lane . The Tameside General Hospital is a large NHS hospital on the outskirts of the town , administrated by Tameside Hospital NHS Foundation Trust . The North West Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport .
= Deep Impact ( spacecraft ) =
Deep Impact was a NASA space probe launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station at 18 : 47 UTC on January 12 , 2005 . It was designed to study the interior composition of the comet Tempel 1 ( 9P / Tempel ) , by releasing an impactor into the comet . At 05 : 52 UTC on July 4 , 2005 , the impactor successfully collided with the comet 's nucleus . The impact excavated debris from the interior of the nucleus , forming an impact crater . Photographs taken by the spacecraft showed the comet to be more dusty and less icy than had been expected . The impact generated an unexpectedly large and bright dust cloud , obscuring the view of the impact crater .
Previous space missions to comets , such as Giotto and Stardust , were fly @-@ by missions . These missions were able to photograph and examine only the surfaces of cometary nuclei , and even then from considerable distances . The Deep Impact mission was the first to eject material from a comet 's surface , and the mission garnered large publicity from the media , international scientists , and amateur astronomers .
Upon the completion of its primary mission , proposals were made to further utilize the spacecraft . Consequently , Deep Impact flew by Earth on December 31 , 2007 on its way to an extended mission , designated EPOXI , with a dual purpose to study extrasolar planets and comet Hartley 2 ( 103P / Hartley ) .
= = Scientific goals = =
The Deep Impact mission was planned to help answer fundamental questions about comets , which included what makes up the composition of the comet 's nucleus , what depth the crater would reach from the impact , and where the comet originated in its formation . By observing the composition of the comet , astronomers hoped to determine how comets form based on the differences between the interior and exterior makeup of the comet . Observations of the impact and its aftermath would allow astronomers to attempt to determine the answers to these questions .
The mission 's Principal Investigator was Michael A 'Hearn , an astronomer at the University of Maryland . He led the science team , which included members from Cornell University , University of Maryland , University of Arizona , Brown University , Belton Space Exploration Initiatives , JPL , University of Hawaii , SAIC , Ball Aerospace , and Max @-@ Planck @-@ Institut für extraterrestrische Physik .
= = Spacecraft design and instrumentation = =
The spacecraft consists of two main sections , the 370 @-@ kg ( 815 @-@ lb ) copper @-@ core " Smart Impactor " that impacted the comet , and the " Flyby " section , which imaged the comet from a safe distance during the encounter with Tempel 1 .
The Flyby spacecraft is about 3 @.@ 2 meters ( 10 @.@ 5 ft ) long , 1 @.@ 7 meters ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) wide and 2 @.@ 3 meters ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) high . It includes two solar panels , a debris shield , and several science instruments for imaging , infrared spectroscopy , and optical navigation to its destination near the comet . The spacecraft also carried two cameras , the High Resolution Imager ( HRI ) , and the Medium Resolution Imager ( MRI ) . The HRI is an imaging device that combines a visible @-@ light camera with a filter wheel , and an imaging infrared spectrometer called the " Spectral Imaging Module " or SIM that operates on a spectral band from 1 @.@ 05 to 4 @.@ 8 micrometres . It has been optimized for observing the comet 's nucleus . The MRI is the backup device , and was used primarily for navigation during the final 10 @-@ day approach . It also has a filter wheel , with a slightly different set of filters .
The Impactor section of the spacecraft contains an instrument that is optically identical to the MRI , called the Impactor Targeting Sensor ( ITS ) , but without the filter wheel . Its dual purpose was to sense the Impactor 's trajectory , which could then be adjusted up to four times between release and impact , and to image the comet from close range . As the Impactor neared the comet 's surface , this camera took high @-@ resolution pictures of the nucleus ( as good as 0 @.@ 2 meters [ 7 @.@ 9 in ] per pixel ) that were transmitted in real @-@ time to the Flyby spacecraft before it and the Impactor were destroyed . The final image taken by the impactor was snapped only 3 @.@ 7 seconds before impact .
The impactor 's payload , dubbed the " Cratering Mass " , was 100 % copper , with a weight of 100 kg . Including this cratering mass , copper formed 49 % of total mass of the impactor ( with aluminium at 24 % of the total mass ) ; this was to minimize interference with scientific measurements . Since copper was not expected to be found on a comet , scientists could ignore copper 's signature in any spectrometer readings . Instead of using explosives , it was also cheaper to use copper as the payload .
Explosives would also have been superfl
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uous . At its closing velocity of 10 @.@ 2 km / s , the impactor 's kinetic energy was equivalent to 4 @.@ 8 metric tons of TNT , considerably more than its actual mass of only 370 kg .
The mission coincidentally shared its name with the 1998 film , Deep Impact , in which a comet strikes the Earth .
= = Mission profile = =
Following its launch from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station pad SLC @-@ 17B at 18 : 47 UTC on January 12 , 2005 , the Deep Impact spacecraft traveled 429 million kilometers ( 267 million miles ) in 174 days to reach comet Tempel 1 at a cruising speed of 28 @.@ 6 km / s ( 103 @,@ 000 km / h or 64 @,@ 000 mph ) . Once the spacecraft reached the vicinity of the comet on July 3 , 2005 , it separated into the Impactor and Flyby sections . The Impactor used its thrusters to move into the path of the comet , impacting 24 hours later at a relative speed of 10 @.@ 3 km / s ( 37 @,@ 000 km / h or 23 @,@ 000 mph ) . The impactor , a 370 @-@ kilogram ( 820 @-@ pound ) projectile , delivered 1 @.@ 96 × 1010 joules of kinetic energy — the equivalent of 4 @.@ 7 tons of TNT . Scientists believed that the energy of the high @-@ velocity collision would be sufficient to excavate a crater up to 100 m ( 328 ft ) wide ( larger than the bowl of the Roman Colosseum ) . The size of the crater was still not known one year after the impact . The 2007 Stardust spacecraft NExT mission determined the crater 's diameter to be 150 meters ( 490 ft ) .
Just minutes after the impact , the flyby probe passed by the nucleus at a close distance of 500 km ( 310 mi ) , taking pictures of the crater position , the ejecta plume , and the entire cometary nucleus . The entire event was also photographed by Earth @-@ based telescopes and orbital observatories , including the Hubble , Chandra , Spitzer , and XMM @-@ Newton . The impact was also observed by cameras and spectroscopes on board Europe 's Rosetta spacecraft , which was about 80 million km ( 50 million miles ) from the comet at the time of impact . Rosetta determined the composition of the gas and dust cloud that was kicked up by the impact .
= = Mission events = =
= = = Before launch = = =
A comet @-@ impact mission was first proposed to NASA in 1996 , but at the time , NASA engineers were skeptical that the target could be hit . In 1999 , a revised and technologically upgraded mission proposal , dubbed Deep Impact , was accepted and funded as part of NASA 's Discovery Program of low @-@ cost spacecraft . The two spacecraft ( Impactor and Flyby ) and the three main instruments were built and integrated by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado . Developing the software for the spacecraft took 18 months and the application code consisted of 20 @,@ 000 lines and 19 different application threads . The total cost of developing the spacecraft and completing its mission reached US $ 330 million .
= = = Launch and commissioning phase = = =
The probe was originally scheduled for launch on December 30 , 2004 , but NASA officials delayed its launch , in order to allow more time for testing the software . It was successfully launched from Cape Canaveral on January 12 , 2005 at 1 : 47 pm EST ( 1847 UTC ) by a Delta 2 rocket .
Deep Impact 's state of health was uncertain during the first day after launch . Shortly after entering orbit around the Sun and deploying its solar panels , the probe switched itself to safe mode . The cause of the problem was simply an incorrect temperature limit in the fault protection logic for the spacecraft 's RCS thruster catalyst beds . The spacecraft 's thrusters were used to detumble the spacecraft following third stage separation . On January 13 , 2005 , NASA announced that the probe was out of safe mode and healthy .
On February 11 , 2005 , Deep Impact 's rockets were fired as planned to correct the spacecraft 's course . This correction was so precise that the next planned correction maneuver on March 31 , 2005 was unnecessary and canceled . The " commissioning phase " verified that all instruments were activated and checked out . During these tests it was found that the HRI images were not in focus after it underwent a bake @-@ out period . After mission members investigated the problem , on June 9 , 2005 , it was announced that by using image processing software and the mathematical technique of deconvolution , the HRI images could be corrected to restore much of the resolution anticipated .
= = = Cruise phase = = =
The " cruise phase " began on March 25 , 2005 , immediately after the commissioning phase was completed . This phase continued until about 60 days before the encounter with comet Tempel 1 . On April 25 , 2005 , the probe acquired the first image of its target at a distance of 64 million km ( 40 million miles ) .
On May 4 , 2005 , the spacecraft executed its second trajectory correction maneuver . Burning its rocket engine for 95 seconds , the spacecraft speed was changed by 18 @.@ 2 km / h ( 11 @.@ 3 mph ) . Rick Grammier , the project manager for the mission at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , reacted to the maneuver stating that " spacecraft performance has been excellent , and this burn was no different ... it was a textbook maneuver that placed us right on the money . "
= = = Approach phase = = =
The approach phase extended from 60 days before encounter ( May 5 , 2005 ) until five days before encounter . Sixty days out was the earliest time that the Deep Impact spacecraft was expected to detect the comet with its MRI camera . In fact , the comet was spotted ahead of schedule , 69 days before impact ( see Cruise phase above ) . This milestone marks the beginning of an intensive period of observations to refine knowledge of the comet 's orbit and study the comet 's rotation , activity , and dust environment .
On June 14 and June 22 , 2005 , Deep Impact observed two outbursts of activity from the comet , the latter being six times larger than the former . The spacecraft studied the images of various distant stars to determine its current trajectory and position . Don Yeomans , a mission co @-@ investigator for JPL pointed out that " it takes 7 ½ minutes for the signal to get back to Earth , so you cannot joystick this thing . You have to rely on the fact that the Impactor is a smart spacecraft as is the Flyby spacecraft . So you have to build in the intelligence ahead of time and let it do its thing . " On June 23 , 2005 , the first of the two final trajectory correct maneuvers ( targeting maneuver ) was successfully executed . A 6 m / s ( 20 ft / s ) velocity change was needed to adjust the flight path towards the comet and target the impactor at a window in space about 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) wide .
= = = Impact phase = = =
Impact phase began nominally on June 29 , 2005 , five days before impact . The impactor successfully separated from the flyby spacecraft at 6 : 00 ( 6 : 07 Ground UTC ) July 3 UTC . The first images from the instrumented Impactor were seen two hours after separation .
The flyby spacecraft performed one of two divert maneuvers to avoid damage . A 14 @-@ minute burn was executed which slowed down the spacecraft . It was also reported that the communication link between the flyby and the impactor was functioning as expected . The impactor spacecraft executed three correction maneuvers in the final two hours before impact .
The impactor was maneuvered to plant itself in front of the comet , so that Tempel 1 would collide with it . Impact occurred at 05 : 45 UTC ( 05 : 52 Ground UTC , + / - up to three minutes , one @-@ way light time = 7m 26s ) on the morning of July 4 , 2005 , within one second of the expected time for impact .
The impactor returned images as late as three seconds before impact . Most of the data captured was stored on board the flyby spacecraft , which radioed approximately 4 @,@ 500 images from the HRI , MRI , and ITS cameras to Earth over the next few days . The energy from the collision was similar in size to exploding five tons of dynamite and the comet shone six times brighter than normal .
A mission timeline is located at Impact Phase Timeline ( NASA ) .
= = Results = =
Mission control did not become aware of the impactor 's success until five minutes later at 01 : 57 ET . Don Yeomans confirmed the results for the press , " We hit it just exactly where we wanted to " and JPL Director Charles Elachi stated " The success exceeded our expectations . "
In the post @-@ impact briefing at 01 : 00 PDT ( 08 : 00 UTC ) on July 4 , 2005 , the first processed images revealed existing craters on the comet . NASA scientists stated they could not see the new crater that had formed from the impactor , but it was later discovered to be about 100 meters ( 328 ft ) wide and up to 30 meters ( 98 ft ) deep . Lucy McFadden , one of the co @-@ investigators of the impact , stated " We didn 't expect the success of one part of the mission [ bright dust cloud ] to affect a second part [ seeing the resultant crater ] . But that is part of the fun of science , to meet with the unexpected . " Analysis of data from the Swift X @-@ ray telescope showed that the comet continued outgassing from the impact for 13 days , with a peak five days after impact . A total of 5 million kilograms ( 11 million pounds ) of water and between 10 and 25 million kilograms ( 22 and 55 million pounds ) of dust were lost from the impact .
Initial results were surprising as the material excavated by the impact contained more dust and less ice than had been expected . The only models of cometary structure astronomers could positively rule out were the very porous ones which had comets as loose aggregates of material . In addition , the material was finer than expected ; scientists compared it to talcum powder rather than sand . Other materials found while studying the impact included clays , carbonates , sodium , and crystalline silicates which were found by studying the spectroscopy of the impact . Clays and carbonates usually require liquid water to form and sodium is rare in space . Observations also revealed that the comet was about 75 % empty space , and one astronomer compared the outer layers of the comet to the same makeup of a snow bank . Astronomers have expressed interest in more missions to different comets to determine if they share similar compositions or if there are different materials found deeper within comets that were produced at the time of the Solar System 's formation .
Astronomers hypothesized , based on its interior chemistry , that the comet formed in the Uranus and Neptune Oort cloud region of the Solar System . A comet which forms farther from the Sun is expected to have greater amounts of ices with low freezing temperatures , such as ethane , which was present in Tempel 1 . Astronomers believe that other comets with compositions similar to Tempel 1 are likely to have formed in the same region .
= = = Crater = = =
Because the quality of the images of the crater formed during the Deep Impact collision was not satisfactory , on July 3 , 2007 , NASA approved the New Exploration of Tempel 1 ( or NExT ) mission . The mission utilized the already existing Stardust spacecraft , which had studied Comet Wild 2 in 2004 . Stardust was placed into a new orbit so that it approached Tempel 1 at a distance of approximately 200 km ( 120 mi ) on February 15 , 2011 , 04 : 42 UTC . This was the first time that a comet was visited by two probes on separate occasions ( 1P / Halley had been visited by several probes within a few weeks in 1986 ) , and it provided an opportunity to better observe the crater that was created by Deep Impact as well as observing the changes caused by the comet ’ s latest close approach to the Sun .
On February 15 , NASA scientists identified the crater formed by Deep Impact in images from Stardust . The crater is estimated to be 150 meters ( 500 ft ) in diameter , and has a bright mound in the center likely created when material from the impact fell back into the crater .
= = Public interest = =
= = = Media coverage = = =
The impact was a substantial news event reported and discussed online , in print , and on television . There was a genuine suspense because experts held widely differing opinions over the result of the impact . Various experts debated whether the impactor would go straight through the comet and out the other side , would create an impact crater , would open up a hole in the interior of the comet , and other theories . However , twenty @-@ four hours before impact , the flight team at JPL began privately expressing a high level of confidence that , barring any unforeseen technical glitches , the spacecraft would intercept Tempel 1 . One senior personnel member stated " All we can do now is sit back and wait . Everything we can technically do to ensure impact has been done . " In the final minutes as the impactor hit the comet , more than 10 @,@ 000 people watched the collision on a giant movie screen at Hawaii 's Waikiki Beach .
Experts came up with a range of soundbites to summarize the mission to the public . Iwan Williams of Queen Mary , University of London , said " It was like a mosquito hitting a 747 . What we 've found is that the mosquito didn 't splat on the surface ; it 's actually gone through the windscreen . "
One day after the impact Marina Bay , a Russian astrologer , sued NASA for $ 300 million for the impact which " ruin [ ed ] the natural balance of forces in the universe . " Her lawyer asked the public to volunteer to help in the claim by declaring " The impact changed the magnetic properties of the comet , and this could have affected mobile telephony here on Earth . If your phone went down this morning , ask yourself Why ? and then get in touch with us . " On August 9 , 2005 the Presnensky Court of Moscow ruled against Bay , although she did attempt to appeal the result . One Russian physicist said that the impact had no effect on Earth and " the change to the orbit of the comet after the collision was only about 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . "
= = = Send Your Name To A Comet campaign = = =
The mission was notable for one of its promotional campaigns , " Send Your Name To A Comet ! " . Visitors to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory 's website were invited to submit their name between May 2003 and January 2004 , and the names gathered — some 625 @,@ 000 in all — were then burnt onto a mini @-@ CD , which was attached to the impactor . Dr. Don Yeomans , a member of the spacecraft 's scientific team , stated " this is an opportunity to become part of an extraordinary space mission ... when the craft is launched in December 2004 , yours and the names of your loved @-@ ones can hitch along for the ride and be part of what may be the best space fireworks show in history . " The idea was credited with driving interest in the mission .
= = = Reaction from China = = =
Chinese researchers used the Deep Impact mission as an opportunity to highlight the efficiency of American science because public support ensured the possibility of funding long @-@ term research . By contrast , " in China , the public usually has no idea what our scientists are doing , and limited funding for the promotion of science weakens people 's enthusiasm for research . "
Two days after the U.S. mission succeeded in having a probe collide with a comet , China revealed a plan for what it called a " more clever " version of the mission : landing a probe on a small comet or asteroid to push it off course . China said it would begin the mission after sending a probe to the Moon .
= = = Contributions from amateur astronomers = = =
Since observing time on large , professional telescopes such as Keck or Hubble is always scarce , the Deep Impact scientists called upon " advanced amateur , student , and professional astronomers " to use small telescopes to make long @-@ term observations of the target comet before and after impact . The purpose of these observations was to look for " volatile outgassing , dust coma development and dust production rates , dust tail development , and jet activity and outbursts . " By mid @-@ 2007 , amateur astronomers had submitted over a thousand CCD images of the comet .
One notable amateur observation was by students from schools in Hawaii , working with US and UK scientists , who during the press conference took live images using the Faulkes Automatic Telescope in Hawaii ( the students operated the telescope over the Internet ) and were one of the first groups to get images of the impact . One amateur astronomer reported seeing a structureless bright cloud around the comet , and an estimated magnitude 2 increase in brightness after the impact . Another amateur published a map of the crash area from NASA images .
= = = Musical tribute = = =
The Deep Impact mission coincided with celebrations in the Los Angeles area marking the 50th anniversary of " Rock Around the Clock " by Bill Haley and His Comets becoming the first rock and roll single to reach No. 1 on the recording sales charts . Within twenty @-@ four hours of the mission 's success , a two @-@ minute music video produced by Martin Lewis had been created using images of the impact itself combined with computer animation of the Deep Impact probe in flight , interspersed with footage of Bill Haley and His Comets performing in 1955 and the surviving original members of The Comets performing in March 2005 . The video was posted to NASA 's website for a couple of weeks afterwards .
On July 5 , 2005 , the surviving original members of The Comets ( ranging in age from 71 to 84 ) performed a free concert for hundreds of employees of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to help them celebrate the mission 's success . This event received worldwide press attention . In February 2006 , the International Astronomical Union citation that officially named asteroid 79896 Billhaley included a reference to the JPL concert .
= = Extended mission = =
Deep Impact embarked on an extended mission designated EPOXI ( Extrasolar Planet Observation and Deep Impact Extended Investigation ) to visit other comets , after being put to sleep in 2005 upon completion of the Tempel 1 mission .
= = = Comet Boethin plan = = =
Its first extended visit was to do a flyby of Comet Boethin , but with some complications . On July 21 , 2005 Deep Impact executed a trajectory correction maneuver that allows the spacecraft to use Earth 's gravity to begin a new mission in a path towards another comet .
The original plan was for a December 5 , 2008 flyby of Comet Boethin , coming within 700 kilometers ( 430 mi ) of the comet . Michael A 'Hearn , the Deep Impact team leader , explained " We propose to direct the spacecraft for a flyby of Comet Boethin to investigate whether the results found at Comet Tempel 1 are unique or are also found on other comets . " The $ 40 million mission would provide about half of the information as the collision of Tempel 1 but at a fraction of the cost . Deep Impact would use its spectrometer to study the comet 's surface composition and its telescope for viewing the surface features .
However , as the Earth gravity assist approached , astronomers were unable to locate Comet Boethin , which may have broken up into pieces too faint to be observed . Consequently , its orbit could not be calculated with sufficient precision to permit a flyby .
= = = Flyby of Comet Hartley 2 = = =
JPL team targeted Deep Impact toward Comet Hartley 2 . However , this would require an extra two years of travel for Deep Impact . On May 28 , 2010 , a burn of 11 @.@ 3 seconds was conducted , to enable the June 27 Earth fly @-@ by to be optimized for the transit to Hartley 2 and fly @-@ by on November 4 . The velocity change was 0 @.@ 1 m / s ( 0 @.@ 33 ft / s ) .
On November 4 , 2010 , the Deep Impact extended mission ( EPOXI ) returned images from comet Hartley 2 . EPOXI came within 700 kilometers ( 430 mi ) of the comet , returning detailed photographs of the " peanut " shaped cometary nucleus and several bright jets . The probe 's medium @-@ resolution instrument captured the photographs .
= = = Comet Garradd ( C / 2009 P1 ) = = =
Deep Impact observed Comet Garradd ( C / 2009 P1 ) from February 20 to April 8 , 2012 , using its Medium Resolution Instrument , through a variety of filters . The comet was 1 @.@ 75 – 2 @.@ 11 astronomical units ( AU ) ( 2 @.@ 62 – 3 @.@ 16 × 108 km ) from the Sun and 1 @.@ 87 – 1 @.@ 30 AU from the spacecraft . It was found that the outgassing from the comet varies with a period of 10 @.@ 4 hours , which is presumed to be due to the rotation of its nucleus . The dry ice content of the comet was measured and found to be about ten percent of its water ice content by number of molecules .
= = = Possible mission to asteroid ( 163249 ) 2002GT = = =
At the end of 2011 , Deep Impact was re @-@ targeted towards asteroid ( 163249 ) 2002GT which it would reach in January 2020 . At the time of re @-@ targeting , whether or not a related science mission would be carried out in 2020 was yet to be determined , based on NASA 's budget and the health of the probe . A 71 @-@ second engine burn on October 4 , 2012 , changed the probe 's velocity by 2 m / s ( 6 @.@ 6 ft / s ) to keep the mission on track .
= = = Comet C / 2012 S1 ( ISON ) = = =
In February 2013 , Deep Impact observed Comet ISON . The comet remained observable until March 2013 .
= = = Contact lost and end of mission = = =
On September 3 , 2013 , a mission update was posted to the EPOXI mission status website , stating " Communication with the spacecraft was lost some time between August 11 and August 14 ... The last communication was on August 8 . ... the team on August 30 determined the cause of the problem . The team is now trying to determine how best to try to recover communication . "
On September 10 , 2013 , a Deep Impact mission status report explained that mission controllers believe the computers on the spacecraft are continuously rebooting themselves and so are unable to issue any commands to the vehicle 's thrusters . As a result of this problem , communication with the spacecraft was explained to be more difficult , as the orientation of the vehicle 's antennas is unknown . Additionally , the solar panels on the vehicle may no longer be positioned correctly for generating power .
On September 20 , 2013 , NASA abandoned further attempts to contact the craft . According to A 'Hearn , the most probable reason of software malfunction was a Y2K @-@ like problem ( at August 11 , 2013 , 00 : 38 : 49 , it was 232 of one @-@ tenth seconds from January 1 , 2000 ) .
= Chilean battleship Almirante Latorre =
Almirante Latorre , named after Juan José Latorre , was a super @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Chilean Navy ( Armada de Chile ) . She was the first of a planned two @-@ ship class that would respond to earlier warship purchases by other South American countries . Construction began at Elswick , Newcastle upon Tyne soon after the ship was ordered in November 1911 , and was approaching completion when she was bought by the United Kingdom 's Royal Navy for use in the First World War . Commissioned in September 1915 , she served in the Grand Fleet as HMS Canada for the duration of the war and saw action during the Battle of Jutland .
Canada was repurchased by Chile in 1920 . She took back her original name of Almirante Latorre , and served as the Chilean flagship and frequently as presidential transport . She underwent a thorough modernization in the United Kingdom in 1929 – 31 . In September 1931 , crewmen aboard Almirante Latorre instigated a mutiny , which the majority of the Chilean fleet quickly joined . After divisions developed between the mutineers , the rebellion fell apart and the ships were returned to government control . Almirante Latorre was placed in reserve for a time in the 1930s because of the Great Depression , but she was in good enough condition to receive interest from the United States after the attack on Pearl Harbor . This overture was declined and the ship spent most of the Second World War on patrol for Chile . She was scrapped in Japan beginning in 1959 .
= = Background = =
Almirante Latorre 's genesis can be traced to the numerous naval arms races between Chile and Argentina , which in turn were spawned by territorial disputes over their mutual borders in Patagonia and Puna de Atacama , along with control of the Beagle Channel . Naval races flared up in the 1890s and in 1902 ; the latter was eventually settled via British mediation . Provisions in the dispute @-@ ending treaty imposed restrictions on both countries ' navies . The United Kingdom 's Royal Navy bought the two Constitución @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships that were being built for Chile , and Argentina sold its two Rivadavia @-@ class armored cruisers under construction in Italy to Japan .
After HMS Dreadnought was commissioned , Brazil decided in early 1907 to halt construction of three obsolescent pre @-@ dreadnoughts in favor of two or three dreadnoughts . These ships , commissioned as the Minas Geraes class , were designed to carry the heaviest battleship armament in the world at the time . They came as a shock to the navies of South America . Historian Robert Scheina commented that they " outclassed the entire [ elderly ] Argentinian fleet " . Although debates raged in Argentina over whether it would be prudent to counter Brazil 's purchase by acquiring their own expensive dreadnoughts , further border disputes — particularly near the River Plate with Brazil — decided the matter , and it ordered two Rivadavia @-@ class battleships ( no relation to the earlier cruisers ) from the Fore River Shipbuilding Company in the United States . With its major rival acquiring dreadnoughts , Chile responded by asking for tenders from American and European countries that would give the country the most powerful battleships afloat .
= = Construction , purchase and First World War service = =
On 6 July 1910 , the National Congress of Chile passed a bill allocating 400 @,@ 000 pounds sterling to the navy for two 28 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 28 @,@ 449 t ) battleships — which would eventually be named Almirante Latorre and Almirante Cochrane — six destroyers , and two submarines . The contract to build the battleships was awarded to Armstrong Whitworth on 25 July 1911 . Almirante Latorre was officially ordered on 2 November 1911 , and was laid down less than a month later on 27 November , becoming the largest ship built by Armstrong at the time . The New York Tribune reported on 2 November 1913 that Greece had reached an accord to purchase Almirante Latorre during a war scare with the Ottoman Empire , but despite a developing sentiment within Chile to sell one or both of the dreadnoughts , no deal was made .
Almirante Latorre was launched on 27 November 1913 , in an elaborate ceremony that was attended by various dignitaries and presided over by Chile 's ambassador to the United Kingdom , Agustín Edwards Mac Clure . The battleship was christened by the ambassador 's wife , Olga Budge de Edwards . After the First World War broke out in Europe , Almirante Latorre was formally purchased by the United Kingdom on 9 September 1914 ; she was not forcibly seized like the Ottoman Reşadiye and Sultân Osmân @-@ ı Evvel , two other ships being built for a foreign navy , because the Allies ' reliance on Chilean munitions imports made retention of Chile 's " friendly neutral " status with the United Kingdom a matter of vital importance .
Almirante Latorre was renamed HMS Canada and slightly modified for British service . The bridge was taken off in favor of two open platforms , and a mast was added in between the two funnels to support a derrick that would service launches . The super @-@ dreadnought completed fitting @-@ out on 20 September 1915 , and was commissioned into the Royal Navy on 15 October . She initially served with the 4th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet . Canada saw action in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , firing 42 rounds from her 14 @-@ inch guns and 109 6 @-@ inch shells during the battle , and suffered no hits or casualties . During the battle , she got off two salvoes at the disabled cruiser Wiesbaden at 18 : 40 , and fired five more at an unknown ship around 19 : 20 . Her 6 @-@ inch guns were utilized for firing at German destroyers at 19 : 11 .
Canada was transferred to the 1st Battle Squadron on 12 June 1916 . In 1917 – 18 , she was fitted with better rangefinders and range dials , and two of the aft 6 @-@ inch secondary guns were removed after they suffered blast damage from the middle 14 @-@ inch turret . In the latter year , flying @-@ off platforms for aircraft were added atop the superfiring turrets fore and aft . Canada was put into the reserve fleet in March 1919 .
= = Chilean service = =
= = = Early career = = =
After the end of the war in Europe , Chile began to seek additional ships to bolster its fleet . The United Kingdom offered many of its surplus warships , including the two remaining Invincible @-@ class battlecruisers . The news that Chile could possibly acquire two Invincibles kindled a major uproar in the country , with naval officers publicly den
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him in the green jersey as the leader of the points classification . Dennis was in a group that finished one minute twenty @-@ eight seconds in arrears . Cancellara finished third placed in the stage and took the race lead , profiting from a time bonus missed by Martin , who came in ninth . The general classification favourites that gained time from being in the leading group of twenty @-@ six were Chris Froome , Alberto Contador and Tejay Van Garderen ; the other favourites finished in the same group as Dennis . On the third stage , the race was neutralised following a major crash 58 km ( 36 mi ) from the finish which put six of riders out of the race , including Cancellara . The peloton continued to the final climb , the Mur de Huy , where Joaquim Rodríguez held off Froome to take the stage by one second . Rodríguez was awarded the first the polka dot jersey as the leader of the mountains classification and Froome took the yellow , while also gaining time over the other general classification favourites . It was the third day in succession Martin ended in second place overall , and to three different riders . The partially cobbled fourth stage saw Martin take the victory and the yellow jersey with an attack on the lead group 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from the finish in Cambrai .
On the fifth stage , a bunch sprint occurred and Greipel got the better of it by beating Peter Sagan and Mark Cavendish , respectively . In the sixth stage , Zdeněk Štybar of Etixx – Quick @-@ Stepwon after escaping on the concluding small ascent in the port city of Le Havre . A crash in the final kilometer forced Martin to abandon the Tour with a broken collarbone , the second yellow jersey wearer to surrender after Cancellara . A record was set after the stage , with Daniel Teklehaimanot becoming the first black African to lead the mountains classification . Although Froome now led the race , no rider wore the yellow jersey on stage seven as Martin had finished the stage and earned the right to wear it . Cavendish won the seventh from a bunch sprint in Fougères , Brittany . Froome was awarded the yellow jersey after the stage . Stage eight , finishing atop the Mûr @-@ de @-@ Bretagne , saw the first French victory of the Tour , with AG2R La Mondiale rider Alexis Vuillermoz launching an attack inside the final kilometer to take the victory . The general classification favourites finished together except Vincenzo Nibali who lost ten seconds . Sagan moved into the green jersey . BMC Racing Team won stage nine 's team time trial by one second over Team Sky . The squad of Nairo Quintana , Movistar Team , came in third , four seconds in arrears . Alberto Contador 's Tinkoff – Saxo in fourth , twenty @-@ eight seconds down , and Nibali 's Astana following , a further seven seconds behind . The first rest day took place the following day in Pau .
Stage ten was the race 's first arrival at altitude with the finish at La Pierre Saint @-@ Martin in the Pyrenees . The day 's breakaway was caught and passed on the final climb by a select group . Froome attacked with 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 mi ) remaining to take the win , with teammate Richie Porte and Quintana a minute in arrears . The stage saw time gaps open up across the general classification leaders . The biggest loser was Nibali , who came in twenty @-@ first , over four minutes behind Froome , who increased his lead to second placed Tejay van Garderen to two minutes and fifty @-@ two seconds . Froome took the polka dot jersey and Greipel the green . Stage eleven was another mountainous stage ; it was won by Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , who was part of the early breakaway and attacked on the slopes of the Col du Tourmalet . He soloed across the line in Cauterets one minute ahead of second @-@ placed Dan Martin ( Cannondale – Garmin ) . The green jersey returned to Sagan . Rodríguez gained his second victory of the race on stage twelve ; he was part of an early twenty @-@ two rider breakaway that reached the final climb to Plateau de Beille . Froome kept his lead intact .
Stage thirteen saw the escapees being brought inside the one kilometer to go marker ( known as the flamme rouge ) . Greg Van Avermaet of BMC Racing Team took the uphill victory ahead of the chasing Sagan . On stage fourteen , a twenty @-@ four rider breakaway reached the final climb , the Côte de la Croix Neuve . After the breakaway had fractured , Thibaut Pinot and Romain Bardet led over the summit , before Steve Cummings of MTN – Qhubeka overtook them to take the victory at Brenoux Airport on the plateau above Mende . Sagan was part of the breakaway , amassing maximum points at the intermediate sprint . Over four minutes after Cummings had finished , Froome outsprinted Quintana while the other general classification favourites were slightly distanced . Quintana moved into second place overall , displacing Van Garderen . Stage fifteen had for principal difficulty the Col de l 'Escrinet climb , which saw most of the sprinters succeeding at passing the climb in the lead group , with the notable exception of Cavendish . Greipel won his third stage of the Tour , followed by John Degenkolb and Alexander Kristoff , respectively . On the next stage , featuring the Col de Manse as the final climb , Rubén Plaza ( Lampre – Merida ) escaped the leading group of breakaway riders on the ascent . Sagan chased him down the descent , but to no avail as Plaza soloed to victory in Gap . The next day was the second rest day , spent in Gap .
Stage seventeen , the first of four Alpine stages , saw third placed overall Van Garderen withdraw from the race with illness . The stage was won by Giant – Alpecin 's Simon Geschke , who escaped from the breakaway with under 50 km ( 31 mi ) remaining to win in Pra Loup . Fifth placed overall Contador crashed on the descent of the Col d 'Allos , losing over two minutes to race leader Froome . On stage eighteen , Bardet attacked the breakaway close to the summit of the Col du Glandon and opened a gap on descent before riding solo to victory in Saint @-@ Jean @-@ de @-@ Maurienne . Bardet moved up to tenth overall and became joint first with Rodríguez in the mountains classification , displacing Froome . In stage nineteen , Nibali broke away from the general classification group close to the summit of the Col de la Croix de Fer to bridge and pass the breakway group and win at La Toussuire - Les Sybelles . Quintana came in second , forty @-@ four seconds later , with Froome coming in a further thirty . In the Tour 's penultimate stage , a select group of riders attacked on the Col de la Croix de Fer and made it to the finish on Alpe d ’ Huez , where they met the disintegrate early breakaway . Pinot attacked passed the breakaways to take the victory ahead of the encroaching Quintana , who came in second after attacking the chasing general classification group on the Alpe . Quintana gained a margin of eighty seconds over Froome , but it was not enough and had to settle for second place overall .
The final stage in Paris was won by Greipel , his fourth victory of this year 's Tour . Froome finished the race to claim his second Tour de France , becoming the first British rider to win the race on two occasions . He beat second @-@ placed Quintana by seventy @-@ two seconds , with his Movistar Team teammate Alejandro Valverde third . Froome also claimed the mountains classification , the first time a rider had won both since Eddy Merckx in 1970 . Although he failed to win any stages during the race , Sagan won his fourth consecutive points classification with a total of 432 , 66 ahead of Greipel in second . The best young rider was Quintana , followed by Bardet and Giant – Alpecin 's Warren Barguil , respectively . Movistar Team finished as the winners of the team classification , over fifty @-@ seven minutes ahead of second @-@ placed Team Sky .
= = Classification leadership = =
There were four main individual classifications contested in the 2015 Tour de France , as well as a team competition . The most important was the general classification , which was calculated by adding each rider 's finishing times on each stage . The rider with the least accumulated time is the race leader , identified by the yellow jersey ; the winner of this classification was considered the winner of the Tour . Time bonuses returned to the Tour for the first time since the 2008 edition . For all stage finishes , excluding the two time trial stages , the three first finishers of stages earned bonuses of 10 , 6 and 4 seconds respectively . Of the reintroduction , race director Christian Prudhomme said : " We want to open up the race , we want the race to be decided on any day of the Tour . " If a crash happened within the final 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) of a stage ; this did not include the time trials and summit finishes , the riders involved received the same time as the group they were in when the crash occurred . Rain on the final stage forced the final times of the general classification to be taken on the first crossing of the finish line before the ten laps of the cobbled Champs @-@ Élysées . Riders were required to cross the finish line on the final lap to receive their times .
The points classification leader was identified with a green jersey . Riders received points for finishing among the highest placed in a stage finish , or in intermediate sprints during the stage . The points system was also changed . A stage win was worth 50 points instead of 45 , second place awarded 30 instead of 35 and third 20 instead of 30 . The sprint points rule change aimed to make a stage win more valuable . The points available for each stage finish were determined by the " coefficient " ranking scale . The new system was in effect only on the Tour 's six stages classified as flat ( stages 2 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 15 and 21 ) . On seven stages ( the cobble stage and six hillier stages , namely stages 3 , 4 , 8 , 10 , 13 , 14 and 16 ) the rider who won received 30 points , 25 for the second rider , and so on . For the mountain stages ( stages 11 , 12 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ) and the individual time trial ( stage 1 ) , the winner received 20 points . No points were awarded on stage nine 's team time trial .
No changes were made to the mountains classification , where points were awarded to the riders that reached the top of the most difficult ascents first . The climbs were categorised as either hors catégorie ( English : beyond category ) , first , second , third , or fourth @-@ category , with more points available for the higher @-@ categorised climbs . The overall leader wore a polka dot jersey . Double points were awarded on the summit finishes on stages 10 , 12 , 17 , 19 and 20 .
The young rider classification , denoted by a white jersey , was calculated the same way as the general classification , but the classification was restricted to riders who were born on or after 1 January 1990 . The team classification was calculated using the finishing times of the best three riders per team on each stage ( not the team time @-@ trial ) ; the leading team was the team with the lowest cumulative time . The number of stage victories and placings per team determined the outcome of a tie . The riders in the team that lead this classification were identified with yellow number bibs on the back of their jerseys and yellow helmets . In addition , there was a combativity award , given after each stage to the rider considered , by a jury , to have " made the greatest effort and who has demonstrated the best qualities of sportsmanship " . No combativity awards were given for the time trials and the final stage . The winner wore a red number bib the following stage . At the conclusion of the Tour , Romain Bardet won the overall super @-@ combativity award .
A total of € 2 @,@ 030 @,@ 150 was awarded in cash prizes in the race . The overall winner of the general classification received € 450 @,@ 000 , with the second and third placed riders getting € 200 @,@ 000 and € 100 @,@ 000 respectively ; all finishers of the race were awarded with money . The holders of the classifications benefited on each stage they lead ; the final winners of the points and mountains were given € 25 @,@ 000 , while the best young rider and most combative rider got € 20 @,@ 000 . Team prizes were available , with € 10 @,@ 000 for the team time trial and € 50 @,@ 000 for the winners of the team classification . € 8 @,@ 000 was given to the winners of each stage of the race . There were also two special awards each with a prize of € 5000 , the Souvenir Jacques Goddet , given to the first rider to pass Goddet 's memorial at the summit of the Col du Tourmalet in stage eleven , and the Souvenir Henri Desgrange , given to first rider to pass the summit of the highest climb in the Tour . The Souvenir Henri Desgrange was originally to be on the Col du Galibier in stage twenty , but due to a route change it was replaced with the Col d 'Allos in stage seventeen . Rafał Majka won the Jacques Goddet and Simon Geschke the Henri Desgrange .
= = Final standings = =
= = UCI World Tour rankings = =
The race was the eighteenth of the twenty @-@ eight events in the UCI World Tour , with riders from the WorldTeams competing individually for points that contributed towards the rankings . Points were awarded to the top twenty finishers in the general classification and to the top five finishers in each stage . The 338 points accrued by Chris Froome moved him up to second in the individual ranking , behind Alejandro Valverde . Despite Movistar Team 's strong showing , Team Sky took over the lead of the team ranking due to Froome 's points . With three riders in the top ten Spain remained the leaders of the nations ranking .
= Guilty Gear Isuka =
Guilty Gear Isuka ( Japanese : ギルティギア 鶍 , Hepburn : Giruti Gia Isuka ) is a 2D fighting video game developed by Arc System Works and published by Sammy Corporation . Announced by Arc in September , it was first released on December 17 , 2003 in Japanese arcades as the sixth installment of the Guilty Gear series . Later , the game was ported for a release on the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) , Xbox , and Windows in Japan . The PS2 version was brought to North America by Sammy , and , in Europe , the home console version was released by 505 Game Street and the PC version by Zoo Digital Publishing .
While the gameplay remained almost the same as in previous titles , the game introduced a four @-@ player battle mode , and the PS2 version included new features to the series , including a scrolling adventure , a customization mode , and two new characters . Guilty Gear Isuka received mixed critical reviews . It was praised for its visual , music and customization features . However , although some aspects of the new gameplay — such as the two fighting planes and the turn button — were praised as original , their implementation was criticized . The removal of features present in previous titles was also not well received by critics .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Combat system = = =
The basic gameplay system of Guilty Gear Isuka is like the other games in the series . The game uses a four attack button configuration that consists of punch , kick , slash , and high slash . Unlike previous games , it features a " turn " button , since a character does not automatically turn around if its opponent moves to the other side of the screen . Each character ( or team ) starts a fight with at least a " soul " ; when a character life bar is emptied , its life is filled while the player lost a soul . If the life is depleted when the player has no souls , it is defeated . It also features previous installments features like the tension gauge , which allows the player to perform super moves , and the burst gauge , which allows the player to break combinations and super moves .
= = = Modes = = =
The game introduces a four @-@ player option in Versus Mode , giving a player four characters who can fight two @-@ on @-@ two , three @-@ on @-@ one or everyone @-@ for @-@ themselves . There are two fighting planes , one in the foreground and the other behind it .
Another innovation was Boost Mode : a two @-@ player , side @-@ scrolling , arcade @-@ style beat ' em up mode not included in the arcade version , in which a player fights enemy waves to accumulate items , health and experience . For the Xbox , this mode was adapted for online play with Xbox Live , supporting up to 16 players . Experience points from Boost Mode can be used in the new Robo @-@ Ky II Factory mode , in which a player can customize a robot named Robo @-@ Ky II by teaching him moves , combos , or one of 65 special attacks from other characters . In addition to the attacks , other aspects such as jump height , offense , defense , recovery time , tension , and speed can be improved .
The game also features other modes : Color Edit , a palette swap editor that allows the player to customize nearly every aspect of the characters , including buckles and hair ; Training , in which a player can practice with ( and against ) computer @-@ controlled opponents and Arcade , similar to the survival mode featured in other fighting games .
= = = Playable characters = = =
Guilty Gear Isuka features twenty playable characters in its arcade version : Anji Mito , Axl Low , Baiken , Bridget , Chipp Zanuff , Dizzy , Eddie , Faust , I @-@ No , Jam Kuradoberi , Johnny , Ky Kiske , May , Millia Rage , Potemkin , Slayer , Sol Badguy , Testament , Venom , and Zappa . Three characters were added to the PlayStation 2 edition : A.B.A , Robo @-@ Ky , and Robo @-@ Ky II .
= = Development and release = =
In September 2003 , Sammy Corporation announced that a new game dubbed Guilty Gear X Series The Newest Version would be featured at the Japan Amusement Machinery Manufacturers Association ( JAMMA ) arcade show ; at the show , the company revealed that Guilty Gear Isuka would be the game 's name . " In Guilty Gear Isuka we want to satisfy existing fighter fans with new content and never @-@ before @-@ seen innovations . We also want to reach out to mainstream fans to show them that , right now , the envelope in fighting games is also being pushed in two dimensions " , declared Tim Pivnicny , senior VP of Sammy Studios , Inc . A PlayStation 2 version of the game was announced to be in development on March 3 , 2004 . An August 24 announcement said that the game would be compatible with Xbox .
Guilty Gear Isuka was released in Japan on December 17 , 2003 by Sammy for the Atomiswave arcade cabinets , followed by the PlayStation 2 version on July 29 , 2004 . An Xbox version was released by Arc System Works on December 16 , 2004 , and Sourcenext released the game for Windows on November 25 , 2005 . In North America , Guilty Gear Isuka was released by Sammy for PlayStation 2 on November 2 , 2004 . In Europe , 505 Games Street released it on June 16 , 2005 for PlayStation 2 , and the PC version was released on April 7 , 2006 by Zoo Digital Publishing ( now Zushi Games ) . In 2007 , the game was made compatible with Xbox 360 . DotEmu also released Guilty Gear Isuka on its DRM @-@ free shop in April 2011 . On January 16 , 2014 , the game was released on the Steam digital distribution platform for Windows PCs .
= = Reception = =
Guilty Gear Isuka was the 176th @-@ bestselling Japanese title in 2004 , with 74 @,@ 270 copies sold for PlayStation 2 as of December 26 . It was " Best Fighting Game " at the Best of E3 2004 Awards from IGN , and was nominated for " Best Sequel Fighting " at the 2004 National Academy of Video Game Testers and Reviewers ( NAVGTR ) Awards . The game received mixed reviews from critics , with a score of 75 @.@ 56 % at GameRankings and 73 / 100 at Metacritic . Allgame 's Damian Francis gave the game three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five ; Famitsu 's four reviewers scored it 7 , 7 , 6 , and 7 ( out of 10 ) respectively , with a total score of 27 out of 40 .
Although the introduction of two planes and the turning button were considered good ideas in theory , both features were heavily criticized by reviewers . Jeremy Dunham of IGN , Manny LaMancha of GamePro and Benjamin Turner of GameSpy felt it difficult to fight one @-@ on @-@ one when a player can start a cat @-@ and @-@ mouse game , while GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin and Brian Gee of Game Revolution found the features to cause " chaos " . Turner said it deprived the player of the ability " to have a normal Guilty Gear X2 @-@ style match " , and Dunham said the computer reacted faster . David Smith of 1UP.com called it an " irrational control scheme " . The perceived poor execution of its new features led GameSpy to give it a special " It Sounded Good on Paper " award .
Conversely , other additions received more positive feedback . Dunham called the Boost and Factory modes " intriguing distractions " , while Turner praised the latter for " much depth and nuance " , unreached by other games . Kasavin said the Boost Mode gets boring quickly due to the lack of an objective ; though Kasavin declared that the Factory Mode " is quite possibly the most interesting part of the gameplay " , he criticized how it depends on playing " a mindless side @-@ scroller over and over . " The new backgrounds were commended by Dunham , Kasavin and Smith , with the latter saying that Sammy should have saved them for a better game .
The maintenance of aspects from previous titles , including its animation and soundtrack , was praised by Kasavin , Turner , and Gee . Its soundtrack was said to be " the best score in the franchise so far " by Dunham , and was rated among video game soundtracks which " never got the recognition they truly deserve " by Siliconera . LaMancha , however , criticized a lack of improvement of its animation and music compared to its gameplay . The removal of other features from previous titles was criticized : Dunham and Kasavin complained about the lack of a story mode , while Joe Juba of Game Informer said the series had a " magic " until Isuka , criticizing the new additions and the absence of a traditional arcade mode . Isuka was well @-@ rated on balance , but considered inferior to the previous Guilty Gear X2 # Reload .
= = Other media = =
= = = Music = = =
Guilty Gear Isuka Original Soundtrack ( ギルティギア イスカ オリジナルサウンドトラック , Giruti Gia Isuka Orijinaru Saundotorakku ) , composed by Daisuke Ishiwatari , Tetsuya Ohuchi and Yoshihiro Kusano , arranged by Ohuchi and Kusano , was released on CD by Team Entertainment on April 21 , 2004 . An additional edition was released on iTunes on November 23 , 2005 ; it contains six more tracks , totalizing 26 tracks .
It was well received by critics ; Don Kotowski and Harry of Square Enix Music Online rated it 8 out of 10 . Kotowski said Ishiwatari is the mainstream in the soundtrack , while Ohuchi and Kusano " somewhat disappoint " , qualifying it as " a great album " in overall . Harry said the only thing bad about this album is its " too short " length . Writing for the same site , a reviewer dubbed GoldfishX rated it 7 out of 10 , citing " it lacks the depth of previous entries in the series . "
= = = Books = = =
Ichijinsha released two Guilty Gear Isuka manga adaptations under its DNA Media Comics line . The first one , titled Guilty Gear Isuka 4 Koma Kings ( ギルティギア イスカ 4コマKINGS , Giruti Gia Isuka Yon Koma Kingusu ) , is a yonkoma series released on February 25 , 2004 . The other series is an anthology titled Guilty Gear Isuka Comic Anthology ( ギルティギア イスカ コミックアンソロジー , Giruti Gia Isuka Komikku Ansorojī ) , which was released on March 25 of the same year . Subsequently , on March 30 , Guilty Gear Isuka Outlive Encyclopedia ( ギルティギアイスカアウトライブエンサイクロペディア , Giruti Gia Isuka Autoraibu Ensaikuropedia ) was released by Enterbrain . It is an encyclopedia compiled by Monthly Arcadia , a Enterbrain magazine , which was released along with a DVD with commentaries on the game features . Two guidebooks were released by SoftBank Creative ; Guilty Gear Isuka Technical Guide ( ギルティギア イスカ テクニカルガイド , Tekunikaru Gaido ) and Guilty Gear Isuka Complete Guide ( ギルティギア イスカ コンプリートガイド , Konpurīto Gaido ) were published on August 9 , and on September 6 , 2004 , respectively .
= Quantock Hills =
The Quantock Hills is a range of hills west of Bridgwater in Somerset , England . The Quantock Hills were England 's first Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty , being designated in 1956 , and consist of large amounts of heathland , oak woodlands , ancient
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that occupation of the Apple River Fort site occurred during the early 19th century , probably not extending beyond 1860 , and was short @-@ term . The archeology at the site uncovered the original footprint of the fort , a smaller than estimated 50 foot ( 15 m ) by 70 foot ( 21 m ) area , and made significant contributions to the understanding of the nature of the early Apple River settlement .
The archaeologists ' efforts at the fort site allowed for the construction of a replica beginning in 1996 . Volunteers built the fort , using the same tools and materials settlers would have used . Logs were stripped and split by hand , shingles were split by hand , and a trench dug to connect the two cabin replicas on the interior . The stockade walls were built using 14 and 15 foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) long logs . In addition , volunteers completed a blockhouse and firing stands with hand @-@ hewn ladders .
= = Design = =
During the archaeological investigation at the site , Apple River Fort was found to display a nearly identical construction pattern to that of Fort Blue Mounds , another Black Hawk War frontier fort near present @-@ day Blue Mounds , Wisconsin . The major difference between the two structures was in the placement of buildings within the stockade walls . The digs at Apple River uncovered a dozen original features of Apple River Fort . The remains of four cellars were found within the fort , one in southeast corner of the fort may have been used for food storage or as a dairy @-@ processing pit . In the northwest corner of the fort , there were two more cellars , just west of one of the fort 's log buildings . The largest cellar was located beneath the fort 's blockhouse , in its southeast corner , and was used as a trash pit into the 1840s . The blockhouse cellar yielded the earliest archaeological material collected at the site .
= = Significance = =
The Apple River Fort played a role in the 1832 Black Hawk War , being one of the few forts that was attacked during the conflict , and the only fort attacked by a band led by Black Hawk himself . The site of the original fort still holds the potential to yield significant sub @-@ surface archaeological artifacts and data . For its military and archaeological significance , the Apple River Fort Site was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on November 7 , 1997 . On January 1 , 2001 the state of Illinois took over operation of the reconstructed Apple River Fort and its interpretive center . The state now operates the area as the Apple River Fort State Historic Site . Illinois ' purchase was funded , in part , through a US $ 160 @,@ 000 Illinois FIRST grant .
= The Boat Race 1970 =
The 116th Boat Race took place on 28 March 1970 . Held annually , it is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . It was won by Cambridge who passed the finishing post three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths ahead of Oxford , securing Cambridge 's third consecutive victory . The race was particularly notable for the " unorthodox " steering of the Oxford cox Ashton Calvert .
In the reserve race , Goldie beat Isis , and in the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge were victorious .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the boat clubs of University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , as of 2014 it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Oxford by four lengths in the previous year 's race , and held the overall lead , with 63 victories to Oxford 's 51 .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
The race was umpired by the former Cambridge University Boat Club president and rower Alan Burrough who took part in Cambridge 's two losses in the 1937 and 1938 races and their victory in the 1939 race . Burrough had also umpired the 1966 race . Oxford were coached by their former boat club president Iain Elliott who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1960 and 1961 races , and the Olympic rower " Jumbo " Edwards who had represented Oxford in the 1926 race . Lou Barry coached the Cambridge crew . Czechoslovakian international rower Bob Janoušek assessed both crews as " extremely fit " but " far from expert in rowing " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 9 @.@ 25 lb ( 86 @.@ 5 kg ) , 1 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . The Light Blues featured just one former Blue in president David Cruttendon . However the Cambridge boat also included five members of the successful 1969 Goldie crew . Oxford saw the return of five former Blues , including the boat club president , Ashton Calvert , who coxed the boat .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , from which every crew had won since the 1961 race . The race commenced five minutes later than the scheduled 4.35pm start time , with Oxford delaying their arrival at the stakeboat . Cambridge made the better start and took an early lead . The Light Blues were half @-@ a @-@ length up within a minute , and had doubled that by the time they passed Beverley Brook . Oxford 's stroke Lonsdale increased their rating in an attempt to stay with Cambridge around the long Surrey bend and temporarily succeeded . Still a length up at Harrods Furniture Depository , the Cambridge cox steered wide and Oxford began to close the gap . At Hammersmith Bridge , Oxford were no more than a length behind , and " unorthodox tactics " employed by Ashton Calvert , the cox , ensured an " exciting tactical battle " followed . Calvert steered the Dark Blue boat inside the Cambridge line and " made for the Surrey shore " in a manoeuvre which Donald Legget , writing in The Observer described as " the most extraordinary sight I have ever witnessed while rowing or coaching " . Ignoring the umpire 's warnings , Calvert continued on this path for two minutes before returning to the Middlesex side of the river . Despite remaining stroke for stroke , at Chiswick Eyot Cambridge pushed away and held a lead of nine seconds by Chiswick Steps . The lead had increased by two seconds at Barnes Bridge and Cambridge passed the finishing post eleven seconds ahead . Cambridge won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 22 seconds .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by fourteen lengths , a record distance , in their fourth consecutive victory . In the 25th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge triumphed , their eighth consecutive victory .
= = Reaction = =
Calvert stated after the race : " I could see it was murder in those waves ... I decided to try to panic Cambridge by close contact steering , breaking their rhythm and attacking when the stations levelled out beyond Chiswick Steps . " Opinion was divided on Calvert 's tactics : The Observer 's Legget claimed that Calvert " adopted quite the wrong tactics " , while Jim Railton of The Times suggested " Calvert 's move may well prove to be the future tactics of other crews behind but in contact at Hammersmith Bridge on the Middlesex station in similar conditions . " He went on to say " Calvert 's tactics nearly paid off and in the circumstances I consider he was justified in his actions . " John Rodda of The Guardian described Calvert 's steering as " zig @-@ zag " and while acknowledging the " bold imagination " involved , claimed the cox 's manoeuvres were " futile " .
= Absolute Garbage =
Absolute Garbage is the first greatest hits album by American rock band Garbage , released on July 23 , 2007 . The album was compiled and released by Geffen 's imprint Almo Sounds through Universal Music Enterprises back catalogue division in North America and by A & E Records throughout the rest of the world . It was released while Garbage were on " hiatus " following the band 's one @-@ off reformation to perform at a benefit concert early in the same year .
The album includes remastered versions of 16 of the band 's singles which run chronologically in the track listing , as well as a brand @-@ new track , specially recorded for the compilation , " Tell Me Where It Hurts " , which preceded the album as its lead single . Absolute Garbage was released on CD and a special edition two @-@ CD set which included a second disc of remixes . A DVD compilation rounded out the formats ; among the 16 Garbage music videos featured is an hour @-@ long documentary film titled Thanks for Your Uhh , Support , containing footage filmed backstage and behind the scenes , archive live performances , and interviews spanning the band 's entire career .
= = Background = =
The band 's drummer , Butch Vig felt that Absolute Garbage would be " a full stop on part of our career " , marking the group 's movement to a new part of their development , rather than simply a contractual obligation , while guitarist Duke Erikson stated that " putting out a collection of our singles would be a good way to stay busy without working so hard " . However , singer Shirley Manson revealed in 2012 that the compilation emerged from a demand by the band 's UK label A & E Records in order to meet their quarterly requirements .
When Garbage began to collate the material for Absolute Garbage , it transpired that the analog masters of their eponymous debut album had been lost . Neither of the band 's record labels had them , and after further searching , the band established that none of the mastering facilities they had used had stored them either . Vig and audio engineer Billy Bush were able to track down an archived , but rather incomplete and damaged , set of 16bit 44.1kHz safety DAT mixes . Despite the backups being far from an optimal situation , mastering engineer Emily Lazar at The Lodge in New York City was able to reverse engineer the missing songs from the damaged archive . Lazar used some alternate versions of the songs when completing the final master . Her assistant , Joe LaPorta , mastered and edited the remixes for the special edition .
Eschewing the Midwestern location of their Wisconsin @-@ based Smart Studios , Garbage chose to record new material for the album in GrungeIsDead , Vig 's California @-@ located home recording studio . The band members had been sharing ideas over the internet prior to the sessions , and were keen to record them ; vocalist Shirley Manson had came up with the song title " Tell Me Where It Hurts " a few years previously , and had matched newly written lyrics with a Burt Bacharach @-@ style string arrangement that the band had created via email correspondence . After producing an electric guitar @-@ heavy version of " Tell Me Where It Hurts " , Garbage recorded a second mix of the track with more emphasis on the strings and recruited their former touring bassist , Daniel Shulman , to perform bass guitar on the song . The band completed another three songs during the sessions , including " Betcha " ( Vig : " it 's fuzzed up " ) , " Girls Talk Shit " ( " pretty cool sounding , lots of fast pizzicato guitars and cellos " ) , and " All the Good in This Life " , which Vig described as " kinda Pink Floyd @-@ y " .
Vig had created a new version of their song " Bad Boyfriend " , which had opened their Bleed Like Me album , when he had been updating his home studio the previous year . Keeping to the Garbage formula of incorporating non @-@ musical sounds in their work , Vig used a digital recorder to capture the sound of his baby daughter 's swing in motion as a percussive loop . Thinking that the compilation would benefit from the inclusion of a new remix , Vig presented his rework to Manson and Erikson who had been unaware of the new version . Both agreed that " Bad Boyfriend " should be included , but rather than solicit an outside producer , Vig spent a few days finishing the mix . Inversely , Garbage recruited production team Jeremy Wheatley and Brio Tellefario to create a new version of Bleed Like Me track " It 's All Over but the Crying " ; the band hoped the song would be a possible second single . A rock version of Version 2 @.@ 0 's " Push It " was completed by producer Chris Sheldon .
The group argued over the albums running order , eventually dropping a few of their singles , including " Androgyny " ( from Beautiful Garbage ) after Manson objected to its inclusion , before finalizing on the 18 tracks that the group believed represented their best work . Vig oversaw the liner notes and thanks list for the album : " It 's been a burden because we 're encompassing what we 've done over the last 10 years in one short paragraph " ; music journalist Peter Murphy composed a biography on the band 's history for the booklet , while the album artwork was designed by Tom Hingston Studio — a foil blocked silkscreen image photographed by David Hughes . The booklet also compiled a number of promotional photographs of the group taken over the course of their career by Stéphane Sednaoui , Ellen von Unwerth , Rankin , Pat Pope , Warwick Saint , and Joseph Cultice .
The band compiled an hour @-@ long documentary titled Thanks for Your Uhh , Support for the DVD format , featuring footage filmed backstage and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes , and archive live performances and interviews spanning the band 's entire career . As well as interviews with the members of Garbage , the documentary also features Duke Erikson 's daughter Roxy , Madison club owner and friend Jay Moran , engineer Billy Bush , former touring bassists Daniel Shulman and Eric Avery , Foo Fighters ' Dave Grohl and Taylor Hawkins , White Stripes ' Jack White , and former MTV News anchor Kurt Loder . Region 0 pressings of the DVD contained all 16 music videos to accompany the singles featured on the CD formats , with the exception of " # 1 Crush " , for which there was no clip filmed . Region 1 releases did not include the video for " Tell Me Where It Hurts " .
Garbage later said that the album was released as a contractual obligation to Warner Music : " This was the final straw that broke our backs " , recalled Manson five years later . " The record company we had been sold to in the U.K. demanded that we release a " greatest hits " in order to meet their quarterly requirements . We were not in a position to stop it . As a result , they shoved this collection out with no promotion whatsoever . It was right there and then that we realized how crazy and out of whack things had gotten . " Garbage remained on hiatus for a further three years until regrouping to record their fifth studio album , Not Your Kind of People , released in 2012 .
= = Release and promotion = =
At the end of 2005 's Bleed Like Me World Tour , Garbage disbanded to go on a " hiatus " . A month later , music retailer HMV 's UK website listed a Greatest Hits compilation for release the following year . By January 2006 , the title changed to Absolute Garbage . On November 10 , a press release from Warner Music Group announced a March 19 , 2007 UK release date for the album , while the NME reported that the album would be preempted by a single on March 5 . In January 2007 , Vig became the first band member to publicly confirm the project : " We 've been working on Absolute Garbage for a while " . On May 11 , the band 's website unveiled the artwork for Absolute Garbage , and on May 22 , confirmed the album 's track listing , physical formats and an initial July 16 – 17 street date . The date was later moved back a week due to " production issues " concerning the North American DVD .
The launch of the Absolute Garbage promotional campaign began at the end of May 2007 , when Geffen Records updated Garbage 's Myspace profile streaming audio player to include the album 's lead single " Tell Me Where It Hurts " and the remix of " Bad Boyfriend " , while the music video for " Tell Me Where It Hurts " was premiered on UK Channel 4 's Video Exclusive slot . Radio edits of the Guitars Up and Orchestral versions of " Tell Me Where It Hurts " were distributed to radio at the beginning of June . In the United Kingdom , the song was playlisted by XFM Scotland Upfront , Radio Forth and was C @-@ Listed on BBC Radio 2 for five weeks . The alternative rock remix of " Push It " was playlisted by XFM for three weeks . " Tell Me Where It Hurts " was released by A & E Records on 7 " vinyl , DVD and CD single ( featuring " Betcha " as the B @-@ side ) on July 16 in the United Kingdom , where it debuted at number 50 on the UK Singles Chart . Manson complained that the release was " shoved out with no promotion whatsoever " , declaring that it was the moment the band " realized how crazy and out of whack things had gotten " , inspiring them to work independently afterwards .
On July 23 , 2007 , Absolute Garbage was released in the United Kingdom , with the North American street date following a day later . The digital download format includes " All the Good in This Life " as an iTunes exclusive bonus track . In 2012 , Absolute Garbage was superseded by a reconfigured greatest hits set titled The Absolute Collection , which was released in Australia and New Zealand on November 2 via Liberator Music .
= = Critical reception = =
Absolute Garbage received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinqumani gave a positive overview of the compilation , writing that the album " serves as an anthropological study of the musical relics of a bygone era " , while Laila Hassani of Heat summed up her five @-@ star review by writing , " Few modern female @-@ fronted rock bands stand the test of time , but this reminds you why , along with Gwen Stefani 's No Doubt , Garbage are one of them . " A reviewer for Instinct wrote " this hits collection is loaded with songs best described as massive ... you 'll find something to love here " . Jaime Gill , in a review for BBC Music , felt that " Absolute Garbage is a fine legacy , the sound of a briefly brilliant and always interesting band " and that overall the album " sounds like no other greatest hits you own . " Digital Spy 's Nick Levine wrote , " By wrapping their nut @-@ grabbing hooks and transcendent melodies in layers of gutsy guitars , Garbage managed to make pop music for people who thought they didn 't like pop music . For that reason , whatever happens next , they deserve to be remembered fondly . " A reviewer for the Daily Mail described it as " a slick blend of grunge @-@ rock power and sultry girl @-@ group harmonies " and added , " [ Absolute Garbage ] already sounds dated , but the songs stand up well . "
Many reviewers felt that the chronological running order put more emphasis on the band 's well @-@ regarded earlier periods . " The selection of songs perhaps indicates Garbage view their career the same way many fans do " , wrote Victoria Durham of Rock Sound , and " that they never quite managed [ to match ] the brilliance of their early work . " Johnny Dee of Classic Rock expressed , " The later material here sounds formulaic , however , new song " Tell Me Where It Hurts " adds strings to the dynamic and sits well alongside their peerless early material " . AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine considered that despite ignoring 2000s singles such as " Run Baby Run " , " it already seems that the comp has lingered far longer than necessary on the last stage of Garbage 's career " , in contrast to the debut album singles " still sounding sleek and alluring . " Kerrang ! magazine 's Tom Byrant also felt that Garbage 's work had dated , expounding , " Something that was once so much a part of the Zeitgeist has remained rooted to the era it marked , untranslatable across the millennial divide . Still , songs like ' Stupid Girl ' and ' Only Happy When It Rains ' [ from the debut ] maintain an urgency and spite that sees their intent remain intact . " Billboard writer Kerri Mason praised the choice of remixes on the special edition : " the band continually brought the best of dance 's best producers , not one of the thirteen tracks is a throwaway . " Ben Hogwood of musicOMH called the compilation a " deserved retrospective " , further noting that " the best way to get to know Garbage is through their albums , which demonstrate their strength in depth . In particular the self @-@ titled debut and Version 2 @.@ 0 withstand a heavy hammering on any stereo . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Absolute Garbage debuted at number 68 on the Billboard 200 , selling 11 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . As of August 2008 , it had sold 66 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The album debuted at number 11 on the UK Albums Chart with 13 @,@ 372 units sold in its first week .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Garbage , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the special edition of Absolute Garbage .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= C and D @-@ class destroyer =
The C and D class was a group of 14 destroyers built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . As in previous years , it was originally intended to order a complete flotilla comprising eight destroyers — plus a flotilla leader as the ninth unit — in each year . However , only four ships — plus a leader — were ordered under the 1929 – 30 Programme as the C class . The other four ships planned for the C class were never ordered as an economy measure and disarmament gesture by the Labour government of Ramsay Macdonald . A complete flotilla — the ' D ' class — was ordered under the 1930 – 31 Programme .
The five ships of the C class were assigned to Home Fleet upon their completion , although they reinforced the Mediterranean Fleet during the Italian invasion of Abyssinia of 1935 – 36 and enforced the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement during the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 . They were transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy ( RCN ) in 1937 – 39 and spent most of their time during World War II on convoy escort duties in the Atlantic Ocean . Crescent was sunk when she was accidentally rammed by the British cruiser HMS Calcutta in 1940 . Crusader was sunk by a German submarine in 1942 , though she had sunk an Italian submarine in 1940 . The other ships of the class sank three German submarines during the war . They were all worn out by the end of the war and were scrapped in 1946 – 47 .
The D @-@ class destroyers were initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning , but were transferred to the China Station in 1935 . Like the C class , most were temporarily deployed in the Red Sea when the Italians invaded Abyssinia , but returned to the China Station when that was over . They were still there when the war began , but reinforced the Mediterranean Fleet shortly afterwards . Five ships were transferred to Home Fleet in December 1939 , but Duchess was sunk en route when she was accidentally rammed by the battleship HMS Barham , and Duncan was badly damaged when she collided with a merchant ship , requiring lengthy repairs . Daring was sunk by a German submarine in February 1940 . The other two participated in the Norwegian Campaign of April – June , but Delight was sunk by German aircraft in July and Diana was transferred to the RCN as a replacement for the Crescent after she was sunk by the cruiser Calcutta . However , she too was rammed and sunk several months later by a freighter that she was escorting .
The four ships that remained with the Mediterranean Fleet sank three Italian submarines in 1940 while escorting Malta convoys and larger warships of the fleet . Several participated in the Battles of Calabria and Cape Spartivento that year . Duncan joined Force H at Gibraltar in October and escorted that group . Dainty was sunk by German bombers in February 1941 and Diamond in April while evacuating Allied personnel from Greece . Defender had to be scuttled in July when she was crippled by a German bomber when returning from escorting a convoy to Tobruk . Duncan and Decoy remained on escort duties for the rest of the year before being transferred to the Eastern Fleet in early 1942 . They returned to the UK late in the year to begin conversions to escort destroyers . Decoy was transferred to the RCN in early 1943 , but both became convoy escorts in the Atlantic . They sank two German submarines before being assigned to the UK to protect Allied shipping during Operation Overlord . They sank three more submarines before the end of the war and were paid off in 1945 . Duncan was scrapped 1945 – 49 and Decoy during 1946 .
= = Design and description = =
These ships were based on the preceding B class , but were enlarged to increase their endurance and to allow for the inclusion of a QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft gun . This class introduced a director control tower for British destroyers . The ' C ' class were unique in having a split bridge , with the compass platform and wheelhouse separated from the chartroom and director tower . This unusual layout was not repeated . As per Admiralty policy in alternating Two @-@ Speed Destroyer Sweep ( TSDS ) minesweeping gear and ASDIC ( sonar ) capability between destroyer flotillas , the C class lacked ASDIC and were designed to carry only six depth charges . The D class were repeats of the C 's , except that the TSDS was replaced by storage for up to 30 depth charges and ASDIC .
The C and D class destroyers displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 865 long tons ( 1 @,@ 895 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . They were powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers that operated at a pressure of 300 psi ( 2 @,@ 068 kPa ; 21 kgf / cm2 ) and a temperature of 600 ° F ( 316 ° C ) . The destroyers carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Their complement was 145 officers and men .
Kempenfelt , leader of the C class , displaced 15 long tons ( 15 t ) more than her destroyers and carried an extra 30 personnel who formed the staff of the Captain ( D ) , commanding officer of the flotilla . Unique among the C and D @-@ class ships , she had three Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers that operated at a pressure of 310 psi ( 2 @,@ 137 kPa ; 22 kgf / cm2 ) . Duncan , leader of the ' D ' class , displaced 25 long tons ( 25 t ) more than her destroyers and also carried an extra 30 personnel .
All of the ships of the class mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had a single QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt AA gun between her funnels . The C @-@ class ships carried two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on the aft end of their forecastle deck . The D @-@ class destroyers had been intended to carry the new QF 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) Mk III machine gun in quadruple mountings on the bridge wings , but these were not initially available , so the old 2 @-@ pounder guns were retained in Daring , Diana , Diamond and Defender . The 3 @-@ inch AA gun was removed in 1936 – 37 , and the 2 @-@ pounders were relocated between the funnels on platforms The ships were fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple mount for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes .
The main guns were controlled by an Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mk I that used data derived from the director and the rangefinder . They had no capability for anti @-@ aircraft fire and the anti @-@ aircraft guns were aimed solely by eye .
When purchased by Canada in 1937 – 38 , the four C @-@ class destroyers were refitted to meet Canadian specifications , including the installation of Type 124 ASDIC . It is not clear how much Kempenfelt had been modified when she was turned over in October 1939 , other than steam heating had yet been fitted .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Beginning in May 1940 , the after bank of torpedo tubes was removed and replaced with a QF 12 @-@ pounder Mk V anti @-@ aircraft gun , the after mast and funnel being cut down to improve the gun 's field of fire . Four to six QF 20 mm Oerlikon cannons were added to the surviving ships , usually replacing the 2 @-@ pounder or .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts between the funnels . One pair of these was added to the bridge wings and the other pair was mounted on the searchlight platform . Early in the war , depth charge stowage increased to 33 in the C class , while the D class carried 38 . ' Y ' gun on the quarterdeck was removed on many ships to allow for additional depth charge stowage as was the 12 @-@ pounder . On at least one ship , this latter gun replaced ' X ' gun . Most ships had either ' A ' or ' B ' gun replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar , although Duncan retained both and received a split Hedgehog that was mounted on either side of ' A ' gun . Some ships that received the Hedgehog in ' B ' position also mounted two old QF 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns for use against U @-@ boats at very close range .
Most ships had their director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge removed in exchange for a Type 271 target @-@ indication radar . A Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar , adapted from the Royal Air Force 's ASV radar , was also added . The early models , however , could only scan directly forward and had to be aimed by turning the entire ship . Some ships also received a Huff @-@ Duff radio direction finder on a short mainmast .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
All five of the C class were assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet upon commissioning during 1932 . Following the Italian invasion of Abyssinia , the entire flotilla was sent to the Red Sea in August 1935 to monitor Italian warship movements until April 1936 . Refitted upon their return , they were deployed to Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War in 1936 – 37 to intercept shipping carrying contraband goods to Spain and to protect British @-@ flagged ships . Crescent and Cygnet were sold to the Royal Canadian Navy in 1937 and Comet and Crusader in 1938 . Kempenfelt was bought in 1939 , but the Royal Navy did not turn her over until enough auxiliary anti @-@ submarine ships had been commissioned to replace her after World War II had started . All four ' C ' -class ships were stationed at Esquimalt in British Columbia when the war began , but only Fraser and St. Laurent were immediately recalled to begin convoy escort duties on the Atlantic Coast , the other two following in November . Assiniboine was sent to the Caribbean for local escort duties in December where she assisted in the capture of the blockade runner MV Hannover in March 1940 . Fraser , St. Laurent , and Restigouche were transferred to the UK in late May and helped to evacuate refugees from France . Fraser was sunk on 25 June 1940 in a collision with the anti @-@ aircraft cruiser HMS Calcutta in the Gironde estuary while the other two were assigned to the Western Approaches Command for escort duties .
The remaining ships spent most of the rest of the war escorting convoys in the North Atlantic , based in either Canada or the UK . Ottawa assisted the British destroyer Harvester in sinking the
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, an American tabloid , of her expectations . In early September 1975 , she gave a farewell message , telling of her future home on a spaceship . On September 22 , however , she concluded that a landing would not occur and stated that she was reliving the trauma of a past life — in which she was Isis — when she was assassinated shortly before extraterrestrials were to land . She explained that the effects of this trauma had caused her to make an inaccurate prediction . Norman led the group in classes to teach them how to relive the event that had culminated in Isis ' assassination and took them to the expected landing site to stir their memories . They began to hold public meetings again in November . Several students doubted Norman 's explanation ; some of them left the group .
In 1975 , Norman used the proceeds of a home sale to rent a storefront for her group 's meetings , which they lavishly decorated . She purported to be the " Spirit of Beauty " and the " Goddess of Love " ; in this capacity , she claimed complete knowledge of truth and the ability to heal . After their new headquarters opened , Norman told her students — and the media — that she was an ambassador from the Interplanetary Confederation , and , in February 1975 , she opened the Academy of Parapsychology , Healing , and Psychic Science , which soon became known as the Unarius Academy of Science . The group celebrates the anniversary of the union of Earth and the confederation annually around October 12 .
= = = Past @-@ life therapy and subsequent prophecies = = =
Norman pioneered a form of past @-@ life therapy , teaching her disciples how to recall details of experiences from their past incarnations . These recollections contributed to the group 's mythology , which developed over time with student input . Unarius ' members occasionally recalled crimes that they had committed in past lives , including times they harmed incarnations of Ruth Norman . The students sometimes acted out and filmed scenes from their previous incarnations , an experience that participants found therapeutic ; they cited this benefit as proof that the events were real . Norman 's therapy , according to R. George Kirkpatrick of San Diego State University and Tumminia , differed from most New Age past @-@ life therapies in the way that it wove her followers into the group 's narrative .
In March 1976 , Norman publicly wagered $ 4 @,@ 000 with the British gambling firm Ladbrokes that extraterrestrials would land on Earth within one year , a prediction which attracted media attention . Tumminia states that Norman had " no public distress " over the failure of her prediction . Despite the negative publicity from the prophecy 's failure , new members were attracted to the group . After losing the wager , Norman changed the expected landing date to 2001 ; she taught that the close of the 20th century coincided with the beginning of a new cycle which would bring great benefits to humanity . Representatives of Unarius later stated that the prophecies had been misunderstood and that the Space Brothers had not visited because humanity was not yet ready for them . They have argued that Unarius ' teachings must be understood to correctly interpret Norman 's statements . Tumminia writes that they used " adaptive storytelling and continuous narrative invention " to explain the failure of the prophecy .
The group enjoyed publicity , and media outlets regularly covered them . Most journalists portrayed Unarius as a curiosity and accentuated its novel aspects . In the area near their headquarters , they were viewed as an unusual group with strict behavioral standards . One local writer published a sensationalist account of the group under the title " The Gods Must Be Crazy " . But , after interviewing Norman in 1976 , Brad Steiger , who has written extensively about the paranormal , gave a positive account of Unarius . Norman disliked academic writings about her organization , seeing them as unfairly negative .
= = 1980s and 90s = =
In 1979 , Norman claimed to have an unofficial following of more than 100 @,@ 000 . That year , she announced a spiritual promotion : she was no longer an archangel but , with Michiel , a " Lord of the Universe " and a " Prince of the Realm " . She renamed Spiegel as " Antares " in 1984 , stating that he had overcome the evil of his past incarnations ; he subsequently began to channel . As of 1986 , the group had about 450 regular students and charged $ 5 per class . At that time , Norman lived in a house in La Mesa , California , with two of her disciples .
Assisted by her followers , Norman recorded her teachings in about 80 books . She wrote educational materials designed to empower students by teaching them about subjects such as the " psychology of consciousness " and " self @-@ mastery " . Ernest and Ruth Norman 's writings are revered as scripture by members of the Unarius Academy . The group developed a set of six core sacred narratives about the past lives of its founders , describing key events on Earth and other planets . These myths featured tales of romance , war , and scientific advances in the Aries and Orion constellations and in ancient civilizations on Earth . Kirkpatrick and Tumminia state that the Unarian canon appears to be incoherent to outsiders , but is appreciated as a cohesive body of literature by the group 's members .
Norman wore a variety of brightly colored , elaborate costumes and was often photographed by media while wearing royal @-@ style gowns and wigs and holding a scepter . She stated that her habiliments mirrored the practices of extraterrestrials , whose attire she said was brighter and more radiant than clothing on Earth . At the group 's headquarters , she had a gold @-@ colored throne that was decorated with peacock feathers . Her assistants helped shepherd her media image ; Kirkpatrick and Tumminia speculate that her charisma was primarily responsible for gaining publicity for the group .
Followers of Norman held her in high regard : they occasionally fainted when she touched them , and some wept when allowed to meet with her . They painted several portraits of her , one of which they believed had healing powers . According to students , Norman healed them in their dreams and sometimes reported seeing visions of her . Several times , group members chose to forgo cancer treatment , trusting in Norman to heal them . Tumminia says that Norman was a clear example of the German sociologist Max Weber 's concept of charismatic authority . Norman sometimes had disagreements with students and excommunicated two senior assistants who questioned her , although she welcomed one back a few years later . If healing was unsuccessfully sought , the failure to receive it was sometimes attributed to disloyalty to leadership . Criticism of Norman was not tolerated by the group ; Tumminia describes Norman 's leadership style as " benign authoritarian " .
= = = Declining health and death = = =
In 1988 , Norman broke a hip and her health began to decline . Although she had promised to live until 2001 , her deteriorating condition made her followers suspect she would die before then , causing them some distress and denial . In an attempt to help her recover , students used past @-@ life regression to recall interactions with her , and some became very emotional after experiencing memories of events in which they had rejected and hurt her . Norman returned to leading services in February 1989 , making a quicker than expected recovery , which was attributed to the past @-@ life rituals . After a period of good health , her condition again deteriorated , prompting students to resume recounting their past crimes . Norman lost most of her hearing and experienced chronic pain ; she was admitted to a hospital in December 1989 , but by the summer she was well enough to be present at events . She was nearly bedridden in her last years and was attended to by some followers . In 1991 , she stated that the Space Brothers had given her permission to die before their expected arrival in 2001 .
Before her death , Norman met with each of her followers ; she died on July 12 , 1993 , and was cremated . In her will , she promised to return to Earth , accompanied by the Space Brothers , in eight years . Students , some of whom were surprised and confused by her death , were instructed by leaders not to grieve because she was in a celestial state . Some of them privately mourned , and a few left the group . Items of Norman 's were distributed to students , some of whom wore them at later events .
After Norman 's death , Antares took over as leader and channeled messages from her . Others later began channeling her , and recordings of her messages were replayed . Antares died in 1999 , and a board of directors assumed leadership of the organization and channeled . In the 2000s , Unarius ' leaders emphasized individual transformation , focusing on a gradual spiritual change in humanity .
= = Legacy = =
Images of Norman have been used to attract attention by some outside of the Unarius Academy of Science . In 1996 , an MTV executive viewed a picture of Norman and decided to use her image in an advertising campaign for the MTV Music Video Awards . The network contacted the Unarius Academy of Science and received permission to use a look @-@ alike in their promotions . In 2000 , Norman was featured on the cover of Kooks : A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief , a book about personalities with fringe beliefs .
After Norman 's death , public opinion of her organization was strongly influenced by the 1997 mass suicide of Heaven 's Gate , a UFO religion whose members occupied a house within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of the Unarius Academy of Science . In the suicides ' aftermath , some reporters and members of the anti @-@ cult movement described Unarius as a similar group . Tumminia disagreed with this portrayal , casting Unarius ' practices as no more dangerous than those of widely accepted religions .
= Hunlock Creek =
Hunlock Creek ( also known as Hunlocks Creek ) is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 7 @.@ 8 miles ( 12 @.@ 6 km ) long and flows through Lehman Township and Hunlock Township . The watershed of the creek has an area of 32 @.@ 5 square miles ( 84 km2 ) and is situated in northwestern Luzerne County . It has one named tributary , which is known as Roaring Brook , and a number of unnamed and unofficially named tributaries , such as " West Branch Hunlock Creek " .
Hunlock Creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery and part of it is inhabited by wild trout . The annual rate of precipitation in the watershed is 35 to 45 inches ( 89 to 114 cm ) . Rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale are common in the vicinity of the creek . A number of bridges have been built over the creek and it was the site of a furnace in the 1800s . An area listed on the Luzerne County Natural Areas Inventory is located in the creek 's watershed .
= = Course = =
Hunlock Creek begins in a valley in Lehman Township , a short distance northwest of Lake Silkworth . It flows south for several tenths of a mile before turning south @-@ southeast for a similar distance and receiving an unnamed tributary from the left . The creek then turns south for approximately half a mile , exiting Lehman Township and entering Hunlock Township . It continues flowing generally southwards for more than a mile and its valley widens considerably . The creek receives another unnamed tributary from the left before its valley narrows again and it turns southwest . After approximately a mile , it receives Roaring Brook , its only named tributary , from the right . The creek then turns south @-@ southeast for a few miles , receiving one unnamed tributary from the left and one from the right . The creek turns east @-@ northeast for several tenths of a mile and receives another unnamed tributary from the left . It then turns southeast , passing through a water gap and crossing US Route 11 in the village of Hunlock Creek . A short distance further downstream , the creek reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River .
Hunlock Creek joins the Susquehanna River 178 @.@ 21 miles ( 286 @.@ 80 km ) upriver of its mouth .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Hunlock Creek has one named tributary , which is known as Roaring Brook . Roaring Brook joins Hunlock Creek 3 @.@ 99 miles ( 6 @.@ 42 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 6 @.@ 17 square miles ( 16 @.@ 0 km2 ) . Hunlock Creek also has an unnamed tributary that is unofficially known as " West Branch Hunlock Creek " . This tributary is approximately 7 @.@ 60 miles ( 12 @.@ 23 km ) long . Additionally , it has a number of other unnamed tributaries .
= = Hydrology and climate = =
Hunlock Creek is not designated as an impaired waterbody , meaning that it attains standards for water quality .
The peak annual discharge of Hunlock Creek at its mouth has a 10 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 780 cubic feet per second ( 79 m3 / s ) . The discharge has a 2 percent chance of reaching 5 @,@ 600 cubic feet per second ( 160 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 7 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 210 m3 / s ) . It has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 13 @,@ 900 cubic feet per second ( 390 m3 / s ) .
At the confluence of one of its tributaries with the main stem , the discharge of Hunlock Creek has a 10 percent chance of peaking at 2 @,@ 100 cubic feet per second ( 59 m3 / s ) in any given year . It has a 2 percent chance of peaking at 4 @,@ 300 cubic feet per second ( 120 m3 / s ) , a 1 percent chance of peaking at 5 @,@ 650 cubic feet per second ( 160 m3 / s ) , and a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of peaking at 10 @,@ 800 cubic feet per second ( 310 m3 / s ) .
The peak annual discharge of Hunlock Creek at the confluence of another one of its tributaries with the main stem has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 460 cubic feet per second ( 41 m3 / s ) . The discharge has a 2 percent chance of reaching 3 @,@ 050 cubic feet per second ( 86 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 4 @,@ 050 cubic feet per second ( 115 m3 / s ) . It has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 7 @,@ 900 cubic feet per second ( 220 m3 / s ) .
The average annual rate of precipitation in the watershed of Hunlock Creek is 35 to 45 inches ( 89 to 114 cm ) .
= = Geography and geology = =
The elevation near the mouth of Hunlock Creek is 512 feet ( 156 m ) above sea level . The elevation near the creek 's source is between 1 @,@ 140 and 1 @,@ 160 feet ( 347 and 354 m ) above sea level . The creek 's elevation decreases at a rate of 79 @.@ 3 feet ( 24 @.@ 2 m ) per mile .
A high ridge runs from near Hunlock Creek westward to the Shickshinny Gap . This ridge is known as Shickshinny Mountain and is made from Pocono beds . Green sandstone and red shale occur along the creek . A sandstone formation containing red quartz pebbles also occurs in the area and at one point forms a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) high cliff along the creek . Additionally , shale of the Mauch Chunk Formation can be found in the vicinity of the creek .
Drift heaps cover the old channel of Hunlock Creek .
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were intercepted the following day by the Ottoman battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim ( the ex @-@ German SMS Goeben ) and the light cruiser Mdilli on their return voyage to Sevastopol in what came to be known as the Battle of Cape Sarych . Despite the noon hour the conditions were foggy ; the capital ships initially did not spot each other . Although several other ships opened fire , hitting the Goeben once , Panteleimon held fire because her turrets could not see the German ships before they disengaged .
Tri Sviatitelia and Rostislav bombarded Ottoman fortifications at the mouth of the Bosphorus on 18 March 1915 , the first of several attacks intended to divert troops and attention from the ongoing Gallipoli Campaign , but fired only 105 rounds before sailing north to rejoin Panteleimon , Ioann Zlatoust and Evstafi . Tri Sviatitelia and Rostislav were intended to repeated the bombardment the following day , but were hindered by heavy fog . On 3 April , Yavuz Sultan Selim and several ships of the Turkish navy raided the Russian port at Odessa ; the Russian battleship squadron sortied to intercept them . The battleships chased Yavuz Sultan Selim the entire day , but were unable to reach effective gunnery range and were forced to break off the chase . On 25 April Tri Sviatitelia and Rostislav repeated their bombardment of the Bosporus forts . Tri Sviatitelia , Rostislav and Panteleimon bombarded the forts again on 2 and 3 May . This time a total of 337 main gun rounds were fired in addition to 528 six @-@ inch shells between the three battleships .
On 9 May 1915 , Tri Sviatitelia and Panteleimon returned to bombard the Bosphorus forts , covered by the remaining pre @-@ dreadnoughts . Yavuz Sultan Selim intercepted the three ships of the covering force , although no damage was inflicted by either side . Tri Sviatitelia and Pantelimon rejoined their consorts and the latter scored two hits on Yavuz Sultan Selim before she broke off the action . The Russian ships pursued her for six hours before giving up the chase . On 1 August , all of the Black Sea pre @-@ dreadnoughts were transferred to the 2nd Battleship Brigade , after the more powerful dreadnought Imperatritsa Mariya entered service . On 1 October the new dreadnought provided cover while Ioann Zlatoust and Pantelimon bombarded Zonguldak and Evstafi shelled the nearby town of Kozlu . The ship bombarded Varna twice in October 1915 ; during the second bombardment on 27 October , she entered Varna Bay and was unsuccessfully attacked by two German submarines stationed there .
Panteleimon supported Russian troops in early 1916 as they captured Trebizond and participated in an anti @-@ shipping sweep off the northwestern Anatolian coast in January 1917 that destroyed 39 Ottoman sailing ships . On 13 April 1917 , after the February Revolution , the ship was renamed Potemkin @-@ Tavricheskiy ( Russian : Потёмкин @-@ Таврический ) , and then on 11 May renamed Borets za svobodu ( Russian : Борец за свободу – Freedom Fighter ) .
= = = Reserve and decommissioning = = =
She was placed in reserve in March 1918 and was captured by the Germans at Sevastopol in May . They handed the ship over to the Allies in December 1918 after the Armistice . The British wrecked her engines on 19 April 1919 when they left the Crimea to prevent the advancing Bolsheviks from using her against the White Russians . Thoroughly obsolete by this time , the ship was captured by both sides during the Russian Civil War , but was abandoned by the White Russians when they evacuated the Crimea in November 1920 . Borets za svobodu was scrapped beginning in 1923 , although she was not stricken from the Navy List until 21 November 1925 .
= = Legacy = =
The immediate effects of the mutiny are difficult to assess . It may have influenced Tsar Nicholas II 's decisions to end the Russo @-@ Japanese War and accept the October Manifesto , as the mutiny demonstrated that his régime no longer had the unquestioning loyalty of the military . The mutiny 's failure did not stop other revolutionaries from inciting insurrections later that year , including the Sevastopol Uprising . Vladimir Lenin , leader of the Bolshevik Party , called the 1905 Revolution , including the Potemkin mutiny , a " dress rehearsal " for his successful revolution in 1917 . The Communists seized upon it as a propaganda symbol for their party and unduly emphasized their role in the mutiny . In fact , Matushenko explicitly rejected the Bolsheviks because he and the other leaders of the mutiny were Socialists of one type or another and cared nothing for Communism .
The mutiny was memorialized most famously by Sergei Eisenstein in his 1925 silent film Battleship Potemkin , although the French silent film " La Révolution en Russe " ( " Mutiny on a Man @-@ of @-@ War in Odessa " or " Revolution in Odessa " , 1905 ) , directed by Ferdinand Zecca or Lucien Nonguet ( or both ) , was the first film to depict the mutiny , preceding Eisenstein 's far more famous film by 20 years . Filmed shortly after the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War of 1917 – 22 , with the derelict battleship Dvenadsat Apostolov standing in for the broken @-@ up Potemkin , Eisenstein recast the mutiny into a predecessor of the November Revolution of 1917 that swept the Bolsheviks to power . He emphasized their role , and implied that the mutiny failed because Matushenko and the other leaders were not better Bolsheviks . Eisenstein made other changes to dramatize the story , ignoring the major fire that swept through Odessa 's dock area while Potemkin was anchored there , combining the many different incidents of rioters and soldiers fighting into a famous sequence on the steps ( today known as Potemkin Stairs ) , and showing a tarpaulin thrown over the sailors to be executed .
In accordance with the Marxist doctrine that history is made by collective action , not individuals , Eisenstein forbore to single out any person in his film , but rather focused on the " mass protagonist " . Soviet film critics hailed this approach , including the dramaturge and critic , Adrian Piotrovsky , writing for the Leningrad newspaper " Krasnaia gazeta " :
The hero is the sailors ' battleship , the Odessa crowd , but characteristic figures are snatched here and there from the crowd . For a moment , like a conjuring trick , they attract all the sympathies of the audience : like the sailor Vakulinchuk , like the young woman and child on the Odessa Steps , but they emerge only to dissolve once more into the mass . This signifies : no film stars but a film of real @-@ life types .
Similarly , theatre critic Alexei Gvozdev wrote in the journal Artistic Life ( Zhizn ikusstva ) : " In Potemkin there is no individual hero as there was in the old theatre . It is the mass that acts : the battleship and its sailors and the city and its population in revolutionary mood . "
= Seamount =
A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 – 13 @,@ 100 ft ) in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat @-@ top seamounts are called " guyots " or " tablemounts "
A total of 9 @,@ 951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8 @,@ 796 @,@ 150 km2 ( 3 @,@ 396 @,@ 210 sq mi ) have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build @-@ up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands .
Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common oceanic ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well @-@ documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts .
Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .
= = Geography = =
Seamounts can be found in every ocean basin in the world , distributed extremely widely both in space and in age . A seamount is technically defined as an isolated rise in elevation of 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) or more from the surrounding seafloor , and with a limited summit area , of conical form . If small knolls , ridges and hills less than 1 @,@ 000 m in height are included there are over 100 @,@ 000 seamounts in the world ocean .
Most seamounts are volcanic in origin , and thus tend to be found on oceanic crust near mid @-@ ocean ridges , mantle plumes , and island arcs . Overall , seamount and guyot coverage is greatest as a proportion of seafloor area in the North Pacific Ocean , equal to 4 @.@ 39 % of that ocean region . The Arctic Ocean has only 16 seamounts and no guyots , and the Mediterranean and Black seas together have only 23 seamounts and 2 guyots . The 9 @,@ 951 seamounts mapped cover an area of 8 @,@ 088 @,@ 550 km2 ( 3 @,@ 123 @,@ 010 sq mi ) . Seamounts have an average area of 790 km2 ( 310 sq mi ) , with the smallest seamounts found in the Arctic Ocean and the Mediterranean and Black Seas , whilst the largest mean seamount size occurs in the Indian Ocean 890 km2 ( 340 sq mi ) . The largest seamount has an area of 15 @,@ 500 km2 ( 6 @,@ 000 sq mi ) and it occurs in the North Pacific . Guyots cover a total area of 707 @,@ 600 km2 ( 273 @,@ 200 sq mi ) and have an average area of 2 @,@ 500 km2 ( 970 sq mi ) , more than twice the average size of seamounts . Nearly 50 % of guyot area and 42 % of the number of guyots occur in the North Pacific Ocean , covering 342 @,@ 070 km2 ( 132 @,@ 070 sq mi ) . The largest three guyots are all in the North Pacific : the Kuko Guyot ( estimated 24 @,@ 600 km2 ( 9 @,@ 500 sq mi ) ) , Suiko Guyot ( estimated 20 @,@ 220 km2 ( 7 @,@ 810 sq mi ) ) and the Pallada Guyot ( estimated 13 @,@ 680 km2 ( 5 @,@ 280 sq mi ) ) .
= = = Grouping = = =
" Seamount chain " redirects here ; for a broader coverage related to this topic , see Undersea mountain range .
Seamounts are often found in groupings or submerged archipelagos , a classic example being the Emperor Seamounts , an extension of the Hawaiian Islands . Formed millions of years ago by volcanism , they have since subsided far below sea level . This long chain of islands and seamounts extends thousands of kilometers northwest from the island of Hawaii .
There are more seamounts in the Pacific Ocean than in the Atlantic , and their distribution can be described as comprising several elongate chains of seamounts superimposed on a more or less random background distribution . Seamount chains occur in all three major ocean basins , with the Pacific having the most number and most extensive seamount chains . These include the Hawaiian ( Emperor ) , Mariana , Gilbert , Tuomotu and Austral Seamounts ( and island groups ) in the north Pacific and the Louisville and Sala y Gomez ridges in the southern Pacific Ocean . In the North Atlantic Ocean , the New England Seamount chain extends from the eastern coast of the United States to the mid @-@ ocean ridge . Craig and Sandwell noted that clusters of larger Atlantic seamounts tend to be associated with other evidence of hotspot activity , such as on the Walvis Ridge , Bermuda Islands and Cape Verde Islands . The mid @-@ Atlantic ridge and spreading ridges in the Indian Ocean are also associated with abundant seamounts . Otherwise , seamounts tend not to form distinctive chains in the Indian and Southern Oceans , but rather their distribution appears to be more or less random .
Isolated seamounts and those without clear volcanic origins are less common ; examples include Bollons Seamount , Eratosthenes Seamount , Axial Seamount and Gorringe Ridge . If all known seamounts were collected into one area , they would make a landform the size of Europe . Their overall abundance makes them one of the most common , and least understood , marine structures and biomes on Earth , a sort of exploratory frontier .
= = Geology = =
= = = Geochemistry and evolution = = =
Most seamounts are built by one of two volcanic processes , although some , such as the Christmas Island Seamount Province near Australia , are more enigmatic . Volcanoes near plate boundaries and mid @-@ ocean ridges are built by decompression melting of rock in the upper mantle . The lower density magma rises through the crust to the surface . Volcanoes formed near or above subducting zones are created because the subducting tectonic plate adds volatiles to the overriding plate that lowers its melting point . Which of these two process involved in the formation of a seamount has a profound effect on its eruptive materials . Lava flows from mid @-@ ocean ridge and plate boundary seamounts are mostly basaltic ( both tholeiitic and alkalic ) , whereas flows from subducting ridge volcanoes are mostly calc @-@ alkaline lavas . Compared to mid @-@ ocean ridge seamounts , subduction zone seamounts generally have more sodium , alkali , and volatile abundances , and less magnesium , resulting in more explosive , viscous eruptions .
All volcanic seamounts follow a particular pattern of growth , activity , subsidence and eventual extinction . The first stage of a seamount 's evolution is its early activity , building its flanks and core up from the sea floor . This is followed by a period of intense volcanism , during which the new volcano erupts almost all ( e.g. 98 % ) of its total magmatic volume . The seamount may even grow above sea level to become an oceanic island ( for example , the 2009 eruption of Hunga Tonga ) . After a period of explosive activity near the ocean surface , the eruptions slowly die away . With eruptions becoming infrequent and the seamount losing its ability to maintain itself , the volcano starts to erode . After finally becoming extinct ( possibly after a brief rejuvenated period ) , they are ground back down by the waves . Seamounts are built in a far more dynamic oceanic setting than their land counterparts , resulting in horizontal subsidence as the seamount moves with the tectonic plate towards a subduction zone . Here it is subducted under the plate margin and ultimately destroyed , but it may leave evidence of its passage by carving an indentation into the opposing wall of the subduction trench . The majority of seamounts have already completed their eruptive cycle , so access to early flows by researchers is limited by late volcanic activity .
Ocean @-@ ridge volcanoes in particular have been observed to follow a certain pattern in terms of eruptive activity , first observed with Hawaiian seamounts but now shown to be the process followed by all seamounts of the ocean @-@ ridge type . During the first stage the volcano erupts basalt of various types , caused by various degrees of mantle melting . In the second , most active stage of its life , ocean @-@ ridge volcanoes erupt tholeiitic to mildly alkalic basalt as a result of a larger area melting in the mantle . This is finally capped by alkalic flows late in its eruptive history , as the link between the seamount and its source of volcanism is cut by crustal movement . Some seamounts also experience a brief " rejuvenated " period after a hiatus of 1 @.@ 5 to 10 million years , the flows of which are highly alkalic and produce many xenoliths .
In recent years , geologists have confirmed that a number of seamounts are active undersea volcanoes ; two examples are Lo ‘ ihi in the Hawaiian Islands and Vailulu 'u in the Manu 'a Group ( Samoa ) .
= = = Lava types = = =
The most apparent lava flows at a seamount are the eruptive flows that cover their flanks , however igneous intrusions , in the forms of dikes and sills , are also an important part of seamount growth . The most common type of flow is pillow lava , named so after its unusual shape . Less common are sheet flows , which are glassy and marginal , and indicative of larger @-@ scale flows . Volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks dominate shallow @-@ water seamounts . They are the products of the explosive activity of seamounts that are near the water 's surface , and can also form from mechanical wear of existing volcanic rock .
= = = Structure = = =
Seamounts can form in a wide variety of tectonic settings , resulting in a very diverse structural bank . Seamounts come in a wide variety of structural shapes , from conical to flat @-@ topped to complexly shaped . Some are built very large and very low , such as Koko Guyot and Detroit Seamount ; others are built more steeply , such as Loihi Seamount and Bowie Seamount . Some seamounts also have a carbonate or sediment cap .
Many seamounts show signs of intrusive activity , which is likely to lead to inflation , steepening of volcanic slopes , and ultimately , flank collapse . There are also several sub @-@ classes of seamounts . The first are guyots , seamounts with a flat top . These tops must be 200 m ( 656 ft ) or more below the surface of the sea ; the diameters of these flat summits can be over 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . Knolls are isolated elevation spikes measuring less than 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) . Lastly , pinnacles are small pillar @-@ like seamounts .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Ecological role of seamounts = = =
Seamounts are exceptionally important to their biome ecologically , but their role in their environment is poorly understood . Because they project out above the surrounding sea floor , they disturb standard water flow , causing eddies and associated hydrological phenomena that ultimately result in water movement in an otherwise still ocean bottom . Currents have been measured at up to 0 @.@ 9 knots , or 48 centimeters per second . Because of this upwelling seamounts often carry above @-@ average plankton populations , seamounts are thus centers where the fish that feed on them aggregate , in turn falling prey to further predation , making seamounts important biological hotspots .
Seamounts provide habitats and spawning grounds for these larger animals , including numerous fish . Some species , including black oreo ( Allocyttus niger ) and blackstripe cardinalfish ( Apogon nigrofasciatus ) , have been shown to occur more often on seamounts than anywhere else on the ocean floor . Marine mammals , sharks , tuna , and cephalopods all congregate over seamounts to feed , as well as some species of seabirds when the features are particularly shallow .
Seamounts often project upwards into shallower zones more hospitable to sea life , providing habitats for marine species that are not found on or around the surrounding deeper ocean bottom . Because seamounts are isolated from each other they form " undersea islands " creating the same biogeographical interest . As they are formed from volcanic rock , the substrate is much harder than the surrounding sedimentary deep sea floor . This causes a different type of fauna to exist than on the seafloor , and leads to a theoretically higher degree of endemism . However , recent research especially centered at Davidson Seamount suggests that seamounts may not be especially endemic , and discussions are ongoing on the effect of seamounts on endemicity . They have , however , been confidently shown to provide a habitat to species that have difficulty surviving elsewhere .
The volcanic rocks on the slopes of seamounts are heavily populated by suspension feeders , particularly corals , which capitalize on the strong currents around the seamount to supply them with food . This is in sharp contrast with the typical deep @-@ sea habitat , where deposit @-@ feeding animals rely on food they get off the ground . In tropical zones extensive coral growth results in the formation of coral atolls late in the seamount 's life .
In addition soft sediments tend to accumulate on seamounts , which are typically populated by polychaetes ( annelid marine worms ) oligochaetes ( microdrile worms ) , and gastropod mollusks ( sea slugs ) . Xenophyophores have also been found . They tend to gather small particulates and thus form beds , which alters sediment deposition and creates a habitat for smaller animals . Many seamounts also have hydrothermal vent communities , for example Suiyo and Loihi seamounts . This is helped by geochemical exchange between the seamounts and the ocean water .
Seamounts may thus be vital stopping points for some migratory animals , specifically whales . Some recent research indicates whales may use such features as navigational aids throughout their migration . For a long time it has been surmised that many pelagic animals visit seamounts as well , to gather food , but proof of this aggregating effect has been lacking . The first demonstration of this conjecture was published in 2008 .
= = = Fishing = = =
The effect that seamounts have on fish populations has not gone unnoticed by the commercial fishing industry . Seamounts were first extensively fished in the second half of the 20th century , due to poor management practices and increased fishing pressure seriously depleting stock numbers on the typical fishing ground , the continental shelf . Seamounts have been the site of targeted fishing since that time .
Nearly 80 species of fish and shellfish are commercially harvested from seamounts , including spiny lobster ( Palinuridae ) , mackerel ( Scombridae and others ) , red king crab ( Paralithodes camtschaticus ) , red snapper ( Lutjanus campechanus ) , tuna ( Scombridae ) , Orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) , and perch ( Percidae ) .
= = = Conservation = = =
The ecological conservation of seamounts is hurt by the simple lack of information available . Seamounts are very poorly studied , with only 350 of the estimated 100 @,@ 000 seamounts in the world having received sampling , and fewer than 100 in depth . Much of this lack of information can be attributed to a lack of technology , and to the daunting task of reaching these underwater structures ; the technology to fully explore them has only been around the last few decades . Before consistent conservation efforts can begin , the seamounts of the world must first be mapped , a task that is still in progress .
Overfishing is a serious threat to seamount ecological welfare . There are several well @-@ documented cases of fishery exploitation , for example the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) off the coasts of Australia and New Zealand and the pelagic armorhead ( Pseudopentaceros richardsoni ) near Japan and Russia . The reason for this is that the fishes that are targeted over seamounts are typically long @-@ lived , slow @-@ growing , and slow @-@ maturing . The problem is confounded by the dangers of trawling , which damages seamount surface communities , and the fact that many seamounts are located in international waters , making proper monitoring difficult . Bottom trawling in particular is extremely devastating to seamount ecology , and is responsible for as much as 95 % of ecological damage to seamounts .
Corals from seamounts are also vulnerable , as they are highly valued for making jewellery and decorative objects . Significant harvests have been produced from seamounts , often leaving coral beds
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10 proceeds northwest through rural terrain once more , with the points of interest limited to a small number of hamlets . Midway between the two locations in Seward , NY 10 intersects NY 165 , a connector leading to Cooperstown via NY 166 and Otsego County 's County Route 52 ( CR 52 ) . In Sharon Springs , a village situated in northwest Schoharie County , NY 10 intersects US 20 . Shortly after exiting the village , NY 10 passes into Montgomery County .
= = = Montgomery , Fulton and Hamilton Counties = = =
Just across the county line , NY 10 passes through the village of Ames , a small community situated south of Canajoharie Creek at the junction of NY 10 , CR 88 and CR 89 . NY 10 crosses over the creek shortly afterward and follows the waterway downhill . Upon entering the village of Canajoharie , NY 10 uses Reed Street , Walnut Street , and Rock Street which form a switchback to ease the descent before entering a valley containing the conjoined Mohawk River and Erie Canal and the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) .
Downtown , maintenance of NY 10 shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) to the village at Mohawk Street . The highway remains locally owned for three blocks to Incinerator Road , where the route becomes state @-@ maintained once more . During this stretch , NY 10 intersects NY 5S at Main Street . North of Incinerator Road , the route passes under the Thruway before crossing into the neighboring village of Palatine Bridge at the midpoint of the Mohawk River . On the northern riverbank , NY 10 meets NY 5 and overlaps the route westward for a block before continuing northward into the largely rural town of Palatine .
6 @.@ 0 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from Palatine Bridge , NY 10 passes into the Fulton County town of Ephratah and intersects NY 67 just inside the county line . NY 67 turns north , joining NY 10 to the community of Ephratah , where it splits from NY 10 and heads east to Johnstown . NY 10 , however , continues northward in the vicinity of Caroga Creek to an intersection with NY 29 near the hamlet of Garoga . The two routes join for roughly 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) before separating as the roadway crosses over the Blue Line into Adirondack Park .
= = = = Adirondack Park = = = =
North of Rockwood , the community centered around the northern split of the overlap between NY 10 and NY 29 , NY 10 intersects NY 10A , an alternate route around Rockwood Lake to the east . Farther north , NY 10 enters Caroga Lake , a community situated on the eastern edges of West and East Caroga lakes . In the center of the hamlet , NY 10 meets NY 29A and follows the route out of the area . Together , NY 10 and NY 29A head northward through a region dotted with small lakes , as well as the larger Canada Lake , before splitting in the vicinity of Pine Lake .
Farther north , NY 10 passes directly between the Stoner Lakes , a pair of small water bodies separated by only NY 10 , just south of where it crosses into Hamilton County . For most of its run through the county , NY 10 parallels a waterbody , namely the west branch of the Sacandaga River to where the Piseco Outlet flows into it , then the Piseco Outlet north to Big Bay near the community of Higgins Bay . NY 10 terminates soon after at an intersection with NY 8 south of Piseco Lake , west of Spy Lake , and southwest of Higgins Bay .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature designated the primary north – south roadway along the west bank of the Hudson River from the New Jersey state line near New York City to Albany , now largely US 9W , as Route 3 , an unsigned legislative route . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , all of legislative Route 3 became part of the new NY 10 , which initially began at the New Jersey state line and ended in Saranac Lake . North of Albany , the route followed modern NY 5 , NY 50 , and NY 9N through Schenectady and Saratoga Springs to reach the North Country at Lake George . Past this point , NY 10 continued north on what is now US 9 , NY 8 , NY 28 , NY 28N , and NY 30 to Tupper Lake via Chestertown , Wevertown , North Creek , and Long Lake . At Tupper Lake , the route headed east on current NY 3 to Wawbeek before taking a more circuitous route to Saranac Lake by way of modern NY 30 , NY 186 , and NY 86 .
The first change to the routing of NY 10 came by 1926 when NY 10 was extended northeastward over modern NY 3 to Plattsburgh , where it terminated at NY 30 ( now NY 22 ) . The route was truncated one year later when US 9W was assigned to the portion of NY 10 between New Jersey and Albany . NY 10 was subsequently truncated to the former western terminus of its overlap with NY 5 in Schenectady . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 10 was significantly reconfigured to begin in Deposit and end at the Canadian border north of Malone . The only segment of NY 10 not altered by the realignment , which utilized a combination of previously numbered routes and unsigned roadways , was the piece between Long Lake and Lake Clear Junction .
From Deposit to Stamford , NY 10 supplanted NY 51 , a highway assigned in the mid @-@ 1920s . Farther north , the portion from Palatine Bridge to Indian Lake was originally part of NY 80 , a route created in the late 1920s . Past Indian Lake , NY 10 followed what had been part of NY 10A to Long Lake , where it connected to its pre @-@ 1930 alignment . The section of modern NY 10 between Stamford and Palatine Bridge was previously unnumbered . North of Lake Clear Junction , the route followed the pre @-@ 1930 routing of NY 3 from Paul Smiths to Malone and two previously unnumbered highways between Lake Clear Junction and Paul Smiths and from Malone to the Canadian border . NY 10 was truncated to its current northern terminus in Arietta and largely replaced with NY 30 north of Speculator c . 1960 .
= = NY 10A = =
There are two highways that have been designated NY 10A .
The original NY 10A was an alternate route of NY 10 between Long Lake and North Creek . It was assigned in the late 1920s and removed as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
The current NY 10A is a 2 @.@ 41 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 88 km ) two @-@ lane spur providing an alternate connection from NY 29 in Fulton County . The route begins at NY 29 in Johnstown and heads northwest to end at NY 10 in Caroga just inside the limits of Adirondack Park . NY 10A serves as a link for motorists wishing to access the western parts of Caroga via NY 10 from NY 29 , bypassing the Rockwood hamlet , a reduced speed zone , and about a mile of highway . It was assigned c . 1931 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Old Jock =
Old Jock ( 1859 – 1871 ) , was a famous Fox Terrier during the late 19th and early 20th centuries . A mostly white dog , he ran briefly with a hunting kennel before becoming a show dog , most notably with a victory at the show which popularised the Fox Terrier . His main show rivalry was with a dog named Tartar , and along with a dog named Trap , the three were popular sires of the Fox Terrier breed . He was also involved in the early formation of the Jack Russell Terrier and the Dandie Dinmont Terrier breeds .
= = Early life = =
According to the Kennel Club studbook , Old Jock was bred at some point during 1859 either by Captain Percy Williams in his Rufford Kennels , or by Jack Morgan who at the time was a huntsman with the Grove Kennels . He was bred from Jock and Grove Pepper , both huntman 's terriers . Jock was owned by Captain Williams , while Grove Pepper was owned by Morgan . It was claimed in W.D. Drury 's 1903 work British Dogs , Their Points , Selection , And Show Preparation that Old Jock was in fact bred from Quorn Kennels and that the listing in the Kennel Club studbook was incorrect .
He was a mostly white terrier , weighing between 16 – 18 pounds ( 7 @.@ 3 – 8 @.@ 2 kg ) during his lifetime . He had a tan mark on one ear , and a black patch near his stern and at the base of his tail . With strong legs and a well sprung chest , although it was noted that he had the appearance of having a missing rib when in thin condition . His ears were well placed with strong jaws and was described by dog author Rawdon Lee as being a " symmetrical terrier " . Compared to his rival Tartar , he was considered to be far less of the Bull and terrier type .
Old Jock ran two hunting seasons with the Grove Hunting Kennels and his tail was docked , although at a longer length than was considered normal at the time .
= = Show career = =
Jock 's main rival in the show ring was a dog named Tartar , who was said to be more fond of ratting than his competitor . Jock was said to have never killed a rat ; his ability to hunt Foxes was also thought to be a myth .
In 1862 at the National Exhibition in Birmingham , a dog show was held with a class for the new breed listed as " White and Other Smooth @-@ haired English Terriers , except Black and Tan " . Several Fox Terriers were shown , with a total of twenty four entries in the class . Old Jock placed first , with Old Trap owned by Mr. Bayly coming second and Mr. Stevenson 's Jack placing third . This was the first time that the Fox Terrier attracted public attention .
At the Crystal Palace dog show in 1870 , in what was considered to be the dog champion class of that time with the qualification requirement of a first place win at another show , Old Jock placed second . The winner was a black and tan terrier named Trimmer , with a line @-@ up of notable dogs in the history of the Fox Terrier including Mr. Murchison 's Old Trap ; Mr. W.J. Harrison 's Jocko ; Mr. F Sale 's Tyrant , Hornet and Tartar ; the Marquis of Huntly 's Bounce ; Mr. Bewley and Mr. Carson 's Quiz ; and Mr. W. Gammon 's Chance . This was the final time Old Jock was exhibited in the show ring .
In total , Jock won 33 first prizes ( of which 8 were champion classes ) and 4 second prizes , starting at the 1862 Birmingham show until the 1870 Crystal Palace show .
= = Death and legacy = =
Although Old Jock has already changed hands on several occasions , prior to the Crystal Palace Show of 1870 he was sold from Mr. W. Cropper to Mr. J.H. Murchinson for the sum of around £ 60 , which was supposedly the dog 's weight in silver . It was in Murchinson 's possession that Jock died in 1871 .
Three male dogs are considered to be the founding sires of the modern lines of Fox Terriers : Old Jock , Old Trap and Tartar . Of those three , Jock was considered to be more of a terrier than the other two . Reverend John Russell , who kept his strain of terriers quite pure , once admitted that he had used Old Jock to breed certain qualities into his dogs . Jock was also used to breed certain elements into the Dandie Dinmont Terrier . The very first Fox Terriers in Australia were bred from Old Jock , Grove Nettle and their contemporaries .
= = = Specific = = =
= = = General = = =
Lee , Rawdon B. ( 1895 ) . A History and Description , with Reminiscences , of the Fox Terrier . London : Horace Cox .
Dalziel , Hugh ( 1897 ) . British Dogs : Their Varieties , History , Characteristics , Breeding , Management , And Exhibition . London : The Bazaar Office .
Leighton , Robert ( 1910 ) . Dogs and All About Them . London : Cassell and Company .
= Ladislaus I of Hungary =
Ladislaus I or Ladislas I , also Saint Ladislaus or Saint Ladislas ( Hungarian : I or Szent László ; Croatian : Ladislav I. ; Slovak : Svätý Ladislav I ; c . 1040 – 29 July 1095 ) was King of Hungary from 1077 and King of Croatia from 1091 . He was the second son of King Béla I of Hungary . After Béla 's death in 1063 , Ladislaus and his elder brother , Géza , acknowledged their cousin , Solomon as the lawful king in exchange for receiving their father 's former duchy , which included one @-@ third of the kingdom . Géza and Ladislaus cooperated with Solomon for the next decade . Ladislaus 's most popular legend , which narrates his fight with a " Cuman " ( a Turkic nomad marauder ) who abducted a Hungarian girl , is connected to this period . Géza 's and Ladislaus 's relationship with Solomon deteriorated in the early 1070s , and they rebelled against him . Géza was proclaimed king in 1074 , but Solomon maintained control of the western regions of his kingdom . During Géza 's reign , Ladislaus was his brother 's most influential adviser .
Géza died in 1077 , and his supporters made Ladislaus king . Solomon resisted Ladislaus with the assistance of King Henry IV of Germany . Ladislaus supported Henry IV 's opponents during the Investiture Controversy . In 1081 , Solomon abdicated and acknowledged Ladislaus 's reign , but he conspired to regain the royal crown and Ladislaus imprisoned him . Ladislaus canonized the first Hungarian saints ( including his distant relatives , King Stephen I and Duke Emeric ) in 1085 . He set Solomon free during the canonization ceremony .
After a series of civil wars , Ladislaus 's main focus was the restoration of public safety . He introduced severe legislation , punishing those who violated property rights with death or mutilation . He occupied almost all Croatia in 1091 , which marked the beginning of an expansion period for the medieval Kingdom of Hungary . Ladislaus 's victories over the Pechenegs and Cumans ensured the security of his kingdom 's eastern borders for about 150 years . His relationship with the Holy See deteriorated during the last years of his reign , as the popes claimed that Croatia was their fief , but Ladislaus denied their claims .
Ladislaus was canonized on 27 June 1192 by Pope Celestine III . Legends depict him as a pious knight @-@ king , " the incarnation of the late @-@ medieval Hungarian ideal of chivalry . " He is a popular saint in Hungary and neighboring countries , where many churches are dedicated to him .
= = Early years ( before 1064 ) = =
Ladislaus was the second son of the future King Béla I of Hungary and his wife , Richeza ( or Adelaide ) , who was a daughter of King Mieszko II of Poland . Ladislaus and his elder brother , Géza , were born in Poland , where Béla had settled in the 1030s after being banished from Hungary . Ladislaus was born around 1040 . Ladislaus 's " physical and spiritual makeup testified to God 's gracious will even at his birth " , according to his late @-@ 12th @-@ century Legend . The almost contemporaneous Gallus Anonymus wrote that Ladislaus was " raised from childhood in Poland " and almost became a " Pole in his ways and life " . He received a Slavic name ; " Ladislaus " is the Hungarian version of " Vladislav " .
Béla and his family returned to Hungary around 1048 . Béla received the so @-@ called " Duchy " – which encompassed one @-@ third of the kingdom – from his brother , King Andrew I of Hungary . The Illuminated Chronicle mentions that Andrew 's son , Solomon , " was anointed king with the consent of Duke Bela and his sons Geysa and Ladislaus " in 1057 or 1058 .
Béla , who had been Andrew 's heir before Solomon 's coronation , left for Poland in 1059 ; his sons accompanied him . They returned with Polish reinforcements and began a rebellion against Andrew . After defeating Andrew , Béla was crowned king on 6 December 1060 . Solomon left the country , taking refuge in the Holy Roman Empire . Béla I died on 11 September 1063 , some time before German troops entered Hungary in order to restore Solomon . Ladislaus and his brothers , Géza and Lampert , went back to Poland , and Solomon was once again crowned king in Székesfehérvár . The three brothers returned when the Germans left Hungary . To avoid another civil war , the brothers signed a treaty with Solomon on 20 January 1064 , acknowledging Solomon 's reign in exchange for their father 's duchy .
= = Duke in Hungary ( 1064 – 1077 ) = =
Ladislaus and Géza probably divided the administration of their duchy ; Ladislaus seems to have received the regions around Bihar ( now Biharia , Romania ) . Géza and Ladislaus cooperated with King Solomon between 1064 and 1071 . The most popular story in Ladislaus 's later legends – his fight with a " Cuman " warrior who abducted a Christian maiden – occurred during this period . The relationship between the king and his cousins became tense in the early 1070s . When Géza accompanied Solomon on a military campaign against the Byzantine Empire in 1072 , Ladislaus stayed behind with half of the ducal troops in Nyírség to " avenge his brother with a strong hand " if Solomon harmed Géza .
Realizing that another civil war was inevitable , the king and dukes launched negotiations to obtain the assistance of foreign powers . First , Ladislaus visited the Kievan Rus ' , but he returned without reinforcements . He then went to Moravia , and persuaded Duke Otto I of Olomouc to accompany him back to Hungary with Czech troops . By the time they returned to Hungary , the royal army had already invaded the duchy and routed Géza 's troops at the Battle of Kemej on 26 February 1074 . Ladislaus met his fleeing brother at Vác , and they decided to continue the fight against Solomon . A legend preserved in the Illuminated Chronicle mentions that before the battle , Ladislaus " saw in broad daylight a vision from heaven " of an angel placing a crown on Géza 's head . Another legendary episode also predicted the dukes ' triumph over the king : an " ermine of purest white " jumped from a thorny bush to Ladislaus 's lance and then onto his chest . The decisive Battle of Mogyoród was fought on 14 March 1074 . Ladislaus commanded " the troops from Byhor " on the left flank . Solomon was defeated , but instead of surrendering to his cousins , he fled to the western borders of the kingdom to seek assistance from his brother @-@ in @-@ law Henry IV of Germany .
Géza was proclaimed king , but Solomon established himself in Moson and Pressburg ( now Bratislava , Slovakia ) . During his brother 's reign , Ladislaus administered all of their father 's former duchy . He repelled Solomon 's attack on Nyitra ( present @-@ day Nitra , Slovakia ) in August or September 1074 , but he could not seize Pressburg . Ladislaus was also his brother 's main advisor . Legend says that Géza decided to build a church dedicated to the Holy Virgin in Vác after Ladislaus explained the significance of the wondrous appearance of a red deer at the place where the church would be erected :
As [ King Géza and Duke Ladislaus ] were standing at a spot near [ Vác ] , where is now the church of the blessed apostle Peter , a stag appeared to them with many candles burning upon his horns , and it began to run swifly before them towards the wood , and at the spot where is now the monastery , it halted and stood still . When the soldiers shot their arrows at it , it leapt into the Danube , and they saw it no more . At this sight the blessed Ladislaus said : " Truly that was no stag , but an angel from God . " And King [ Géza ] said : " Tell me , beloved brother , what may all the candles signify which we saw burning on the stag 's horns . " The blessed Ladislaus answered : " They are not horns , but wings ; they are not burning candles , but shining feathers . It has shown to us that we are to build the church of the Blessed Virgin on the place where it planted its feet , and not elsewhere . "
= = His reign = =
= = = Consolidation ( 1077 – 1085 ) = = =
Géza I died on 25 April 1077 . Since Géza 's sons , Coloman and Álmos , were minors , his supporters proclaimed Ladislaus king instead . Gallus Anonymus emphasizes that King Boleslaus II the Bold of Poland " drove out " Solomon " from Hungary with his forces , and placed [ Ladislaus ] on the throne " ; Boleslaus even called Ladislaus " his king " . Although the Illuminated Chronicle emphasizes that Ladislaus " never placed the crown upon his head , for he desired a heavenly crown rather than the earthly crown of a mortal king " , all his coins depict him wearing a crown , suggesting that Ladislaus was actually crowned around 1078 . Shortly after his coronation , Ladislaus promulgated two law books , which incorporated the decisions of an assembly of the " magnates of the kingdom " , held in Pannonhalma . The majority of these laws were draconian measures to defend private property , showing that Ladislaus primarily focused on internal consolidation and security during the first years of his reign . Those who were caught stealing were to be executed , and even criminals who committed minor offenses against property rights were blinded or sold as slaves . His other laws regulated legal proceedings and economic matters , including the issuing of judicial summons and the royal monopoly on salt trade .
If someone , freeman or bondman , should be caught in theft , he shall be hanged . But if he flees to the church to evade the gallows , he shall be led out of the church and blinded . A bondman caught in theft , if he does not flee to the church , shall be hanged ; the owner of the stolen goods shall take a loss in the lost goods . The sons and daughters of a freeman caught in theft who fled to the church , was led out and blinded , if they are ten years old or less , shall retain their freedom ; but if they are older than ten years they shall be reduced to servitude and lose all their property . A bondman or freeman who steals a goose or a hen shall lose one eye and shall restore what he has stolen .
The Illuminated Chronicle claims that Ladislaus planned to " restore the kingdom " to Solomon and " himself have the dukedom " , but almost all contemporaneous sources contradict this report . Ladislaus approached Pope Gregory VII , who was the primary opponent of Solomon 's ally , Henry IV of Germany . At the Pope 's request , Ladislaus sheltered Bavarian nobles who had rebelled against Henry . In 1078 or 1079 , Ladislaus married Adelaide , a daughter of Rudolf of Rheinfelden , whom the German princes had elected to take the place of Henry IV as king . Ladislaus supported Leopold II , Margrave of Austria , who also rebelled against Henry IV ; however , the German monarch forced Leopold to surrender in May 1078 .
Taking advantage of the internal conflicts in the Holy Roman Empire , Ladislaus besieged and captured the fortress of Moson from Solomon in early 1079 . However , Henry IV stormed the western regions of Hungary , and secured Solomon 's position . The German invasion also prevented Ladislaus from assisting Boleslaus the Bold , who fled to Hungary after his subjects expelled him from Poland . Ladislaus initiated negotiations with Solomon , who abdicated in 1080 or 1081 in exchange for " revenues sufficient to bear the expenses of a king " . However , Solomon soon began conspiring against Ladislaus , and Ladislaus imprisoned him .
The first five Hungarian saints , including the first king of Hungary , Stephen I , and Stephen 's son , Emeric , were canonized during Ladislaus 's reign . Stephen 's canonization demonstrates Ladislaus 's magnanimity , because Ladislaus 's grandfather , Vazul , had been blinded by Stephen 's orders in the 1030s . Historian László Kontler says that the canonization ceremony , held in August 1083 , was also a political act , demonstrating Ladislaus 's " commitment to preserving and strengthening " the Christian state . Ladislaus even dedicated a newly established Benedictine monastery – Szentjobb Abbey – to Stephen 's right arm , known as the " Holy Dexter " , which was miraculously found intact . Ladislaus released Solomon at the time of the ceremony ; legend said that Stephen 's grave could not be opened until he did so .
[ The ] Lord , in order to show how merciful [ King Stephen I ] had been while living in a mortal body , demonstrated his approval of [ Stephen 's revelation as a saint ] before all other works when [ the king ] was already reigning with Christ to the point that though for three days they struggled with all their might to raise his holy body , it was not by any means to be moved from its place . For in that time , because of the sins , a grave discord arose between the said king Ladislas and his cousin Solomon , because of which , Solomon , captured , was held in prison . Therefore when they tried in vain to raise the body , a certain recluse at the church of the Holy Savior in Bökénysomlyó , by the name of Karitas , whose famous life at the time was held in esteem , confided to the king by a revelation made to her from heaven that they exerted themselves in vain ; it would be impossible to transfer the relics of the holy king until unconditional pardon was offered to Solomon , setting him free from the confinement of prison . And thus , bringing him forth from the prison , and repeating the three @-@ day fast , when the third day arrived for the transferal of the holy remains , the stone lying over the grave was lifted up with such ease as if it had been of no weight before .
After his release , Solomon made a final effort to regain his crown . He persuaded a Pecheneg chieftain , Kutesk , to invade Hungary in 1085 . Ladislaus defeated the invaders at the upper courses of the Tisza River .
= = = Expansion ( 1085 – 1092 ) = = =
In August 1087 , German princes who opposed Henry IV 's rule held a conference in Speyer . The contemporaneous Bernold of St Blasien mentions that Ladislaus sent envoys to the meeting , and " promised that he would assist [ them ] with 20 @,@ 000 knights , if it became necessary " . Ladislaus also recognized Pope Victor III as the legitimate pope , rather than Clement III , who had been elected pope at Henry IV 's initiative . However , Ladislaus provided no further support to Henry IV 's opponents after he was informed of Solomon 's death in 1087 .
King Demetrius Zvonimir of Croatia 's wife , Helen , was Ladislaus 's sister . After the death of Zvonimir and his successor , Stephen II , a conflict developed between factions of Croatian noblemen . At Helen 's request , Ladislaus intervened in the conflict and invaded Croatia in 1091 . The same year , he wrote to Oderizius , Abbot of Monte Cassino in Italy , about his invasion . Thomas the Archdeacon 's chronicle describes how Ladislaus " occupied the entire land from the River Drava to the mountains called the Iron Alps without encountering opposition " . However , his opponents crowned a local nobleman , Petar Svačić , as king . Svačić fought in the Gvozd Mountains , preventing the complete conquest of Croatia . Ladislaus appointed his nephew , Álmos , to administer the occupied territory . Around the same time , Ladislaus set up a separate diocese in Slavonia , with its see in Zagreb . The bishop of the new see became the suffragan to the archbishop of Esztergom in Hungary .
Ladislaus admitted in his letter to Oderizius that he could not " promote the cause of earthly dignities without committing grave sins " . Historian Bálint Hóman says that Ladislaus was referring to a developing conflict with Pope Urban II , who objected to Ladislaus 's refusal to acknowledge the Holy See 's suzerainty over Croatia . In the letter , Ladislaus styled himself as " king of the Hungarians and of Messia " . Historian Ferenc Makk writes that the latter title referred to Moesia , implying that Ladislaus had taken the regions between the Great Morava and Drina rivers from the Byzantine Empire . No other documents refer to Ladislaus 's occupation of Moesia , suggesting that if Ladislaus did occupy the region , he lost it quickly . Alexandru Madgearu says that " Messia " should rather be associated with Bosnia , which was occupied during Ladislaus 's campaign against Croatia .
The Cumans invaded and plundered the eastern part of the kingdom in 1091 or 1092 . Makk argues that the Byzantines persuaded them to attack Hungary , while the Illuminated Chronicle states that the Cumans were incited by the " Ruthenians " . In retaliation , the chronicle continues , Ladislaus invaded the neighboring Rus ' principalities , forcing the " Ruthenians " to ask " for mercy " and to promise " that they would be faithful to him in all things " . No Rus ' chronicle documents Ladislaus 's military action .
Bernold of St Blasien writes that Duke Welf of Bavaria prevented a conference that Emperor Henry IV " had arranged with the king of the Hungarians " in December 1092 . A letter written by Henry refers to " the alliance into which [ he ] once entered " with Ladislaus . Pope Urban II also mentioned that the Hungarians " left the shepherds of their salvation " , implying that Ladislaus had changed sides and acknowledged the legitimacy of Antipope Clement III . In the deed of the Benedictine Somogyvár Abbey , Ladislaus stated that the abbot should be obedient to him , proving that Ladislaus opposed the Church 's independence , which was demanded by the Gregorian Reforms . Ladislaus personally presided over an assembly of the Hungarian prelates that met in Szabolcs on 21 May 1091 . The synod recognized the legitimacy of a clergyman 's first marriage , in contrast to the requirements of canon law , which states that members of the clergy may not marry at all . According to a scholarly theory , the sees of the dioceses of Kalocsa and Bihar were moved to Bács ( now Bač , Serbia ) and Nagyvárad ( present @-@ day Oradea , Romania ) , respectively , during Ladislaus 's reign .
= = = Last years ( 1092 – 1095 ) = = =
Ladislaus intervened in a conflict between Wladislaw I Herman , Duke of Poland , and the duke 's illegitimate son , Zbigniew , on the latter 's behalf . He marched to Poland and captured Wladislaw I Herman 's younger son , Boleslav , in 1093 . At Ladislaus 's demand , Wladislaw I Herman declared Zbigniew his legitimate son . The Illuminated Chronicle also mentions that the Hungarian troops captured Cracow during Ladislaus 's campaign , but the credibility of this report has been questioned .
The Illuminated Chronicle states that " messengers from France and from Spain , from England and Britain , and especially from Willermus , the brother of the King of the Franks " visited Ladislaus in Bodrog ( near present @-@ day Bački Monoštor in Serbia ) on Easter 1095 , asking him to lead their crusade to the Holy Land . Ladislaus 's legend says that he decided " to go to Jerusalem , and to die there for Christ " . The whole story was invented , probably during the reign of King Béla III of Hungary ( who was actually planning to lead a crusade to the Holy Land in the 1190s ) , according to historian Gábor Klaniczay . However , Ladislaus did plan to invade Bohemia , because he wanted to assist his sister 's sons , Svatopluk and Otto . He became seriously ill before reaching Moravia . The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that Ladislaus , who had no sons , " called together his chief men " , telling them that his brother 's younger son , Álmos , " should reign after him " .
Ladislaus died near the Hungarian @-@ Bohemian border on 29 July 1095 . A papal bull issued by Pope Paschal II in 1106 states that Ladislaus 's " venerable body rests " in Somogyvár Abbey , implying that Ladislaus had been buried in Somogyvár . On the other hand , Ladislaus 's late 12th @-@ century Legend says that Ladislaus 's attendants decided to bury him in Székesfehérvár , but the cart carrying his body " set out to Várad on its own , unassisted by any draft animal " .
= = Family = =
Historian Gyula Kristó says that Ladislaus had a first wife , but her name and family are not known . She gave birth to a daughter , whose name is also unknown . Ladislaus 's daughter married Prince Iaroslav Sviatopolchich of Volhinia around 1090 . Ladislaus again in 1078 , to Adelaide , a daughter of the German anti @-@ king Rudolf of Swabia . Their only known child , Piroska , became the wife of the Byzantine Emperor John II Komnenos in 1105 or 1106 .
Ladislaus 's family and relatives who are mentioned in the article are shown in the following family tree .
* According to a scholarly theory suggesting that Ladislaus had two wives .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Consolidation of the Christian monarchy = = =
For centuries , hagiographers and historians have emphasized Ladislaus 's prominent role in the consolidation of the Christian monarchy . The chronicles also stressed his idoneitas , or personal suitability , to reign , because the legitimacy of his rule was questionable . The Illum
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, Vila in the New Hebrides , Tulagi on Guadalcanal , Buka Passage in Bougainville , and Lorengau on Manus Island to act as observers .
In December 1941 the Australian Army in the Pacific consisted of the 8th Division , most of which was stationed in Malaya , and eight partially trained and equipped divisions in Australia , including the 1st Armoured Division . In keeping with the Singapore strategy , a high proportion of Australian forces in Asia were concentrated in Malaya during 1940 and 1941 as the threat from Japan increased . At the outbreak of war the Australian forces in Malaya consisted of two brigade groups from the 8th Division — the 22nd and 27th Brigades — under the command of Major General Gordon Bennett , along with four RAAF squadrons and eight warships .
Following the Japanese invasion on 8 December 1941 , the 8th Division and its attached Indian Army units was assigned responsibility for the defence of Johore in the south of Malaya . As a result , it did not see action until mid @-@ January 1942 when Japanese spearheads first reached the state , having pushed back the British and Indian units defending the northern parts of the peninsula . By this time , the division 's two brigades had been split up , with the 22nd having been deployed around Mersing and Endau on the east coast and the 27th in the west . The division 's first engagement came on the west coast around Muar on 14 January , where the Japanese Twenty @-@ Fifth Army was able to outflank the Commonwealth positions due to Bennett misdeploying the forces under his command so that the weak Indian 45th Brigade was assigned the crucial coastal sector and the stronger Australian brigades were deployed in less threatened areas . While the Commonwealth forces in Johore achieved a number of local tactical victories , most notably around Gemas , Bakri and Jemaluang , they were unable to do more than slow the Japanese advance and suffered heavy casualties in doing so . After being outmanoeuvred by the Japanese , the remaining Commonwealth units withdrew to Singapore on the night of 30 – 31 January .
Following this the 8th Division was deployed to defend Singapore 's north @-@ west coast . Due to the casualties suffered in Johore most of the division 's units were at half @-@ strength , and the replacements that had been received — a draft of about 1 @,@ 900 replacements was sent in late January — were barely trained , some having as little as two weeks ' training in Australia before being dispatched . Assigned larger @-@ than @-@ normal frontages to defend along beaches that were ill @-@ suited for defence , the 22nd and 27th Brigades were spread thin on the ground with large gaps in their lines . The commander of the Singapore fortress , Lieutenant General Arthur Ernest Percival , believed that the Japanese would land on the north @-@ east coast of the island and deployed the near full @-@ strength British 18th Division to defend this sector . Nevertheless , on 8 February the Japanese landed in the Australian sector , and the 8th Division was forced from its positions after just two days of heavy fighting . A subsequent landing took place at Kranji , but the division was unable to turn this back and subsequently withdrew to the centre of the island .
After further fighting in which the Commonwealth forces were pushed into a narrow perimeter around the urban area of Singapore , Percival surrendered his forces on 15 February . Although some Australians were able to escape , following the capitulation 14 @,@ 972 Australians were taken prisoner . Bennett was among those that managed to get out , having left the island the night before the surrender via sampan after handing over command of his division to Brigadier Cecil Callaghan . He later justified his actions saying that he had gained an understanding of how to defeat the Japanese and needed to return to Australia to pass his knowledge on , but two post @-@ war inquiries found that he was unjustified in leaving his command . The loss of almost a quarter of Australia 's overseas soldiers and the failure of the Singapore strategy that had permitted it to accept the sending of the AIF to aid Britain , stunned the country .
The fall of Singapore raised fears of a Japanese invasion of the Australian mainland and the Government became concerned about the Army 's ability to respond . Although large , the forces in Australia contained many inexperienced units and lacked mobility . In response , most of the AIF was brought back from the Middle East and the Australian Prime Minister , John Curtin , appealed to the United States for assistance . As Japanese forces advanced through Burma towards India in early 1942 , the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , attempted to divert the 6th and 7th Divisions while they were en route to Australia , but Curtin refused to authorise this movement . As a compromise the 16th and 17th Brigades of the 6th Division disembarked at Ceylon and formed part of the island 's garrison until they returned to Australia in August 1942 .
= = = Netherlands East Indies and Rabaul = = =
While Australia 's contribution to the pre @-@ war plans to defend South East Asia from Japanese aggression was focused on the defence of Malaya and Singapore , small Australian forces were also deployed to defend several islands to the north of Australia . The role of these forces was to defend strategic airfields which could be used to launch attacks on the Australian mainland . Detachments of coastwatchers were also stationed in the Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands to report on any Japanese operations there .
At the start of the Pacific War the strategic port town of Rabaul in New Britain was defended by " Lark Force " , which comprised the 2 / 22nd Battalion reinforced with coastal artillery and a poorly equipped RAAF bomber squadron . While Lark Force was regarded as inadequate by the Australian military , it was not possible to reinforce it before the Japanese South Seas Force landed at Rabaul on 23 January 1942 . The outnumbered Australian force was swiftly defeated and most of the survivors surrendered in the weeks after the battle . Few members of Lark Force survived the war , as at least 130 were murdered by the Japanese on 4 February and 1 @,@ 057 Australian soldiers and civilian prisoners from Rabaul were killed when the ship carrying them to Japan , the transport Montevideo Maru , was sunk by a US submarine on 1 July 1942 .
AIF troops were also dispatched from Darwin to the Netherlands East Indies ( NEI ) in the first weeks of the Pacific War . Reinforced battalions from the 8th Division 's third brigade , the 23rd , were sent to Koepang in West Timor as part of " Sparrow Force " and to the island of Ambon as " Gull Force " to defend these strategic locations from Japanese attack . The 2 / 2nd Independent Company was also sent to Dili in Portuguese Timor in violation of Portugal 's neutrality . The force at Ambon was defeated by the Japanese landing on 30 January and surrendered on 3 February 1942 . Over 300 Australian prisoners were subsequently killed by Japanese troops in a series of mass executions during February . While the force at Koepang was defeated after the Japanese landed there on 20 February and also surrendered , Australian commandos waged a guerrilla campaign against the Japanese in Portuguese Timor until February 1943 .
In the lead @-@ up to the Japanese invasion of Java a force of 242 carrier- and land @-@ based aircraft attacked Darwin on 19 February 1942 . At the time Darwin was an important base for Allied warships and a staging point for shipping supplies and reinforcements into the NEI . The Japanese attack was successful , and resulted in the deaths of 251 civilians and military personnel , most of whom were non @-@ Australian Allied seamen , and heavy damage to RAAF Base Darwin and the town 's port facilities .
A 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Army unit , as well as several Australian warships and aircraft from a number of RAAF squadrons participated in the unsuccessful defence of Java when the Japanese invaded the island in March 1942 . An Army force made up of elements from the 7th Division also formed part of the American @-@ British @-@ Dutch @-@ Australian Command ( ABDACOM ) land forces on Java but saw little action before it surrendered at Bandung on 12 March after the Dutch forces on the island began to capitulate . Following the conquest of the NEI , the Japanese Navy 's main aircraft carrier force raided the Indian Ocean , attacking Ceylon in early April . The two Australian Army brigades stationed at Ceylon at the time of the raid were placed on alert to repel a potential invasion but did not see action as this did not eventuate .
= = = Defence of Australia = = =
Japan 's rapid advance south had been unexpected , and the perceived threat of invasion led to a major expansion of the Australian military . By mid @-@ 1942 the Army had a strength of ten infantry divisions , three armoured divisions and hundreds of other units . Thousands of Australians who were ineligible for service in the military responded to the threat of attack by joining auxiliary organisations such as the Volunteer Defence Corps and Volunteer Air Observers Corps , which were modelled on the British Home Guard and Royal Observer Corps respectively . However , Australia 's population and industrial base were not sufficient to maintain these forces once the threat of invasion had passed , and the Army was progressively reduced in size from 1943 .
Despite Australian fears , the Japanese never intended to invade the Australian mainland . While an invasion was considered by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters in February 1942 , it was judged to be beyond the Japanese military 's capabilities and no planning or other preparations were undertaken . Instead , in March 1942 the Japanese military adopted a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States by capturing Port Moresby in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands , Fiji , Samoa and New Caledonia . Yet this plan was frustrated by the Japanese defeat in the Battle of the Coral Sea and was postponed indefinitely after the Battle of Midway . While these battles ended the threat to Australia , the Australian government continued to warn that an invasion was possible until mid @-@ 1943 . A series of Japanese air raids against northern Australia occurred during 1942 and 1943 , and while the main defence was provided by RAAF and Allied fighters , a number of Australian Army anti @-@ aircraft batteries were also involved in dealing with this threat .
Meanwhile , in 1942 the Australian military was reinforced by units recalled from the Middle East and an expansion of the Militia and RAAF . United States military units also arrived in Australia in great numbers before being deployed to New Guinea , and in April 1942 command of Australian and US forces in the South West Pacific was consolidated under an American commander , General Douglas MacArthur . After halting the Japanese the Allies moved onto the offensive in late 1942 , with the pace of advance accelerating in 1943 . From 1944 the Australian military was mainly relegated to subsidiary roles in holding or mopping @-@ up operations , but continued to conduct large @-@ scale operations until the end of the war with
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sonata trilogy is based on the same basic group of intervallic motifs . Moreover , each of the sonatas contains a complex network of inner harmonic and motivic connections linking together all movements , and passages from one movement often reappear , usually transformed , in later movements . Most of these connections are too subtle to be detected during casual listening . In some cases , however , Schubert quotes a theme or passage from an earlier movement with little alteration , inserting it in structurally significant locations , creating an immediately audible allusion . Such explicit connections are related to the cyclic form , one of the musical forms associated with the Romantic period in music .
The most manifestly cyclical work of the three sonatas is the Sonata in A major . In the sonata 's scherzo , a joyous passage in C major is suddenly interrupted by a fierce downward rushing scale in C @-@ sharp minor , which closely recalls a parallel passage at the climax of the preceding movement ; this is followed in the scherzo by a dance theme whose melody is derived from the Andantino 's opening melody . This unique moment is one of the most explicit , audible cyclic references in the sonata trilogy . Another important cyclic element in the A major Sonata is the subtle similarities and connections that exist between each movement 's ending and the following movement 's opening ; the connection between the opening and ending of the sonata as a whole , is even bolder : the sonata ends in a cancrizans of its opening , a framing device which is probably unprecedented in the sonata literature .
Charles Fisk , also a pianist and music scholar , has described another cyclic element in Schubert 's last sonatas – a unifying tonal design , which follows a similar , basic dramatic scheme in each of the three works . According to Fisk , each sonata presents at its very beginning , the generative kernel of a musical conflict from which all the ensuing music will derive . The first movement , beginning and ending in the sonata 's home key , confronts this key with a contrasting tonality or tonal stratum . This dichotomous tonal design is also manifested in both third and final movements , whose openings are variants of the first movement 's opening . Moreover , the contrasting tonality becomes the main key of the second movement , thus increasing the harmonic tension in the middle of the sonata , while projecting the first movement 's tonal design ( home key – contrasting tonality – home key ) on the sonata as a whole . In the first half of each sonata , the musical material in the contrasting tonality is presented in sharp conflict with the material in the home key – in each appearance boldly detached from its surroundings . However , in the third movements and especially in the finales , this contrasting tonal realm is gradually integrated into its environment , bringing a sense of unity and resolution to the tonal conflict which was presented at the beginning of the sonata . Fisk goes further to interpret the dramatic musical scheme manifested in the tonal design of the sonatas , as the basis of a unique psychological narrative ( see below ) .
= = Allusion to other works by Schubert = =
Besides the internal references that they often make to earlier passages within them , Schubert 's last sonatas contain distinct allusions and resemblances to some of his previous works , mostly earlier piano works , as well as many of his songs . Important similarities also exist between certain passages in the sonatas and works from other genres that were composed in parallel , during the same months in 1828 .
The finale of the A major Sonata , uses as its main theme , a transformation of an earlier theme from the second movement of the Piano Sonata in A minor , D. 537 . Schubert introduced some changes to the original melody , which make it conform better with the sonata 's basic motifs , in accordance with the cyclical scheme of the sonata . Another allusion to an earlier piano work appears in the middle of the sonata 's slow movement : after the climax in the middle section of the Andantino , appears a passage ( bars 147 – 158 ) that closely recalls bars 35 – 39 from the Impromptu in G @-@ flat major , D. 899 .
An important , unique work for solo piano written by Schubert , stands apart from his sonatas , but is closely related to them in its concept and style : the Wanderer Fantasy of 1822 . The harmonic scheme inherent in each of Schubert 's last sonatas , according to Charles Fisk , of a tonal conflict gradually resolved through musical integration , finds its precedent in the Fantasy . Moreover , a tonal stratum which plays a unique role throughout the sonata trilogy – C @-@ sharp minor / F @-@ sharp minor , is also precedented in the Fantasy as well as the song on which it was based , Der Wanderer ( of 1816 ) ( Fisk calls C @-@ sharp minor " the wanderer 's key " ) . In these two earlier works , and likewise in the last sonatas , passages written in the C @-@ sharp minor / F @-@ sharp minor stratum portray a sense of alienation , of wandering and homelessness , according to Fisk . The allusion to the song Der Wanderer becomes fully explicit when , in the development section of the B @-@ flat Sonata 's opening movement , the new theme first presented in this section , undergoes a transformation ( in bars 159 – 160 ) to become an almost literal quotation of the song 's piano introduction .
Another composition from the song genre , also mentioned by Fisk and others , as intimately related to the last sonatas , and also depicting a feeling of wandering and homelessness , is the Winterreise ( A Winter 's Journey ) song cycle . Numerous connections between different songs from the cycle and the sonatas , especially the C minor Sonata , have been mentioned . For example : in the C minor Sonata , the first movement 's development section recalls the songs Erstarrung and Der Lindenbaum ; the second movement and the finale recall the songs Das Wirtshaus , Gefrorne Tranen , Gute Nacht , Auf dem Flusse , Der Wegweiser , and Einsamkeit . These allusions to Winterreise retain the alienated , lonely atmosphere of its songs .
Several of Schubert 's last songs ( the Schwanengesang collection ) , composed during the period of the sketching of the last sonatas , also portray a deep sense of alienation , and bear important similarities with specific moments in the sonatas . These include the songs Der Atlas ( recalls the opening of the C minor Sonata ) , Ihr Bild ( the B @-@ flat major / G @-@ flat major conflict at the opening of the B @-@ flat Sonata ) , Am Meer , and Der Doppelgänger .
Additional songs which have been mentioned in analogy to specific passages in the last sonatas include Im Frühling ( the opening of the A major Sonata 's finale ) , and Pilgerweise ( the main section of the Andantino in the A major Sonata ) .
Schubert 's famous String Quintet was written in September 1828 , together with the final versions of the sonatas . The slow movements of the quintet and the B @-@ flat Sonata bear striking similarities in their main sections : both employ the same unique textural layout , in which two @-@ three voices sing long notes in the middle register , accompanied by the contrasted , short pizzicato notes of the other voices , in the lower and upper registers ; in both movements , the long notes over the relentless ostinato rhythm , convey an atmosphere of complete stillness , of arrest of all motion and time . String quintet textures also appear elsewhere , throughout the sonata trilogy .
= = Extramusical connotations and suggestions of a narrative = =
Schubert 's mature music often manipulates the listener 's sense of time and forward movement . Passages creating such an effect appear frequently in the last sonatas , mainly in the first and second movements . Two harmonic devices are employed in the sonatas to create this effect :
Tonal detachment of passages or complete movements from their home @-@ key surroundings . These passages are often introduced by sudden , " magical " harmonic shifts that closely juxtapose the home key ( or a closely related key such as the dominant ) with the new , distant tonality . Two examples of this procedure , from the opening movement of the B @-@ flat Sonata , are shown on the right .
Creation of tonal stasis by rapid oscillation between two contrasting tonalities . Such a device appears in the development sections of the A major and B @-@ flat sonatas , opening movements .
Harmonic manipulations of this kind create a sense of standstill , of arrest of time and motion ; they often suggest a feeling of detachment , of entering a new dimension , independent of the preceding material , such as the realm of dreams and memories ( if the preceding material is conceived as reality ) ; some tonally detached passages may convey a feeling of an alienated , inhospitable environment , an exile ( if the preceding material is conceived as home ) .
The emotional effect of these passages is often further enhanced by textural and / or cyclical devices , such as a sudden shift of musical texture , concomitant with the shift in tonality ; the use of mechanically repetitive accompanimental patterns , such as ostinati and repeated chords , in the tonally remote or oscillating passages ; and the allusion to previously stated material , which appeared earlier in the piece , in tonally detached passages . Schubert 's frequent use of similar harmonic , textural and cyclical devices in his settings of poems depicting such emotional states , only strengthens the suggestion of these psychological connotations .
Extramusical connotations of this kind have sometimes been used as a basis for the construction of a psychological or biographical narrative , attempting to interpret the musical program behind Schubert 's last sonatas . Charles Fisk has suggested that the sonatas portray a protagonist going through successive stages of alienation , banishment , exile , and eventual homecoming ( in the A major and B @-@ flat Sonatas ) , or self @-@ assertion ( in the C minor Sonata ) . Discrete tonalities or tonal strata , appearing in complete musical segregation from one another at the beginning of each sonata , suggest contrasting psychological states , such as reality and dream , home and exile , etc . ; these conflicts are further deepened in the ensuing slow movements . Once these contrasts are resolved at the finale , by intensive musical integration and the gradual transition from one tonality to the next , a sense of reconciliation , of acceptance and homecoming , is invoked . Fisk 's hypothetical narrative is grounded on the basis of the ample cyclic connections within the sonatas and their unique tonal design , as well as their musical similarities to songs such as Der Wanderer and the Winterreise song cycle ; and on biographical evidence concerning Schubert 's life , including a story written by Schubert ( Mein Traum – My Dream ) . Fisk suggests that the sonatas convey Schubert 's own feelings of loneliness and alienation ; by their striving towards musical and tonal integration , the writing of these works offered Schubert a release from his emotional distress , particularly deepened after finishing the composition of the lonely , depressive and hopeless songs of Winterreise , during the preceding year .
It is often suggested that the Last Sonata , in B @-@ flat major , is a farewell work in which Schubert faces his own death ( somewhat analogous to the myths surrounding Mozart 's Requiem ) ; this is usually ascribed to the relaxed , meditative character which dominates the two opening movements . Death scenes are also associated , somewhat more explicitly , with the more tragic C minor Sonata ; Charles Fisk , for example , mentions ghosts and a ' dance of death ' , in the outer movements . However , when judging from a biographical point of view , the notion that Schubert felt his imminent death at the time of composing the last sonatas is questionable .
= = Beethoven 's influence = =
It is well acknowledged that Schubert was a great admirer of Beethoven , and that Beethoven had an immense influence on Schubert 's writing , especially on his late works . Schubert often borrowed musical and structural ideas from the works of Beethoven , to combine them into his own compositions . There are two outstanding examples for this practice in the last piano sonatas :
The opening of the Sonata in C minor is " taken almost note @-@ for @-@ note " from the theme of Beethoven 's 32 Variations in C minor .
The structure of the finale of the Sonata in A major is borrowed from the finale of Beethoven 's Piano Sonata , Op. 31 , No. 1 , as evident through numerous parallels in structural features .
Numerous additional , less obvious similarities to works by Beethoven have been frequently mentioned in the literature . In these cases , the question of whether or not Schubert had actually borrowed his ideas from Beethoven is open to musicological debate . Here are some examples :
in the C minor Sonata , certain passages in the first two movements resemble parallel passages from Beethoven 's Piano Sonata No. 8 , Op. 13 ( the Pathétique ) , written in the same key .
in the A major Sonata , bars 200 – 206 from the end of the development section in the finale recall bars 51 – 55 from the first movement of Beethoven 's Piano Sonata in C @-@ sharp minor , Op. 27 , No. 2 ( the Moonlight Sonata ) .
in the B @-@ flat Sonata , the opening theme of the first movement recalls the opening of Beethoven 's " Archduke " Trio , whereas bars 34 – 39 recall bars 166 – 169 from the first movement of Beethoven 's Fifth Piano Concerto , the Emperor ; in the latter case , both passages are similarly modified in the recapitulations . The opening of the sonata 's finale , in turn , recalls the opening of the finale from Beethoven 's String Quartet in B @-@ flat major , Op. 130 .
A striking feature of many of these alleged borrowings from Beethoven is that they retain , in their borrowed state , the same structural position they had in Beethoven 's original design – they appear in the same movements , at the same structural points . However , despite all this evidence in support of Schubert 's borrowing from Beethoven , " he evokes the memory of Beethoven and the classical style , but is no docile follower " , as Alfred Brendel points out . " On the contrary , his familiarity with Beethoven 's works taught him to be different ... Schubert relates to Beethoven , he reacts to him , but he follows him hardly at all . Similarities of motif , texture or formal pattern never obscure Schubert 's own voice . Models are concealed , transformed , surpassed " . A good example of Schubert 's departure from Beethoven 's line can be found in his most overt quotation of Beethoven – the opening of the Sonata in C minor . Once Schubert 's theme has reached A @-@ flat – the highest note in Beethoven 's theme – instead of the original , witty cadence in the tonic , Schubert 's theme continues to ascend to higher pitches , culminating fortissimo on another A @-@ flat , an octave higher , tonicized as a downward rushing A @-@ flat major scale . From this A @-@ flat major interlude – an evasion of the opening material 's harmonic goal , the main generative thematic material for the entire sonata will arise . In this way , what had initially appeared to be a mere note @-@ to @-@ note plagiarism of Beethoven has eventually given way to a radically different continuation , one which invokes Schubert 's own , idiosyncratic compositional style .
But perhaps the best example of Schubert 's departure from the style of his idol is the finale of the A major Sonata . Although starting from themes of equal length , Schubert 's movement is much longer than Beethoven 's . The added length comes from the episodes within the rondo structure :
Schubert 's second theme ( the B section of the rondo ) indulges in a long harmonic and melodic excursion , going through the keys of the subdominant and flat submediant . Beethoven 's more traditional short and simple theme merely consists of alternating tonic and dominant harmonies .
Schubert 's development section ends with a long passage in C @-@ sharp minor , with no parallel in Beethoven 's finale .
Charles Rosen , who unraveled this unique borrowing of a Beethovenian structure in Schubert 's A major Sonata , has also referred to Schubert 's departure from the former 's style in this instance : " Schubert moves with great ease within the form which Beethoven created . He has , however , considerably loosened what held it together , and stretched its ligaments unmercifully ... the correspondence of part to whole has been considerably altered by Schubert , and explains why his large movements often seem so long , since they are being produced with forms originally intended for shorter pieces . Some of the excitement naturally goes out of these forms when they are so extended , but this is even a condition of the unforced melodic flow of Schubert 's music " . Rosen adds , however , that " with the finale of the A major Sonata Schubert produced a work that is unquestionably greater than its model " .
= = Reception , criticism and influence = =
Schubert 's piano sonatas seem to have been mostly neglected during the entire nineteenth century , often dismissed for being too long , lacking in formal coherence , being un @-@ pianistic , etc . However , references to the last sonatas can be found among two nineteenth @-@ century Romantic composers who took serious interest in Schubert 's music and were influenced by it : Schumann and Brahms .
Schumann , the last sonatas ' dedicatee , reviewed the works in his Neue Zeitschrift für Musik in 1838 , upon their publication . He seems to have been largely disappointed by the sonatas , criticizing their " much greater simplicity of invention " and Schubert 's " voluntary renunciation of shining novelty , where he usually sets himself such high standards " , and claiming the sonatas " ripple along from page to page as if without end , never in doubt as to how to continue , always musical and singable , interrupted here and there by stirrings of some vehemence which , however , are rapidly stilled " . Schumann 's criticism seems to fit the general negative attitude maintained towards these works during the nineteenth century .
Brahms 's attitude towards the last sonatas was different . Brahms found special interest in Schubert 's piano sonatas , and expressed his wish to " study them in depth " . In her diary , Clara Schumann mentioned Brahms 's playing of the B @-@ flat Sonata , and praised his performance . In Brahms 's works dating from the early 1860s , a clear Schubertian influence can be observed , in features such as closed lyrical themes , distant harmonic relationships , and use of the three @-@ key exposition . Two of these works , the First String Sextet and the Piano Quintet , contain specific features that resemble Schubert 's B @-@ flat Sonata .
The negative attitude towards Schubert 's piano sonatas persisted well into the twentieth century . Only around the centennial of Schubert 's death did these works begin to receive serious attention and critical acclaim , with the writings of Donald Francis Tovey , and the public performances of Artur Schnabel and Eduard Erdmann . During the following decades , the sonatas , and especially the final trilogy , received growing attention , and by the end of the century , came to be regarded as essential members of the classical piano repertoire , frequently appearing on concert programs , studio recordings , and musicological writings . Some late twentieth century scholars have even argued that Schubert 's last sonatas should rank together with Beethoven 's most mature sonatas . The B @-@ flat Sonata , the last of them all , has gained the highest acclaim and popularity among the three .
= = Legacy = =
Schubert 's last sonatas mark a distinct change of compositional style from his earlier piano sonatas , with several important differences . The typical movement length has increased , due to the use of long , lyrical , fully rounded @-@ off , ternary @-@ form themes , the insertion of development @-@ like passages within expositions , and the lengthening of the development section proper . Texturally , the orchestral grandeur of the middle @-@ period sonatas gives way to a more intimate writing that resembles a string ensemble . New textures appear in the last sonatas – scale @-@ like melodic elements , free counterpoint , free fantasia , and simple accompanimental patterns such as Alberti bass , repeated chords , and ostinati ; the orchestral unison texture , abundant in the preceding sonatas , has disappeared . The harmonic language has also changed : more distant key relationships are explored , longer modulatory excursions , more major / minor shifts of mode , and more chromatic and diverse harmonic progressions and modulations , using elements such as the diminished seventh chord . In general , the last sonatas seem to enact a return to an earlier , more individual and intimate Schubertian style , here combined with the compositional craftsmanship of Schubert 's later works .
Certain features of Schubert 's last sonatas have been mentioned as unique among his entire output , or even that of his period . Here one can mention the profound level of cyclic integration ( especially the cancrizans which " parenthesize " the A major Sonata ) ; fantasia @-@ like writing with a harmonic daring looking forward to the style of Liszt and even of Schoenberg ( in the slow movement of the A major Sonata , middle section ) ; exploitation of the piano 's ability to produce overtones , both by use of the sustain pedal ( in the slow movement of the B @-@ flat Sonata ) , and without it ( in the A major Sonata ) ; and the creation of tonal stasis by oscillating between two contrasting tonalities ( in the development sections of the opening movements of the A and B @-@ flat major sonatas ) .
As mentioned above , Schubert 's last sonatas have long been historically neglected , dismissed as inferior in style to Beethoven 's piano sonatas . However , the negative view has changed during the late twentieth century , and today these works are usually praised for their conveying of an idiosyncratic , personal Schubertian style , indeed quite different from Beethoven 's , but holding its own virtues . In this mature style , the Classical perception of harmony and tonality , and the treatment of musical structure , are radically altered , generating a new , distinct type of sonata form .
Schubert 's last sonatas are sometimes compared to Mozart 's last symphonies , as unique compositional achievements : both consist of trilogies with one tragic , minor @-@ key work , and two serene , major @-@ key works ; both were created during an astoundingly short period of time ; and both creating a culmination of the composer 's lifetime achievement in their respective genres .
= = Performance issues = =
Several key issues are routinely raised by musicians and music scholars , when discussing the performance of Schubert 's compositions for piano . These discussions also concern the last piano sonatas . For most of these issues , no general agreement has been reached ; for example , to what extent should the sustain pedal be used , how to combine triplets with dotted rhythms , whether to allow tempo fluctuations within the course of a single movement , and whether to observe each repeat sign meticulously .
The issue of repeat signs has been debated particularly in the context of the opening movements of the two last sonatas . Here , as in many of Schubert 's sonata form movements , a repeat sign is written for an exceedingly long exposition , while the material of the exposition is repeated a third time in the recapitulation with little alteration . This has led some musicians to omit the exposition repeat when performing these movements . In the last two sonatas , however , unlike other movements , the first ending of the exposition contains several additional bars of music , leading back to the movement 's opening . When performing the movement without the repeat , the music in these bars is totally omitted from the performance , as it does not appear in the second ending . Furthermore , in the B @-@ flat sonata , these added bars contain strikingly novel material , which does not appear anywhere else in the piece , and is radically different from the second ending . Pianist András Schiff has described the omission of the repeat in these two movements as " the amputation of a limb " . Brendel , on the other hand , considers the additional bars as unimportant and prefers to omit the repeats ; with regard to the B @-@ flat sonata , he further claims that the transitional bars are too unconnected to the rest of the movement , and believes that their omission actually contributes to the coherence of the piece .
Another performance issue pertains to the choice of tempi , which is of special relevance in Schubert 's major instrumental works , particularly in the opening movements . Schubert often notated his opening movements with moderate tempo indications , the extreme case being the Molto moderato of the B @-@ flat piano sonata . The latter movement in particular , has been interpreted in vastly different speeds . Ever since the famous performances by Sviatoslav Richter , taking the opening movement at an extremely slow pace , similar tempo interpretations for this movement have been frequent . However , the majority
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of Schubert scholars tend to dismiss such an interpretation , arguing instead for a more flowing pace , a measured allegro .
Some Schubert performers tend to play the entire trilogy of the last sonatas in a single recital , thereby stressing their interrelatedness , and suggesting that they form a single , complete cycle . However , since each of these sonatas is rather long ( as compared , for instance , with most of Mozart 's or Beethoven 's sonatas ) , such a program may prove exhausting to some listeners . One of the solutions to this problem is to shorten the program by omitting repeats , mainly those of the opening movements ' expositions ( however , this practice is highly disputed , as noted above ) . The pioneers of the Schubert sonata performance , Schnabel and Erdmann , are known to have played the entire trilogy in one evening ; more recently , so did Alfred Brendel , Maurizio Pollini , Mitsuko Uchida , and Paul Lewis .
= = Available editions and recordings = =
Several highly acclaimed editions of Schubert 's last sonatas are available , namely those of Bärenreiter , Henle , Universal , and Oxford University Press . These editions have , however , occasionally received some criticism for the wrong interpretation or notation of Schubert 's intentions , on issues such as deciphering the correct pitches from the manuscript , notating tremoli , discriminating between accent and decrescendo markings , and reconstructing missing bars .
The sonatas have been performed and recorded by numerous pianists . Many , especially the devoted Schubert performers , have recorded the entire sonata trilogy ( and often all of Schubert 's sonatas or his entire piano repertoire altogether ) . Others have sufficed with only one or two of the sonatas . Of the three sonatas , the last ( in B @-@ flat ) is the most famous and most often recorded . The following is an incomplete list of pianists who have made notable commercial recordings of the sonata trilogy , in full or in part :
Entire sonata trilogy : Leif Ove Andsnes , Claudio Arrau , Paul Badura @-@ Skoda , Daniel Barenboim , Alfred Brendel ( several recordings ) , Richard Goode , Wilhelm Kempff , Walter Klien , Stephen Kovacevich , Paul Lewis , Radu Lupu , Murray Perahia , Maurizio Pollini , András Schiff , Andreas Staier , Mitsuko Uchida .
Sonata in C minor : Sviatoslav Richter .
Sonata in A : Vladimir Ashkenazy , Jorge Bolet , Christoph Eschenbach , Artur Schnabel , Rudolf Serkin .
Sonata in B @-@ flat : Clifford Curzon , Jörg Demus , Leon Fleisher ( two recordings ) , Clara Haskil , Vladimir Horowitz ( two recordings ) , Menahem Pressler , Sviatoslav Richter ( four recordings ) , Arthur Rubinstein ( two recordings ) , Artur Schnabel , Rudolf Serkin ( two recordings ) .
= = Media = =
= Collybia tuberosa =
Collybia tuberosa , commonly known as the lentil shanklet or the appleseed coincap , is an inedible species of fungus in the Tricholomataceae family , and the type species of the genus Collybia . Like the two other members of its genus , it lives on the decomposing remains of other fleshy mushrooms . The fungus produces small whitish fruit bodies with caps up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) wide held by thin stems up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) long . On the underside of the cap are closely spaced white gills that are broadly attached to the stem . At the base of the stem , embedded in the substrate is a small reddish @-@ brown sclerotium that somewhat resembles an apple seed . The appearance of the sclerotium distinguishes it from the other two species of Collybia , which are otherwise very similar in overall appearance . C. tuberosa is found in Europe , North America , and Japan , growing in dense clusters on species of Lactarius and Russula , boletes , hydnums , and polypores .
= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =
The species was first described under the name Agaricus tuberosus by the French naturalist Jean Bulliard in the 6th volume of his Herbier de la France ( 1786 ) . Christian Hendrik Persoon called it Agaricus amanitae subsp. tuberosus in his 1799 publication Observationes Mycologicae , while Samuel Frederick Gray referred it to Gymnopus in 1821 . It was transferred to Collybia by Paul Kummer in 1886 . The species has also been called Microcollybia tuberata in a 1979 publication by Joanne Lennox , but the genus Microcollybia has since been folded into Collybia . Additional taxonomic synonyms include Marasmius sclerotipes Bres . 1881 , Chamaeceras sclerotipes ( Bres . ) Kuntze 1898 , and Collybia sclerotipes ( Bres . ) S.Ito 1950 .
Molecular phylogenetic analysis reported in 2001 used RNA sequences to establish that C. tuberosa forms a monophyletic group with C. cookei and C. cirrhata ; this finding was later corroborated in a 2006 publication .
The specific epithet tuberosa is derived from the Latin word for " tuberous " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " lentil shanklet " , or the " appleseed coincap " . Samuel Gray called it the " tuberous naked @-@ foot " in his 1821 Natural Arrangement of British plants .
= = Description = =
The cap of C. tuberosa ranges in shape from obtusely convex to cushion @-@ shaped with a margin curved inward when young , to flattened in age , with margin curved downward to straight . The cap sometimes has a shallow depression in the center , or a shallow umbo . Its diameter is small , reaching a maximum of 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) . The cap surface is dry to moist , smooth to covered with fine soft hairs , and somewhat hygrophanous — changing color depending on the level of hydration . Sometimes the cap margin is pleated or grooved . The center of the cap is pinkish @-@ buff but whitish around the margin , and it becomes whitish overall as it matures . The flesh is thin , and colored whitish to light buff . The mushroom has no distinctive taste or odor , and is considered inedible .
The gills are adnate ( bluntly fused to the stem ) , becoming subdecurrent with age ( running slightly down the length of the stem ) . The gill spacing is close to subdistant , and the individual gills are whitish to pinkish @-@ buff , thin , narrow to moderately broad , and have straight edges . The stem is 10 – 50 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long by 1 – 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 – 0 @.@ 08 in ) , and roughly equal in width throughout its length . It is slender and thread @-@ like , flexible and pliant , with a dry surface . The top of the stem is covered with scales or a fine whitish powder , while the lower portion has hairs ranging from delicate to coarse . The color of the stem is generally whitish to pinkish @-@ buff , but it darkens after it has been handled . The stem interior is pithy , and becomes hollow with age . The stems originate from a dark reddish @-@ brown sclerotium of variable shape , typically measuring 3 – 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 – 0 @.@ 47 in ) by 2 – 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 20 in ) . The surface of the sclerotium is initially smooth , but later becomes wrinkled or furrowed ; its interior is solid and white . It is often compared to an apple seed in appearance . Typically , several sclerotia are connected by thin strands of mycelia . The sclerotium is a resting structure that allows to fungus to overwinter in its host . In 1915 , William Murrill reported the sclerotia of C. tuberosa to be bioluminescent .
The spore print is white . Individual spores are smooth , ellipsoid to tear @-@ shaped in profile , obovoid to ellipsoid or cylindric in face or back view , with dimensions of 4 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 2 by 2 @.@ 8 – 3.5µm. They are inamyloid and acyanophilous ( non @-@ reactive to staining with Melzer 's reagent and Methyl blue , respectively ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are club @-@ shaped to cylindric and 15 @.@ 4 – 21 by 3 @.@ 5 – 5 µm . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are scattered to infrequent , inconspicuous , and 17 @.@ 5 – 31 @.@ 5 µm long . Their shape ranges from a contorted cylinder to roughly club @-@ shaped to irregularly diverticulate ( with short offshoots approximately at right angles to the main stem ) . There are no pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) . The gill tissue is made of interwoven hyphae that are non @-@ reactive to Melzer 's reagent . These hyphae are smooth and thin @-@ walled , measuring 2 @.@ 8 – 6 @.@ 4 µm in diameter . The cap tissue is made of hyphae that is interwoven below the center of the cap , radially oriented over the gills , and inamyloid . These hyphae are smooth , thin @-@ walled , and 2 @.@ 8 – 7 µm in diameter . The cap cuticle is a thin layer of smooth thin @-@ walled hyphae that are more or less radially oriented , bent @-@ over , cylindric and somewhat gelatinous , measuring 2 – 5 µm in diameter ; they are occasionally diverticulate . The cuticle of the stem is made of a layer of parallel , vertically oriented smooth , thin @-@ walled hyphae that are 2 – 4 @.@ 2 µm in diameter , pale yellowish brown in alkali mounting solution . The stem has moderately thin @-@ walled and smooth cystidia that are resemble flexuous or contorted cylinders . They are hyaline in alkali , and 3 @.@ 5 – 7 µm in diameter . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of all tissues .
= = = Similar species = = =
Baeospora myosura is similar in size and appearance to C. tuberosa , but grows on spruce and Douglas @-@ fir cones . The " Magnolia coincap " ( Strobilurus conigenoides ) is smaller and grows on the cones of Magnolias . The two remaining Collybia species closely resemble C. tuberosa , but can be distinguished by examining the stem bases at the point of attachment into the substrate . C. cookei has roughly spherical , light brown to yellowish sclerotia , while C. cirrhata does not produce sclerotia . In the field , C. tuberosa may be distinguished from C. cookei by its dark reddish @-@ brown sclerotia that somewhat resembles an appleseed . A microscope provides a more definitive way of distinguishing the two : the hyphae in the sclerotia of C. cookei are rounded , while those of C. tuberosa are elongated ; this diagnostic character is apparent with both fresh and dried material of the two species . In contrast , C. cirrhata does not produce sclerotia .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
It is not known if C. tuberosa is strictly parasitic , and needs the host to be living , or whether it is saprobic . Either way , the fruit bodies of the fungus are found growing solitarily or in dense clusters on the decomposing , often blackened remains of other mushrooms . Hosts include agarics ( particularly Lactarius and Russula ) , boletes , hydnums , and polypores . In the Pacific Northwest region of the United States , Russula crassotunicata is a common and abundant species that has been definitively identified as a host of both C. tuberosa and Dendrocollybia racemosa . The Russula fruit bodies are slow to decay , and are available nearly year @-@ round as a substrate for the saprobes . Based on field observations , the authors suggest that C. tuberosa may produce fruit bodies on less decayed mushrooms , while D. racemosa produces them on much more heavily decayed mushrooms .
Collybia tuberosa is found in Europe and North America , and in most common in the summer and autumn , coinciding with the fruiting periods of other mushrooms . It has also been reported from Japan .
= Fark =
Fark is a community website created by Drew Curtis that allows members to comment on a daily batch of news articles and other items from various websites . The site receives many story submissions per day and approximately 100 of them are publicly displayed on the site , spread out over the main page and tabs ( Entertainment , Sports , Geek , Politics and Business ) .
Founder Drew Curtis says the stories are selected without intentional political bias , but that he tries to run both far @-@ left and far @-@ right articles .
Links are submitted by Fark members ( collectively referred to as " Farkers " ) , which admins can approve ( " greenlight " ) for posting on either the main page or one of the subsidiary tab pages . All links ( excluding those of sponsors ) , whether approved or not , have associated threads where users can comment on the link . Greenlit links can generate upwards of 300 @,@ 000 page views in one month for the recipient . This can generate such an enormous amount of traffic in such a short time that smaller websites are often rendered inoperable due to congestion or simple server failure . This is colloquially referred to as the website being " farked " by the community .
= = History = =
Fark was created in 1999 by Drew Curtis of Lexington , Kentucky . Curtis states that the word " fark " originated either from a chat room euphemism for " f * * k " or from a drunken misspelling ; although he tells people it is the former because it is a " better story that way " . He registered Fark.com in September 1997 , when a friend mentioned that all of the four letter domain names were disappearing . Originally , Fark contained no content except for an image of a squirrel with large testicles . This photograph is that of a Cape Ground Squirrel in Etosha National Park , Namibia , taken by photographer Kevin Shafer , who at the time worked for the Corbis Corporation , ca . 1993 . The squirrel image is no longer used in the production area of the site , but it can still be found as the server 's 404 error for pages that do not exist .
Since 1993 , Curtis had frequently read morning news stories and exchanged them with friends . Although this would later become the inspiration for Fark , Curtis toyed with the idea of starting an online curry recipe database . In 1999 , eighteen months after registering the domain name , he launched Fark as a way to share interesting news postings with his friends rather than sending them numerous emails . The first story posted was an article about a fighter pilot who crashed while attempting to moon another fighter pilot .
During Fark 's first year , the site received over 50 @,@ 000 page views and one million the year after . Features such as link submission and forums were added as popularity and participation grew . By January 2008 , according to Curtis , the site was averaging an estimated 52 million page views per month from 4 million unique visitors . Fark was officially incorporated in the state of Delaware as , " Fark , Inc . " , on January 31 , 2008 .
While most of the story links on the main page are submitted by users and selected for placement based on merit , there was an incident in August 2004 in which Fark was accused of selling preferential placement of story links on the main page . The accusation stemmed from an exchange between Mahalo.com CEO Jason Calacanis and third party sales employee Gogi Gupta , where Gupta claimed Calacanis could buy an editorial on Fark for $ 300 to $ 400 . Curtis dismissed the incident as the result of an overenthusiastic salesperson , and subsequently fired Gupta . Gupta worked for a company called Gupta Media and did not have the authority to speak for Fark , according to Curtis .
Curtis launched Foobies.com in 2006 as a NSFW ( not safe for work ) offshoot of Fark , primarily because advertisers complained about links to female breasts on the main site . Customers could purchase NSFW links through Foobies at the price of $ 400 per link .
Fark launched Fark TV on January 17 , 2007 . The first video was a spoof ad for a mock product called " Meth Coffee . " In May 2008 , Turner Broadcasting announced that it would be folding SuperDeluxe , Fark TV 's host site , into the Adult Swim brand , and laying off most of the staff , effectively canceling Fark TV .
A new design for the website was launched on April 25 , 2007 , with the comment , " Fark site redesign is now live . Hope nothing breaks , we 're all out drinking . " The new design was initially received with some controversy by many users , mostly due to the change in layout and a seemingly indifferent attitude by site moderators to user impact or feedback . In response , Drew Curtis noted the following reasons for the redesign : " Websites have to evolve over time . Otherwise you end up with a layout anachronism like the Drudge Report . The old design was put into place years ago , over time changes were nailed on to the design like loose shingles on a leaky roof . It was time to reformat and remove a bunch of the clutter while trying to keep the core design intact . " The site layout was refined over the next few weeks in accordance with many suggestions .
Curtis published the book , It 's Not News , It 's Fark : How Mass Media Tries to Pass off Crap as News in May 2007 . The book critically explores the mass media industry and the go @-@ to stories used when there is a lack of hard news to report . It sold 25 @,@ 000 copies in its first 12 weeks on the market . Despite its initial strong reception , the book only received mild attention from reviewers . Salon.com gave it a favorable review , although the only major newspaper to review it was the Tucson Citizen , which only gave it a mini @-@ review .
On November 24 , 2009 , Fark launched a new partnership with USA Today , as they became the exclusive host and sponsor of Fark 's Geek Page , a collection of technology @-@ related links . This represents the site 's first content partnership with a major media brand . Previously , Curtis had signed a sales only deal with Maxim Online . The page shows aggregated technology news headlines from other news sources with USA Today 's Tech section branding . Its right column displays technology content from USA Today with video clips and a headline widget of USAToday.com 's Tech Live and Game Hunters stories .
In January 2011 , Fark was sued in Los Angeles Federal Court by Gooseberry Natural Resources , LLC , for allegedly violating US Patent No. 6 @,@ 370 @,@ 535 , titled , " System and method for structured news release generation and distribution . " This patent , awarded in 2002 , involves typing text into an administration system , storing it on a server , and publishing it on the Internet . Other defendants sued in the case include Reddit , The Atlanta @-@ Journal Constitution , Digg , Geeknet ( owner of Slashdot ) , TechCrunch , Newsvine , and Yahoo . Drew Curtis argued that Fark does not produce " news releases " or " press releases " , as the lawsuit stated , and instead provides a forum for humorous links to stories on other websites . The case was settled in August 2011 , for the sum of $ 0 . Curtis later described the entire ordeal as , " a nightmare " , saying , " Imagine someone breaking into your home , then being forced to sit on the couch while their lawyers file motions over how much stuff they can take . " At the 2012 TED Conference in Long Beach , California , he referred to patent trolls as " terrorists " , comparing them to the Abu Sayyaf terror group in the Philippines , which kidnapped people for ransom , collected small sums of money , expanded with more personnel and equipment , and then kidnapped more people for higher ransoms .
Fark tweaked its site design a little more on June 1 , 2011 , with the comment , " Fark 's redesign will go live at 5PM EST . Heads @-@ up for those of you who missed the other warning threads and need a place to completely lose your mind . " Having learned from the controversy caused by the 2007 redesign , Curtis introduced the new site as a preview one week ( two weeks for TotalFark users ) prior to June 1 , to allow users to comment on the changes and provide feedback on where things were broken . The primary reason for the redesigned site is to make it easier to use and more intuitive . The site 's tagline was changed from " It 's not news , it 's FARK " to " We don 't make news . We mock it . " The music tab was also dropped , due to low usage – content was rolled into the Showbiz or Video tab , where most of the content was already cross @-@ posted anyway . An overhaul to the Fark Mobile Web site was not done at this time , but Curtis did say that small changes would be implemented over time to make the mobile site more consistent with the overall design of the new site .
An official iPhone app , " HEY ! on Fark " , was released on June 11 , 2012 , for the iPhone , iPad , and iPod Touch . The app enables users to receive notifications on various stories appearing on Fark by topic or keyword , as well as allows users to comment on stories . It also lets users set a " snooze " option , or a period of time when notifications will not be sent ( e.g. for sleeping or work ) . An app for Android phones is also planned . Other iOS apps are also available allowing users to browse the site , including , " Mobile Reader for FARK ® " and , " Fark ® Not News " , although these are not official apps .
= = Administration = =
Compared to other popular websites , such as Daily Kos and del.icio.us , Fark is a relatively small operation , run more or less singlehandedly by founder Drew Curtis from his home near Lexington , Kentucky . The site earns revenue from advertising and membership in its TotalFark program . Although Curtis won 't release official revenue figures , he estimated that , in 2006 , the site earned just under $ 600 @,@ 000 per year . Its classifieds section alone generates as much as $ 40 @,@ 000 per year . Technology writer Mathew Ingram described Fark as " staggeringly successful " and noted the disparity between Fark 's revenue and the amount of press given to sites like Digg . Fark has also spoken about its steady , above average CPMs .
Despite a fairly high revenue , Drew takes a yearly salary of just $ 60 @,@ 000 . The rest of the money goes to the site 's legal " war chest " as well as to pay other expenses such as hosting , website design , and forum moderation .
Curtis has used public relations to drive traffic , including interviews every Friday on TechTV for one to one and a half years ( ca . 2002 – 2003 ) about the three weirdest tech @-@ oriented stories of the week .
= = Features = =
= = = Tags = = =
Submitters can give stories several different tags , such as stupid , interesting , obvious , or dumbass . Tags that say photoshop , audioedit or videoedit are used for threads where digital content is edited for a humorous or artistic effect . In addition , the newsflash tag is used for news which is a matter of important breaking news , and an email is sent to the administrators notifying them that someone has submitted a newsflash .
Due to the large amount of headlines submitted to the site from the state of Florida , and because " so many stupid things happen in Florida , it deserved its own Fark tag , " the Florida tag was created at the suggestion of users . Similarly , articles discussing Wil Wheaton – a Fark user himself – are given the Wheaton tag and articles discussing Christopher Walken are occasionally given the Walken tag , though Walken has never participated on Fark .
On August 19 , 2008 , a new fail tag was introduced , to be used for submitted articles where the subject does something ignorant or when a major gaffe occurs . A new Caturday tag was introduced to in recognition of the caturday meme on December 21 , 2009 .
= = = TotalFark = = =
In February 2002 , Curtis introduced TotalFark as a subscription service , charging $ 5 per month . By May 2007 there were an estimated 2 @,@ 000 subscribers , generating $ 120 @,@ 000 per year . Subscribers , known collectively as TotalFarkers or TFers , at one time had the privilege of seeing and commenting on all links submitted to the site , as opposed to only those approved for inclusion on the main page . However , as of 2010 an estimated 40 % of links submitted to TotalFark are deleted within one minute of being submitted . In a typical 24 @-@ hour period , TotalFark 's main page includes 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 800 links with associated comment threads , whereas Fark 's main page includes only 60 to 80 links from that total .
Subscribers who purchase a 6- or 12 @-@ month subscription are also eligible to receive an @ ultrafark.com email address . The UltraFark email service is provided through Google 's Gmail service .
= = = Farkisms and clichés = = =
Fark 's comment threads are often littered with various Farkisms or clichés . These are essentially in @-@ jokes which either originated on Fark or on other sites ( such as 4chan or Something Awful ) that have become an integral part of the community culture and used in myriad discussions in the forums , regardless of whether they apply to the topic at hand . Several groups of people seem to take a bit more abuse than others on the site , including PETA , Catholic priests , the French , and Duke University , according to Curtis . The site has also become somewhat well known for including " NSFW " ( Not Safe For Work ) in the headlines of links that contain images or videos of a sensitive nature , and in 2007 , attempted to file a trademark of the phrase . Fark was also involved in organizing the Rickrolling of the New York Mets in April 2008 , when they encouraged readers to vote for Rick Astley 's Never Gonna Give You Up as the song to be played during every home game of the 2008 season .
One particularly notable Farkism involves the acronym UFIA ( Unsolicited Finger In Anus ) , which became a cliché after an article making the main page misquoted a judge using the line . UFIA was prominently used again in February 2005 , when Drew Curtis purchased the naming rights to the Fleet Center ( now TD Garden ) in Boston , Massachusetts for the single day of February 28 , 2005 . The consensus choice of Fark 's readers was that it should be re @-@ dubbed the " Fark.com UFIA Center " . In the end , however , Boston Garden was chosen as the name due to obscenity concerns . In April 2006 , a Fark member convinced the Tennessee Department of Transportation to erect an Adopt a Highway sign in the name of UFIA on the two miles of State Route 63 west of the intersection of SR 63 and U.S. Route 25E . The Department required a definition of UFIA , which was explained as , " Uniting Friends in America . " The sign remained up for a few days , but was ultimately removed once authorities were informed of the origins of the acronym .
Another popular Farkism involves KABC @-@ TV Consumer Specialist Ric Romero , which began on October 19 , 2005 , when he wrote a news story on the " new " internet phenomenon of blogging . The story was then picked up by Fark , where he was ridiculed for posting a story about something that many people did not consider " news " and was actually quite obvious . Over the course of the next several years , he became somewhat of a meme on the site , as Farkers would post links to his stories , along with his photo , and a brief caption stating something obvious that everyone already knew . On December 7 , 2009 , Drew Curtis discovered his Facebook fan page , which led Ric to ask the Farkers that joined his new Facebook page to donate to the Spark of Love Toy Drive , which subsequently resulted in 582 online donations totaling $ 13 @,@ 659 @.@ 20 by December 16 , 2009 . Romero thanked the Fark community on the news for their donations , and recognized his status as a Farkism , also reporting the " breaking news " that " Water is Wet . "
= = = Photoshop contests = = =
The site features regular Photoshop contests , in which users use a graphical editing program ( such as Adobe Photoshop , from which the contest draws its name ) to manipulate an image provided by the creator of the contest . A similar site , Something Awful , sponsors Photoshop Phriday contests . The image is usually manipulated for humorous effect , but can also be edited to create an aesthetically pleasing image or to showcase a poster 's image manipulation skill , which is then voted on by others in the forum .
= = = Fark Parties = = =
At periodic intervals throughout the year , Fark Parties are organized , usually in conjunction with the travels of Curtis . The practice began in 1999 , when Curtis was doing some database consulting in Spartanburg , South Carolina . Staying in a hotel with nothing to do , he posted a note up on the site asking anybody who lived in the area to email him if they wanted to join him for a beer .
= = = FarkIt = = =
" FarkIt " or " Fark This " is a method of submitting information that increases its chances of being seen on the Fark web site . A FarkIt button appears on a web site , and links submitted through this button go to a different database . The Fark web site gives priority to submissions from sites that clearly show the button . This might mean that the URL of a particular article will be that of the site showing the button , rather than one which does not , even if the site without the button was the first from which the given article was submitted .
= = Traffic and users = =
As of June 2009 , the site received approximately three to four million unique visitors per month , and garnered 60 million page views and 75 million outbound links . This put it in the top 100 of English language websites . Fark 's Alexa rating was 2 @,@ 310 , with the average user spending 5 @.@ 8 minutes per day on the site and 5 @,@ 337 sites linking in . 67 @.@ 2 % of users originate from the United States . The site receives approximately 2 @,@ 000 story submissions per day from users , and approximately 50 of them are displayed on the main page of the site , or " green @-@ lighted " . Subscribers to the subscription TotalFark service , are able to view all 2 @,@ 000 submissions per day for a $ 5 per month fee . There are around 500 @,@ 000 user accounts on the site ( including both TotalFark as well as unpaid accounts ) , although only about 5 % actually read comments , and only 1 % actually post in the forums . Greenlit links can generate upwards of 300 @,@ 000 page views in one month for the recipient , which is such an enormous amount of traffic that smaller websites are often " farked " , meaning that their servers have crashed .
Normally , in the absence of serious news , comments in the forums on the site tend to be of a more sophomoric nature . However , during major events such as the September 11 attacks or the Hurricane Katrina aftermath , usage spikes and the site can actually be seen as a more serious outlet for news . Some users can also contribute greatly to reporting actual events ; for instance , the citizen journalism of the events during the 2009 Iranian election protests was recognized by several major media outlets . In response to this coverage , Drew Curtis placed a green band on the letter " K " in the site 's logo at the top of the page , to show support for Mir @-@ Hossein Mousavi .
In a June 2009 interview , Curtis said that almost all traffic coming from the People 's Republic of China and India was from spammers , so he blocked both countries from the site .
= = Publicity = =
As the site 's popularity grew , Fark appeared many times in popular media outlets . In 2006 , Curtis and Fark were featured on the cover of Business 2 @.@ 0 magazine as part of the feature story about successful websites . In 2007 and 2009 , Fark was referenced on the game show Jeopardy ! , with a category entitled " Fark.com Headlines . " The site is also frequently used as a humorous source for news by many radio stations , as well as late night comedy shows . However , much to Drew Curtis ' dismay , it is very rarely cited as a source for many of these stories .
Several celebrities have also stated that they either checked the website regularly or participated in its discussion forums using an account . Some of these celebrities include Alan Colmes of Fox News , Mythbusters co @-@ host Adam Savage , science fiction author John Scalzi , and actor Wil Wheaton .
= Systematic Chaos =
Systematic Chaos is the ninth studio album by American progressive metal / rock band Dream Theater . Released on June 4 , 2007 in the United Kingdom and June 5 , 2007 in the United States , Systematic Chaos was the band 's first release through Roadrunner Records , which was sold to their previous label Atlantic Records , through which the band had released their previous studio album Octavarium ( 2005 ) . The album was recorded from September 2006 to February 2007 at Avatar Studios in New York City , after the band 's first break from summer touring in ten years . The lyrics of the album were written by John Petrucci , James LaBrie , and Mike Portnoy about fictional , political , and personal topics , respectively .
The album peaked in the top twenty in eight countries ' sales charts ; in addition , the album peaked at the nineteenth position on the Billboard 200 , making it the highest peaking Dream Theater album in the United States until the release of Black Clouds & Silver Linings ( 2009 ) , which debuted at the sixth position . Critical reception of the album was generally positive ; Jon Eardley from MetalReview.com called the band , " arguably the most consistent band throughout the entire progressive rock / metal industry " .
Dream Theater promoted the album on their Chaos in Motion world tour , which lasted a year and spanned thirty @-@ five countries . The album was released in regular and special edition formats ; the special edition included a 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mix of the album , in addition to a ninety @-@ minute " making of " documentary about the album .
= = Background = =
After recording their twentieth anniversary concert , Score , on April 1 , 2006
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, Dream Theater rested for its first summer in ten years . The band would reconvene at Avatar Studios , in New York City , in September 2006 . Mike Portnoy stated that the relationship between band members was " the best it 's ever been " . The band hired Paul Northfield , who had previously worked with bands that had inspired Dream Theater , including Rush and Queensrÿche , to engineer the album . As with previous albums , Dream Theater simultaneously wrote and recorded Systematic Chaos . Mike Portnoy and John Petrucci co @-@ produced the album ; Portnoy said that the band hires an engineer and a mixer to act as an " objective outside ear " , but the members ultimately " call their own shots " . Previous Dream Theater albums shared planned themes throughout , such as Metropolis Pt . 2 : Scenes from a Memory ( 1999 ) as a concept album or Train of Thought ( 2003 ) as a heavy , " balls to the wall " album . Though Portnoy had some preconceived ideas for Systematic Chaos , he decided not to tell the rest of the band ; leaving them to start with a " completely open palate " . However , Portnoy did want to retain a " cutting , aggressive , modern " mood throughout , " It had to have balls , " he added , " it had to be cool " .
The album was titled Systematic Chaos after Portnoy and Petrucci picked phrases from song lyrics that they felt would be a fitting title , in similar fashion to previous albums like Images and Words ( 1992 ) or Awake ( 1994 ) . The pair selected the word " chaos " , which appears in " The Dark Eternal Night " . Petrucci and Portnoy were also attracted to the phrase " Random thoughts of neat disorder " which appears in " Constant Motion " . Inspired by the " duality " of the phrase , opposites of the word " chaos " were discussed , resulting in the word " systematic " . Portnoy said that in addition to the album , " systematic chaos " is also a " fitting description of the band in general " .
= = Songs = =
John Petrucci wrote the lyrics for five of the eight songs on the album , telling a fictional story through each one .
= = = In the Presence of Enemies = = =
The first piece recorded , the twenty @-@ five @-@ minute epic " In the Presence of Enemies , " was described by Petrucci as the " epitome of a Dream Theater creation " . He went on to describe the composition as " very progressive , very long " ; also noting that it set a good tone for writing and recording the rest of the album . Their longest recording since " Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence " , it was split into two parts , due to it having a good open and close for the album at the same time . According to Portnoy , the band felt it was too long to open the album , but did not want to close the album with a long song , as they had with the twenty @-@ four @-@ minute title track of their last album Octavarium ( 2005 ) . The songs are normally played together in their entirety in live shows . During recording , the work was titled , " The Pumpkin King , " and in the album 's booklet , the song is given a subtitle , " The Heretic and the Dark Master . "
The story of " In the Presence of Enemies " was inspired by a Korean manhwa named Priest , as Petrucci explains that not being a manga fan , precisely , " [ ... ] I like it though . This one , I just stumbled upon and I really liked the content . It inspired me to take a different approach lyrically . You have to keep things interesting for yourself when writing new material so I just took this and ran with it . [ ... ] Those types of lyrics are fun to write , you know ? The dark subject matter , the dark master stuff . It 's another way of writing , a fresh one to me . " He also summarizes the lyrics : " It 's a story about somebody who loses himself and end struggles with the darkness , symbolized by the Dark Master . And the story ends up really being the darkness within and goes through the different phases where he has to fight demons and things like that .
= = = Forsaken = = =
Petrucci said " Forsaken " is a story told through a " short song structure " . The song tells of a person who is visited at night by a vampiress . While the man thinks he is being taken away and being shown " wonderful things " , he doesn 't realize that the whole time he is getting his blood sucked , and is eventually taken , in the end , by the vampiress . An animated music video of " Forsaken " , produced by Gonzo and directed by Yasufumi Soejima , was released on January 26 , 2008 . The band allowed Soejima artistic freedom with the design of the video , which was set in a science fiction future instead of the present day . During the production of the album , the working title for this song was " Jet Lag " , and it was the sixth song to be written .
= = = Constant Motion = = =
" Constant Motion " was released as the first single from the album on April 27 , 2007 . It was first made available as a free download the same day by Roadrunner Records ; it could be found at Roadrunner Records ' Dream Theater sub @-@ website for a limited time . This song was also made available to download for the music video game Rock Band . The song is considered as one of the hardest songs available for the game on both Guitar and Drums . Its working title was " Korma Chameleon " , and was the second piece written .
Mike Portnoy said that since it was one of the more aggressive , more driving songs on the album , that the lyrics were very much a metaphor for his Obsessive Compulsive Disorder . With everything he does for Dream Theater as well as his life in general , that his " wheels are always in constant motion " , and that he 's always juggling many different projects or responsibilities for the band at the same time . So the lyrics are a representation for whats going on in his head on any given day .
The song was also accompanied by a music video , the first the band had produced in over a decade . The video clip premiered on July 13 , 2007 and was released as a free download , in two different formats , also for a limited time . The band had not produced a music video since " Hollow Years " from Falling into Infinity ( 1997 ) , citing lack of interest and lack of rotation on music channels for the latter . The video received considerable airplay on MTV2 's Headbangers Ball and was voted as the second best music video of 2007 by the same ; it is arguably Dream Theater 's most popular video since " Pull Me Under " in 1992 .
= = = The Dark Eternal Night = = =
Petrucci wrote the lyrics to " The Dark Eternal Night " about a pharaoh who has returned after dormancy as a monster to haunt a town . The lyrics are heavily influenced by the short story Nyarlathotep by American horror fiction writer H.P. Lovecraft , even borrowing a lot of specific phrases from this story . The song contains an improvised continuum solo , performed by Rudess while the drum tracks were being recorded ; the band members liked the solo enough to keep in the final recording . In the October 2010 issue of Total Guitar Magazine , its readers voted the main riff of " The Dark Eternal Night " as the fourth greatest riff of the decade . During the making of the song , the title was , " N.A.D.S. " ( " North American Dream Squad " ) and it was the fifth song to be written .
The sprawling , progressive midsection was not featured in the song 's original edit , but is based around a riff that Rudess came up with in the control room , when listening to the original , more conservative instrumental section . " I was debating whether or not I should even bring it up , but then I got brave and said ' You know , I 've got this weird idea . ' "
The Dark Eternal Night was the second of two songs released to the general public in advance of the album 's release , with an in @-@ studio video being released to YouTube in May 2007 .
= = = Repentance = = =
Portnoy wrote " Repentance " as the fourth part of his Twelve @-@ step Suite , a collection of songs from various Dream Theater albums which revolve around his journey through Alcoholics Anonymous . The song discusses steps eight and nine of the process , which deal with making a list of people whom one has wronged and , if possible , making direct amends with them . Portnoy , who as of 2007 had been sober for 7 ½ years , invited friends and fellow musicians Mikael Åkerfeldt , Jon Anderson , David Ellefson , Daniel Gildenlöw , Steve Hogarth , Chris Jericho , Neal Morse , Joe Satriani , Corey Taylor , Steve Vai , and Steven Wilson to record spoken apologies , regrets , and sorrows of their own , which were featured throughout the song . Portnoy dedicated " Repentance " , " to Bill W. and all of his friends " . During recording , the title of the track was , " Fisheye " and it was the seventh and final song to be written . This saga is concluded in the band 's tenth studio album Black Clouds & Silver Linings with " The Shattered Fortress " .
= = = Prophets of War = = =
" Prophets of War " was written by James LaBrie , who based the lyrics loosely on Joseph C. Wilson 's book The Politics of Truth . The lyrics talk about possible ulterior motives behind the Iraq War , while remaining " middle of the road " . The title is a play on words , where the " prophets " of the war , could also be gaining a " profit " from the War . During the recording of the song , Portnoy suggested fans could voice certain lyrical chants . In response to a message posted on the band 's website four hundred fans gathered outside the recording studio to record the chanting , however only sixty could fit into the studio . The title of the track during recording was , " Carpet Babies " and it was the third song to be written .
= = = The Ministry of Lost Souls = = =
At 14 : 57 , " The Ministry of Lost Souls " is the album 's second longest track . Throughout the song 's lyrics , Petrucci tells of a person who dies in the process of saving a woman from drowning . However , the woman who is saved is filled with " regret and sorrow " until she is able to re @-@ unite with her rescuer . The title for the track during recording was , " Schindler 's Lisp " and it was the fourth song to be written .
= = Release and promotion = =
Both the regular and special editions of Systematic Chaos were released on June 4 , 2007 in the UK and June 5 , 2007 in the US . Over their seven album relationship with Warner Music Group , Dream Theater became disappointed at the lack of coverage they gave the band . " [ ... ] Our previous label basically relied on our fanbase to do everything . [ They would ] put the money up for the record and put the CD in the shops , " said Portnoy . On February 8 , 2007 , Dream Theater reached an agreement with Roadrunner Records to release their new album . Systematic Chaos had nearly been written and recorded at the time of the signing . Ironically , Warner purchased Roadrunner Records a week after the band signed with them . According to LaBrie , Roadrunner followed through on all of its promises to the band concerning the promotion of the album .
Portnoy spent a month directing and editing a documentary titled Chaos in Progress : The Making of Systematic Chaos , which was released on the two disc special edition of the album . The bonus disc of the special edition also included 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mix of the entire album . Dream Theater supported the album by touring on the Chaos in Motion Tour from June 3 , 2007 to June 4 , 2008 . The world tour comprised 115 shows throughout thirty @-@ five countries . Multiple concerts were filmed for the band 's fifth DVD , titled Chaos in Motion 2007 – 2008 . The compilation of concerts was released on September 30 , 2008 .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception for Systematic Chaos was generally positive . Writing for MetalReview.com , Jon Eardley called the album , " another solid outing " . He complimented Petrucci for " Constant Motion " , writing that it contains " some of the best riffs Petrucci has brought to the table " . In addition , he called the latter part of " The Dark Eternal Night " " the most brutal part in any song to date " . Reviewing for Metal Invader , Nikos Patelis called the album , " energetic , sharp – edged , full of beautiful melodies and heavy riffs , long epic compositions " . He called Dream Theater 's instrumentalists " four masters of music that use their instruments as if they were their limbs " , in addition to stating , " James LaBrie sounds more mature than ever " . In conclusion , Patelis called Systematic Chaos , " an excellent album that needs many times to be listened in order to be digested " . Greg Prato , of AllMusic , wrote " [ ... ] ' Forsaken ' proves wrong those who say that Dream Theater is all about instrumental gymnastics and not songwriting " . He also compared riffs in " The Dark Eternal Night " to the band Pantera . Overall , he states " [ ... ] the quintet sticks to the prog metal game plan that they 've followed since their inception " . Reviewer Chad Bowar of About.com , wrote that " In the Presence of Enemies - Part I " is " an effective way to set the tone for the rest of the songs " . Overall , Bowar gave the album four out of five stars , calling it , " one of the best Dream Theater releases in quite a while " .
The album peaked in the top twenty @-@ five in the United Kingdom and Australia , where the band had never previously charted . In the United States , the album peaked at the nineteenth position on the Billboard 200 , making it the highest peaking Dream Theater album in the United States at the time of its release . Overall , Systematic Chaos peaked in the top twenty for album sales in eight countries . In the US , the album sold 35 @,@ 689 copies the first week it was released .
In 2014 , readers of Rhythm magazine voted Systematic Chaos the second greatest drumming album in the history of progressive rock .
= = Track listing = =
All music composed by Dream Theater .
= = = Special edition bonus DVD = = =
Complete album in 5 @.@ 1 surround sound
Chaos in Progress : the making of Systematic Chaos
= = Chart positions = =
= = Personnel = =
= John Haynes ( governor ) =
John Haynes ( May 1 , 1594 – c . January 9 , 1653 / 4 ) , also sometimes spelled Haines , was a colonial magistrate and one of the founders of the Connecticut Colony . He served one term as governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and was the first governor of Connecticut , ultimately serving eight separate terms .
Haynes was influential in the drafting of laws and legal frameworks in both Massachusetts and Connecticut . He was on the committee that drafted the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut , which has been called one of the first written constitutions . He also invested most of his fortune in Connecticut , " to the ruine of his famylye in Englande " .
= = Early life = =
Haynes was likely born at Messing , Essex , England , the eldest son of John Haynes and Mary Michel Haynes . The family was an armigerous gentry or ' visitation family ' who had lived at Codicote , Herefordshire , and at Great Haddam . In 1605 , when he was eleven , his father died , and he eventually inherited the family 's many properties . It is possible that Haynes attended Cambridge ; during the relevant time period , two John Hayneses are listed as attending . By about 1616 , Haynes was living at Gurney 's Manor , Hingham , Norfolk , a hotbed of Puritan sentiment , where Haynes was Lord of the Manor . There he married Mary Thorneton , the daughter of Norfolk nobility , with whom he had six children . In 1627 , his wife Mary died and was buried at St. Andrews Church in Hingham . In the early 1620s , he purchased Copford Hall , near Colchester in Essex ; this estate alone was reported to produce £ 1 @,@ 100 per year .
Essex was also a Puritan center , and Haynes was greatly influenced by the pastor Thomas Hooker , who was a close friend . In about 1630 , John Winthrop and John Humphreys , two of the founders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony , extended invitations to Hooker and Haynes to join them in the New World . Apparently leaving his minor children behind , Haynes emigrated in 1633 , sailing aboard the Griffin with Hooker . They settled first at Newtowne ( later renamed Cambridge ) , where Haynes was the guest of Thomas Dudley until his own house was ready .
= = Massachusetts Bay Colony = =
As a man of some means , ( Winthrop referred to him as a " man of great estate " ) in 1634 , Haynes was admitted as a freeman and elected to the colony 's council of assistants . He was also named to a committee overseeing military matters , a position that assumed some importance when war broke out with the Pequot tribe that year . The assistants were called on to consider the controversial defacement of the English flag by John Endecott in 1634 . Claiming that St George 's Cross was a symbol of popery , he had cut it from the Salem militia company 's banner . Haynes was part of a moderate faction that disagreed with Endecott 's action , claiming that the cross had been reduced to a symbol of nationalism . For his action , Endecott was censured and deprived of serving in any offices for one year .
In 1634 , Haynes served in a variety of municipal capacities . He was a Cambridge selectman and served on a commission that decided the boundary between Boston and Charlestown . He was elected governor in 1635 , winning an election that Roger Ludlow had been expected to win . Haynes had argued for the lowering of taxes ; Ludlow also alleged that the deputies of some towns had made private agreements that concerned the vote before it occurred . Ludlow , who was not even elected as an assistant , was apparently motivated by his loss to leave the colony for a settlement on the Connecticut River .
Haynes ' one @-@ year term as governor was marked by political conflict between a faction led by Haynes , Hooker , and Dudley , and another led by Winthrop . The major disagreement between them concerned the strictness of judicial procedures and the process of rendering judgments ; the Haynes faction believed that Winthrop had been lax in some of his decisions . The conservative faction was successful in enacting regulations for stricter judicial procedures ; it also passed legislation banning the smoking of tobacco and restricting overly ostentatious or fashionable clothing . Haynes also presided over the trial and banishment of Roger Williams , an act that Williams reports Haynes later expressed some regret over .
= = Connecticut Colony = =
In 1635 , a significant religious division began to grow in the Massachusetts colony . Anne Hutchinson and others espoused the Antinomianist view that the laws of the Church of England did not apply to them , while others argued the opposing Legalist position . Harsh reactions to the controversy may have played a role in the decision by Hooker , and consequently Haynes , to leave the colony for new settlements on the Connecticut River . Historians have also cited shortages of land and food as a reason for this migration , and political competition between Haynes and Winthrop . Winthrop recorded that Hooker 's company was motivated by " the strong bent of their spirits to remove " .
Haynes , while making arrangements to follow Hooker , continued to be involved in Massachusetts through 1636 , serving as an assistant and as colonel of one of the colony 's militia regiments . His lieutenant colonel was Roger Harlakenden , who in 1635 came over from England with his sister Mabel . John and Mabel were married in 1636 ; they had five children .
Haynes joined Hooker at the settlement they called Hartford in 1637 . The colonial settlements on the river were established without any sort of royal charter and were not within the bounds of the Massachusetts Bay Colony . For the first two years , the few small settlements were governed by a general court of magistrates , headed by Haynes , and were likely preoccupied with the ongoing conflict with the Pequots . After the war ended in late 1638 , the magistrates began drafting a body of principles and laws ; these were ratified in January 1638 / 9 . Now known as the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut , this document has been called the " first written constitution " . The chief architects of the Fundamental Orders were Ludlow , the colony 's principal legal mind , Haynes , and Thomas Hooker , who was known to advocate for the liberties the document enshrines .
Pursuant to the terms of this constitution , elections were held on April 11 , 1639 , and Haynes was elected as the colony 's first governor . Because of restrictions in the constitution that disallowed consecutive terms , he was in and out of the office of governor a total of eight times between 1639 and his death in 1653 / 4 . During most of the years he was not governor , he was instead the deputy governor .
Due to a lack of detailed documentation , the exact role Haynes played in the colony 's political activities is unclear . One of his more notable achievements was the negotiations with some of the neighboring colonies that
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katesh , Meena , Kruthika Jayakumar and Esther with a police station in the backdrop . The title had the tag line " Kanipinchedantha Nijam Kaadu " ( Visuals may be deceptive ) . A promotional campaign titled " My best memories with my father " was launched on 13 June 2014 by Venkatesh and his father D. Ramanaidu . Participants were directed to submit their best memories along with supporting pictures to a marketing page on Facebook , or via email , with the winner being granted an opportunity to meet Venkatesh in person . The film 's team also invited Twitter users to upload photos of themselves with their fathers to celebrate " Fathers ' Day Week " , beginning 15 June 2014 . A selfie featuring Venkatesh and his son Arjun was released as well .
More than a week later , on 22 June 2014 , the filmmakers launched a jigsaw puzzle on Facebook as part of the film 's promotion , featuring several scenes related to the film . The game enabled users to win prizes every day . The idea behind this jigsaw puzzle was to " escalate the drama and the suspense of the film " . The film 's theatrical trailer , 110 seconds long , was released on 3 July 2014 . Around ₹ 30 — 40 million were spent on the film 's promotions .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
According to International Business Times India , the film received positive feedback from critics . Ranjani Rajendra of The Hindu called the film a " compelling thriller that does not disappoint " , adding that what the film " boils down to is two sets of parents desperate to ensure their children 's wellbeing and makes for a good watch " . Sandhya Rao of Sify stated , " For the first time in Telugu cinema do we see such an intense film . After a long time we are seeing a film that comes with nail @-@ biting sequences . Superior performance , incredible screenplay and exhilarating suspense ! " She called Drushyam a " highly recommended watch " .
Suresh Kavirayani of Deccan Chronicle gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars . He stated that the film is not " a regular song , dance and action entertainer . It is completely a screenplay @-@ based film where every character plays an important role . The story showcases family bonding and also takes one on a thrilling ride " , adding that the film 's story " calls for some brilliant acting and the cast has done justice to their roles " . Hemanth Kumar of The Times of India also gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and called it an " ode to classic style of filmmaking — clinical in its approach and hits just about the perfect notes to keep the audience hooked , without much gimmickry " , adding that the film 's biggest achievement is that it " respects our intelligence and reinforces the principle that story @-@ telling isn 't a dying art " .
Shekhar of Oneindia Entertainment gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and called it a " good suspense thriller which will be a treat for family audience " , and stated " the second half of the film is simply superb and the suspense element makes you sit on the edge of the seat and watch the movie biting your nails . The climax is also good and it makes the viewers to walk out of the cinema hall with a contented heart " . IndiaGlitz gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and stated , " The biggest strength of Drushyam is not its genre , but the fact that an excellent screenplay has been written around too less characters for a movie of this genre and without sub plots and the like " , and added that " Drushyam is edge @-@ of @-@ the @-@ seat , but it doesn 't demand the audience to connect the threads . An unconventional film , this film is refreshing as it is not formulaic " .
= = = Box office = = =
The film collected a distributor share of approximately ₹ 15 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 230 @,@ 000 ) at the AP / Telangana box office on its first day . It held strong on the second day , collecting almost 80 % of the first day 's share , resulting in a two @-@ day total of ₹ 27 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 410 @,@ 000 ) . By the end of its first weekend , Drushyam collected a total of approximately ₹ 46 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 690 @,@ 000 ) at the AP / Telangana box office . Trade analyst Trinath told IANS that the film in fact collected ₹ 52 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 780 @,@ 000 ) in its opening weekend .
In the United States , the film collected ₹ 45 @.@ 08 lakh ( US $ 66 @,@ 989 ) in two days , including preview shows , which trade analyst Taran Adarsh referred to as " a good start " . By the end of its first weekend in the US , Drushyam collected a total of approximately ₹ 13 @.@ 9 million ( US $ 206 @,@ 554 ) . With this , the film managed to surpass the second weekend collections of Bobby Jasoos ( released a week earlier ) , but failed to beat the first weekend collections of Humpty Sharma Ki Dulhania ( released on the same date ) .
By the end of its first week , the film collected ₹ 95 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 4 million ) nett at the global box office . At the ten @-@ day mark , global collections rose to ₹ 131 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 9 million ) , with ₹ 103 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) earned at the AP / Telangana box office and the remaining ₹ 27 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 410 @,@ 000 ) from markets throughout the rest of India and overseas . The film collected a total share of ₹ 152 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 3 million ) at the global box office in two weeks and was declared " a hit venture " . By the end of its lifetime , the film collected a total share of ₹ 200 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 0 million ) at the global box office and was declared " a super hit " . With this , Drushyam became one of the highest grossing Telugu films of 2014 .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Home media = = =
The film 's satellite rights were sold to Gemini TV of Sun Network for ₹ 55 million in mid @-@ July 2014 . Suresh Babu revised the sale to ₹ 200 million , as a three film package including Gopala Gopala and Bhimavaram Bullodu , both co @-@ produced by him . Drushyam had its global television premiere on 15 February 2015 at 6 p.m. IST . It registered a TRP rating of 18 @.@ 61 which was reportedly one of the best ever in the history of Telugu cinema . In comparison , two other successful Telugu films of 2014 , Race Gurram and Manam , which incidentally also aired on Gemini TV , registered a TRP rating of 15 @.@ 6 and 15 @.@ 7 respectively .
= = Soundtrack = =
Sharreth composed two songs for the film . The lyrics for both of them were penned by Chandrabose . The songs were released on 5 July 2014 by Lahari Music , through their official channel at YouTube .
Sandhya Rao of Sify.com stated in her review that the songs and background score " gel well with the film " , while Shekhar of Oneindia Entertainment said that the background score was " amazing " .
= = Character chart of Drishyam and its remakes = =
= Unending =
" Unending " is the season finale of the tenth season and series finale of the science fiction television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 , and the show 's two @-@ hundred sixteenth episode overall . Written and directed by Robert C. Cooper , the episode originally premiered in the United Kingdom on Sky One on March 13 , 2007 , and in the United States on June 22 , 2007 on the Sci Fi Channel . The episode attracted approximately 2 @.@ 2 million viewers on its American broadcast , a ratings success for the Sci Fi Channel .
The episode begins with the mass suicide of the Asgard race , who try to preserve their legacy by giving all of their accumulated knowledge and technology to the SG @-@ 1 team and the crew of the Earth ship Odyssey . When the ship is attacked by Ori warships , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Samantha Carter creates a time dilation field that speeds up time within the ship , and it takes fifty years until a defense against the Ori weapons can be found .
= = Plot = =
The members of SG @-@ 1 and General Hank Landry ( Beau Bridges ) are travelling on the Earth ship Odyssey to the Asgard home world , Orilla , when the Asgard Thor beams aboard . He reveals that after millennia of genetic manipulation , a disease has brought his race very close to extinction , and SG @-@ 1 accepts his offer to upload the sum of all Asgard knowledge into Odyssey as a way to preserve the Asgard legacy after their mass suicide . However , Orilla and Odyssey are soon attacked by Ori warships . Orilla erupts with huge explosions , and after Odyssey escapes to the next planet with a Stargate and beams the bulk of its crew down , the Ori fire a final energy beam upon the ship . Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Samantha Carter ( Amanda Tapping ) activates a localized time dilation field that makes time look frozen outside the field to give SG @-@ 1 and Landry time to find a defense .
During the initial months on board , Vala Mal Doran ( Claudia Black ) repeatedly tries to seduce Daniel Jackson ( Michael Shanks ) . Daniel finally confronts Vala for what he believes to be her insincerity , teasing , and mocking of him . Vala 's upset reaction makes Daniel realize the honesty of her feelings , and they share a passionate embrace . As the years pass , each team member attempts to deal with the isolation . General Landry develops a gardening hobby ; Carter learns how to play the cello ; Daniel continues the translation of Asgard information in the database and develops his relationship with Vala ; and Cameron Mitchell ( Ben Browder ) and Teal 'c ( Christopher Judge ) exercise and train while Mitchell is growing more frustrated and angry . After many years , General Landry succumbs to old age and dies .
After fifty years Carter has devised a way to reverse time within a localized field , however the Odyssey 's power source ( ZPM ) is almost completely depleted from maintaining the time dilation field for fifty years . Mitchell however hypothesizes that the power of the Ori energy beam could provide the required energy to reverse the time . This , however , will mean the loss of any memories of the last fifty years ; additionally , whoever volunteers will remain at their advanced age . Teal 'c , who as a Jaffa has a much longer lifespan than the other team members , volunteers to remain behind and perform the rescue , protected within a separate field . As the group prepares their plan , Vala and Daniel exchange a last embrace , assuring each other of their love . When everything is in place , they deactivate the time dilation field and , after the normal timeline is restored , Teal 'c prevents Colonel Carter from activating the time dilation field . Odyssey leaves before it is destroyed , saving SG @-@ 1 and the Asgard 's legacy .
Back at the SGC ( Stargate Command ) , Teal 'c refuses to reveal any of the events on the ship , much to Vala 's disappointment . As the episode , the season and the series come to a close , SG @-@ 1 contemplates Teal 'c's joking words of wisdom in the gateroom and says " indeed " all at once . General Landry wishes the team God @-@ speed , and SG @-@ 1 steps through the gate on their next mission .
= = Production = =
" Unending " is the fiftieth Stargate SG @-@ 1 episode written by Robert C. Cooper , and the second episode of the series directed by Cooper . Being the series ' tenth season finale , " Unending " was the fifth season finale to potentially serve as Stargate SG @-@ 1 's last episode , although the writers originally anticipated another renewal of the series and planned to end the season with a cliffhanger . However , the Sci @-@ Fi Channel announced the series ' cancellation in August 2006 , approximately one month before " Unending " was written . The network opposed the idea of a cliffhanger leading up to a possible movie , and since the producers never intended " to blow up the SGC and kill everyone " , the episode 's theme and name were chosen to give " a sense of ending without it being an ending " . This move also allowed for the fan conspiracy theories surrounding a possible real Stargate in the underground Cheyenne Mountain Complex to continue . The option to end the series with a two @-@ parter was considered but rejected , as Cooper felt this would have made the ending less special . The buildup of the Ori arc in Seasons 9 and 10 would eventually get a pay @-@ off in Stargate : The Ark of Truth , a film produced after the end of the show . The cast and crew knew by the end of the episode 's filming on October 5 , 2006 that more films would be produced .
Robert C. Cooper intended the episode as " an emotional tribute to the ten seasons that [ had ] come before " and " the last chapter in the book – but not necessarily in the series of books . It was a chance [ ... ] , using science fiction , to show people one version of what the future might be like for these characters that they 've spent so much time with and loved so much . " By killing off the Asgard race , Cooper gave the episode an element of tragedy that reflected his feelings at the time . Producer Brad Wright wanted all of the characters to get a last shot in the spotlight instead of focusing on only one character . Because of fan vocality about team episodes , Cooper decided to put the characters through several decades of life and see their relationships develop and evolve . The references in " Unending " to the events of season 2 's " The Fifth Race " , another Cooper @-@ penned episode often named as a fan favorite , were intended , as were the callbacks to season 9 's " The Ties That Bind " ( the Daniel @-@ Vala argument , see below ) and season 10 's " Line In The Sand " ( the solution of using the Ori beam ) . The period aboard the ship was originally significantly less than fifty years , but the actors ' last @-@ stage makeup , which Cooper only saw minutes before filming , looked so old that Cooper was forced to increase the number of years in the script .
Cooper originally wrote the developing romance between Daniel and Vala in " Unending " by having them have sex without a confrontation . Claudia Black and Michael Shanks protested against this intended story , as Shanks felt that " [ t ] here 's always been this underlining , keeping [ Vala ] at arms length because of the fear of getting too close . " Cooper rewrote the scene to show Vala 's vulnerability to Daniel , and have Daniel share his true feelings of a relationship . The actors decided to play the confrontation scene as genuinely as possible , with both characters being neither completely in @-@ character nor totally out @-@ of @-@ character . The scene was rehearsed a lot and was filmed over the course of six hours . Cooper was nevertheless concerned that Daniel appeared too edgy and mean , although his feelings were motivated by the two years of torment with Vala , and losing his wife nearly ten years before . Daniel 's line , " You better not be messing with me " , was only said in one take by Michael Shanks . Since Cooper prefers to follow up on such emotional scenes with a laugh , the immediate next scene shows Vala coming out of Daniel 's room , where she encounters a disbelieving Mitchell jogging by . In Cooper 's mind , Daniel held a crying Vala in another scene because she had gotten pregnant and had lost the baby . To contrast the obvious relationship between Daniel and Vala , Amanda Tapping and Christopher Judge subtly played their scenes as if their characters also had a romantic relationship .
To give the Odyssey an unnatural ghostship feeling of solitude , many wide angle shots and VisFX matte extension were used with no additional music . Robert C. Cooper often listened to the CCR song " Have You Ever Seen the Rain ? " during the making of the episode and decided to play it over the first montage , showing the passage of time . The tone of the second montage was set with a cello . Stargate composer Joel Goldsmith later accompanied the hand movements of the hired cellist with different music during post @-@ production . A third montage was filmed but not included in the final cut of the episode since the last table scene already supplied the needed sentiment . Each time period included the same shots to help the audience focus on the differences that characters have gone through . The last scene at Stargate Command was the last filmed Stargate SG @-@ 1 scene , shot at two o 'clock in the morning , for which every member of the crew came back .
= = Reception = =
The broadcast of " Unending " on the British channel Sky One on March 13 , 2007 pulled in around 518 @,@ 000 viewers , making Stargate SG @-@ 1 the third most @-@ watched program for Sky One during that week . " Unending " attracted approximately 2 @.@ 2 million viewers on its first American broadcast on the Sci Fi Channel on June 22 , 2007 , the best performance for SG @-@ 1 since the September 22 , 2006 mid @-@ season finale .
Reviewers were generally satisfied with the conclusion , and some like Bill Keveney of the USA Today felt the episode does not stray far from " the series formula – a mix of sci @-@ fi adventure , relationships and humor " . Jason Van Horn of IGN enjoyed the humor , " the amount of heart and pure emotion running rampant this episode " , which he thought served as a symbol for the entire show that will stay in the public mind through re @-@ runs and DVDs . Two scenes that stood out for him as " powerful " , " heart @-@ wrenching " and " the icing on the cake " , were Mitchell 's breakdown and Vala 's seduction of Daniel signaling " the beginning of a very long lasting and loving relationship " . Vala 's emotional response to Daniel was interpreted as an example of her character growth , while another reviewer felt the " Vala / Daniel argument [ was ] a tad overwrought [ although ] the motivation is clear " . The emotional death of Landry appealed to several reviewers , as did the resolution via Teal 'c's heroic sacrifice .
The " clever , ground @-@ breaking " , " fitting " and " hugely satisfying " episode reminded hdtvuk.tv 's Ian Calcutt of Star Trek : The Next Generation 's finale " All Good Things ... " , while TV Squad 's Richard Keller noted strong similarities to a two @-@ part episode of Star Trek : Voyager named " Year of Hell " . He was " extremely sad to see [ the series ] go " , but could not overlook the mediocrity , predictability and lack of originality of the series finale . TV Zone 's Anthony Brown , who considered the episode " curious [ ly ] low @-@ key " , regretted the planned direct @-@ to @-@ DVD films , as " the whole thing inevitably loses its punch as the reset button 's pressed [ ... ] , rather than providing the genuine emotion of an actual ending " . Maureen Ryan of The Chicago Tribune thought that the episode went out on " a strange note " with a disappointing last " string of banal clichés " dialogue exchange , although the cast and the established goodwill of their characters could partly make up for it . Mary McNamara of Multichannel News lauded Cooper 's direction , lighting , costuming , the " haunting " music and sound , the production values and special effects . She acknowledged the SG @-@ 1 finale as a " true ensemble / team piece " with " a poignant and satisfying conclusion " , and despite not making it into the top ten of series finales , the episode was " very good " and " respects and rewards the ten year commitment viewers have made to the series " . David Bianculli from the New York Daily Times gave the episode two and a half out of five and saying the franchise stopped " Without warning " thanks to this episode .
= Put the Needle on It =
" Put the Needle on It " is a song performed by Australian singer Dannii Minogue , which was written by Minogue , Mathias Johansson , Henrik Korpi and Karen Poole for Minogue 's fourth album Neon Nights ( 2003 ) . It is the opening track , and was released as its lead single on 4 November 2002 . It reached the top twenty on the Australian , Irish and United Kingdom Singles Charts . In the UK it also topped the club charts . In 2003 , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association indicating shipment of 35 @,@ 000 units .
" Put the Needle on It " is a dance @-@ pop song which received mixed reviews from music critics , and its musical style was compared to United States pop singer , Madonna . Its music video , directed by Miikka Lommi , features Minogue in a studio surrounded with colourful neon lights and spinning on a human @-@ sized record player .
= = Background and writing = =
In 2002 , Minogue began writing and recording material for her fourth album , Neon Nights ( 2003 ) , with Mathias Johansson ( aka Mathias Wollo ) , Henrik Korpi , and previous collaborator Karen Poole in Stockholm , Sweden . During one of their sessions , they wrote " Put the Needle on It " , a song about sex . Minogue was determined to compose a dance music song to thank United Kingdom DJs . They had accepted her into that genre following the success of her previous year 's single , " Who Do You Love Now ? " . In the UK , it is difficult for artists to be accepted into the dance music scene because DJs are usually not " interested in pop artists calling themselves dance artists because they 've done one remix of their song " .
" Put the Needle on It " is a mid @-@ tempo 1980s inspired disco song " about sex disguised as a pop ditty about a record player " . The song was composed as a collaborative effort between Korpi , Johansson , Poole and Minogue , although Minogue contributed most of the lyrics . The song is written in the common verse @-@ chorus form and features instrumentation from keyboards and synthesisers .
In 2010 Turkish singer Mercan released a cover version in her native language called “ Sana değil kardeşine ” ( English : " Not you brother " ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Put the Needle on It " received mixed reviews from contemporary pop music critics . Cristín Leach of RTÉ Entertainment compared the song 's musical style to American pop singer Madonna , while Amazon.com 's David Trueman wrote that the song " utilises the funkier end of 1980s disco , with a contemporary edge that removes the cheese and dispels any notion that [ Minogue ] may be hanging on the coattails of her big sister ( Kylie Minogue ) " . MusicOMH 's Alexis Kirke called the track a " slow but inevitable grower " which " shows that Dannii 's dark song @-@ writing powers can compete right at the top of the charts " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Put the Needle on It " was released in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 4 November 2002 . It reached number seven on the UK Singles Chart and number one on the Upfront Club Chart , becoming Minogue 's fifth song to top the club chart . Across Europe , the track performed moderately well , reaching the top twenty in Ireland and top thirty in the Netherlands It also reached number four on the Irish Dance Charts . " Put the Needle on It " peaked at number eleven on the Australian Singles Chart . In 2003 , the song was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association indicating shipment of 35 @,@ 000 units . On the ARIA End of Year Charts for 2003 , the track appeared at number eleven on the Dance Singles Chart and at number eighteen on the Top Australian Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
" Put the Needle on It " features a futuristic music video that was directed by Miikka Lommi in 2002 . The video features Minogue in a studio surrounded with colourful neon lights and spinning on a human @-@ sized record player . The video begins with a close @-@ up on a television screen showing only Minogue 's lips , singing the opening lines . A large , human @-@ sized record player is then shown , surrounded by large video screens repeating the opening scene of the video . Minogue , wearing a short black dress and a cropped hair cut , is then shown in a digital room , surrounded by many lights and occasionally four digital dancers . The final sequence of the video features Minogue in a purple dress , spinning on the large record player introduced at the beginning . As the video concludes , all of the scenes are inter @-@ cut and gradually fade .
A music video for a remix version was also created using the Jason Nevins ' " Club Creation Edit " of the song . The remix video used only the scenes of Minogue in the digital room and spinning around on the record player , but they are arranged in a different order than how they appear in the original video . The music video was released commercially on The Hits & Beyond special edition companion DVD ( 2006 ) and Dannii Minogue : The Video Collection ( 2007 ) . The latter included a short film , " Put the Needle on It ( Behind the Scenes ) " , detailing the production of the track and its video .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to " Put the Needle on It " :
Dannii Minogue – lead vocals
Karen Poole – backing vocals
Korpi & Blackcell – production , arrangement
Jonas Östman – engineering
Niklas Flyckt – mixing
= Coast Guard City =
A Coast Guard City is a United States municipality designated as such by the Commandant of the United States Coast Guard on application of the local civilian government . It is an honorary designation intended to recognize communities of special importance to the U.S. Coast Guard .
= = Criteria = =
Designation as a Coast Guard City is made by the Commandant of the United States Coast Guard on advise of a review board and upon application by a municipal government . According to the U.S. Coast Guard , applications are expected to demonstrate an applicant jurisdiction 's ability to meet a multi @-@ part criteria that can include : erection of monuments and memorials to the Coast Guard , organization of civic celebrations on the anniversary of the founding of the U.S. Coast Guard , offer of special recognition and merchandise discounts to Coast Guard personnel by the local business community , providing support to local U.S. Coast Guard Morale , Welfare and Recreation initiatives .
Designation as a Coast Guard City is for a five @-@ year period , but can be renewed indefinitely conditioned on the city continuing to meet the criteria .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The Coast Guard City program was established by the United States Congress in 1998 to recognize cities where military assets of the United States Coast Guard are located and which demonstrate support to Coast Guard personnel stationed there . The first city so designated was Grand Haven , Michigan .
As of 2015 , 18 cities had been designated as " Coast Guard Cities . "
= = = Legislation = = =
The authorizing legislation for the Coast Guard City program provides that :
The Commandant of the Coast Guard may recognize the community of Grand Haven , Michigan , as " Coast Guard City , USA " . If the Commandant desires to recognize any other community in the same manner or any other community requests such recognition from the Coast Guard , the Commandant shall notify the Committee on Commerce , Science , and Transportation of the Senate and the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure of the House of Representatives 90 days prior to approving such recognition .
= = = List of Coast Guard Cities = = =
= Russian battleship Imperator Nikolai I ( 1916 ) =
Imperator Nikolai I ( Russian : Император Николай I or Emperor Nikolai I ) was a Russian dreadnought built during World War I for service in the Black Sea . She was designed to counter multiple prospective Ottoman dreadnoughts which had been placed under order by the Ottoman government , since this raised the possibility that the Russian dreadnoughts being built for the Black Sea Fleet could be outclassed . The ship used the same main armament as the preceding Imperatritsa Mariya class , but was larger and more heavily armored . Imperator Nikolai I was launched in 1916 , but construction was suspended on 24 October 1917 . The Soviets considered completing her in 1923 , but later rejected the idea . She was towed to Sevastopol in 1927 and scrapped .
= = Design and development = =
Imperator Nikolai I was designed in response to efforts by the Ottoman Empire to acquire modern dreadnoughts from abroad . By late 1913 it appeared that the Turks would be able to muster three dreadnoughts , two of which were armed with 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) guns , versus the three Russian dreadnoughts of the Imperatritsa Mariya class then building . A modified version of that class would be the quickest to put into service and the preliminary design work began in December of that year , well before she was formally ordered on 12 September 1914 . She was a much bigger and more heavily armored ship than the earlier ships , but her guns and machinery were virtually identical to those of the Imperatritsa Mariya class to save time .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Imperator Nikolai I was considerably larger than the preceding Imperatritsa Mariya class . She was 182 meters ( 597 ft 1 in ) long overall , had a beam of 29 meters ( 95 ft 2 in ) and at full load a draft of 9 meters ( 29 ft 6 in ) . The ship displaced 27 @,@ 830 metric tons ( 27 @,@ 390 long tons ) at standard load , over 3 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 000 long tons ) more than Imperatritsa Mariya 's displacement of 23 @,@ 413 metric tons ( 23 @,@ 043 long tons ) , and 31 @,@ 877 metric tons ( 31 @,@ 374 long tons ) at full load . High @-@ tensile steel was used throughout the hull with mild steel used only in areas that did not contribute to structural strength . The hull was subdivided by 20 transverse watertight bulkheads . The engine room was divided by two longitudinal bulkheads between frames 95 – 107 and a centerline
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bulkhead divided the condenser compartment . The double bottom was 1 @.@ 2 meters ( 3 ft 11 in ) deep and she was given an ice @-@ breaking bow , probably in the hopes that she 'd be able to operate outside the Black Sea . Frahm anti @-@ rolling tanks were fitted on each side to reduce her rolling motion . She had two electrically driven rudders on the centerline , the main rudder abaft the smaller auxiliary rudder . Imperator Nikolai I 's designed metacentric height was 1 @.@ 2 meters ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The machinery of Imperator Nikolai I differed only in small ways from that of her predecessors . The wing propeller shafts were powered by high pressure ahead and astern turbines , while the inboard shafts were powered by low pressure turbines . They produced a total of 29 @,@ 700 shp ( 22 @,@ 100 kW ) . 20 mixed @-@ firing triangular Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers powered the turbines with a working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 atm ( 257 psi ) . The forward group of eight boilers were positioned between the first and second third while the aft group of twelve boilers lay between the second and third turrets . Maximum speed was estimated at 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . The maximum coal capacity was 3 @,@ 557 @.@ 3 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 501 long tons ) , over 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ) more than her predecessor 's capacity of 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) , plus an unknown amount of fuel oil .
Imperator Nikolai I had four Curtiss @-@ AEG main and two auxiliary turbo generators with each driving two dynamos , one each for alternating current and direct current . Each main generator was rated at 360 kilowatts while the auxiliaries had a capacity of 200 kilowatts each . These powered the complex electrical system that combined alternating current for most equipment with direct current for heavy @-@ load machinery like the turret motors . No diesel generators were provided .
= = = Armament = = =
Her main armament consisted of a dozen 12 @-@ inch Pattern 1907 52 @-@ caliber guns mounted in four triple turrets distributed the length of the ship . These guns were identical to those used in the Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class ships , but the turrets were modified to improve the rate of fire . The guns could be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to 25 ° . They could be loaded at any angle between − 5 ° and + 15 ° ; their rate of fire was supposed to three rounds per minute up to 15 ° of elevation . The turrets could elevate at 3 – 4 ° per second and traverse at a rate of 3 @.@ 2 ° per second . 100 rounds per gun were carried at full load . The guns fired 470 @.@ 9 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 038 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 762 m / s ( 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 23 @,@ 230 meters ( 25 @,@ 400 yd ) .
The secondary armament consisted of twenty 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) 55 @-@ caliber Model 1913 guns mounted in casemates . They were arranged in two groups , six guns per side from the forward turret to the rear funnel and the remaining four clustered around the rear turret . Three guns per side were situated to fire ahead as that was the most likely direction of attack by torpedo boats as anticipated by the Naval General Staff . Their rate of fire ranged from five to eight rounds per minute and they were provided with 245 rounds per gun . They had a maximum range of about 15 @,@ 364 meters ( 16 @,@ 802 yd ) with a 36 @.@ 86 @-@ kilogram ( 81 @.@ 3 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 823 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) .
The original anti @-@ aircraft armament was going to be four 38 @-@ caliber 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 64 mm ) AA guns mounted on the roofs of the fore and aft turrets , but this was changed during construction to four 37 @-@ caliber 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) of a new design that never entered service . Four underwater 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes were also fitted , two on each broadside in compartments between frames 43 – 46 and frames 113 – 15 . Twelve torpedoes were carried for them .
= = = Fire control = = =
The 6 @-@ meter ( 20 ft ) rangefinders were originally going to be fitted in the conning tower , but this was changed during construction to mounting them in the forward and aft main gun turrets using periscopes in armored hoods on the turret roofs . These would provide data for the central artillery post to calculate and then transmit to the guns for the gun crew to follow . A new , domestically designed , Erikson mechanical computer was intended to be used .
= = = Protection = = =
Imperator Nikolai I was much more heavily armored than the Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class ships , as the weight of armor for the former totaled 2 @,@ 576 long tons ( 2 @,@ 617 t ) more than the older ships . Even so , Russian armor factories were unable to roll Krupp cemented armor plates of size greater than 270 millimeters ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) , compensating by increasing the thickness of the internal splinter bulkhead . The plates were sized to match the frames to provide support for their joints and they were joined together to better distribute the shock of a shell 's impact . The waterline belt had a total height of 5 @.@ 2 meters ( 17 ft ) , 3 @.@ 45 meters ( 11 @.@ 3 ft ) of which was above the design waterline and 1 @.@ 75 meters ( 5 ft 9 in ) below . Forward , the remaining portion of the waterline was protected by two strakes ; the lower of which was initially 200 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick , but thinned to 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . It extended 90 centimeters ( 35 in ) above the design waterline . The upper strake was 100 mm thick and extended up to the middle deck . Aft , the waterline belt was 175 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) thick and terminated in a 175 @-@ mm transverse bulkhead aft of the steering gear . The aft area between the upper and middle decks was the only unarmored area of the hull and had a 300 millimeters ( 12 in ) transverse bulkhead to protect the rear turret magazine from shells fired from rear bearings . The forward bulkhead was only 25 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) to serve as a splinter bulkhead as it was screened at all angles by side or deck armor . The 75 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) upper belt ran from the bow back to the aft turret and was 2 @.@ 95 meters ( 9 ft 8 in ) high . For the first time it was made of cemented armor which saved 300 long tons ( 305 t ) and 140 long tons ( 142 t ) in comparison to the uncemented plates used on the Gangut and Imperatritsa Mariya classes respectively . Behind the side armor was a face @-@ hardened inboard longitudinal splinter bulkhead that was 75 mm thick between the middle and lower decks , but decreased to 25 mm between the middle and upper decks . This sloped away from the edge of the lower deck to the lower edge of the armor belt with a thickness of 75 mm .
The main gun turrets had a face and rear 300 mm thick with 200 mm sides and roof . The barbettes were 300 mm thick , but reduced to 225 – 250 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) when behind other armor . The conning tower sides were 400 millimeters ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) thick with a 250 @-@ mm roof . The funnel uptakes were protected by 75 mm of armor , but reduced to 25 mm between the upper and middle decks . The upper deck was 35 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick , which was intended to activate the fuze of any shell penetrating it before it reached the main armored deck that was 63 mm ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) thick over the armored citadel . Forward of the citadel the upper deck remained 35 mm thick , but aft the armored decks dropped to the level of the top of the waterline belt ( the 35 mm deck ) while the 63 mm deck was at the lower edge of the belt . Underwater protection was minimal as there was only 10 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) watertight bulkhead behind the upwards extension of the double bottom and even this was squeezed out as the hull narrowed towards the end turrets .
= = Construction = =
Construction began on 22 June 1914 by the ONZiV at Nikolayev , after the launch of Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya on 7 June cleared the building slip . However she was not actually laid down until 28 April 1915 with the intention to launch her in October 1915 . The normal building schedule was maintained until early 1915 as the Russians believed that the war would be over soon . However , workers were diverted to more important projects and war production began to interfere with deliveries of material beginning shortly afterwards which delayed her launch until on 18 October 1916 . Several proposals were evaluated while she was building to modify her in light of the issues demonstrated by the Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class in service . They proved to trim badly by the bow and were very wet forward . One proposal was made to fit Imperator Nikolai I with a forecastle deck to improve her seaworthiness . This was rejected , as the additional weight from the forecastle and raising the forward barbette would actually worsen her trim forward . However , a proposal to add a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ meter ( 3 ft 7 in ) bulwark forward was accepted . Work on her continued at a slow rate through the February Revolution of 1917 , but the unsettled times disrupted her construction and further delayed her . She was renamed Demokratiya ( Russian : Демократия : Democracy ) on 29 April 1917 and she was estimated to be about 60 % complete . Industrial unrest and strikes further slowed progress and the provisional government postponed further work on 24 October 1917 until " a more favorable time " .
She was captured on 17 March 1918 when Nikolaev was occupied by the Germans and Austrians , but they did nothing with her incomplete hull . On 25 January 1919 she was listed by the Directorate of Ukraine as planned to be completed and included into the navy list by 1920 . On 27 January 1919 she was mentioned at Directorate Navy Ministry order at the list for renaming from 1920 – into Soborna Ukraina . However none of the short @-@ lived Directorate orders were actually implemented . She remained at Nikolayev throughout the Russian Civil War , of no use to either side . The victorious Soviets finally inspected her in 1923 to see if she was worth completing . Her dilapidated state and obsolescent design caused them to conclude that it was not worth doing and she should be sold for scrap . Efforts were made to sell the hull abroad to raise hard currency , but when these came to nought she was towed to Sevastopol on 28 June
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Abu Bakr . An @-@ Nasir Muhammad also favored Abu Bakr and believed Ahmad was unfit to rule . He rejected Bashtak 's suggestion , stating " As for Ahmad , who is in al @-@ Karak , do not let him cross [ the soil of ] Egypt ; do not put him in charge of anything , because he would cause the ruin of the state ! " Following an @-@ Nasir Muhammad 's death , In May or June 1341 , Abu Bakr was proclaimed sultan , but was virtually a ceremonial ruler , with Qawsun holding the reins of power as mudabbir al @-@ dawla ( organizer of the state ) , in effect the strongman of Egypt . He imprisoned Abu Bakr in the Upper Egyptian city of Qus where he was executed on trumped up charges of frivolity . Qawsun thereafter arranged for an @-@ Nasir Muhammad 's five @-@ year @-@ old son , al @-@ Ashraf Kujuk , to be declared sultan , further consolidating Qawsun 's power .
Ahmad was in al @-@ Karak at the time of Abu Bakr 's execution and Qawsun called on him to report to Cairo , ostensibly to assume the sultanate . However , Ahmad viewed the invitation Cairo as a ruse by Qawsun to eliminate him . He responded in September 1341 that he would not report to Cairo unless the leading emirs of the sultanate appeared before him in al @-@ Karak and gave him their oaths of loyalty and on the condition that his other brothers imprisoned in Qus would be relocated to al @-@ Karak . Ahmad concurrently sent letters to the Mamluk emirs of Syria requesting their support against Qawsun , who proceeded to besiege al @-@ Karak to coerce Ahmad to depart for Cairo . The siege was commanded by the Syrian emir , Qutlubugha al @-@ Fakhri , while Ahmad had the support of al @-@ Karak 's inhabitants and the Bedouin tribes of the vicinity . Twenty days into his siege , Qutlubugha defected from Qawsun , recognized Ahmad as sultan and promised the latter his unconditional support . Qutlubugha was persuaded to defect from Qawsun by the Mamluk na 'ib ( governor ) of Aleppo , Tashtamur . The latter argued that Qutlubugha should support Ahmad out of respect for the bonds of loyalty they owed to Ahmad 's father , their master . From then on , Ahmad gained the honorific prefix of an @-@ Nasir , like his father .
Qutlubugha 's recognition of Ahmad as sultan was officially an act of mutiny since it was done while al @-@ Ashraf Kujuk technically held office . It led to divisions among the Syrian Mamluk leadership , with the governors of Safad , Tripoli and Homs led by Altunbugha al @-@ Salihi of Damascus supporting Qawsun , while Tashtamur , Qutlubugha , the governor of Gaza , the Al Fadl tribe of Palmyra , and a number of Damascene emirs supporting an @-@ Nasir Ahmad . As Altunbugha left Damascus to lead an expedition against Tashtamur , pursuing the latter to southeastern Anatolia , Qutlubugha moved into Damascus where he proclaimed an @-@ Nasir Ahmad sultan and began to reorganize the bureaucracy with the support of Damascene emirs opposed to Altunbugha . Qutlubugha prepared to strike Altunbugha , who attempted to wrest back control of Damascus , but most of his forces defected and he escaped to Cairo . Afterward , the governors of Damascus , Safad , Gaza , Hama , and Baalbek formally recognized an @-@ Nasir Ahmad as sultan , with apparent popular support . Nonetheless , Ahmad insisted that he remain in al @-@ Karak instead of assuming the sultanate in Damascus unless Tashtamur , his most loyal supporter , accompanied him to Damascus from Anatolia . In the meantime , he gave Qutlubugha the authority to appoint Syrian governors as the new na 'ib al @-@ saltana ( viceroy ) of Syria . At one point during the political machinations in al @-@ Karak , some of Ahmad 's mamluks killed Shuhayb , an act which emotionally traumatized Ahmad .
= = Reign = =
Qawsun 's position in Egypt was precarious and he was ultimately arrested , along with Altunbugha , in Alexandria . Afterward , a delegation of Egypt @-@ based emirs , namely Jankali ibn Baba , Baybars al @-@ Ahmadi and Qimari Amir Shikar , arrived in al @-@ Karak to inform an @-@ Nasir Ahmad of Qawsun 's ouster and to invite him to Cairo to assume the sultanate , to which an @-@ Nasir Ahmad refused . On 21 January 1342 , al @-@ Ashraf Kujuk was dethroned and an @-@ Nasir Ahmad declared sultan despite the latter 's absence from Cairo . Qutlubugha expected an @-@ Nasir Ahmad to meet him in Damascus where the two men could march from there to Cairo triumphantly in royal procession , but an @-@ Nasir Ahmad opted for a more low @-@ key procession from Gaza , which frustrated Qutlubugha , more so when an @-@ Nasir Ahmad did not show up in Gaza . Instead , an @-@ Nasir Ahmad departed for Cairo without Qutlubugha in February , reaching Cairo in mid @-@ March . In Bedouin attire , he affirmed his title and declared " I was not yearning for royalty , and found that place [ al @-@ Karak ] adequate .
In Cairo , an @-@ Nasir Ahmad did not partake in the usual royal feast and the public prayer during the Eid al @-@ Fitr holiday . He surrounded himself with his coterie of supporters from al @-@ Karak , refused to meet directly with the Mamluk emirs of Egypt , avoided the public view , and was generally seclusive . He ordered Qawsun and Altunbugha as well as the governor of Qus who oversaw the execution of Abu Bakr to be executed . He assigned many of his unqualified supporters from al @-@ Karak to senior administrative offices , to the chagrin of the Mamluk emirs in Egypt . Tashtamur played an integral role in an @-@ Nasir Ahmad 's administration . However , Tashtamur 's arbitrary conduct in office and his selective approach to an @-@ Nasir Ahmad 's orders turned the latter against him , and with support from the leading Mamluk emirs who were also frustrated with Tashtamur , an @-@ Nasir Ahmad had Tashtamur imprisoned in May 1342 . In addition , an @-@ Nasir Ahmad ordered Qutlubugha to be confined to Damascus , while Mamluk emirs in Egypt sought to eliminate Qutlubugha . The latter was able to leave Egypt unharmed , but before reaching Beisan from Jenin , he was arrested by the governor of Safad , Baybars al @-@ Ahmadi , who extradited him to Egypt .
By the end of May , an @-@ Nasir Ahmad decided to rule the sultanate from al @-@ Karak , the only place he felt secure from Mamluk plots , real or perceived . He departed with large sums from the sultan 's treasury , huge numbers of an @-@ Nasir Muhammad 's Arabian horses and livestock , and was accompanied by the arrested emirs , Tashtamur and Qutlubugha , along with Karaki supporters , the muhtasib ( chief market inspector ) of Cairo and the chief scribe . He also sought to relocate Caliph al @-@ Hakim II to al @-@ Karak , and managed to install him in Gaza , ostensibly as an interim headquarters . An @-@ Nasir Ahmad reached al @-@ Karak relatively quickly ( in six days ) . He had left Cairo in the care of his newly @-@ appointed deputy , the governor of Gaza , Aqsunqur al @-@ Salari . From al @-@ Karak , an @-@ Nasir Ahmad issued decrees that reached Cairo through a mediator from al @-@ Karak ; an @-@ Nasir Ahmad rarely communicated directly with the Mamluks of Egypt , preferring to use mediators instead . According to al @-@ Maqrizi , Ahmad 's " most important confidant among the people of al @-@ Karak " was Baligh ibn Yusuf ibn Tayyi , the commander of Arab forces in the fortress . He was repeatedly asked to return to Cairo by the Mamluks of Egypt , but refused each time .
In al @-@ Karak , an @-@ Nasir Ahmad had Tashtamur and Qutlubugha executed for unclear reasons . The move to execute them appalled the public , with whom an @-@ Nasir Ahmad was steadily losing credibility with . The executions were seen as a testament of an @-@ Nasir Ahmad 's ingratitude to the men who had supported him and virtually installed him as sultan . Historian Joseph Drory argues that it was because Tashtamur and Qutlubugha compelled him to assume the sultanate and remove him from his self @-@ imposed isolation in al @-@ Karak that made an @-@ Nasir Ahmad resentful toward them .
= = Deposition and death = =
In Cairo , the senior Mamluk emirs resolved to depose an @-@ Nasir Ahmad and replace him with his half @-@ brother as @-@ Salih Isma 'il in June 1342 . The decision was supported by the governors of the Syrian provinces , who defected from an @-@ Nasir Ahmad after learning of the executions of Tashtamur and Qutlubugha and reports of an @-@ Nasir Ahmad 's decadent behavior in al @-@ Karak . Despite being dethroned and not having apparent ambitions outside of al @-@ Karak , an @-@ Nasir Ahmad was still viewed as a threat by the sultan ; an @-@ Nasir Muhammad had been exiled in al @-@ Karak when he marched to Cairo and seized the throne . Seven expeditions against an @-@ Nasir Ahmad were launched between his deposition and 1344 . Each siege was aborted . They often lasted for a few months , cost huge sums , and at times , ended with the dismissal of officers . The Mamluks had difficulty gaining the key support of the local Bedouin tribes , who were allies of an @-@ Nasir Ahmad .
In the summer of 1344 , Baligh , whose supporters and kinsmen served as Ahmad 's well @-@ spring of support , defected to the sultan 's army . The local defectors informed besieging Mamluks of a vulnerability in al @-@ Karak 's defenses . With this intelligence , on 4 July , the Mamluks , under the command of Emir Sanjar al @-@ Jawli , entered the fortress and captured an @-@ Nasir Ahmad , who had been wounded and was treated with respect by his captors . Still suspicious of his Egyptian captors , he refused to eat meals provided by them , only agreeing to eat food handled by his al @-@ Karak partisans . He was sent to Cairo , where as @-@ Salih Isma 'il secretly ordered to have him decapitated by a mercenary on 16 July . An @-@ Nasir Ahmad 's head was brought to the Cairo Citadel where it was displayed . His body was buried at
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the foot of the fortress of al @-@ Karak .
= = Legacy = =
An @-@ Nasir Ahmad 's four @-@ month reign was judged to be a disappointment by Mamluk @-@ era historians . Ibn Iyas wrote that expectations of an @-@ Nasir Ahmad being a " victorious lion " upon his ascension to the sultanate ended with him receiving the appellation of the " crazy teacher " , while Ibn Hajar al @-@ Asqalani wrote that he was " truly a terrible administrator , a hedonist and a drunkard " . Ibn Taghribirdi asserted that an @-@ Nasir Ahmad was thoughtless , frivolous and the worst of an @-@ Nasir Muhammad 's sons . Al @-@ Maqrizi repeated the alleged warning of an @-@ Nasir Muhammad that an @-@ Nasir Ahmad should never " enter Egypt ... for he will be a ground for the ruin of the monarchy " .
= Preity Zinta =
Preity Zinta ( pronounced [ ˈpriːt ̪ i ˈzɪɳʈaː ] ; born 31 January 1975 ) is an Indian film actress . She has appeared in Hindi films of Bollywood , as well as Telugu , Punjabi and English language films . After graduating with a degree in criminal psychology , Zinta made her acting debut in Dil Se .. in 1998 followed by a role in Soldier the same year . These performances earned her a Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut , and she was later recognised for her role as a teenage single mother in Kya Kehna ( 2000 ) . She subsequently established a career with a variety of character types ; her film roles along with her screen persona have been credited with contributing to a change in the concept of a Hindi film heroine , and won her several accolades .
Zinta received the Filmfare Award for Best Actress in 2003 for her performance in the romantic drama Kal Ho Naa Ho . She went on to play the lead female role in two consecutive annual top @-@ grossing films in India , the science fiction film Koi ... Mil Gaya ( 2003 ) , which is her biggest commercial success , and the star @-@ crossed romance Veer @-@ Zaara ( 2004 ) , which earned her critical acclaim . She was later noted for her portrayal of independent , modern Indian women in Salaam Namaste ( 2005 ) and Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna ( 2006 ) , top @-@ grossing productions in overseas markets . These accomplishments have established her as a leading actress of Hindi cinema . Her first international film role was in the Canadian film Heaven on Earth , for which she was awarded the Silver Hugo Award for Best Actress at the 2008 Chicago International Film Festival .
In addition to acting in films , Zinta has written a series of columns for BBC News Online South Asia , is a social activist , a television presenter , and a regular stage performer . She is the founder of the production company PZNZ Media and , along with ex @-@ boyfriend Ness Wadia , a co @-@ owner of the Indian Premier League cricket team Kings XI Punjab . She is known in the Indian media for publicly speaking her mind and openly expressing her opinions , and consequently has sparked the occasional controversy . These controversies include her being the only witness not to retract in court her earlier statements against the Indian mafia during the 2003 Bharat Shah case , for which she was awarded the Godfrey Phillips National Bravery Award .
= = Early life and background = =
Zinta was born into a family from Rohru in Shimla district , Himachal Pradesh . Her father , Durganand Zinta , was an officer in the Indian Army . He died in a car accident when she was 13 years old ; the accident also involved her mother , Nilprabha , who was severely injured and consequently remained bedridden for two years . Zinta called the tragic accident and her father 's death a significant turning point in her life , which forced her to mature rapidly . She has two brothers ; Deepankar and Manish , a year older and a year younger respectively . Deepankar is a commissioned officer in the Indian Army , while Manish lives in California .
Zinta , who describes herself as a tomboy as a child , has emphasised her father 's military background as having a lasting impression on how family life was conducted . He asserted the importance of discipline and punctuality to the children . She studied at the Convent of Jesus and Mary boarding school in Shimla . Although she confesses to loneliness in the boarding school , she noted that it was compensated by her finding a " ... perfect set of friends " there . As a student , she developed a love for literature , particularly the works of William Shakespeare and poetry . According to Zinta , she enjoyed schoolwork and received good grades ; in her free time she played sports , especially basketball .
Upon graduating from the boarding school ( The Lawrence School Sanawar ) at age 18 , Zinta enrolled at St. Bede 's College , Shimla . She graduated college with an English honours degree , and then started a graduate programme in psychology . She earned a postgraduate degree in criminal psychology , but later took up modelling . Zinta 's first television commercial was for Perk chocolates , the result of a chance meeting with a director at a friend 's birthday party in 1996 . The director persuaded Zinta to audition for the spot , and she was selected . Afterwards , she appeared in other catalogues and commercials , including one for the soap Liril .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Debut and early roles ( 1998 – 99 ) = = =
In 1997 , Zinta met Shekhar Kapur when she accompanied a friend to an audition , and was asked if she would audition too . Upon seeing her audition , Kapur insisted that she become an actress . She was originally scheduled to make her screen debut in Kapur 's Tara Rum Pum Pum opposite Hrithik Roshan , but the filming was cancelled . Kapur later recommended her for director Mani Ratnam 's Dil Se ... Zinta often recalls that when she joined the film industry , her friends teased her that she would typically " wear white saris and dance in the rain " , thereby motivating her to play different parts .
Zinta commenced shooting for Kundan Shah 's Kya Kehna , whose release was delayed until 2000 . The delay of another film , Soldier , meant that her first release was Dil Se .. ( 1998 ) opposite Shahrukh Khan and Manisha Koirala . She was introduced as Preeti Nair , a middle @-@ class Delhi girl and Khan 's fiancée . The film was considered an unusual launch for a newcomer , as her role called for only 20 minutes of screen time . However , she was eventually noticed for her role , particularly for the forthright character she played . Her scene with Khan , in which she asked him , " Are you a virgin ? " , became well @-@ known , and her portrayal earned her a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress . She played her first leading role in the action @-@ drama Soldier ( 1998 ) , a commercial hit of the year . She won the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut for her performance in both Dil Se .. and Soldier .
Zinta next acted in two Telugu films , Premante Idera ( 1998 ) , opposite Venkatesh ; and Raja Kumarudu ( 1999 ) , opposite Mahesh Babu . She followed with the leading role alongside Akshay Kumar in Sangharsh , a thriller directed by Tanuja Chandra and written by Mahesh Bhatt . Zinta portrayed the character of Reet Oberoi , a CBI officer who falls in love with a captured killer played by Kumar . Having been impressed with Zinta 's work in Dil Se , Chandra approached her for the part after several leading actresses had refused the offer , which Zinta viewed as an opportunity to expand her range . Sangharsh was not a box @-@ office success , although Zinta 's performance received favourable comments by critics . An article published by The Tribune upon the film 's release described her performance as " an amazing act " in an " intense film " , documenting her career path thus far with the observation , " She wowed the audiences with her cameo in Dil Se , then she zapped the viewers with her sensuality in Soldier and now Preity Zinta is all set to shock everybody with her stark performance [ in Sangharsh ] . "
= = = Breakthrough and career fluctuations ( 2000 – 02 ) = = =
Zinta 's first role in 2000 was in the drama Kya Kehna , which unexpectedly became a box @-@ office success . The film addressed themes of single parenthood and teenage pregnancy , and gained Zinta wider recognition from the public as well as film critics . Her portrayal of Priya Bakshi , a teenage single mother who fights social prejudice , earned her several award nominations , including her first nomination for Best Actress at the Filmfare Awards . Anupama Chopra from India Today reported that Zinta belonged to a new breed of Hindi film actors that breaks away from character stereotypes .
Later that year , Zinta starred in Vidhu Vinod Chopra 's drama Mission Kashmir alongside Sanjay Dutt and Hrithik Roshan . Set in the valley of Kashmir during the Indo @-@ Pakistani conflicts , the film dealt with the topic of terrorism and crime . Zinta 's role was that of Sufiya Parvez , a TV reporter and Roshan 's childhood love . A review in The Hindu said about her performance , " Preity Zinta is her usual cherubic self and lends colour to the otherwise serious proceedings " . It was an economic success , becoming the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of the year in India .
In 2001 , Zinta earned positive reviews for her role in Farhan Akhtar 's National Film Award @-@ winning Dil Chahta Hai . Depicting the contemporary routine life of Indian affluent youth , it is set in modern @-@ day urban Mumbai and focuses on a major period of transition in the lives of three young friends ( Aamir Khan , Saif Ali Khan and Akshaye Khanna ) . Zinta starred as Aamir Khan 's love interest , Shalini . Dil Chahta Hai was popular with critics , some of whom noted it broke new ground by introducing a realistic portrayal of Indian youth . The film was a moderate box @-@ office success in India ; it performed well in the big cities but failed in the rural areas , which was attributed by critics to the urban @-@ oriented lifestyle it presented . Rediff.com wrote of Zinta that she " ... is beautiful and vibrant , wavering between endearingly naive and confused " .
Three more 2001 releases featured Zinta , including Abbas @-@ Mustan 's romantic drama Chori Chori Chupke Chupke , which was released after a one @-@ year delay due to the trial of producer Bharat Shah . This film was one of the first Bollywood films to address the controversial issue of surrogate childbirth . Zinta played the role of Madhubala , a golden @-@ hearted prostitute hired as a surrogate mother . Initially reluctant to play the part , she eventually accepted it at the directors ' persuasion and , to prepare for it , visited several bars and nightclubs at Mumbai 's red @-@ light areas to study the lingo and mannerisms of sex @-@ workers . She received a second Best Supporting Actress nomination at the Filmfare Awards for her performance , of which reviewer Sukanya Verma wrote , " Preity Zinta , who clearly has the meatiest part of all , makes the best of it . Her transformation from the cocky and unabashed prostitute to a sensitive and warm person is amazingly believable . "
In 2002 , Zinta collaborated once again with director Kundan Shah , as the protagonist in the family drama Dil Hai Tumhaara , alongside Rekha , Mahima Chaudhry and Arjun Rampal . She played Shalu , an adopted daughter craving love , a role she identified with due to its rebellious nature . Billed as a star vehicle for Zinta , Dil Hai Tumhaara did not succeed financially , but her portrayal was uniformly acclaimed by critics , with those critical of the film marking her presence as its main highlight . Taran Adarsh from Bollywood Hungama noted , " ... Preity Zinta , in an author @-@ backed role ... steals the show with a sterling performance . Her scenes with Rekha ( second half ) and Alok Nath ( pre @-@ climax ) are simply outstanding . Here 's a performance that is sure to win accolades from the junta and critics whole @-@ heartedly . "
= = = Success ( 2003 – 06 ) = = =
Zinta was the female lead in India 's three highest @-@ grossing films of 2003 : The Hero : Love Story of a Spy , Koi ... Mil Gaya and Kal Ho Naa Ho . The Hero , co @-@ starring Sunny Deol and Priyanka Chopra , is a patriotic drama about a spy network involving terrorists and an Indian army officer . Zinta played the part of Reshma , a villager who falls in love with the officer and becomes part of this network . The film , involving stunts never seen before in the cinematic history of Bollywood , became the most expensive Hindi film ever produced at the time . Despite being the third highest @-@ grossing film of that year , it failed to recover its production costs at the box office . She next starred in Honey Irani 's directorial debut , Armaan , alongside Amitabh Bachchan and Anil Kapoor . This drama is set in a hospital and follows the travails of its personnel and its principal , Dr. Akash , who struggles arduously to sustain the institution financially . Zinta played Akash 's schizophrenic wife Sonia Kapoor , a role written specially for her and which she liked because it let her " give vent to all [ her ] frustrations " . The film received predominantly positive reviews , and Zinta was particularly praised . Khalid Mohamed called her a " peppy scene @-@ stealer , achieving her manic mood swings dexterously . " For her performance , she received nominations for Best Performance in a Negative Role at different award ceremonies , including Filmfare .
Rakesh Roshan 's science @-@ fiction film Koi ... Mil Gaya , about a developmentally disabled young man ( played by Hrithik Roshan ) coming in contact with an alien , followed . Zinta played the role of Nisha , a young woman whom Roshan befriends and later falls in love with . She received another Best Actress nomination at the Filmfare for the role . The film was a financial and critical success and became the most popular film of the year , as well as Zinta 's highest @-@ grossing film , with a domestic total of ₹ 680 million ( US $ 10 million ) . It won the Filmfare Award for Best Movie , among others , and went on to spawn two superhero films as sequels — Krrish and Krrish 3 — making it the first of the Krrish film series , beyond which Zinta did not proceed .
Zinta 's final release of 2003 was Kal Ho Naa Ho , a tear @-@ jerking romantic drama set in New York City . It was directed by Nikhil Advani and written by Karan Johar , co @-@ starring Jaya Bachchan , Shahrukh Khan and Saif Ali Khan . The film was received favourably by critics and became India 's second @-@ biggest hit of the year after Koi ... Mil Gaya . It also did well internationally and became India 's top @-@ grossing film of the year overseas , earning over ₹ 750 million ( US $ 11 million ) worldwide . Zinta played the role of Naina Catherine Kapur , an insecure and angry young Indian @-@ American woman who falls in love with a man who has a fatal heart disease . She won several awards for her performance , including the Filmfare Award for Best Actress . Writing
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sent her aide , Harry Britt , to award Sylvester with the key to the city and proclaim March 11 to be " Sylvester Day . " The Opera House gig was recorded , and subsequently released as a live album , Living Proof . Sylvester thought very highly of the album , but it did not sell well . A single released from this album , " Can 't Stop Dancing " , was a hit in the disco clubs but not in the pop music charts .
Despite increasing mainstream success , Sylvester continued to reaffirm his connection to the gay community of San Francisco , performing at the main stage at the 1979 Gay Freedom Day parade . Further , during his summer 1979 tour of the UK , he performed at the London Gay Pride Festival in Hyde Park . That same year , Sylvester met the singer Jeanie Tracy through Harvey Fuqua , and they immediately became friends . A large black woman , Sylvester felt that Tracy would work well with his Two Tons O ' Fun , and invited her to join his backing singers , which she proceeded to do . Subsequently befriending the Tons , she would work for Sylvester for the rest of his life . The Tons themselves were convinced by Fuqua to produce their own self @-@ titled album , from which came two dance chart hits , " Earth Can Be Just Like Heaven " and " Just Us " ; as a result , they began to work less and less with Sylvester , only joining him on occasion for his live shows . In some interviews he would express bitterness at their departure , while in others he stressed that he had no bad feelings toward them .
In 1980 , Sylvester also reached tabloid headlines after he was arrested on a visit to New York City , accused of being involved in the robbery of several rare coins . After three days of incarceration , he was released on a police bail of $ 30 @,@ 000 . Sylvester was never charged , and police later admitted their mistake after it was revealed that the real culprit had posed as Sylvester by signing cheques in his name . Returning to San Francisco after this event , it was here that Sylvester produced his next album for Fantasy Records , Sell My Soul . Largely avoiding disco after the genre had become unpopular following the much publicized Disco Sucks movement , Sell My Soul instead represented a selection of soul @-@ inspired dance tracks . Recorded in two weeks , Sylvester worked largely with backing singers and musicians whom he was unfamiliar with , and regular collaborators Rhodes and Cowley were entirely absent . Reviews were generally poor , describing the album as being average in quality . The only disco song on the album , " I Need You " , was released as a single , but fared poorly .
Sylvester 's fifth and final album for Fantasy Records was Too Hot to Sleep , in which he once again eschewed disco for a series of groove soul tunes , ballads , and gospel @-@ style tracks . Missing the Two Tons entirely , Tracy was instead accompanied by a new backing singer , Maurice " Mo " Long , and because the three of them had all grown up in the Church of God in Christ , they decided to refer to themselves as the " C.O.G.I.C. Singers . " The album also featured a number of tracks in which Sylvester avoided his usual falsetto tones to sing in a baritone voice . The album sold poorly .
= = = Megatone Records : 1982 – 86 = = =
Both the Two Tons and Sylvester came to suspect that Fantasy Records had failed to pay them all of the money that they were owed from the sale of their records . Sylvester left Fantasy and in November 1982 he filed a lawsuit against them ; it ultimately proved successful in establishing that the company had been withholding money from him totaling $ 218 @,@ 112 @.@ 50 . Nevertheless , Fuqua proved unable to pay anything more than $ 20 @,@ 000 , meaning that Sylvester never saw the majority of the money that was legally owed to him . Sylvester grew to despise Fuqua , and forbade his friends from ever mentioning his name .
Closely associated with the now unpopular disco and having had no hit singles in the preceding few years , after leaving Fantasy Sylvester was not a particular draw for major record labels . Recognizing this state of affairs , in 1982 Sylvester commented that " there 's nothing worse than a fallen star " who still has " illusions " of their continuing fame . Rather than chasing major chart success , Sylvester wanted to focus on retaining creative control over his music . Hiring his former tour manager and longstanding friend Tim McKenna as his new manager , Sylvester decided to produce his next album with Megatone Records , a small San Francisco company that had been founded in 1981 by Patrick Cowley and Marty Blecman and which catered largely to the gay club scene . The result was All I Need ( 1982 ) , on which James Wirrick had written most of the songs , which were dance @-@ orientated and influenced by the new wave music then in vogue . Sylvester insisted that he include several ballads on the album , which featured cover art by Mark Amerika depicting Sylvester in ancient Egyptian garb .
One of the best known Sylvester songs of this period was " Do Ya Wanna Funk " , a Hi @-@ NRG dance track co @-@ written with Cowley which was released as a single in July 1982 , topping the U.S. dance charts and entering the pop charts in a number of countries across the world . Although he had continued working , Cowley was suffering from the recently discovered HIV / AIDS virus – at the time still referred to as " gay @-@ related immune deficiency " ( GRID ) by American doctors – and was in a deteriorating physical condition . Sylvester continued touring , and it was while in London , preparing to perform at the Heaven superclub , that he learned of Cowley 's death on November 12 , 1982 . He went onstage , informing the crowd of Cowley 's passing and then sang " Do Ya Wanna Funk " in memory of him .
In 1983 , Sylvester became a partner of Megatone Records . That year he also brought out his second album with the company , Call Me , but it was not a commercial success . Four songs from the album were released as singles , although only " Trouble in Paradise " entered the top 20 of the U.S. dance charts ; Sylvester later related that the song was his " AIDS message to San Francisco . " Sylvester was emotionally moved by the HIV / AIDS epidemic , and began helping out at the Rita Rockett Lounge for patients of the disease at the San Francisco General Hospital as well as performing at various benefit concerts to raise money and awareness to combat the spread of the disease . In February 1984 he also performed a " One Night Only " retrospective of his work at the prestigious Castro Theatre . Sylvester still toured both domestically and in Europe , although he found that demand for his performances was decreasing , and that he was now playing to smaller venues and singing to a pre @-@ recorded tape rather than to a live band as he had in the late 1970s .
His next album , entitled M @-@ 1015 ( 1984 ) , was more frenetic and pumping than his previous releases , having embraced the recently developed genre of Hi @-@ NRG , but it also included elements of electro and rap . The major figures behind the album had been Kessie and Morey Goldstein , and Sylvester himself had not written any of the tracks . The album also contained increasingly sexually explicit lyrics , in particular in the songs " How Do You Like Your Love " and " Sex " . That year , he also entered into a relationship with an architect named Rick Cramner , and together they moved into a new apartment in the hills , where Sylvester decorated his powder room with posters and memorabilia of Divine , the drag queen , actor and singer whom he had briefly known when they were in The Cockettes . In 1985 , he fulfilled a lifelong ambition by working with the singer Aretha Franklin ; he and Jeanie had been invited to provide backing vocals on Franklin 's album Who 's Zoomin ' Who ? .
Sylvester 's final album , Mutual Attraction ( 1986 ) , was produced by Megatone but licensed and released by Warner Bros. On the album , Sylvester had worked with a wide number of collaborators , and included new tracks alongside covers of songs by Stevie Wonder and George Gershwin . Reviews of the album were mixed , with many claiming that it was a poor release . One of the album 's singles , " Someone Like You " , proved more successful , reaching number one on the Billboard dance charts . Warner Bros booked him to appear on the New Year 's Eve edition of The Late Show Starring Joan Rivers , during which Joan Rivers described him as a drag queen ; visibly annoyed , he corrected her by stating that he was not a drag queen , proclaiming simply " I 'm Sylvester ! "
= = = Final years and death : 1986 – 88 = = =
In 1985 , Sylvester 's boyfriend , Rick Cranmer , became aware that he had become infected with HIV ; with no known medical cure , his health deteriorated rapidly and he died in September 1987 . Sylvester was devastated , and although recognizing that he too was probably infected , he refused to have his blood tested , only noticing the virus ' first symptoms when he developed a persistent cough . Beginning work on an album that would remain unfinished , he moved into a new apartment on Collingwood Street in the Castro , and tried his best to continue performing in the Bay Area , even though he became too sick to undertake a full tour . Eventually diagnosed with AIDS , he was hospitalized for sinus surgery in late 1987 , and upon returning to his apartment he began to be cared for by his mother and Tracy , before being hospitalized again in May 1988 , this time with pneumocystis pneumonia . Returning to his flat , he gave away many of his treasured possessions and wrote his will .
Having lost a lot of weight and unable to walk easily , he attended the Castro 's 1988 Gay Freedom Parade in a wheelchair , being pushed along by Mckenna in front of the People with AIDS banner ; along Market Street , assembled crowds shouted out his name as he passed . The subsequent 1988 Castro Street Fair was named " A Tribute to Sylvester , " and although he was too ill to attend , crowds chanted his name to such an extent that he was able to hear them from his bedroom . He continued to give interviews to the media , being open about the fact that he was dying of AIDS , and sought in particular to highlight the impact that the disease was having in the African @-@ American community . In an interview with the NME , he stated , " I don 't believe that AIDS is the wrath of God . People have a tendency to blame everything on God . "
For Thanksgiving 1988 , his family spent the holiday with him , although he had developed neuropathy and was increasingly bed @-@ ridden and reliant on morphine ; he died in his bed on December 16 , 1988 at the age of 41 . Sylvester had planned his own funeral , insisting that he be dressed in a red kimono and placed in an open @-@ top coffin for the mourners to see , with his friend Yvette Flunder doing his corpse 's makeup . He wanted Tracy to sing at his funeral , accompanied by choirs and many flowers . The whole affair took place in his church , the Love Center , with a sermon being provided by Reverend Walter Hawkins . The event was packed , with standing room only , and the coffin was subsequently taken and buried at his family 's plot in Inglewood Park Cemetery . An album titled Immortal was posthumously released ; it contained Sylvester 's final studio recordings , and was compiled by Marty Bleeman .
= = Personal life = =
Sylvester has been described as having a " flamboyant and colourful " public persona , wearing both male and female gendered clothes as part of his attire , with his biographer Joshua Gamson opining that for Sylvester , " gender was an everyday choice " . Sylvester described his public persona as " an extension of me , the real me " . Sylvester 's friend and publicist Sharon Davis described him as " a quiet , often thoughtful , caring guy , who put others before himself , and was generous to a fault , having little regard for money . His policy was you only live once , so enjoy ! " She also noted that he could be " unpredictable " , being " stubborn as a mule " and " always speak [ ing ] his mind " . Sylvester was considered to be a prima donna by members of the Hot Band and could be temperamental and difficult with those whom he worked with . He found it difficult saving the money that he earned , instead spending it as soon as he obtained it , both on himself and on his lovers , friends , and family .
Sylvester was openly gay , with Gamson noting that he tended to enter into relationships with men who were " white , self @-@ doubting and effeminate . " In 1978 , he entered into a relationship with a young white model named John Maley ; Sylvester later devoted the song " Can 't Forget the Love " from his Too Hot to Sleep album to his young lover . Maley ended the relationship to move to Los Angeles , later recollecting that Sylvester " was a lovely man , and I owe him a lot . " In 1981 , Sylvester entered into a relationship with a slim brunette from Deep River , Connecticut named Michael Rayner , but unlike his predecessors , he did not move into Sylvester 's house ; their partnership ended when Rayner admitted that he had not fallen completely in love with Sylvester . Sylvester 's next major relationship was with Tom Daniels , a hairdresser whom he met in 1982 , but their romance ended after six months when Daniels discovered that Sylvester had been having sex with other men while on tour . The singer 's final partner , the architect Rick Cranmer , was a six @-@ foot two blonde , and the duo moved into a house together in the hills . Cranmer died of AIDS @-@ related complications in 1987 , the year before Sylvester succumbed to the virus .
As an openly gay man throughout his career , Sylvester came to be seen as a spokesman for the gay community . He informed a journalist that " I realise that gay people have put me on a pedestal and I love it . After all , of all the oppressed minorities , they just have to be the most oppressed . They have all the hassles of finding something or someone to identify with – and they chose me . I like being around gay people and they 've proven to be some of my closest friends and most loyal audiences . " Elsewhere , he nevertheless remarked that he felt his career had " transcended the gay movement . I mean , my sexuality has nothing to do with my music . When I 'm fucking I 'm not thinking about singing and vice versa . " He was openly critical of what he perceived as divisive tendencies within the gay community itself , noting that " I get this conformist shit from queens all the time . They always want to read me . They always want me to do it their way . I am not going to conform to the gay lifestyle as they see it and that 's for sure " . He was particularly critical of " clones " – gay men who dressed alike with boots , boot @-@ cut jeans , checked shirts and handlebar mustaches – stating that all too often they judged those gay people who were flamboyant or extravagant .
Davis characterized Sylvester as an " absolute perfectionist " . He was very self @-@ conscious about his physical appearance , and when he obtained enough money from the successful Step II album , he spent part of it on cosmetic surgery to remove a bump on his nose , inject silicone into his cheeks , and have cosmetic work done on his teeth . He would also insist that all pictures of himself were meticulously airbrushed .
Sylvester was born and raised into the Pentecostal denomination of Christianity , and remained a Christian throughout his life . He often compared the ecstatic feelings that accompanied his onstage performances with the feelings experienced in a gospel choir in a Pentecostal church . When performances reached a certain level of heightened emotion , he would comment that " we had service . " In later life , he joined the Love Center Church in East Oakland , a ministry founded by the preacher and former gospel singer Walter Hawkins in the 1970s . He had been introduced to the church by Jean Tracie in the 1980s and would soon become a regular churchgoer , enjoying the place 's welcoming attitude towards societal outcasts . Sylvester requested that his funeral be undertaken by the ministry at the Love Center .
= = Legacy = =
During the late 1970s , Sylvester gained the moniker of the " Queen of Disco " , a term that continued to be given to the singer into the 21st century . The English journalist Stephen Brogan later described him as " a star who shined brightly . He only happened once . He was a radical and a visionary in terms of queerness , music and race . " Reynaldo Anderson of Harris @-@ Stowe State University described Sylvester 's influence upon disco and subsequent electronic dance music as " incalculable " . He added that Sylvester 's songs " Dance ( Disco Heat ) " , " You Make Me Feel ( Mighty Real ) " , and " Do You Wanna Funk " represented " anthems of disco aficionados for a generation " , while also expressing the view that Sylvester himself " personified the excesses of the 1970s and the experimentation that characterized [ the decade 's ] changing social norms " within the United States .
Shapiro cited Sylvester alongside other artists like Wendy Carlos , Throbbing Gristle , and Terre Thaemlitz as an individual who used electronic music as " a vehicle to express sexual transgression " , while in her study of the use of falsetto in disco , Anne @-@ Lise François believed that Sylvester 's style of singing " makes the point most obviously about falsetto as a gender @-@ bending device . " The cultural studies scholar Tim Lawrence stated that Sylvester embodied " the [ disco ] movement 's gay roots " , and in doing could be contrasted with John Travolta , who embodied " its commercialization and suburbanization " ; the two figures thus reflected a divide between the gay and straight interpretations and presentations of disco music . Layli Philips and Marla R. Stewart compared Sylvester to both Willi Ninja and RuPaul as pop icons who exhibited " male femininity " within the " Black male diva ( or ' queen ' ) tradition " .
In his will , Sylvester had declared that royalties from the future sale of this music be devoted to two HIV / AIDS charities , Project Open Hand and the AIDS Emergency Fund . Although Sylvester died deeply in debt as a result of taking advances on his royalties , by the early 1990s this debt had been paid off , and a balance had begun to build up . Roger Gross , the attorney to Sylvester 's manager and the openly gay lawyer who helped him draw up his will , petitioned the probate court to designate the charities as the beneficiaries of Sylvester 's will . The proceeds of $ 140 @,@ 000 in accrued royalties were split between the two groups , and they will continue to be paid the royalties in the future .
In September 19 , 2005 , Sylvester was one of three artists inducted into the Dance Music Hall of Fame , alongside Chic and Gloria Gaynor .
= = = Biographies , documentaries , and musicals = = =
A biography of Sylvester was authored by Gamson and published in 2005 . Writing for the London @-@ based LGBT magazine Beige : The Provocative Cultural Quarterly , Stephen Brogan expressed his opinion that while Gamson '
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s biography was well researched , it had a fragmented structure and as such was " not a joy to read " . Entertainment Weekly called the book " playful and furious " and awarded it a B + rating , The Boston Globe suggested that it was " as engaging as the times it so energetically resurrects " , and The San Francisco Chronicle reported that the author " carefully paints the shifting social tapestry into his subject 's life story without ever taking Sylvester out of the foreground " . The Fabulous Sylvester won the 2006 Stonewall Book Award for nonfiction . In 2015 , Sylvester 's publicist Sharon Davis published memoirs of the time that she spent with Sylvester , noting that she planned for it to appear in 2013 to mark the 25th anniversary of Sylvester 's death .
In 2010 , the TV series Unsung aired an episode on Sylvester , that was later made available through YouTube . Sylvester : Mighty Real , an official feature @-@ length documentary on the life and career of Sylvester , entered production ; it featured interviews with members of Sylvester 's family and other artists and musicians who have been inspired by , but by 2012 the film 's progress had halted .
In August 2014 , an Off @-@ Broadway musical titled Mighty Real : A Fabulous Sylvester Musical opened at Theatre At St. Clement 's in New York City ; it was co @-@ directed by Kendrell Bowman and Anthony Wayne , the latter of whom also performed as the titular character . Wayne stated that he discovered Sylvester 's story through a television documentary , and was subsequently " inspired by his drive to be who he was regardless of what he went through " , performing a concert of Sylvester 's songs with friends Anastacia McCleskey and Jacqueline B. Arnold as the Two Tons o ' Fun before deciding to begin work on the musical . A laudatory review of the musical from The New York Times noted that Wayne " certainly has the bravado , the androgynous sex appeal and the piercing voice to emulate the original convincingly . " The Huffington Post review noted that the musical largely avoided dealing with the decline in Sylvester 's musical success during the 1980s , and that although " anyone seeking an exhaustively researched play @-@ by @-@ play of the star 's life would be better off waiting for a documentary " , the musical " succeeds as a collection of infectious performances by a truly gifted cast . "
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Live albums = = =
= = = Compilation albums = = =
Mighty Real ( 1979 , Fantasy ) UK # 62
Sylvester 's Greatest Hits : Nonstop Dance Party ( 1983 , Fantasy )
12 By 12 ( 1985 , Megatone )
Immortal ( 1989 , Megatone )
= = = Singles = = =
= = Audio samples = =
= Sidewalk Talk =
" Sidewalk Talk " is a song by American record producer John " Jellybean " Benitez from his first extended play , Wotupski ! ? ! ( 1984 ) . It was released on October 21 , 1984 , by EMI Records as the first single from the EP . The song was written by Madonna and produced by Benitez . They had initially met in 1983 and Benitez worked as a producer on Madonna 's self @-@ titled debut album . When he started work on his debut EP , Wotupski ! ? ! , Madonna wrote " Sidewalk Talk " for him . The song features bass and electric guitars , synthesizers , piano as well drums . Lead vocals are sung by singer Catherine Buchanan , and background vocals by Madonna .
" Sidewalk Talk " received mixed review from critics , with David Nick Ybarra questioning crediting Buchanan as lead vocalist , instead of a better known singer like Madonna . The song was released initially in 12 @-@ inch promotional CD in remix formats to the DJs and the clubs , and reached the top of the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . It was later released commercially in 7 @-@ inch and 12 @-@ inch formats , and charted on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song also had minor chart placements in the Netherlands , New Zealand as well as the United Kingdom .
= = Background and composition = =
In 1983 , Madonna met John " Jellybean " Benitez , who worked as a DJ at the Funhouse club in lower Manhattan . Soon after , they started dating each other and worked on Madonna 's self @-@ titled debut album , released in 1983 . When Benitez started work on his debut EP , Wotupski ! ? ! , he asked Madonna to write a song for him . Within two days Madonna wrote " Sidewalk Talk " , whose idea she had initially thought of using on her debut album . According to Benitez , Wotupski ! ? ! was a concept album , " It 's a street slang in the Bronx . It means ' what 's up , what 's new ' ? " The artist credit of the song was simply Jellybean , with lead vocals credited to Catherine Buchanan . Madonna provided background vocals for the track with Audrey Wheeler and Cindy Mizelle . Benitez produced the track as well as arranged and mixed it . Michael Hutchinson assisted on engineering , recording and mixing the track . Producer Stephen Bray also arranged " Sidewalk Talk " with Benitez . Instrumentation featured in the track included bass guitar by Marcus Miller , synthesizer by Boyd Jarvis , Fred Zarr and Bray , electric guitar by Ira Siegel , percussion by Bashiri Johnson and Trevor Gale , and lastly drum programming by Benitez and Bray .
= = Release and reception = =
" Sidewalk Talk " was first released as a 12 @-@ inch promotional single to US DJs and clubs on October 21 , 1984 . Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , said that the synthpop song " sounded like it was a leftover from [ Madonna 's ] debut album " because of its sonic similarity . Chuck Eddy , author of The Accidental Evolution of Rock 'n'roll : A Misguided Tour Through Popular Music , compared the track to the sound of American new wave band , Tom Tom Club . Billboard magazine 's dance music reviewer Brian Chin said that the song " touched base " with the Top @-@ 40 mainstream radio audience . For author Ira Robins , " Sidewalk Talk " was the " best track " on the EP , because of its " lucidness " . In 2011 , the EP was re @-@ released by Gold Legion Records , where four remixes of " Sidewalk Talk " was included . The CD booklet consisted of an essay by David Nick Ybarra , editor and founder of Daeida magazine . In the essay , Ybarra noted that " Sidewalk Talk " was never promoted in the press kits for the release of Wotupski ! ? ! Instead another song , " The Mexican " , was noted in the album cover 's advertising sticker . Nevertheless , Ybarra said that it was the inclusion of " Sidewalk Talk " which became the most critical aspect of the public 's interest in the release . In September 2014 , Rolling Stone ranked the song at number 71 on their list of the " 100 Best Singles of 1984 " . Maura Johnston from the magazine noted that the song was similar in composition to other production work of Benitez , like Madonna 's " Holiday " ( 1984 ) , and described it as distilling " the essence of New York — full of fast @-@ moving possibility and flash , but to be handled with caution in order to be survived . "
Regarding the song 's credits , Ybarra also found it mysterious that a relatively unknown singer like Buchanan received lead vocal billing , while Madonna was relegated as a backing vocalist . Wheeler , one of the backing vocalists , confirmed to Ybarra that she did not remember Buchanan being present in the recording studio . Ybarra theorized that Benitez might have intended " Sidewalk Talk " for Madonna 's first album , but since it was not included , he replaced Madonna 's vocals on the track with Buchanan since she was unknown . Thereby Benitez could use the track for his EP and it would not be mistaken as a vehicle for another artist other than Jellybean . In 1986 , Alvin and the Chipmunks covered the song for their TV series episode " Chipmunk Vice " . " Sidewalk Talk " appeared in the 1999 film Flawless and on its soundtrack album .
= = Chart performance = =
" Sidewalk Talk " debuted at number 36 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart for the issue dated January 5 , 1985 . After five weeks , it reached the top of the chart , replacing Nuance 's song , " Loveride " . In an article published in Billboard , Chin noted that " Sidewalk Talk " was an unusual song to reach the top of the dance chart , since it was not released till then in commercially available 7 @-@ inch or 12 @-@ inch forms . The song was only serviced as remix forms to the clubs . Chin added that the song 's " emergence without a hard copy , so to speak , is highly uncharacteristic of a market , in which the ' commercial twelve ' is a given for a long @-@ show pop record . " The song harkened back to the time when remix forms were not available except for club promotions . " Sidewalk Talk " ranked at number 20 on the year end tabulation of the Top Dance Club Songs for 1985 . The song was released in 7 @-@ inch and 12 @-@ inch formats after eight months and entered the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 80 on the issue dated November 16 , 1985 . After twelve weeks , it reached a peak of number 18 on the chart . Its final appearance on the chart was on the week ending March 15 , 1986 . On the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , " Sidewalk Talk " reached a peak of number 51 , and was present for a total of nine weeks .
" Sidewalk Talk " also charted in the United Kingdom , where it was credited as " Jellybean featuring Catherine Buchanan " . It reached a peak of number 41 on the UK Singles Chart on the issue dated February 1 , 1986 , and was present for a total of four weeks . On the Netherlands Single Top 100 , it reached a peak of No. 31 , while on the Top 40 comprehensive chart , it peaked inside the top @-@ ten at number six . " Sidewalk Talk " also debuted at peaked at number 34 on the Official New Zealand Music Chart .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
John " Jellybean " Benitez – producer , arrangement , mixing , drum programming
Madonna – songwriter , background vocals
Catherine Buchanan – lead vocals
Stephen Bray – arrangement , synthesizer , drum programming
Michael Hutchinson – audio engineering , recording , mixing
Marcus Miller – bass guitar
Boyd Jarvis – synthesizer
Fred Zarr – synthesizer
Ira Siegel – electric guitar
Bashiri Johnson – percussion instrument
Trevor Gale – percussion instrument
Audrey Wheeler – background vocals
Cindy Mizelle – background vocals
Credits and personnel adapted from US 7 @-@ inch single liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Hans Namuth =
Hans Namuth ( March 17 , 1915 – October 13 , 1990 ) was a German @-@ born photographer . Namuth specialized in portraiture , photographing many artists , including abstract expressionist Jackson Pollock . His photos of Pollock at work in his studio increased Pollock 's fame and recognition and led to a greater understanding of his work and techniques . Namuth used his outgoing personality and persistence to photograph many important artistic figures at work in their studios .
Namuth photographed many other painters such as Willem de Kooning , Robert Rauschenberg , and Mark Rothko and architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright , Philip Johnson , and Louis Kahn . Namuth focused on his rapport with his subjects , getting many reclusive figures such as Clyfford Still to agree to be photographed . Namuth 's work not only captured his subjects in their studios with their works , but also captured the relationship between photographer and subject as well as the subjects ' levels of self @-@ consciousness . Besides famous art figures , Namuth photographed the Mam people of Todos Santos , whose native lifestyles were being overrun by Western influences . Namuth died in a Long Island car crash in 1990 .
= = Early life = =
Hans Namuth was born March 17 , 1915 in Essen , Germany . His interests in his youth were mainly politics and the arts . Namuth cites his mother as most responsible for encouraging his interest in music and the arts . As a teenager , Namuth became familiar with German expressionism and French impressionism through the Folkwang Museum . Namuth 's father joined the Nazi Party in 1931 after becoming disillusioned due to an economic decline . This contrasted with the political views of his son , who found himself drawn to the liberal German Youth Movement . After Hans Namuth was arrested and briefly jailed for distributing anti @-@ Nazi materials in July 1933 , Namuth 's father intervened and arranged for him to be sent to Paris . During his time in Paris , Namuth took an assortment of jobs including newspaper boy , researcher , and dishwasher .
Namuth befriended many German expatriates in Paris , including photographer George Reisner . In 1935 , Reisner invited Namuth to assist him with his studio in Port de Pollença , Spain , and introduced the 20 @-@ year @-@ old Namuth to photography . After several months , the two returned to Paris , supporting themselves with photojournalism and occasional portraits . Namuth and Reisner were sent to cover the Workers ' Olympiad in July 1936 by French magazine Vu , which put them in Barcelona during the opening stages of the Spanish Civil War . Over the next nine months , the two photographed the war , providing photos to European publications . Namuth and Reisner returned to Paris in 1937 and continued their careers as photographers until 1939 . While in Paris , Namuth studied with Joseph Breitenbach , who taught him the technical aspects of photography . After increased tension and hostilities between France and Germany , Namuth and his fellow German expatriates were interned , though Namuth joined the French Foreign Legion to avoid his confinement . After being discharged in 1940 , Namuth fled to Marseilles and escaped to the United States with the help of journalist Varian Fry and his Emergency Rescue Committee . He arrived in New York City in 1941 and planned to join the Office of Strategic Services in 1943 out of a desire " to do something about everything " . However , he had fallen in love with French @-@ born Guatemalan Carmen Herrera and delayed his enlistment until he was drafted for World War II in December 1943 . After completing basic training , Namuth joined the intelligence services and worked as an interrogator and interpreter in England , France , and Czechoslovakia . Upon returning to Germany in 1945 to gather war criminals , Namuth realized , " I really had cut my navel cord completely and totally , not just with my home and family but with the country as such . I was completely out of it . " Namuth did not return to Germany until 1970 .
With the conclusion of World War II , Namuth left the army , having been awarded the Purple Heart and Croix de Guerre . Namuth returned to New York determined to raise enough money for his family while keeping photography as a hobby . After working for a paper research company for about a year and a half , the company went bankrupt , leaving Namuth without a job . Namuth realized he had been " doing something that really was not my dish " , and decided to return full @-@ time to photography . He set up his kitchen as a darkroom and began doing location work for architecture magazines , as he had been interested in architecture and design . Namuth was introduced to Alexey Brodovitch , a photographer , instructor , and art director of Harper 's Bazaar . Namuth began taking Brodovitch 's classes at The New School of Social Research , where he learned how to develop ideas and how to engage the concepts of his images from Brodovitch . He began working for Harper 's Bazaar , doing fashion photography , and later children 's fashion photography .
= = Jackson Pollock = =
Hans Namuth was not initially interested in the work of Jackson Pollock , but was convinced by his teacher Alexey Brodovitch that Pollock was an important painter . In July 1950 , Namuth approached Pollock and asked to photograph the artist working in his studio . Pollock agreed , encouraged by his wife , Lee Krasner , who was aware of the importance of media coverage . The resulting images helped to demystify Pollock 's famous " drip " technique of painting , revealing it to be a deliberative process rather than a random splashing of paint . They " helped transform Pollock from a talented , cranky loner into the first media @-@ driven superstar of American contemporary art , the jeans @-@ clad , chain @-@ smoking poster boy of abstract expressionism , " according to acclaimed culture critic Ferdinand Protzman . Not satisfied with black and white stills , Namuth wanted to create a color film that managed to focus on Pollock and his painting at the same time , partially because he found more interest in Pollock 's image than in his art . His solution was to have Pollock paint on a large sheet of glass as Namuth filmed from underneath the work . As Namuth could not afford professional lighting , the film was shot outside Pollock 's Long Island home . This documentary ( co @-@ produced with Paul Falkenberg ) is considered one of the most influential for artists .
In November 1950 , Namuth and Pollock 's relationship came to an abrupt conclusion . After coming in from the cold @-@ weather shoot of the glass painting , Pollock , who had been treated in the 1930s for alcoholism , poured himself a tumbler of bourbon whiskey after supposedly having been sober for two years . An argument between Namuth and Pollock ensued with each calling the other a " phony " , culminating in Pollock overturning a table of food and dinnerware in front of several guests . From then on , Pollock reverted to a more figure @-@ oriented style of painting , leading some to say that Namuth 's sessions robbed Pollock of his rawness and made Pollock come to feel disingenuous about doing things for the camera that he had originally done spontaneously . Art critic Jonathan Jones suggests that by filming Pollock , Namuth " broke the myth of trance " and by framing Pollock 's work in the larger surrounding landscape , destroyed Pollock 's view that his paintings were boundless . Jeffrey Potter , a close friend of Pollock 's , described Namuth as commanding , frequently telling Pollock when to start and stop painting . According to Potter , Pollock " felt what was happening was phony . " Namuth himself describes Pollock as being " very nervous and very self @-@ conscious " of the filming at the time , but less so when Pollock discussed it in a later interview .
During his time with Pollock , Hans Namuth had created two films and captured more than 500 photographs of the artist . These photos were first published in 1951 in Portfolio , a journal edited by Alexey Brodovitch and Franz Zachary . After the death of Pollock in 1956 , Namuth 's photos grew in popularity and were often used in articles about the painter in place of Pollock 's artwork itself . Art historian Barbara Rose states that the photographs changed art by focusing on the creation of art rather than the final product alone . Younger artists such as Bruce Nauman , Richard Serra , and Robert Morris were able not only to view Pollock 's paintings , but , with Namuth 's images , to see Pollock in the act of painting , giving rise to the popularity of Process Art . These photos have also allowed art historians to dissect the details of Pollock 's method . For example , art historian Pepe Karmel found that Pollock 's painting in Namuth 's first black @-@ and @-@ white film began with several careful drippings forming two humanoid figures and a wolf before being covered beneath several layers of paint .
= = Other artists = =
The popularity drawn from his work with Pollock helped Namuth gain access to other members of the abstract expressionist movement including Willem de Kooning and Mark Rothko . During the construction of de Kooning 's studio over the years , Namuth photographed its progress as well as de Kooning 's paintings from this period . Namuth took an especially large number of photos of de Kooning 's Reclining Man , possibly indicating the painting 's importance to Namuth or de Kooning . Namuth photographed many architects including Frank Lloyd Wright , Walter Gropius , and Louis Kahn .
= = Later work = =
Namuth and his wife had first visited Guatemala in 1946 out of interest in his wife 's native land and Namuth photographed the native Mam people of Todos Santos . Namuth returned in 1978 to survey the damage of an earthquake and was shocked to find the native customs of the Mam threatened by influences such as alcoholism . Namuth published these black @-@ and @-@ white photos in his 1989 book , Los Todos Santeros , in an effort to catalog and preserve images of the town 's population and customs . He began to work regularly for Art News in 1979 , producing 19 covers for the magazine over four years . Namuth died in 1990 in a Long Island automobile accident not far from where Pollock had similarly died in a car crash .
The full archive of Namuth 's work is located at the Center for Creative Photography ( CCP ) at the University of Arizona in Tucson , which also manages the copyright of his work .
= = Subject interaction and technique = =
Namuth found that the rapport he developed with his subjects was integral to making them feel comfortable being photographed while working . While Namuth was known to be a technically skilled photographer , his sociable and outgoing personality contributed largely to his notability in the New York art scene . Namuth was also persistent when persuading his subjects to agree to be photographed , including sculptor Joseph Cornell , who took two years to be convinced . He generally managed to put his subject at ease well enough so that they could work naturally in their environments without any artificial stiffness . Largely because of this , self @-@ conscious artists such as Clyfford Still and Saul Steinberg agreed to be subjects for Namuth 's photography . However , critic Sarah Boxer suggests that it is difficult to view photos of such artists without considering the possibility that they were trying to gain fame in a manner similar to Pollock . Though Namuth developed personal relationships with many of his subjects , art critic Hilton Kramer describes Namuth as " something of a hero worshiper . "
Namuth 's photographs included objects related to his subjects , such as paint tubes , items from around their homes , and their works of art . His photos also captured his own interactions with subjects , showing how comfortable they were at the time of shooting . Some subjects , such as Frank Stella , seemed to be intoxicated with the idea of being photographed by Namuth , while others , including Mark Rothko and Robert Rauschenberg , ignored Namuth during their photo sessions . Other photographs exude tension between photographer and subject , as if Namuth were an unwelcome guest in their workspace , as in the cases of artists Louise Nevelson and Jasper Johns . Often , Namuth 's subjects are uncomfortable in front of the camera , as were architects Eero Saarinen and Buckminster Fuller . Almost all of Namuth 's images of male artists , with the notable exception of Pollock , appear to be taking contemplative or otherwise self @-@ absorbed poses .
= The Master Plan ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" The Master Plan " is the 23rd and penultimate episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 29th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 13 , 2010 . In the episode , Pawnee 's major budget problems result in state auditors ( Adam Scott and Rob Lowe ) arriving to make major cuts , much to Leslie 's horror and Ron 's delight . Meanwhile , Andy contemplates asking April to be his girlfriend , and Tom seeks a new girlfriend .
The episode was directed by Dean Holland and written by series co @-@ creator Michael Schur . " The Master Plan " featured the first series appearances by Scott and Lowe , who became permanent cast members as characters Ben Wyatt and Chris Traeger . The episode also introduced Natalie Morales as Lucy , Tom 's new girlfriend , and featured guest appearances by Ralph Richeson as " the ghoulish man " and regular series guests Ben Schwartz , April Marie Eden and Alison Becker .
The idea of Pawnee 's governmental problems were inspired by news reports at the time of a number of states shutting down schools , parks and other services due to the global recession . " The Master Plan " marked the end of the romantic relationship between Ann ( Rashida Jones ) and Mark ( Paul Schneider ) , which allowed for the eventual departure of Schneider from the series . A subplot featuring romantic elements between Ann and Chris was a late addition to the script to better connect Lowe to the cast .
This episode features six characters ( five main characters ) meeting their eventual spouses for the first time . Ann and Chris meet , Leslie and Ben meet and Tom and Lucy meet .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " The Master Plan " was seen by 4 @.@ 28 million household viewers , a five percent increase in viewership compared to the previous episode , " Telethon " . The episode received generally positive reviews , with several commentators praising the addition of Scott and Lowe to the cast , although some said Scott had more long @-@ term potential as a character than Lowe . " The Master Plan " and the rest of the second season of Parks and Recreation was released on DVD in the United States on November 30 , 2010 , which included an extended 30 @-@ minute " producer 's cut " of the episode .
= = Plot = =
Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) excitedly prepares to present the parks department budget proposal , or " master plan " . However , city manager Paul ( Phil Reeves ) , announces due to Pawnee 's huge budget deficit , all proposals will be postponed indefinitely . State auditors have been sent by the governor to solve the impasse , which makes Leslie fear severe cuts . Ron ( Nick Offerman ) is delighted because he hates any government spending , which leads him to heated arguments with Leslie . Meanwhile , April ( Aubrey Plaza ) is turning 21 and is having her birthday party at Tom 's ( Aziz Ansari ) favorite nightclub , the Snakehole Lounge . Andy ( Chris Pratt ) debates whether to ask April to be his girlfriend , but worries about the age difference because he is 29 . Ann ( Rashida Jones ) has broken up with Mark ( Paul Schneider ) , who was left confused because they never fought or even argued with each other . Ann explains their relationship simply did not have the right chemistry for her .
State auditors Chris Traeger ( Rob Lowe ) and Ben Wyatt ( Adam Scott ) soon arrive , and the extremely cheerful Chris paints an optimistic picture of how they will fix the budget , but leaves the details to the more serious Ben . When Ben explains they will need to slash the budget of every department by nearly 40 or 50 percent , Leslie angrily lashes out at Ben , who responds to her that the poorly managed government is to blame . Later , at April 's party , Tom desperately tries to pick up women , but to no avail , while Leslie and Ann get extremely drunk together . Andy and April appear to be getting along , but when he goes to the bar to get a drink for April , a drunken Ann flirts with him . An upset April flirts with Tom 's annoying friend Jean @-@ Ralphio ( Ben Schwartz ) to make Andy jealous . Andy gets upset , believing he misread April 's signals all along , and April later regrets what she did . Ben arrives at the party and tries to smooth things out with a drunken Leslie , but she again angrily lashes out at him .
The next morning , Ann fears she made out with someone at the party but cannot remember . She eventually learns she made out with Chris , who shows a romantic interest in her . Tom returns to the Snakehole Lounge to close his tab , where he meets the bartender , Lucy ( Natalie Morales ) , who makes fun of his efforts to pick up women . The two get along and Lucy gives Tom her phone number , to his immense pleasure . Leslie decides to apologize to Ben , and he invites her out for a beer . As they finally start to get along , Leslie realizes Ben was the mayor of a small town called Partridge , Minnesota . It was national news because he was only 18 when elected , and he promptly drove the entire government into the ground . Ben became a state auditor to prove he can be responsible and restart his political career . Later , at the parks department budget meeting , Chris and Ben reveal Pawnee 's budget crisis was far worse than previously thought and that the Pawnee government will shut down until further notice , horrifying Leslie and delighting
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= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" The Master Plan " was written by Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator , Michael Schur . It was his fifth writing credit for the series after , " Pilot " , " Greg Pikitis " , " Christmas Scandal " , and " Galentine 's Day " . The idea of state auditors visiting Pawnee , and the subsequent government shutdown , was inspired by news reports at the time of a number of states considering shutting down schools , parks and other services due to the global recession . In particular , Schur cited stories about Kansas City closing down several of their public schools , and Idaho threatening to shut down the state parks department . Similar measures were being discussed in such states as New York , New Jersey and California . This was in keeping with efforts by the Parks and Recreation writers to be more topical with second season episodes . Upon learning of the spending freeze , Ron and Leslie engage in heated arguments over the function of government , with Leslie insisting the government is meant to provide social services and Ron advocating as little government intervention as possible . Throughout most of the second season , much of the relationship between Leslie and Ron focused on the two developing a mutual respect for each other . However , with the introduction of the Ben Wyatt character and the conflict over budget problems in Pawnee , the writers included these arguments between Leslie and Ron to illustrate their conflicting political ideologies and develop tension amid the character and the city hall setting .
" The Master Plan " marked the end of the romantic relationship between Mark and Ann , which had lasted throughout the entire second season . This allowed for the eventual departure of Paul Schneider , who was leaving the series at the end of the second season . The title of " The Master Plan " stemmed from the fact that real @-@ life municipal planning documents in small American towns are often called the " master plan " , like the one Leslie refers to in the episode . Schur said of this , " It seems so funny to call the municipal budgets and planning documents for a small city in Indiana the ' master plan ' . " Schur said the Parks and Recreation writing staff believed the title of the episode was appropriate because the subplots of " The Master Plan " revolved around the various plans of the characters . While Leslie is dealing with the literal master plan for the Pawnee budget proposal , April 's plan is to seek a romantic relationship with Andy , and Tom 's plan is to find a girlfriend at April 's birthday party .
The idea of Ann making out with Chris Traeger was not part of the original screenplay , but was added after the first cast read @-@ through of the script . The writing staff felt that while Ben was immediately connected to Leslie and the other characters through his role in eliminating wasteful spending at Pawnee , Chris still needed something to more strongly connect to the cast , and the subplot with Ann was determined to be a funny way to do it . In one scene , after Ben explains the need for severe budget cuts at Pawnee , Ron asks Leslie , " What 's a not gay way to ask him to go camping with me ? " That line was not in the first draft of the script , but was added during filming as a possible alternative line for the editors to choose from later . The staff found it so funny , however , that they chose to use it and the original line was never filmed .
During another scene at the Snakehole Lounge , a drunken Leslie angrily yells to Ben , " I just talked to everybody in this bar and nobody wants you here . " That line was written by Harris Wittels , who wrote past screenplays for other Parks and Recreation episodes . During the end credits , Andy sings a song he wrote for April called " November , " which includes the lyrics , " Let 's spread our wings and fly on a date . " This is also a reference to " Woman of the Year , " in which Andy explained every song he writes includes either the lyrics , " Spread your wings and fly " or " You deserve to be a champion . " Schur , who wrote the words to " November " , said it was especially challenging working one of those phrases into a love song .
= = = Casting = = =
" The Master Plan " marked the first appearance of Adam Scott , who also appeared in the subsequent season finale " Freddy Spaghetti " and became a regular cast member during the third season . Scott left the Starz comedy Party Down to join the Parks and Recreation cast , a decision he made in part because it was unclear whether Starz would renew the series : " It was a matter of me asking Starz if it was going to continue , and them saying they weren 't ready to make that decision . I couldn 't pass up the opportunity on Parks and Rec for a show that could possibly not exist anymore . " Schur said when the Ben Wyatt character was written , Scott was envisioned as the " dream scenario " for casting . Schur described Scott as " brilliant and funny " and praised his comedic range : " There just aren 't that many people with a comedic range that spans ' Step Brothers ' to ' Party Down . ' " . Several commentators said Ben Wyatt closely resembles the character Scott played on Party Down , Henry Pollard . While Ben was a politician who found great success at a young age then suffered a downfall , Henry was an actor who became a caterer after his acting career declined . Scott , however , said he feels they are " vastly different characters and circumstances " . The idea of a character trying to rebuild a government career following a humiliating public failure was one of the original ideas for the series of Parks and Recreation in general , but one that was ultimately not used until the Ben Wyatt character was introduced . During the scene when Ben explains his failed mayoral tenure , shots of a newspaper clip with images of the character 's prom pictures are shown . Those pictures are the actual high school prom photos of actor Adam Scott .
The episode also featured the first in a string of guest appearances by actor Rob Lowe , who had recently departed from the ABC drama series Brothers & Sisters . As a joke , Rob Lowe 's credit during the opening credits reads " and introducing Rob Lowe " . Unlike Scott , Lowe was originally not expected to join the regular cast , but rather make guest appearances in " Freddy Spaghetti " and six third season episodes before departing the show . However , after those episodes were filmed , Lowe later joined the show as a regular cast member . Lowe said he loved playing the part , which he described as " a big fat nerd " and " the most positive person in the world [ with ] unrelenting enthusiasm " , adding , " He is also very , very intense and specific . So whether he 's ordering how he would like his water or describing the kind of colors he wants on a graph , everything means the world to him . " Throughout the episode , whenever he meets someone new , Chris Traeger points directly at their face and slowly repeats their name . Schur said this habit was the first element the writers conceived for the character . In one line of the episode , while describing his exercise regimen and supplements , " Scientists believe that the first human being who will live 150 years has already been born . I believe I am that human being . " That line was inspired by Schur 's wife , J. J. Philbin , who had recently read an article about that scientific prediction and felt it applied to the character . Parks and Recreation was suffering in the Nielsen ratings when " The Master Plan " aired , and it was hoped Lowe 's appearance would help increase viewership . Lowe 's performance was heavily publicized in advance of the episode 's original broadcast .
" The Master Plan " featured several other guest appearances . Ben Schwartz returned to his recurring role as Tom 's fast @-@ talking friend , Jean @-@ Ralphio . Natalie Morales , best known for her role in the ABC Family science @-@ fiction dramedy The Middleman , made her first Parks and Recreation appearance in the episode as Lucy , a Pawnee bartender and romantic interest for Tom . The scene between Lucy and Tom at the Snakehole Lounge was the same scene Natalie Morales read during her audition for the part , although the dialogue was rewritten slightly before filming . The line with Lucy asking Tom if he flirted with so many women because he was expected to have a " 43 @-@ way " was added during the rewrite . Ralph Richeson , best known for playing the unkempt hotel employee Richardson in the HBO drama series Deadwood , briefly appeared as an unkempt man seeking a marriage license in the Pawnee town hall . Richeson is credited as " Ghoulish Man " in the episode 's end credits . April Marie Eden , who played beauty contest winner Trish Ianetta in the episode " Beauty Pageant " , reprised that role in " The Master Plan " , in scenes where Tom flirted with her relentlessly at the Snakehole Lounge . Alison Becker , who played local reporter Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep in several past episodes , filmed several scenes where she and Andy flirt , but he ultimately rejects her due to his feelings for April . All of these scenes were cut from the final episode due to length restrictions , which Schur said he regretted because he found Becker very funny .
= = = Filming = = =
" The Master Plan " was directed by Dean Holland , his third directorial credit after " Greg Pikitis " and " Sweetums " . The script read @-@ through and filming took place in March 2010 . Rob Lowe 's first day of filming took place on his birthday , March 17 , which was the same day the scene where he kissed Rashida Jones was shot . The original cut of " The Master Plan " was a full 30 minutes and had to be cut down to 22 minutes for broadcast . The staff of Parks and Recreation had difficulty editing the episode down because the script involved so many interconnected subplots between the characters . Screenwriter Harris Wittels said , " As soon as you 'd cut one thing , you had to cut something else because it was tied to another piece . " Among the scenes cut were an extended cold open in which Ron gives April a handgun for her 21st birthday , much to the chagrin of Leslie . Also cut was a scene in which Ron chastises Leslie for yelling at Ben at the Snakehole Lounge and orders her to apologize to him so she will not be fired . Instead , the episode was changed to reflect that Leslie decided to apologize to Ben herself , with the line from Leslie " I have to go swallow my pride " added just before she spoke to Ben .
During one scene , Ann and Mark have a discussion at J.J. ' s Diner , a Pawnee restaurant that had previously been featured in the episodes " The Reporter " and " Summer Catalog " . In all three episodes , a different interior set is used , although the exterior building shots are the same . At the Snakehole Lounge , Tom flirts with a woman by giving her a bottle cap " to remember him by " , then later unsuccessfully tries to find her again in the nightclub . This was not part of the script , and was conceived and added to the episode about 10 minutes before the scene was shot . During one of the final scenes , when Ben informs Leslie and Ron that the Pawnee government will be shut down , Ron looks directly at the camera and makes a comical grin . Although Leslie is supposed to be horrified by the news , the scene had to be re @-@ shot many times because she kept laughing at Ron 's facial expression .
= = Cultural references = =
Andy says of Jean @-@ Ralphio , " That Ralph Macchio guy 's a total douche . " This is a reference to Ralph Macchio , an actor who appeared in the 1983 drama film The Outsiders , which also starred Rob Lowe . The line was improvised by actor Chris Pratt . In another scene , Ben tells Leslie the song he played after getting sworn in as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old mayor was " Whoomp ! ( There It Is ) " , a 1993 hip hop song by the duo Tag Team . The episode features several quotes from author and outdoorsman Jack London . Among them , which Leslie reads from her master plan proposal , is , " You can 't wait for inspiration . You have to go after it with a club , " and " So I say the function of man is to live , not to exist . I would rather that my spark should burn out in a brilliant blaze than it should be stifled by dry @-@ rot . " The original script included about one dozen different London quotes , but most were cut from the final draft . Schur said he used London quotes because he believed the author was one both Leslie and Ron would admire . At one point in the episode , while discussing April 's birthday , Leslie says , " Damn the wheel of the world ! Why must it continually turn over ? " to which Ron replied approvingly , " Jack London . " The line was improvised by actor Nick Offerman .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Master Plan " was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 28 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It marked a five percent increase in viewership compared to the previous episode , " Telethon " , and was the only NBC series on May 13 to show an improvement in ratings over the previous week ; the comedies The Office , Community , 30 Rock and The Marriage Ref all saw declines . HitFix writer Daniel Fienberg did not believe Rob Lowe 's guest appearance significantly helped the Parks and Recreation ratings , calling the increase " a statistically irrelevant bump " . " The Master Plan " received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 5 share among overall viewers , and a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 6 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . Parks and Recreation ranked third in its timeslot , behind the CBS reality series Survivor : Heroes vs. Villains and the Fox crime drama Bones , but received higher ratings than the ABC science @-@ fiction drama FlashForward and the first season finale of the CW Network supernatural fantasy series The Vampire Diaries .
" The Master Plan " received generally positive reviews . Matt Fowler of IGN said the budget problems created strong character development potential for Leslie and comedic opportunities for Ron . Fowler also enjoyed that the normally @-@ dissolute Tom formed an authentic romantic connection , and said Chris Pratt brought " a certain naturalness " to a role that could otherwise have been overly idiotic . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club strongly praised the episode , praising Rob Lowe and the entire regular cast . He declared Parks and Recreation the best television show since Arrested Development , and said , " As much as I like the ' 50 jokes a minute ' style of comedies ... I 'm a sucker for a show where the characters are as well @-@ wrought and as purely funny as they are on this show . " HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall praised the implementation of the new characters , particularly the fact that the script did not rely too heavily on them . Sepinwall also said the episode balanced well the workplace humor with the romantic subplots between Leslie and Ben , April and Andy , and Ann and Chris .
New York Daily News writer David Hinckley said Lowe and Scott were strong additions to the show , and that Scott 's character in Parks was better than his character in Party Down . Hinckley said the humor " remains happily rooted in the show 's eccentric characters " , although he said some of the jokes , like Andy 's " November " song " sometimes feels like a series of short sketches instead of a show " . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell described Lowe as entertaining but " one @-@ note " , but said Adam Scott was " much more promising and nuanced " , with better potential for a romantic interest for Leslie than previous guest stars like Will Arnett and Justin Theroux . Kandell felt Schneider 's imminent departure from the series seemed unceremonious , and praised Nick Offerman 's reactions of " unbridled ecstasy " at the idea of cutbacks and the government shutdown . Eric Hochberger of TV Fanatic expressed doubt about the long @-@ term effectiveness of Lowe 's character , and said the April and Andy subplot felt " dragged out for yet another week " . However , he praised the script , the addition of Scott , and the performance of the entire cast , especially Rashida Jones and Aziz Ansari . Hochberger said , " I 'm not convinced Parks and Recreation could have a bad episode at this point in the season . " TV Squad writer Kona Gallagher felt " The Master Plan " was an especially important episode due to the addition of the Lowe and Scott characters , the beginning of Mark 's exit from the series and the economic problems for Pawnee . However , Gallagher also said the episode felt mostly like a preparation for the third season .
= = DVD release = =
After " The Master Plan " aired , a producer 's cut of the episode was featured on the official NBC website . It included eight extra minutes , which consisted of deleted scenes , an extended ending and additional footage with Lowe and Scott . This version of the episode , along with the 22 @-@ minute television version and the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was later released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode . It also included a commentary track for " The Master Plan " featuring Nick Offerman , Adam Scott , Dean Holland , Michael Schur , Harris Wittels and Parks and Recreation producer Morgan Sackett .
= Xenoblade Chronicles =
Xenoblade Chronicles , known in Japan as Xenoblade ( Japanese : ゼノブレイド , Hepburn : Zenobureido ) , is an action role @-@ playing game developed by Monolith Soft and published by Nintendo for the Wii home console . Initially released in Japan in 2010 , it later released in Europe in 2011 , and was eventually released in North America in 2012 . A port to the New Nintendo 3DS was released worldwide in 2015 . Xenoblade Chronicles forms part of the Xeno metaseries , although no direct narrative connections exist to previous Xeno games , and incorporates aesthetic and narrative elements from both fantasy and science fiction . The game features navigation through an open world split into zones , side @-@ quests tied to party members ' affinity , and a real @-@ time action @-@ based battle system which incorporates the main character 's ability to see glimpses of the future .
Xenoblade Chronicles takes place on the frozen bodies of two warring Titans , the Bionis and the Mechonis . The people of Bionis , including the human @-@ like Homs , are in a perpetual war with the Machina machine race of Mechonis . Key to the Homs ' efforts in fighting the Machina 's Mechon army is the Monado , a sword said to have been wielded by the Bionis . In an attack on his colony , the main protagonist Shulk sees his childhood friend Fiora killed . Having discovered his ability to wield the Monado , he sets out on a quest for revenge with his best friend , Reyn , and gathers more people as he goes on this epic quest .
The concept for Xenoblade Chronicles originated in June 2006 when the game 's executive director and lead writer , Tetsuya Takahashi , visualized and then constructed a model of two giant gods frozen in place with people living on their bodies . Development began that year under the title Monado : The Beginning of the World , though it was eventually rebranded with its current title in honor of Takahashi 's previous work . The script was worked on by Takahashi , anime writer Yuichiro Takeda , and in @-@ house Nintendo writer Yurie Hattori . The music was handled by six different musicians , including first @-@ timer and lead composer Manami Kiyota and industry veterans Yoko Shimomura and Yasunori Mitsuda .
The game was announced in 2009 under its original title , and released in Japan the following year . Despite releasing in Europe , its North American released remained unconfirmed until December 2011 , during which time a fan campaign called Operation Rainfall had drawn considerable attention to the game . Upon release , the game received critical acclaim as one of the best recent role @-@ playing games , while its port was praised for successfully re @-@ creating the game in portable form . It also met with commercial success in both Japan and the West . A spiritual successor by the same development team for the Wii U , Xenoblade Chronicles X , was released in 2015 . Xenoblade Chronicles was later rereleased on the Wii U 's Nintendo eShop in August 2015 in PAL regions , and April 2016 for North America .
= = Gameplay = =
Xenoblade Chronicles plays as a role @-@ playing video game ( RPG ) , where the player controls one character out of a party of three using the Wii Remote and Nunchuk or the Classic Controller . The game employs an open world design , with players able to freely navigate seamlessly interconnected environments . A day @-@ and @-@ night time cycle exists in the game , with the time of day often affecting in @-@ game events , quests , enemy strengths , and item availability : for instance , stronger enemy types appear at night . While time flows automatically and a day cycle repeats about every ten minutes in real time , players can adjust the in @-@ game clock to the desired time at any point . Additionally , while the game is about exploration , many areas , called " Landmarks " aid in traversing the land by serving as warp points , allowing the player to instantly return to that point at any time . The game also supports a " save anywhere " feature , where players can save at any point outside battle . The game also contains a New Game + mode , which pulls over much of the player 's progress from their first playthrough into future playthroughs .
Exploration , quest completion , and item collection are large parts of the gameplay . The player is encouraged to explore the large environments , which generally allow the player to visit whatever can be seen in the horizon . While exploring , the player may choose to take on side quests from various non @-@ player characters that inhabit the game 's world , as they commonly involve locating certain items or killing a certain number of enemy characters . When the necessary requirements are fulfilled , the quests complete automatically without the player needing to manually notify in @-@ game characters of its completion , provided that the non @-@ player characters are generic @-@ named , e.g. , Colony 9 Resident and Defence Force Soldier . Item collection plays a role in the game in the form of the game 's " Collectopedia " . Scattered across all major regions of the game are glowing blue orbs , and upon coming into contact with the orb , the player is awarded an item at random , which is added to the player 's inventory . From there , the player may add the item to the Collectopedia , and when a certain number are collected during exploration , the player is rewarded with new items . Aside from the Collectopedia , there are also ether crystals to be found from fallen enemies or ether crystal deposits , which give the player access to a multifaceted " Gem Crafting " mini @-@ game , allowing for the creation of gems that may increase battle stats when equipped .
Many in @-@ game systems affect the general flow of gameplay . The " Affinity " system tracks the relationships between characters and locations in the game . " Location Affinity " tracks the interpersonal relationships between all of the game 's named characters , depicting to which degree they get along with one another , and a town 's general perception of the player 's controllable party . Completing quests can alter perception of the characters , and open up additional story sequences . There is also " Party Affinity " , which is strictly the level of affection between each party member , ranging from indifference to love . These affinities can be raised by having characters participate in battle together , giving gifts , or using the " Heart @-@ to @-@ Heart " system . These " Heart @-@ to @-@ Hearts " are intimate moments between two characters that can show more of a character 's personality , history , or thoughts , and can be initiated by having a certain level of Affinity between them . The Affinity system ties into how efficient characters work together in battle and gem crafting . The game also has an extensive customization system , which includes changing the characters ' outfits and weapons . These changes are directly reflected in the game , appearing in the field and even during scripted event scenes .
= = = Battle system = = =
Xenoblade Chronicles has a real @-@ time action @-@ based battle system , where the player manually moves the current lead character in real @-@ time , and party members will " auto @-@ attack " when enemies enter their attack radius . Manually input attacks , called " Arts " , may also be performed by the player , but in a limited fashion . Battle Arts are only available after a " cool down " period that occurs after every use , while character specific " Talent Arts " only become available after enough auto @-@ attacks are executed . Both party members and enemies have a finite amount of health points , and attacks deplete this value . Combat is won when all enemies lose their HP , but the game is lost if the player 's character loses all their HP and has no means of being revived . Health may be restored by the player by using healing Arts in battle , or the player may let characters ' HP regenerate automatically outside of battle . Winning battles earns the player experience points , which allows the characters to grow stronger by leveling up and learning new Arts . Arts for each character must be set by the player on their respective set up , called a " Battle Palette " , outside battles .
Several other systems are present to affect the flow of battle . The " Party Gauge " slowly fills as party members successfully land hits on the enemy players , and filling the gauge allows the player to chain multiple attacks together , for extra damage . All party members have an " aggro ring " around them as well ; the more actions a character performs , the larger it grows . Larger aggro rings lead enemies to focus their efforts on that respective character , leading to a strategic aspect of luring and diverting attention of enemies . Each character has a " Tension " gauge , which represents a character 's morale : at its highest point , characters have a high probability of dealing a critical blow and less chance of
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four songs : " Electioneering " , " No Surprises " , " Subterranean Homesick Alien " and " The Tourist " . At their label 's request , the band took a break from recording to embark on a 13 @-@ date American tour in 1996 , opening for Alanis Morissette , and performed early versions of several new songs . One song , " Paranoid Android " , evolved from a fourteen @-@ minute song featuring long organ solos to one closer to the six @-@ minute album version .
During the tour , filmmaker Baz Luhrmann commissioned Radiohead to write a song for his upcoming film Romeo + Juliet . Luhrmann gave the band footage of the final 30 minutes of the film ; Yorke said " When we saw the scene in which Claire Danes holds the Colt .45 against her head , we started working on the song immediately . " Soon afterwards , the band wrote and recorded " Exit Music ( For a Film ) " ; the track plays over the film 's end credits but was not included on the soundtrack at the band 's request . Yorke later said the song helped shape the direction of the rest of the album , and that it " was the first performance we 'd ever recorded where every note of it made my head spin — something I was proud of , something I could turn up really , really loud and not wince at any moment . "
Radiohead resumed their recording sessions in September 1996 at St Catherine 's Court , a historic mansion near Bath owned by actress Jane Seymour . Greenwood said the new location was unlived @-@ in but sometimes used as " a kind of corporate convention hangout . " The change of setting marked an important transition in the recording process . Greenwood , comparing the mansion to previous studio settings , said recording at St. Catherine 's Court " was less like a laboratory experiment , which is what being in a studio is usually like , and more about a group of people making their first record together . "
The group made extensive use of the different rooms and acoustics throughout the house . The vocals on " Exit Music ( For a Film ) " featured an echo effect achieved by recording on a stone staircase , and " Let Down " was recorded at 3 A.M. in a ballroom . The isolation allowed the band to work at a different pace , with more flexible and spontaneous working hours . O 'Brien said that " the biggest pressure was actually completing [ the recording ] . We weren 't given any deadlines and we had complete freedom to do what we wanted . We were delaying it because we were a bit frightened of actually finishing stuff . " Yorke was satisfied with the quality of the recordings made at the location , and said : " In a big country house , you don 't have that dreadful ' 80s ' separation ' . ... There wasn 't a desire for everything to be completely steady and each instrument recorded separately . " O 'Brien was similarly pleased with the recordings , estimating that 80 percent of the album was recorded live . He said : " I hate doing overdubs , because it just doesn 't feel natural . ... Something special happens when you 're playing live ; a lot of it is just looking at one another and knowing there are four other people making it happen . " Yorke recorded many of the album 's vocals in one take .
Radiohead returned to Canned Applause in October for rehearsals , and completed most of OK Computer in further sessions at St. Catherine 's Court . By Christmas , they had narrowed the track listing to 14 songs . The string parts were recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London in January 1997 . The album was mastered at the same location , and mixed over the next two months at various studios around the city . Godrich preferred a quick and hands @-@ off approach to his mixing work , and said " I feel like I get too into it . I start fiddling with things and I fuck it up ... I generally take about half a day to do a mix . If it 's any longer than that , you lose it . The hardest thing is trying to stay fresh , to stay objective . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
= = = Style and influences = = =
Yorke said that the starting point for the record was the " incredibly dense and terrifying sound " of Bitches Brew , the 1970 avant @-@ garde jazz fusion album by Miles Davis . He described the sound of Bitches Brew to Q : " It was building something up and watching it fall apart , that 's the beauty of it . It was at the core of what we were trying to do with OK Computer . " Yorke has identified " I 'll Wear It Proudly " by Elvis Costello , " Fall on Me " by R.E.M. , " Dress " by PJ Harvey and " A Day in the Life " by the Beatles as being particularly influential on the album 's songwriting . Radiohead drew further inspiration from the recording style of film soundtrack composer Ennio Morricone and the krautrock band Can , musicians Yorke described as " abusing the recording process " .
According to Yorke , the band hoped to achieve an " atmosphere that 's perhaps a bit shocking when you first hear it , but only as shocking as the atmosphere on The Beach Boys ' Pet Sounds . " The band expanded their instrumentation to include electric piano , Mellotron , cello and other strings , glockenspiel and electronic effects . The band 's exploratory approach to instruments was summarised by Jonny Greenwood as " when we 've got what we suspect to be an amazing song , but nobody knows what they 're gonna play on it . " One reviewer characterised OK Computer as sounding like " a DIY electronica album made with guitars " . Many of Yorke 's vocals were first takes ; he felt that if he made other attempts he would " start to think about it and it would sound really lame . "
= = = Lyrics = = =
The album 's lyrics , written by Yorke , are more abstract compared to his personal , emotional lyrics for The Bends . Critic Alex Ross said the lyrics " seemed a mixture of overheard conversations , techno @-@ speak , and fragments of a harsh diary " with " images of riot police at political rallies , anguished lives in tidy suburbs , yuppies freaking out , sympathetic aliens gliding overhead . " Recurring themes include transport , technology , insanity , death , modern life in the UK , globalisation and political objection to capitalism . Yorke said , " On this album , the outside world became all there was ... I 'm just taking Polaroids of things around me moving too fast . " He explained that " It was like there 's a secret camera in a room and it 's watching the character who walks in — a different character for each song . The camera 's not quite me . It 's neutral , emotionless . But not emotionless at all . In fact , the very opposite . "
Yorke was inspired by books he read at the time , including Noam Chomsky 's writings , Eric Hobsbawm 's The Age of Extremes , Will Hutton 's The State We 're In , Jonathan Coe 's What a Carve Up ! and Philip K. Dick 's VALIS . Although the songs do share common themes , Radiohead do not consider OK Computer to be a concept album and have said that they had no intention to link the songs together with any underlying narrative . The album is intended to be heard as a whole ; O 'Brien said , " We spent two weeks track @-@ listing the album . The context of each song is really important ... It 's not a concept album but there is a continuity there . "
= = = Composition = = =
The album 's opening track " Airbag " was inspired by the music of DJ Shadow and is underpinned by an electronic drum beat programmed from a seconds @-@ long recording of Selway 's drumming . The band sampled the drum track with a digital sampler and edited it with a Macintosh computer , but admitted to making approximations in emulating Shadow 's style due to their programming inexperience . The bassline in " Airbag " stops and starts unexpectedly , achieving an effect similar to 1970s dub . The song 's references to automobile accidents and reincarnation were inspired by a magazine article titled " An Airbag Saved My Life " and The Tibetan Book of the Dead . Yorke wrote " Airbag " about the illusion of safety offered by modern transit , and " the idea that whenever you go out on the road you could be killed . " Music journalist Tim Footman notes the song 's technical innovations and lyrical concerns demonstrate the " key paradox " of the album : " the musicians and producer are delighting in the sonic possibilities of modern technology ; the singer , meanwhile , is railing against its social , moral , and psychological impact . ... It 's a contradiction mirrored in the culture clash of the music , with the ' real ' guitars negotiating an uneasy stand @-@ off with the hacked @-@ up , processed drums . "
" Paranoid Android " , split into four distinct sections , is among the band 's longest recorded studio tracks at 6 : 23 . The unconventional multi @-@ section song was inspired by the Beatles ' " Happiness Is a Warm Gun " and Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " , which also eschew a traditional verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse structure . The song 's musical style was also inspired by the music of the Pixies . The song was written by Yorke after an unpleasant night at a Los Angeles bar , where he saw a woman react violently after someone spilled a drink on her . Its title and lyrics are a reference to Marvin the Paranoid Android from Douglas Adams 's The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy series .
The use of electric keyboards in " Subterranean Homesick Alien " is an example of the band 's attempts to emulate the atmosphere of Bitches Brew .
" This is us desperate to be Miles Davis … It 's got a groove . And it used to be called ' Uptight ' . " – Thom Yorke
Its title a reference to the Bob Dylan song " Subterranean Homesick Blues " , the science fiction @-@ inspired song describes an isolated narrator who fantasises about being abducted by extraterrestrials . The narrator speculates that , upon returning to Earth , his friends would not believe his story and he would remain a misfit . The lyrics were inspired by an assignment from Yorke 's time at Abingdon School to write a piece of " Martian poetry " , a British literary movement of works that humorously recontextualises mundane aspects of human life from an alien " Martian " perspective .
William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet inspired the lyrics for " Exit Music ( For a Film ) " . Initially Yorke wanted to work lines from the play into the song , but the final draft of the lyrics became a broad summary of the narrative .
" We wrote this for Romeo + Juliet . I saw the Zeffirelli version when I was 13 and I cried my eyes out , because I couldn 't understand why , the morning after they shagged , they didn 't just run away . It 's a song for two people who should run away before all the bad stuff starts . A personal song . " – Thom Yorke
Yorke compared the opening of the song , which mostly features his singing paired with acoustic guitar , to Johnny Cash 's At Folsom Prison . Mellotron choir and other electronic voices are used throughout the track . The song climaxes with the entrance of drums , and this section prominently features distorted bass run through a fuzz pedal . The climactic portion of the song is an attempt to emulate the sound of trip hop group Portishead , but in a style that bass player Colin Greenwood called more " stilted and leaden and mechanical " . The song concludes by fading back to Yorke 's voice , acoustic guitar and Mellotron .
" Let Down " contains multilayered arpeggiated guitars and electric piano . Jonny Greenwood 's electric piano part is in a different time signature to the other instruments . O 'Brien said the song was influenced by Phil Spector , a producer and songwriter best known for his reverberating " Wall of Sound " recording techniques . The song 's lyrics are , Yorke said , " about that feeling that you get when you 're in transit but you 're not in control of it — you just go past thousands of places and thousands of people and you 're completely removed from it . "
" I was pissed in a club and I suddenly had the funniest thought I 'd had for ages : what if all the people who were drinking were hanging from the bottles ? If the bottles were hung from the ceiling with string , and the floor caved in , and the only thing that kept everyone up was the bottles ? It 's also about an enormous fear of being trapped . " – Thom Yorke
Of the line " Don 't get sentimental / It always ends up drivel " , Yorke said , " Sentimentality is being emotional for the sake of it . We 're bombarded with sentiment , people emoting . That 's the Let Down . Feeling every emotion is fake . Or rather every emotion is on the same plane whether it 's a car advert or a pop song . " Yorke felt that scepticism of emotion was characteristic of Generation X and said that it informed not just " Let Down " but the band 's approach to the whole album .
Critic Steve Huey said the structure of " Karma Police " is " somewhat unorthodox , since there doesn 't seem to be a true chorus section ; the main verse alternates with a short , subdued break ... and after two cycles , the song builds to a completely different ending section . " The first portion is centred around acoustic guitar and piano , with a chord progression indebted to the Beatles ' " Sexy Sadie " . Starting at 2 : 34 , the song transitions into an orchestrated section with the repeated line " For a minute there , I lost myself " . The song ends with guitarist Ed O 'Brien generating feedback using a delay effect . The title and lyrics to " Karma Police " originate from an in @-@ joke during The Bends tour . Jonny Greenwood said " whenever someone was behaving in a particularly shitty way , we 'd say ' The karma police will catch up with him sooner or later . ' "
" Fitter Happier " is a short musique concrète track that consists of sampled musical and background sound and spoken word lyrics recited by a synthesized voice from the Macintosh SimpleText application .
" Fitter , happier . More productive . Comfortable . Not drinking too much . Regular exercise at the gym , three days a week . Getting on better with your associate employee contemporaries . At ease . Eating well , no more microwave dinners and saturated fats . A patient , better driver . A safer car , baby smiling in back seat . Sleeping well , no bad dreams . No paranoia . Careful to all animals , never washing spiders down the plughole . Keep in contact with old friends , enjoy a drink now and then . Will frequently check credit at moral bank , hole in wall . Favours for favours , fond but not in love . Charity standing orders on sundays , ring @-@ road supermarket . No killing moths or putting boiling water on the ants . Car wash , also on sundays . No longer afraid of the dark or midday shadows , nothing so ridiculously teenage and desperate . Nothing so childish . At a better pace , slower and more calculated . No chance of escape . Now self @-@ employed . Concerned , but powerless . An empowered and informed member of society , pragmatism not idealism . Will not cry in public . Less chance of illness . Tires that grip in the wet , shot of baby strapped in backseat . A good memory . Still cries at a good film . Still kisses with saliva . No longer empty and frantic . Like a cat tied to a stick that 's driven into frozen winter shit , the ability to laugh at weakness . Calm , fitter , healthier and more productive . A pig in a cage on antibiotics . "
Written after a period of writer 's block , " Fitter Happier " was described by Yorke as a checklist of slogans for the 1990s , which he considered " the most upsetting thing I 've ever written " .
" The others were downstairs , rockin ' , and I crept upstairs and did this in ten minutes . I was feeling incredible hysteria and panic , and it was so liberating to give the lyrics to this neutral @-@ sounding computer . " – Thom Yorke
" Fitter Happier " was considered for the album 's opening track , but rejected because the band considered the effect off @-@ putting . Steve Lowe called the song " penetrating surgery on pseudo @-@ meaningful corporations ' lifestyles " with " a repugnance for prevailing yuppified social values . " Among the loosely connected imagery of the lyrics , Footman identified the song 's subject as " the materially comfortable , morally empty embodiment of modern , Western humanity , half @-@ salaryman , half @-@ Stepford Wife , destined for the metaphorical farrowing crate , propped up on Prozac , Viagra and anything else his insurance plan can cover . " Sam Steele called the lyrics " a stream of received imagery : scraps of media information , interspersed with lifestyle ad slogans and private prayers for a healthier existence . It is the hum of a world buzzing with words , one of the messages seeming to be that we live in such a synthetic universe we have grown unable to detect reality from artifice . "
" Electioneering " , featuring a cowbell and a distorted guitar solo , is the album 's most rock @-@ oriented track and one of the heaviest songs the band has recorded . It has been compared to Radiohead 's earlier style on Pablo Honey . The cynical " Electioneering " is also the album 's most directly political song .
" I was thinking of the Poll Tax riots when I wrote this : the moment when the horses broke through the barriers and everyone started smashing windows . It 's also from watching too many MPs on telly . You just get this feeling of , ' Woah , I 've seen this once too many times . ' " – Thom Yorke
It was partly inspired by Chomsky 's Manufacturing Consent , a book analysing contemporary mass media under the propaganda model . Yorke likened its lyrics , which focus on political and artistic compromise , to " a preacher ranting in front of a bank of microphones . " Regarding its oblique political references , Yorke said , " What can you say about the IMF , or politicians ? Or people selling arms to African countries , employing slave labour or whatever . What can you say ? You just write down ' Cattle prods and the IMF ' and people who know , know . " O 'Brien said the song was about the promotional cycle of touring : " When you have to promote your album for a longer period , in the United States for example , you fly around from city to city for weeks to meet journalists and record company people . After a while you feel like a politician who has to kiss babies and shake hands all day long . "
" Climbing Up the Walls " – described by a critic as " monumental chaos " – is layered with a string section , ambient noise and repetitive , metallic @-@ sounding percussion . The song 's string section , composed by Jonny Greenwood and written for 16 instruments , was inspired by modern classical composer Krzysztof Penderecki 's Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima . Greenwood said , " I got very excited at the prospect of doing string parts that didn 't sound like ' Eleanor Rigby ' , which is what all string parts have sounded like for the past 30 years . " The combination of Yorke 's distraught vocals and the atonal strings was described by one critic as " Thom 's voice dissolving into a fearful , blood @-@ clotted scream as Jonny whips the sound of a million dying elephants into a crescendo . " For the lyrics , Yorke drew from his time as an orderly in a mental hospital during the Care in the Community policy of deinstitutionalizing mental health patients , and a New York Times article about serial killers .
" This is about the unspeakable . Literally skull @-@ crushing . I used to work in a mental hospital around the time that Care in the Community started , and we all just knew what was going to happen . And it 's one of the scariest things to happen in this country , because a lot of them weren 't just harmless … It was hailing violently when we recorded this . It seemed to add to the mood . " – Thom Yorke
" No Surprises " , recorded in a single take , is arranged with electric guitar ( inspired by the Beach Boys ' " Wouldn 't It Be Nice " ) , acoustic guitar , glockenspiel and vocal harmonies . The band strove to replicate the mood of Louis Armstrong 's 1968 recording of " What a Wonderful World " and the soul music of Marvin Gaye . Hoping to achieve a slower tempo than could be played well on their instruments , Godrich had the band record the song at a faster tempo , then slowed the playback for Yorke to overdub his vocals onto , creating an " ethereal " effect . Yorke identified the subject of the song as " someone who 's trying hard to keep it together but can 't . " The lyrics seem to portray a suicide or an unfulfilling life , and dissatisfaction with contemporary social and political order . Some lines refer to rural or suburban imagery . One of the key metaphors in the song is the opening line , " a heart that 's full up like a landfill " . According to Yorke , the song is a " fucked @-@ up nursery rhyme " that " stems from my unhealthy obsession of what to do with plastic boxes and plastic bottles ... All this stuff is getting buried , the debris of our lives . It doesn 't rot , it just stays there . That 's how we deal , that 's how I deal with stuff , I bury it . " Critics have said the song 's gentle mood contrasts sharply with its harsh lyrics ; Steele said , " even when the subject is suicide ... Ed O 'Brien 's guitar is as soothing as balm on a red @-@ raw psyche , the song rendered like a bittersweet child 's prayer . "
" Lucky " was inspired by the recent conflict in Bosnia , and Sam Taylor said it was " the one track on [ The Help Album ] to capture the sombre terror of the conflict " , and that its serious subject matter and dark tone made the band " too ' real ' to be allowed on the Britpop gravy train " . The song was originally more politically explicit , but the first draft was pared down from " pages and pages and pages of notes " . The lyrics depict a man surviving an aeroplane crash and are drawn from Yorke 's anxiety about transportation . The musical centerpiece of " Lucky " is its three @-@ piece guitar arrangement , which grew out of the high @-@ pitched intro played by O 'Brien . Critics have compared its lead guitar to Pink Floyd and , more broadly , arena rock .
The album ends with " The Tourist " , which Jonny Greenwood wrote as an unusually staid piece where something " doesn 't have to happen ... every 3 seconds . " He said , " ' The Tourist ' doesn 't sound like Radiohead at all . It has become a song with space . "
" The lyrics come from being in a beautiful square in France on a sunny day , and watching all these American tourists being wheeled around , frantically trying to see everything in ten minutes . You know : ' We 've got to be in Paris tomorrow morning ! ' And then I saw this old bloke on telly , saying that he couldn 't work out why the world had got so fast and in a hurry . I just had an image of him standing on a street corner , watching the traffic hurl by . " – Thom Yorke
Yorke said it was chosen as the closing track because " a lot of the album was about background noise and everything moving too fast and not being able to keep up . It was really obvious to have ' Tourist ' as the last song . That song was written to me from me , saying , ' Idiot , slow down . ' Because at that point , I needed to . So that was the only resolution there could be : to slow down
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. " The " unexpectedly bluesy waltz " draws to a close as the guitars drop out , leaving only drums and bass , and concludes with the sound of a small bell .
= = Title and artwork = =
" OK Computer " was the original title for the song " Palo Alto " , which had been considered for inclusion on the album . Although the song was abandoned , its first title stuck with the band ; according to Jonny Greenwood , " [ it ] started attaching itself and creating all these weird resonances with what we were trying to do . " Yorke said it " refers to embracing the future , it refers to being terrified of the future , of our future , of everyone else 's . It 's to do with standing in a room where all these appliances are going off and all these machines and computers and so on ... and the sound it makes . " Yorke described the title as " a really resigned , terrified phrase " , to him similar to the Coca @-@ Cola advertisement " I 'd Like to Teach the World to Sing " . Wired writer Leander Kahney suggests that it is an homage to Macintosh computers , as " The Mac 's built @-@ in speech recognition software responds to the command ' OK Computer , ' as an alternative to hitting an OK button onscreen . " Other titles considered were Ones and Zeroes — a reference to the binary numeral system — and Your Home May Be at Risk If You Do Not Keep Up Payments .
The album 's artwork is a computer @-@ generated collage of images and text created by Stanley Donwood and Yorke , credited under the pseudonym " The White Chocolate Farm " . Donwood was commissioned by Yorke to work on a visual diary alongside the recording sessions . Yorke explained , " If I 'm shown some kind of visual representation of the music , only then do I feel confident . Up until that point , I 'm a bit of a whirlwind . " The colour palette is predominantly white and blue , according to Donwood , the result of " trying to make something the color of bleached bone . " Used twice on the artwork , once in the booklet and once on the compact disc itself , is the image of two stick figures shaking hands . Yorke explained the image as emblematic of exploitation , saying , " Someone 's being sold something they don 't really want , and someone 's being friendly because they 're trying to sell something . That 's what it means to me . " Explaining the artwork 's themes , Yorke said , " It 's quite sad , and quite funny as well . All the artwork and so on ... It was all the things that I hadn 't said in the songs . "
Visual motifs in the artwork include motorways , aeroplanes , families with children , corporate logos and cityscapes . The words " Lost Child " feature prominently on the cover , and the booklet artwork contains phrases in the constructed language Esperanto and health @-@ related instructions in both English and Greek . The use of disconnected phrases led a critic for Uncut to say , " The non @-@ sequiturs created an effect akin to being lifestyle @-@ coached by a lunatic . " White scribbles , Donwood 's method of correcting mistakes rather than using the computer function undo , are present everywhere in the collages . The liner notes contain the full lyrics , rendered with atypical syntax , alternate spelling and small annotations . The lyrics are also arranged and spaced in shapes that resemble hidden images . In keeping with the band 's then emergent anti @-@ corporate stance , the production credits contain the ironic copyright notice " Lyrics reproduced by kind permission even though we wrote them . "
= = Release and promotion = =
Selway admitted that when the band delivered the album , the band 's American label Capitol saw " more or less , ' commercial suicide ' . They weren 't really into it . At that point , we got the fear . How is this going to be received ? " Capitol lowered its sales forecast from two million units to a half a million . In O 'Brien 's view only Parlophone , the band 's British label , remained optimistic while global distributors dramatically reduced their sales estimates . Label representatives were reportedly disappointed with the lack of potential marketable singles , especially the absence of anything resembling their initial hit , " Creep " .
Parlophone 's advertising campaign was unorthodox . The label took full @-@ page advertisements in high @-@ profile British newspapers and tube stations with lyrics for " Fitter Happier " pitched in large black letters against white backgrounds . The same lyrics , and artwork adapted from the album , were repurposed for shirt designs . Yorke said , " We actively chose to pursue the ' Fitter Happier ' thing " to link what a critic called " a coherent set of concerns " between the album artwork and its promotional material . More unconventional merchandise included a floppy disk with Radiohead screensavers and an FM radio in the shape of a desktop computer . In America , Capitol sent 1 @,@ 000 cassette players to prominent members of the press and music industry , each with a copy of the album permanently glued inside . When asked about the campaign after the album 's release , Capitol president Gary Gersh said , " Our job is just to take them as a left @-@ of @-@ center band and bring the center to them . That 's our focus , and we won 't let up until they 're the biggest band in the world . " Yorke states in an early interview , " When we first gave [ the album ] to Capitol , they were taken aback . I don 't really know why it 's so important now , but I 'm excited about it . "
Radiohead chose " Paranoid Android " as the lead single , despite its unusually long running time and lack of a catchy chorus . Colin Greenwood admitted the song was " hardly the radio @-@ friendly , breakthrough , buzz bin unit shifter [ radio stations ] can have been expecting , " but said that Capitol was supportive of the band 's choice . The song premiered on the Radio 1 programme The Evening Session in April 1997 and released as a single in May 1997 . On the strength of frequent radio play on Radio 1 and rotation of the song 's music video on MTV , " Paranoid Android " reached number three in the UK , giving Radiohead their highest chart position .
Radiohead embarked on a world tour in promotion of OK Computer called the " Against Demons " tour , commencing at the album launch in Barcelona on 22 May 1997 . OK Computer was released in Japan on 21 May , in the UK on 16 June , in Canada on 17 June and in the US on 1 July . In addition to the dominant CD format , the album was released as a double @-@ LP vinyl record , cassette and MiniDisc . The album debuted at number one on the UK , where it held for two weeks . It stayed in the top 10 for weeks and became the country 's eighth @-@ best selling record of the year . Meanwhile , the tour took the band across the UK and Ireland , continental Europe , North America , Japan and Australasia , concluding on 29 August 1998 in New York . The tour was mentally taxing for the band , particularly Yorke , who later said " That tour was a year too long . I was the first person to tire of it , then six months later everyone in the band was saying it . Then six months after that , nobody was talking any more . "
" Karma Police " was released in August 1997 and " No Surprises " in January 1998 . Both singles charted in the UK top 10 , and " Karma Police " peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart . " Lucky " was released as a single in France , but did not chart . " Let Down " , considered for release as the lead single , charted on the Modern Rock Tracks chart at number 29 . The band planned to produce a video for every song on the album to be released as a whole , but the project was abandoned due to financial and time constraints . Also considered , but ultimately scrapped , were plans for trip hop group Massive Attack to remix the entire album . Meeting People Is Easy , Grant Gee 's rockumentary following the band on its OK Computer world tour , premiered in November 1998 .
By February 1998 , the album had sold at least half a million copies in the UK and 2 million worldwide . To date , at least 1 @.@ 4 million copies have been sold in the US , 3 million across Europe and over 3 million worldwide . OK Computer has been certified triple platinum in the UK and double platinum in the US , in addition to certifications in other markets .
= = Reception = =
OK Computer received near @-@ unanimous critical acclaim . Critics in the British and American press generally agreed that the album was a landmark of its time and would have far @-@ reaching impact and importance , and that the band 's willingness to experiment made it a challenging listen . According to Footman , " Not since 1967 , with the release of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , had so many major critics agreed immediately , not only on an album 's merits , but on its long @-@ term significance , and its ability to encapsulate a particular point in history . " In the English press , the album garnered favourable reviews in NME , Melody Maker , The Guardian , and Q. Nick Kent wrote in Mojo that " Others may end up selling more , but in 20 years time I 'm betting OK Computer will be seen as the key record of 1997 , the one to take rock forward instead of artfully revamping images and song @-@ structures from an earlier era . " " Every word sounds achingly sincere , every note spewed from the heart , " wrote John Harris in Select , " and yet it roots itself firmly in a world of steel , glass , random @-@ access memory and prickly @-@ skinned paranoia . "
In an otherwise positive review , Andy Gill wrote for The Independent , " For all its ambition and determination to break new ground , OK Computer is not , finally , as impressive as The Bends , which covered much the same sort of emotional knots , but with better tunes . It is easy to be impressed by , but ultimately hard to love , an album that luxuriates so readily in its own despondency . "
The album was well received by critics in North America . Rolling Stone , Spin , and Pitchfork Media published positive reviews . In The New Yorker , Alex Ross praised its progressiveness , and contrasted Radiohead 's risk @-@ taking with the musically conservative " dadrock " of their contemporaries Oasis . Ross wrote that " Throughout the album , contrasts of mood and style are extreme ... This band has pulled off one of the great art @-@ pop balancing acts in the history of rock . "
Reviews for Entertainment Weekly , the Chicago Tribune , and Time were mixed or contained qualified praise . Robert Christgau from The Village Voice said Radiohead immersed Yorke 's vocals in " enough electronic marginal distinction to feed a coal town for a month " and to compensate for how soulless the songs are , resulting in " arid " art rock .
The album appeared in many 1997 critics ' lists and listener polls for best album of the year . It topped the year @-@ end polls of Mojo , Vox , Entertainment Weekly , Hot Press , Muziekkrant OOR , HUMO , Eye Weekly and Inpress , and tied for first place with Daft Punk 's Homework in The Face . The album came second in NME , Melody Maker , Rolling Stone , Village Voice , Spin and Uncut . Q and Les Inrockuptibles both listed the album in their unranked year @-@ end polls . It was a nominee for the 1997 Mercury Prize , a prestigious award recognising the best British or Irish album of the year .
The near universal positive reception to the album overwhelmed the band , and some members thought the press was excessively congratulatory . Particularly irksome to the band were links to progressive rock and art rock , with frequent comparisons to Pink Floyd 's 1973 album The Dark Side of the Moon . Yorke responded : " We write pop songs ... there was no intention of it being ' art ' . It 's a reflection of all the disparate things we were listening to when we recorded it . " He was nevertheless pleasantly surprised that many listeners identified the album 's musical influences : " What really blew my head off was the fact that people got all the things , all the textures and the sounds and the atmospheres we were trying to create . " " In England , I think a lot of the reviews have been slightly over @-@ the @-@ top , " remarked Jonny Greenwood , " because the last album [ The Bends ] was somewhat under @-@ reviewed possibly and under @-@ received . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Retrospective acclaim = = =
OK Computer has appeared frequently in professional lists of greatest albums . A number of publications , including NME , Melody Maker , Alternative Press , Spin , Pitchfork Media , Time , Metro Weekly and Slant placed OK Computer prominently in lists of best albums of the 1
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not feuding at the time .
The third feud heading into No Way Out was between Kane and King Booker . This feud began during the 2007 Royal Rumble match when Kane eliminated King Booker from the match , but Booker returned unofficially to eliminate Kane . The feud continued on the February 2 , 2007 episode of SmackDown ! during King Booker 's Key to the City ceremony in Houston , Texas , when Kane interrupted the ceremony and attacked King Booker . After they continued to feud during the weeks leading up to No Way Out , Theodore Long booked a match between the two at No Way Out . On the February 16 , 2007 episode of SmackDown ! , King Booker mocked Kane by dishonestly reviewing Kane 's See No Evil movie , but Booker ran out when Kane came in to attack him .
The fourth feud heading into No Way Out was between Bobby Lashley and Mr. Kennedy . This feud began on the February 16 episode of SmackDown ! when Lashley made a guest appearance to visit Theodore Long . Mr. Kennedy voiced his opinion to Lashley , reminding Lashley that he had beaten him before and claiming that he could to it again . Long then scheduled a match between the two for the ECW World Championship at No Way Out after contacting ECW officials .
= = Event = =
Before the event aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , a dark match between Rob Van Dam and Shelton Benjamin took place . Van Dam won the match by pinning Benjamin after performing a Five @-@ star frog splash .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired was the six @-@ man tag team match between the team of The Hardys ( Matt Hardy and Jeff Hardy ) and Chris Benoit and the team of MNM ( Johnny Nitro and Joey Mercury ) and Montel Vontavious Porter . The match began with Porter and Benoit , and Benoit gained the early advantage over Porter . The Hardys and Benoit remained with the advantage until MNM got involved in the match . MNM illegally double teamed The Hardys while the referee was distracted . Benoit was then tagged into the match , and MNM attempted to perform a Snapshot on Benoit . Benoit , however , countered the maneuver into a Crippler crossface on Mercury , who submitted , thus making The Hardys and Benoit the winners .
The next match was a Cruiserweight Open for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship . The match began with Scotty 2 Hotty against Daivari ; Hotty eliminated Daivari via pinfall after performing the Worm . The Cruiserweight Champion , Gregory Helms , then entered the match and eliminated Hotty via pinfall after he performed a Double knee facebreaker on Hotty . Funaki was the next participant to enter the match ; however , he was eliminated via pinfall after Helms executed a Crossbody into a pin while holding onto Funaki 's tights . Shannon Moore was the fifth entrant into the gauntlet , but was eliminated via pinfall after Helms performed a Double knee facebreaker on him . Jimmy Wang Yang , the sixth entrant , eliminated Helms via pinfall after performing a Hurricanrana pin . Jamie Noble was the seventh entrant into the Gauntlet match , but he was eliminated via pinfall after Yang performed a moonsault into a pin . The final entrant , Chavo Guerrero , pinned Yang after a frog splash , thus winning the match and becoming the new WWE Cruiserweight Champion .
The third match was a Mixed tag team match between the team of Finlay and Little Bastard and the team of The Boogeyman and Little Boogeyman . The match started off with Finlay against The Boogeyman while Little Bastard hid under the ring . Finlay gained the advantage over Little Boogeyman as he threw him over the top rope onto ringside , where Little Bastard pulled Little Boogeyman under the ring . As Little Bastard finally entered into the ring , he ran out to ringside in fear of The Boogeyman , which led to The Boogeyman chasing him around the ring . This distracted the referee , allowing Finlay to hit Little Boogeyman with a shillelagh , after which Finlay covered him for the win .
The next match was the encounter between King Booker and Kane . The match started off with Kane gaining the advantage over Booker , which he held throughout the beginning of the match . Kane then attempted a chokeslam , but Booker contered the maneuver into a Scissors kick . Kane , however , managed to counter this with a clothesline . Queen Sharmell , who was at ringside in Booker 's corner , distracted Kane , allowing Booker to hit him with a heel kick . Kane retaliated by performing a chokeslam on Booker and covering him to win the match via pinfall .
The fifth match was a tag team match for the WWE Tag Team Championship between Deuce ' n Domino and the defending champions , Paul London and Brian Kendrick . There was back and forth action between the teams in the beginning of the match ; however , Deuce ' n Domino gained the advantage over Kendrick and London , as they focused on wearing down London , not allowing him to tag in his partner . London was eventually able to tag Kendrick into the match , after which Domino attempted an aerial attack from the top rope . He missed Kendrick with the attack , however , allowing Kendrick to roll him up for the pin . As a result , London and Kendrick won the match and retained the WWE Tag Team Championship .
The sixth match was an ECW World Championship match between defending champion Bobby Lashley and Mr. Kennedy . As Kennedy made his entrance towards the ring , Lashley attacked Kennedy in the aisle , delaying the start of the match . When Lashley and Kennedy finally entered the ring , Kennedy attempted many submission holds to no avail , but he continued to attack Lashley in an attempt to keep him from getting up . Kennedy then left the ring to get a steel chair , but Lashley took the chair and attacked Kennedy with it , which caused the referee to end the match as a result of a disqualification . Kennedy won the match , but due to WWE rules , Lashley retained the ECW World Championship . After the match , Lashley hit Kennedy with a steel chair repeatedly until WWE officials ran in to control Lashley .
After the sixth match , there was a Diva Talent Invitational hosted by The Miz , featuring divas from SmackDown ! and Raw as well as vixens from ECW . First , Extreme Expose ( Layla , Kelly Kelly & Brooke ) danced to Rich Boy 's " Boy Looka Here " . Next , Jillian Hall sang a song , but The Miz stopped her from continuing . Candice Michelle , Ariel , and Maria came out next , but before they presented their talent , a catfight broke out among the three divas . Ashley then came out , but before she made her way down to the ring , she took her top off to reveal her breasts covered with pasties in the form of the Playboy logo . The Miz then declared Ashley the winner of the Diva Talent Invitational .
= = = Main event match = = =
The main event was an inter @-@ promotional tag @-@ team match between SmackDown ! ' s Batista and The Undertaker and Raw 's tag team champions John Cena and Shawn Michaels . The match started off with Cena and Batista , and Batista gained the advantage over Cena . Undertaker and Batista then continued to wear down Cena and Michaels before throwing them over the top rope to ringside . As Cena returned into the ring , he attempted to perform an FU on Batista , but Undertaker interfered . This allowed Batista to counter the maneuver into a Batista Bomb , but Cena managed to escape after Michaels interfered . As Batista gave Michaels a Spinebuster , Undertaker executed a chokeslam on Cena . Undertaker then prepared to perform a Tombstone piledriver on Cena ; however , Batista turned on Undertaker by performing a Spinebuster on him . Batista then exited the ring , allowing Michaels to perform Sweet Chin Music and Cena to execute an FU on Undertaker . Cena then pinned Undertaker to win the match for his team .
= = Aftermath = =
After No Way Out , The Undertaker continued his feud with Batista over the World Heavyweight Championship . At WrestleMania 23 , he pinned Batista to win the title . Shawn Michaels , however , was unable to win the WWE Championship , as he lost to John Cena at WrestleMania 23 .
After Kane defeated King Booker at No Way Out , the two continued to feud on SmackDown ! in a Money in the Bank qualifying match on February 23 , 2007 . The feud , however , ended after Booker defeated Kane to qualify for the Money in the Bank ladder match . Kane then began a feud with The Great Khali , who came out to the ring to attack Kane after the match . At WrestleMania 23 , however , Kane lost to Khali via pinfall .
After No Way Out , The Hardys qualified for the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 23 but were unsuccessful in winning the match , as Mr. Kennedy won it . Chris Benoit and Montel Vontavious Porter began a feud over the WWE United States Championship , and Benoit successfully defended his championship against Porter at WrestleMania 23 . After this event , MNM 's reunion ended , as Joey Mercury was released by WWE on March 26 , 2007 . After Bobby Lashley was disqualified at No Way Out , he was chosen to represent Donald Trump at WrestleMania 23 against Vince McMahon 's representative , Umaga , in the Battle of the Billionaires : Hair vs. Hair match . Lashley won the match at WrestleMania and the right for Trump to shave McMahon 's head .
= = Results = =
= NBR 224 and 420 Classes =
The NBR 224 and 420 Classes consisted of six steam locomotives of the 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 wheel arrangement built by the North British Railway ( NBR ) in 1871 and 1873 . No. 224 had three claims to fame : it was the first inside @-@ cylinder 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 to run in Great Britain ; the locomotive involved in the Tay Bridge disaster ; and after rebuilding in 1885 , was the only compound @-@ expansion locomotive on the NBR and one of just three tandem compounds in Britain .
Intended for express passenger trains on the Edinburgh – Glasgow , Edinburgh – Carlisle , and Burntisland – Dundee routes , they handled these well . When trains from London to Edinburgh began to be forwarded via Carlisle over the NBR in mid @-@ 1876 , these heavier trains were beyond the locomotives ' capabilities , and they had to be removed from front @-@ line service on the Carlisle line . Rebuilt between 1885 and 1897 , they remained in service until 1914 – 19 .
= = History = =
Thomas Wheatley became locomotive superintendent of the North British Railway ( NBR ) at the start of February 1867 . During his tenure of seven years , he provided the NBR with 185 new locomotives ; but only eight of these were suitable for hauling express passenger trains , the first two of which were 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0s built in 1869 ( the 141 Class ) , which were considered to be very good engines .
In 1871 , Wheatley followed these with two 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0s , nos . 224 and 264 , which were built at the NBR 's Cowlairs locomotive works . These two locomotives formed the 224 Class . A leading bogie was chosen because of the preponderance of sharp curves on the NBR ; the bogie wheels were quite small , at 2 ft 9 in ( 840 mm ) diameter , and had solid centres , without spokes . The bogie centre was fixed , as opposed to the Adams type used later by the NBR , and the bogie wheelbase was 6 ft 0 in ( 1 @,@ 830 mm ) . The coupled wheels were 6 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 980 mm ) diameter , and the other principal dimensions were : cylinders 17 in ( 430 mm ) diameter by 24 in ( 610 mm ) stroke ; coupled wheelbase 7 ft 7 in ( 2 @,@ 310 mm ) .
No. 224 was the first inside @-@ frame inside @-@ cylinder 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 to run in Great Britain , and predated the G & SWR 6 Class by some two years , the latter being introduced in July 1873 . This layout , the 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 with inside frames and inside cylinders , became widespread across most of Great Britain , with the Great Western Railway being the only main @-@ line company which did not eventually possess the type . There had been earlier 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 designs on other railways , but these either had outside cylinders ( such as nos . 160 & 161 ( built 1860 ) of the Stockton and Darlington Railway ) or outside frames ( such as the " Whitby Bogies " ( 1864 – 65 ) of the North Eastern Railway ) .
The 224 Class were used on express passenger trains , no . 264 being used both on the Waverley route between Edinburgh and Carlisle and on the line between Edinburgh and Glasgow . No. 224 was used in Fife , which in the days before the construction of the Forth Bridge , was an isolated part of the NBR system .
The 224 Class were followed in 1873 by the four locomotives of Wheatley 's 420 Class , nos . 420 – 3 . These differed from the 224 Class in several respects : the bogie wheels were 3 ft 4 in ( 1 @,@ 020 mm ) diameter instead of 2 ft 9 in ( 840 mm ) ; the coupled wheelbase was 7 ft 9 in ( 2 @,@ 360 mm ) instead of 7 ft 7 in ( 2 @,@ 310 mm ) ; the dome was mounted on the boiler barrel instead of the firebox ; and the rear wheel splashers were shaped to the wheel instead of being square @-@ topped . They were intended for use on the Waverley route , over which an increase of traffic was anticipated : the Midland Railway ( MR ) were at the time building their Settle and Carlisle line . This route not yet being open , and the English traffic being entirely in the hands of the London and North Western Railway who worked closely in tandem with the Caledonian Railway , the NBR 's main rival , the trains over the Waverley route were comparatively light and well within the capabilities of the 420 Class .
The MR opened the Settle and Carlisle line on 1 May 1876 , and a through service using that route between London St Pancras and Edinburgh Waverley was introduced at the same time . North of Carlisle , the trains were operated by the NBR over their Waverley route . Each company used its own locomotives over their respective lines , and initially the locomotives used by the NBR were the 420 Class , no . 421 being equipped with the Westinghouse brake ( as were three other locomotives at a cost of £ 90 , or £ 7 @,@ 640 as of 2015 , per engine ) , the brake with which MR carriages were then fitted . But these locomotives proved insufficiently powerful , a second engine often being needed to assist in climbing the gradients , particularly those at Falahill ( between Tynehead and Heriot ) and at Whitrope ( between Shankend and Riccarton Junction ) . Wheatley 's successor , Dugald Drummond , offered the opinion that NBR express locomotives of the period were " like skinny chickens , all legs and wings " . As a result , Drummond designed a new class of 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 ( the 476 Class ) which began to displace the Wheatley 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0s from the through trains in 1877 , and which were capable of maintaining the schedule of 2 hr 35 min for 98 miles ( 158 km ) ( with three intermediate stops ) . The 420 Class remained on the Waverley route , but were used on the local trains , which were lighter than the through trains from England .
= = = No. 224 and the Tay Bridge disaster = = =
Until the opening of the Forth Bridge in 1890 , passengers from Edinburgh to Dundee would cross the Firth of Forth by a ferry from Granton which connected with trains at Burntisland . Further north , the Firth of Tay had been bridged in 1878 , and trains could travel through from Burntisland to Dundee and onward to Aberdeen .
On 28 December 1879 , the regular engine for the 1 @.@ 30 p.m. mail train from Dundee to Burntisland ( no . 89 Ladybank of the 88 Class , an 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 2T ) failed , and no . 224 ( which was based at Dundee , and spare at the time ) was called out to work the train . It did so without incident on the southbound run , but when working the 5 @.@ 20 p.m. northbound service later in the day , due to arrive at Dundee a little before 7 @.@ 30 , it was on the Tay Bridge when shortly after 7 @.@ 13 p.m. the latter collapsed . The driver , David Mitchell , and " stoker " ( fireman ) , John Marshall , of no . 224 had no warning of the impending disaster , and neither closed the regulator nor applied the brakes ; they were among the 75 persons killed . Despite the fall , the locomotive was relatively undamaged , being protected by the bridge girders which formed a cage around the train as they fell together .
In April 1880 , an attempt to recover the locomotive failed when the chains broke . Two days later , a second attempt also failed because the salvage equipment broke after the locomotive had been brought to the surface . One week later , it was recovered , and stood on the bank of the Tay until it was sent to Cowlairs on its own wheels for repairs , after which it was returned to traffic . It gained the nickname " The Diver " as a result of its accident and difficult recovery .
After this , drivers refused to take no . 224 across the second Tay Bridge ( which was built to a new design and opened in 1887 ) . However , on the 29th anniversary of the disaster , 28 December 1908 , no . 224 was used on the Sunday evening mail to Dundee via the Tay Bridge .
= = = Rebuilding = = =
Matthew Holmes , locomotive superintendent of the NBR between 1882 and 1903 , rebuilt no . 224 as a four @-@ cylinder tandem compound in
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1885 . In this form , the low @-@ pressure cylinders , which were 20 in ( 510 mm ) diameter , were mounted in the position previously occupied by the original cylinders , above the bogie centre ; and the high @-@ pressure cylinders , which were of diameter 13 inches ( 330 mm ) , were placed in front of these ; the common stroke remained at 24 in ( 610 mm ) . The engine was given a modified form of Joy valve gear . The boiler pressure was 140 pounds per square inch ( 970 kPa ) , and the grate area 16 @.@ 6 sq ft ( 1 @.@ 54 m2 ) . The chief features of the design had been patented ( no . 16 @,@ 967 of 1884 ) by W.H. Nesbit ( or Nisbet ) , who was a cousin of Holmes . Although not entirely successful , it did somewhat better than the only two other British tandem compounds – Great Western Railway nos . 7 & 8 , of 1886 ; although the tandem compound system was more widely used in the USA and Russia . No. 224 was rebuilt back into simple expansion form during 1887 .
On the NBR , locomotives were generally rebuilt when their boilers wore out . No. 224 received two new boilers in the course of its life : one was fitted by Drummond , the other by Holmes . Holmes ultimately rebuilt all of the locomotives : other than no . 224 , nos . 420 / 1 were rebuilt in 1887 , nos . 422 / 3 in 1890 and no . 264 in 1893 . No. 224 then received its third rebuilding in 1897 . In later years , no . 224 was used on secondary and branch line trains .
= = = Final years = = =
Every six months , the NBR renumbered some of its older locomotives into a " duplicate list " , in order to vacate numbers for new construction . Accordingly , in 1913 , nos . 224 and 264 were placed on the duplicate list , becoming nos . 1192 / 8 respectively ; nos . 420 – 3 were similarly treated in 1914 , becoming 1241 – 4 in the same order . No. 1244 was withdrawn from service in 1914 , the others following in 1915 ( no . 1241 ) , 1917 ( no . 1198 ) , 1918 ( nos . 1242 / 3 ) and 1919 ( no . 1192 ) . These were the only classes of 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 on the NBR to be completely withdrawn before the 1923 Grouping . As such , they were not among the 183 locomotives of this wheel arrangement which were passed by the NBR to the London and North Eastern Railway when the latter company was formed at the start of 1923 by the amalgamation of the NBR with several other railways .
The number plate from the tender of no . 224 has been preserved at Selkirk Museum .
= = Summary = =
The locomotives may have been named after 1875 – it has been stated that Drummond , who replaced Wheatley in 1875 , named NBR engines " including those already in service " .
= Leah Poulton =
Leah Joy Poulton ( born 27 February 1984 ) is a female Australian cricketer who plays for New South Wales and Australia . She is a specialist batsman who usually opens the batting .
Poulton came to prominence in youth cricket by captaining New South Wales to the Under @-@ 17 national championships in 2000 . In 2002 – 03 , she made her senior debut for New South Wales in the Women 's National Cricket League ( WNCL ) . She found runs hard to come by in her first three seasons and was in and out of the team frequently , aggregating only 24 runs in her second and third seasons combined . Despite this , she regularly captained Australia 's Under @-@ 19 and Under @-@ 23 teams during this time , leading the latter on a successful tour of Sri Lanka in 2004 . In 2005 – 06 , made a substantial impact on the WNCL for the first time , scoring 325 runs , more than twice her previous best season 's total , playing in the first of five consecutive WNCL triumphs for New South Wales .
Poulton was rewarded with international selection in the Rose Bowl series against New Zealand at the start of the 2006 – 07 season and scored her maiden century , 101 , in the third match . However , after a poor tour of India at the end of the season , she was dropped from the Australian team in mid @-@ 2007 and continued to be overlooked after a poor WNCL season in 2007 – 08 . During the 2008 Australian winter , she travelled to play for Nottinghamshire in England , and earned herself a recall to the Australian team at the start of the 2008 – 09 southern hemisphere season . After scoring 376 runs at a batting average of 41 @.@ 77 in the 2008 – 09 WNCL , Poulton retained her position in the national team for the 2009 Women 's Cricket World Cup and the 2009 World Twenty20 . She was a regular member of the playing team in both tournaments , participating all the matches in the latter . In 2009 , Poulton made her Test debut against England and in 2009 – 10 , she hit her second ODI century , 104 not out against New Zealand .
= = Youth cricket = =
Poulton is from Elermore Vale in the New South Wales coastal city of Newcastle , and plays for the Wallsend Cricket Club in the city . She attended Lambton High School and outside of cricket , she works as a physical education teacher .
In March 2000 , soon after turning 16 , she played for New South Wales in the national Under @-@ 17 championships . She scored 141 runs at a batting average of 23 @.@ 50 and took two wickets at a bowling average of 15 @.@ 50 as New South Wales defeated Victoria Blue to win the competition . In January 2002 , she was selected for the state Under @-@ 19 team and scored 112 in the first match , against the Australian Capital Territory . She also made two ducks and ended the tournament with 188 runs at 31 @.@ 33 ; New South Wales won all of their six matches .
= = Senior domestic debut = =
At the start of the 2002 – 03 season , Poulton made her senior debut for New South Wales in the Women 's National Cricket League in a double @-@ header against South Australia . In her first match , she scored 12 in five @-@ wicket victory . Playing in ten matches , she made many starts , reaching double figures in all but one of her nine innings , but managed only a best score of 36 run out , against Western Australia . She ended the WNCL season with 159 runs at 19 @.@ 87 as New South Wales came second , ending a run of six consecutive titles . Victoria qualified first and thus hosted the finals , defeating New South Wales 2 – 0 in a best @-@ of @-@ three series . Poulton made only 1 and 11 in the deciding matches , which were lost by 3 wickets and 40 runs respectively .
During the season , Poulton also played in the Under @-@ 19 interstate tournament during the break in the WNCL , captaining her state . In five innings , she made three half @-@ centuries , with a best of 73 against Queensland in the final , which New South Wales won by five wickets . She was unbeaten in the other two fifties after opening the batting ; New South Wales completed ten @-@ wicket wins in both instances . Poulton ended the competition with 191 runs at 63 @.@ 66 . She was rewarded with selection in and captaincy of the national Under @-@ 19 team during the season and played in two matches against England Under @-@ 19s , scoring 13 and 35 as Australia won both matches . At the end of the season , she was selected to lead an Australian Under @-@ 23 team to play against the senior England team . Poulton made 15 in her only innings .
Poulton had an interrupted season in 2003 – 04 . After playing in the first two matches against Western Australia , scoring only 3 not out and 1 as New South Wales took both matches , she was absent until the finals series . Victoria had qualified first and hosted the three @-@ match series . Poulton was omitted for the first match , which was won by the home team , before being recalled for the second match . She made 1 and 11 as New South Wales won the last two fixtures by five and three wickets respectively to claim the title . However , Poulton contributed little to the team 's triumph , managing only 16 runs at 5 @.@ 33 . At the end of the season she was appointed captain of the Australian Youth team and played in four matches against New Zealand A , scoring 127 runs at 31 @.@ 75 with a best of 75 in the second of these fixtures . Sarah Tsukigawa had success against Poulton , dismissing her three times in a row . Australia won all but the last match .
Poulton was then made captain of the Australian Under @-@ 23 team for a tour of Sri Lanka in September 2004 . The tourists played four one @-@ dayers against the host nation 's senior team and won all but the abandoned third match . In the second match , Poulton scored 14 and took her first wicket against senior opposition after bowling for the first time at the level . She made her top @-@ score of the series with 48 in the third fixture , and made 33 and took 2 / 10 in the fourth match . Poulton then made her debut in non @-@ one @-@ day cricket against the Sri Lankans , scoring 10 before being run out . After Australia took a 102 @-@ run lead , she top @-@ scored with 40 before declaring at 8 / 150 and leading the team to a 140 @-@ run win . She took a total of 0 / 24 from 10 overs .
After playing in the first four matches of the 2004 – 05 WNCL season , Poulton missed three matches in a row before playing her final match of the season against Queensland and being dropped for the three finals matches against Victoria . New South Wales lost the finals 2 – 1 after finishing the regular season first and earning the right to host the series . Poulton batted only three times and accumulated eight runs at 4 @.@ 00 but New South Wales nevertheless won all of these five matches .
Poulton returned to form in the 2005 – 06 WNCL season , playing in all of New South Wales ' 11 matches . After being run out for 39 in the first match against Western Australia , she made consecutive half @-@ centuries against Western Australia and Queensland . New South Wales won seven of their eight round @-@ robin matches to qualify to host the three @-@ match finals series against Queensland . Up to this point , Poulton had only scored 24 runs at 6 @.@ 00 in four WNCL finals matches and had been dropped ahead of the deciding series the previous season . In the first match at North Sydney Oval , Poulton top @-@ scored with an unbeaten 70 to guide New South Wales to their target of 175 for an eight @-@ wicket win . She made 28 of her state 's 154 as Queensland took the series to a deciding match with a three @-@ wicket win in the second match . Poulton was dismissed for five in the deciding match as New South Wales were bowled out for 146 , before dismissing the visitors for 144 to claim a two @-@ run win and the WNCL . She ended the season with 325 runs at 32 @.@ 50 as New South Wales won 9 of their 11 matches to claim the title . Poulton bowled for the first time in the WNCL , conceding 18 runs from two overs .
= = International debut = =
These performances were not enough to gain selection in the Test and one @-@ day series against India held in Adelaide immediately after the WNCL . However , Poulton was called up for her senior international debut against New Zealand in the Rose Bowl series staged at Allan Border Field in Brisbane at the start of the 2006 – 07 season because of an injury to fellow New South Wales batsman Alex Blackwell . The chairman of selectors Margaret Jennings said " She is a talented player with a free @-@ flowing game , and we are keen to see how she performs
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ite OfficeTally . It was later named the 20th @-@ best episode of the series according to an episode poll by OfficeTally . BuddyTV named the episode the 19th @-@ best TV episode of 2011 and it was the only episode of the series to make the list .
= Isaac Parsons ( American military officer ) =
Isaac Parsons ( January 7 , 1814 – April 24 , 1862 ) was an American planter , politician , and military officer in the U.S. state of Virginia ( now West Virginia ) . Parsons served as a justice of the peace of Hampshire County 's District 3 from 1852 to 1853 . He later served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates representing Hampshire County from 1854 until 1857 . Parsons was the grandson of Virginia House Delegate Isaac Parsons ( 1752 – 1796 ) , the great @-@ grandson of Colonial Virginia military officer William Foreman ( died 1777 ) , and the grandfather of First Lady of West Virginia , Edna Brady Cornwell ( 1868 – 1958 ) .
Parsons inherited his family 's Wappocomo plantation north of Romney . In 1855 , fugitive slave Jacob Green escaped from Parsons ' Wappocomo plantation to Pennsylvania along with several other slaves . Parsons and his nephews went north to pursue the escapees , resulting in the arrest of his nephew , James " Zip " Parsons III ( 1831 – 1893 ) . The arrest and trial of Parsons ' nephew caused a dispute between the states of Virginia and Pennsylvania over the latter 's refusal to execute the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 . Following the trial , a dispute ensued between Parsons and Charles James Faulkner over legal fees in 1857 . At the time of the dispute , Faulkner was a member of the United States House of Representatives from Virginia 's 8th congressional district . Parsons declared that Faulkner had originally offered his legal services at no cost during his nephew 's trial .
Following the onset of the American Civil War , Parsons served on Hampshire County 's " committee for safety " . Parsons received permission to raise an independent company of mounted infantry to provide defense along the border . He served as a military officer in the Huckleberry Rangers and Company K of the 13th Virginia Volunteer Infantry Regiment in the Confederate States Army . Parsons died of natural causes following a skirmish with Union Army cavalry at Grassy Lick Run in 1862 .
= = Early life and family = =
Isaac Parsons was born on January 7 , 1814 , in Hampshire County , West Virginia ( now West Virginia ) . He was the third son of James Gregg Parsons ( 1773 – 1847 ) and his wife Mary Catherine Casey Parsons ( 1773 – 1846 ) .
The Parsons family was a prominent family whose ancestors had arrived to the Thirteen Colonies from England in 1635 , and relocated to Hampshire County around 1740 . Parsons ' paternal grandfather , of which he is a likely namesake , Isaac Parsons ( 1752 – 1796 ) served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates representing Hampshire County from 1789 until his death in 1796 ; and operated a public ferry across the South Branch Potomac River . Through his mother , Parsons was a great @-@ grandson of Colonial Virginia military officer William Foreman ( died 1777 ) . Parsons was raised through childhood to adulthood on his family 's Wappocomo plantation north of Romney .
= = Wappocomo = =
Following the death of James Gregg Parsons on January 25 , 1847 , his last will and testament dated November 7 , 1846 , and probated February 22 , 1847 , devised Lot Number 21 including Wappocomo ( referred to in the will as the " Casey tract " ) to his son Colonel Isaac Parsons ( 1814 – 1862 ) . Parsons ' brother James " Big Jim " Parsons , Jr . ( 1798 – 1858 ) , inherited the Collins tract ( Lot Number 20 ) and his other brother David C. Parsons ( 1803 – 1860 ) inherited Lot Number 13 . Parsons and his brothers also inherited the nearby " Jake Sugar Rum tract , the McGuire tract , and five town lots in Romney " . Parsons eventually acquired Wappocomo plantation outright , and in 1861 he undertook a two @-@ story stone expansion to the main house at Wappocomo . The ballroom in the upper story of this addition served as the scene of many events and parties .
= = Political career = =
Following the ratification of the 1851 Constitution of Virginia , Parsons was elected to serve as a justice of the peace for Hampshire County 's District 3 in 1852 and 1853 . Parsons served in this office alongside David Gibson , T. M. Davis , and Joseph C. Pancake .
Parsons served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates representing Hampshire County from 1854 until 1857 . Parsons represented Hampshire County , which was a multi @-@ member electoral district , in the following sessions of the Virginia House of Delegates : the 1854 session alongside Jesse Lupton ; the 1855 session alongside Jesse Lupton ; the 1856 session alongside Asa Hiett ; and the 1857 session alongside Asa Hiett . Prior to the American Civil War , Parsons was an ardent proponent of Virginia 's secession and the passage of an Ordinance of Secession .
= = Jacob Green affair = =
In August 1855 , Jacob Green , a slave owned by Parsons , escaped from Wappocomo farm with four other slaves from neighboring plantations . In October of that year , Green returned to Parsons ' plantation in Romney , and persuaded four or five slaves from neighboring farms owned by Parsons family relatives to escape with him to Pennsylvania .
A party of eight to ten men , including Parsons and two of his nephews , James " Zip " Parsons III ( 1831 – 1893 ) and a Mr. Stump , went north in pursuit of the escapees . In the course of the pursuit , they captured two of Stump 's escaped slaves , who were sent back to Hampshire County . James Parsons III was the son of Parsons ' brother James " Big Jim " Parsons , Jr . ( 1798 – 1858 ) , and his wife Elizabeth Miller Parsons . With information obtained from the two recaptured slaves , Parsons went to Johnstown , James Parsons III to Hollidaysburg , and Stump to Altoona , where they hoped to intercept Green as he headed west on the Allegheny Portage Railroad and Main Line Canal toward Pittsburgh . James Parsons III intercepted Green at Hollidaysburg , but local abolitionists thwarted his attempt to capture Green , and he was arrested and arraigned for kidnapping .
Upon learning of the arrest of his nephew , Parsons sought the assistance of Charles James Faulkner , a prominent Martinsburg lawyer and United States House Representative from Virginia 's 8th congressional district , and of James Murray Mason , a United States Senator from Virginia . Faulkner and Mason both offered their legal services for James Parsons III 's defense . The Virginia General Assembly pledged its support to Parsons and to Virginia 's slaveowners in defending their constitutional rights and to protect them from prosecution . Virginia Governor Henry A. Wise appointed John Randolph Tucker to attend Parsons ' trial as a " special commissioner " of Virginia . The dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania escalated , and on January 31 , 1856 , an article published in the New York Herald read " Threatened Civil War between Virginia and Pennsylvania " .
Parsons , Faulkner , and Tucker traveled to Hollidaysburg for James Parsons III 's trial . Faulkner provided for Parsons ' legal defense , leading to his acquittal as having acted legally under the provisions of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 .
In September 1856 , Faulkner billed Parsons $ 150 for his legal services . Parsons disputed the charge . In a series of articles in the Virginia Argus and Hampshire Advertiser , he declared that Faulkner had originally offered his services at no cost ; that he had been lauded publicly for his generosity in doing so without ever denying that he had been working pro bono ; and that he was practicing " duplicity and deception " in trying to win a reputation in his district through " specious acts of munificence " .
James Parsons III and his brother William Miller Parsons ( born 1835 ) were later proprietors of the Virginia Argus and Hampshire Advertiser . In a series of articles published in the May 14 and May 21 , 1857 , issues of the Virginia Argus , Parsons chronicled the 1855 arrest of his nephew for attempting to capture his fugitive slave and the resulting dispute between the Parsons family and Faulkner over legal fees in 1857 .
= = American Civil War = =
Following the onset of the American Civil War , Parsons began serving on Hampshire County 's " committee for safety " . Parsons served on the " committee for safety " alongside James D. Armstrong , John M. Pancake , David Gibson , Dr. S. R. Lupton , John C. Heiskell , J. W. Marshall , W. A. Vance , R. K. Sheetz , Angus William McDonald , James Sheetz , John T. Pierce , James W. Albin , Charles Blue , Robert Hook , R. B. Sherrard , G. W. Gore , George William Washington , and John Johnson . The " committee for safety " continued to meet until May 29 , 1861 . Parsons , Pancake , and Armstrong were permitted by the Hampshire County Court to execute bonds for and on behalf of the county to raise money to fund " war purposes " .
On May 18 , 1861 , the Hampshire Guards and the Frontier Riflemen convened in front of the Hampshire County Courthouse in Romney before departing to fight in defense of the Confederate States of America . Parsons and a dozen of his men led the wagon train conveying these volunteers to Green Spring on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad mainline , where Parsons and the volunteers departed by train to Harpers Ferry .
Parsons traveled to Richmond , where he received permission to raise an independent company of mounted infantry to provide defense along the border . Parsons set about enrolling volunteers , and within a short period of time , he enlisted approximately 30 men . Following its organization , the company became known as the Huckleberry Rangers of the Confederate States Army 's 13th Virginia Volunteer Infantry Regiment . The following personnel were elected to serve in leadership positions within the company : Parsons as its captain in command ; John Blue , first lieutenant ; and his son Isaac Parsons , Jr . , second lieutenant . Parsons and his company utilized flintlock muskets , which they had retrieved from the loft of the courthouse , and additional sabres and flintlock horse pistols which had last been used during the American Revolutionary War . Parsons provided Lt. Blue with a Minié ball rifle reportedly seized from John Brown at Harpers Ferry .
Parsons again traveled to Richmond with a supply of cattle , and returned to his company 's camp on the North River in Hampshire County around November 15 , 1861 . Upon his return , Parsons was anxious to learn about the condition of his family and property at Wappocomo and needed an additional change of clothing and a blanket . Accompanied by Lt. Blue and Adam Parrish , Parsons traveled west along the Northwestern Turnpike to around Pleasant Dale , where they set about traversing a series of roads and paths until nighttime when they reached Sugar Hollow 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Romney . Parsons stayed behind in the hollow while Lt. Blue and Parrish started out for Wappocomo to retrieve a set of Parsons ' clothes . Lt. Blue and Parrish approached Wappocomo with the knowledge that Union Army forces kept a guard at the main house there day and night . Lt. Blue circled around to the rear of the mansion at Wappocomo and knocked on the window of his uncle , Garrett W. Blue , who was residing with Parsons ' family . Blue warned his nephew about the Union Army soldiers possibly stationed on the home 's front porch , and he subsequently fetched Parsons ' daughter Kate , who provided Lt. Blue with a parcel for her father .
Lt. Blue and Parrish returned to Sugar Hollow where Parsons was awaiting them , and Parsons set about locating pine from which to make torches to light their way out of the hollow . Parsons carried with him a small hatchet , and he began splitting pine in the darkness to fashion a torch . Parsons accidentally struck himself in the knee with his hatchet , and Lt. Blue applied a handkerchief to the wound to stop its bleeding . The three men traveled through the dark and rain to the nearby home of Frank Carter , where they ate and dried their clothes by the fire . The following morning , the three men mounted their horses and traveled to Rev. Harris ' home , where Parsons and Lt. Blue parted with Parrish . Parsons and Lt. Blue continued east over Town Hill and reached George Thompson 's residence on the Little Cacapon River , which had risen due to the previous night 's rainfall . Parsons and Lt. Blue remained with Thompson for two days until the Little Cacapon River subsided , and traveled to Blue 's Gap , where they set up camp . There , Lt. Blue received orders from Col. Angus William McDonald to carry out an expedition to Romney for General Stonewall Jackson to ascertain the number of Union Army infantry , cavalry , and artillery present in and around the town . Lt. Blue departed for Romney with Parsons ' son Isaac Parsons , Jr . , and W. V. Parsons accompanying him . Throughout 1861 , Parsons " gratuitously " provided Confederate soldiers with food at his table and horses from his stables at his Wappocomo plantation .
In 1862 , Parsons had part of his family moved from their Wappocomo residence to Shull 's Gap on the Lost River in Hardy County . Romney physician Dr. Lupton and his wife were also residing with Parsons ' family at Shull 's Gap . In March , Union Army forces were no closer to Romney than Green Spring , which allowed Parsons and his wife Susan Blue Parsons to return to their home at Wappocomo with their younger children . Parsons ' eldest daughters Kate and Sallie stayed behind with his son Isaac Parsons , Jr . , who had arrived from New Market , and a Mrs. Dawson and Dr. Lupton and his wife . On March 24 , 1862 , Parsons ' eldest child and daughter Kate died . Despite recovering from illness , Lt. Blue carried the news of Kate 's death and met Parsons halfway to Romney . Parsons instructed Lt. Blue to proceed on to Romney where he delivered the news to his wife Susan . The Parsons no longer felt safe in Romney , and returned to Shull 's Gap . Parsons and Lt. Blue traveled to Harrisonburg , where they remained for a few days , and decided to return to Hampshire County . Lt. Blue traveled to his family 's residence 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north of Romney , and Parsons to his residence at Wappocomo plantation . Lt. Blue was subsequently captured by Union Army forces and held at the Wirgman Building , from which he later escaped .
Parsons , his sons , and other Confederate soldiers encountered Union Army cavalry along Grassy Lick Run south of Romney on April 24 , 1862 . Parsons carried a double @-@ barreled shotgun , and proceeded to fire his weapon at the Union forces at close range . As Parsons made his escape from the Union Army forces , he saw his son fired upon as he ran across the road , and supposed he had been killed . He traveled to the home of a Mr. Hott , and told him of the news of his son 's possible death . Parsons became pale and was helped down from his horse by Hott 's sons , so he would not fall . According to Hott , Parsons died moments later .
Parsons ' body was transferred to Wappocomo for burial in the Parsons family burial ground . Union Army forces assumed Parsons had died in the skirmish along Grassy Lick Run , and claimed the right to examine his body to search for wounds which would serve as sufficient cause to destroy his property . Professor Nelson , a Presbyterian minister and instructor at the Potomac Academy , was a friend of the Parsons family , and denied Union Army officials access to Parsons ' body . As a compromise , Professor Nelson allowed Union Army officers to be present in the room while Parsons ' corpse was examined . No wounds were found on Parsons ' body , and his remains were interred in the Parsons family burial ground at Indian Mound Cemetery . On April 26 , 1862 , acting Quartermaster Lt. F. H. Morse completed the death certificate for Parsons although the circumstances of Parsons ' death were not recorded . Captain William Firey of Company B , 1st Maryland Cavalry and Captain C. W. Shearer of Company B , 3rd Maryland Infantry , Potomac Home Brigade were present for the examination of Parsons ' body and attested there was " no evidence of gun @-@ shot wounds or any other violence on him " . Witnesses present at the examination were William Vance and George William Washington .
Parsons drafted his own will and testament , and it was proved without issue , and later cited in the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia case French v. French ( 1877 ) . His wife Susan Blue Parsons died on October 2 , 1889 and was interred alongside Parsons at Indian Mound Cemetery . In her Parsons ' Family History and Record ( 1913 ) , Parsons ' relative and family genealogist Virginia Parsons MacCabe said of Parsons : " he was broad minded and conservative , gifted with good common sense and judgment , his honesty and integrity was unimpeachable . "
= = Personal life = =
Parsons married Susan Blue ( 1817 – 1889 ) on May 18 , 1836 . Susan Blue was born in Hampshire County on January 9 , 1817 , and was the daughter of Uriah Blue , Jr . , and his wife M. Elizabeth Donaldson Blue . Parsons and his wife Susan had nine children consisting of four sons and five daughters . Through his daughter Sarah Louise , Parsons was the grandfather of Edna Brady Cornwell ( 1868 – 1960 ) , who served as First Lady of West Virginia from 1917 until 1921 during her husband John J. Cornwell 's ( 1867 – 1953 ) term as Governor of West Virginia .
= Girl with a Pearl Earring ( film ) =
Girl with a Pearl Earring is a 2003 drama film directed by Peter Webber . The screenplay was adapted by screenwriter Olivia Hetreed , based on the novel of the same name by Tracy Chevalier . Scarlett Johansson stars as Griet , a young 17th @-@ century servant in the household of the Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer ( played by Colin Firth ) at the time he painted Girl with a Pearl Earring ( 1665 ) in the city of Delft in Holland . Other cast members include Tom Wilkinson , Cillian Murphy , and Judy Parfitt .
Hetreed read the novel before its publication , and her husband 's production company convinced Chevalier to sell the film rights . Initially , the production was to feature Kate Hudson as Griet with Mike Newell directing . Hudson withdrew shortly before filming began , however , and the film was placed in hiatus until the hire of Webber , who re @-@ initiated the casting process . In this , which was his feature film debut , Webber sought to avoid employing traditional characteristics of the period film drama . Cinematographer Eduardo Serra used distinctive lighting and colour schemes similar to Vermeer 's paintings .
Released on 12 December 2003 in North America and on 16 January 2004 in the United Kingdom , Girl with a Pearl Earring earned a worldwide gross of $ 31 @,@ 466 @,@ 789 . It garnered a mostly positive critical reception , with a 72 % approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes . Critics generally applauded the film 's visuals and performances while questioning elements of its story . The film was subsequently nominated for ten British Academy Film Awards , three Academy Awards , and two Golden Globe Awards .
= = Plot = =
Griet ( Scarlett Johansson ) is a shy girl living in the Dutch Republic in 1665 . Her father , a Delftware painter , has recently gone blind , rendering him unable to work and putting his family in a precarious financial situation . To help matters , Griet is sent to work as a maid in the household of famed painter Johannes Vermeer ( Colin Firth ) . Griet works hard , almost wordlessly , in the lowest position in a harsh hierarchy , doing her best despite spiteful treatment by one of Vermeer 's children . While she is on a routine shopping trip outside the house , a butcher 's son , Pieter ( Cillian Murphy ) , notices Griet and falls in love with her , even though she is slow to return his affections .
As Griet cleans Vermeer 's studio , which his wife Catharina ( Essie Davis ) never enters , the painter begins to converse with her and encourages her appreciation of painting , light and color . Vermeer gives her lessons in mixing paints and other tasks , taking care to keep this secret from his wife , who would react with anger and jealousy if she found out that her husband was spending time with Griet . In contrast , Vermeer 's pragmatic mother @-@ in @-@ law , Maria Thins ( Judy Parfitt ) , sees Griet as useful to Vermeer 's career .
Vermeer 's rich patron , Van Ruijven ( Tom Wilkinson ) , notices Griet on a visit to the Vermeer household and asks the painter if he will give her up to work in his own house , a situation which ruined a previous girl . Vermeer refuses , but accepts a commission to paint a portrait of Griet for Van Ruijven .
As Vermeer secretly works on the eponymous painting , Catharina cannot help but notice something is amiss and her
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while the fourth was a slightly longer 27 @-@ caliber version . She carried a secondary battery of seven 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) 26 @-@ caliber guns and four 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) 23 @-@ caliber guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she carried four 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes . Unlike other ships built at the time , Italia dispensed with vertical belt armor . Her designer , Benedetto Brin , believed that contemporary steel alloys could not effectively defeat armor @-@ piercing shells of the day , and so he discarded it completely . Italia was instead protected by an armored deck that was 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick . Her conning tower was armored with 4 in of steel plate . The barbette had 19 in ( 483 mm ) of steel armor .
= = Service history = =
Italia was under construction for nearly 10 years . She was laid down at Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia shipyard on 3 January 1876 , originally under the name Stella D 'Italia . She then spent over four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years on the building ways and was launched on 29 September 1880 . She was not completed for another five years , her construction finally being finished on 16 October 1885 . She nonetheless was completed 22 months before her sister Lepanto , which took almost 11 years to build . After Italia was completed , several smaller caliber guns were added , including two 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns , twelve 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 40 @-@ caliber guns , twelve 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) revolver cannon , and two machine guns .
Italia took part in the annual 1888 fleet maneuvers , along with the ironclads Caio Duilio , Lepanto , Enrico Dandolo , and San Martino , a protected cruiser , four torpedo cruisers , and numerous smaller vessels . The maneuvers consisted of close @-@ order drills and a simulated attack on and defense of La Spezia . Later that year , the ship was present during a naval review held for the German Kaiser Wilhelm II during a visit to Italy . Italia served as the flagship of the 2nd Division of the Active Squadron during the 1893 fleet maneuvers , along with the ironclad Andrea Doria , the torpedo cruiser Iride , and four torpedo boats . During the maneuvers , which lasted from 6 August to 5 September , the ships of the Active Squadron simulated a French attack on the Italian fleet .
In 1895 , Italia and Lepanto were assigned to the Reserve Squadron , along with the ironclads Ruggiero di Lauria and Re Umberto . Italia was not assigned to either the Active or Reserve Squadrons in 1898 , though she took part in the annual fleet maneuvers that year . In the early 1890s , the Italian Navy considered rebuilding Italia along the same lines as Enrico Dandolo , which had received new , quick @-@ firing 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) guns in place of her slow 17 @-@ inch guns . Italia and her sister were to have their guns replaced with new 13 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns , but by 1902 this plan had been abandoned as too costly .
In 1905 , Italia went into drydock for a major reconstruction that lasted into 1908 . Her six funnels were reduced to four , and a second mast was erected . One of her 5 @.@ 9 in guns , six of the 57 mm guns , and eight of the 37 mm revolver cannon were removed . After returning to service in 1909 , she served as a torpedo training ship ; she served in this capacity through 1910 . At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , Italia was assigned to the 5th Division of the Italian fleet , along with her sister Lepanto and Enrico Dandolo . In December 1911 , Italia and Lepanto were sent to Tripoli , replacing the three Re Umberto @-@ class ironclads , to support the Italian garrison that had captured the city . The two ships were sent in large part because the Italian Navy had a large stockpile of 17 in shells .
She was employed as a training ship for petty officers in 1912 , and by 1914 she was stationed in Taranto as a guard ship . Italia was laid up on 1 June 1914 and stricken from the naval register three days later . Despite having all of her secondary guns removed , the ship was towed to Brindisi on 20 April 1915 , shortly before Italy entered World War I , to defend the harbor . She was formally returned to the naval register on 23 May , the day Italy declared war on Austria Hungary , and was recommissioned on 1 June as a " first class auxiliary " . She remained at Brindisi until 16 December 1917 , when she was taken to La Spezia for conversion into a grain carrier , retaining only two of her 4 @.@ 7 in guns . She was transferred initially to the Ministry of Transport on 1 June but was quickly reassigned to the State Railways on 27 July 1919 . She remained there briefly , returning to the Navy on 13 January 1921 . Italia was finally stricken on 16 November 1921 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= D @-@ Day naval deceptions =
Operations Taxable , Glimmer and Big Drum were tactical military deceptions conducted on 6 June 1944 in support of the Allied landings in Normandy . The operations formed the naval component of Operation Bodyguard , a wider series of tactical and strategic deceptions surrounding the invasion . Small boats , along with aircraft from RAF Bomber Command , simulated invasion fleets approaching Cap d 'Antifer , Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais and Normandy . Glimmer and Taxable played on the German belief , amplified by Allied deception efforts over the preceding months , that the main invasion force would land in the Calais region . Big Drum was positioned on the western flank of the real invasion force to try to confuse German forces about the scale of the landings . These operations complemented Operation Titanic , which was intended to confuse the Germans about the D @-@ Day airborne forces .
It is unclear whether the operations were successful , due to the complexity of their execution , poor weather , and lack of response from German forces . It is possible that they contributed to the overall confusion of D @-@ Day as part of the wider Bodyguard plan .
= = Background = =
Glimmer , Taxable and Big Drum were World War II deception operations . They were conducted as part of Operation Bodyguard , a broad strategic military deception intended to support the Allied invasion of German @-@ occupied France in June 1944 . Bodyguard was designed to confuse the Axis high command as to Allied intentions during the lead @-@ up to the invasion . The London Controlling Section ( LCS ) had spent some time convincing German commanders that the fictional First United States Army Group ( FUSAG ) represented the bulk of the Allied invasion force . FUSAG 's existence was fabricated through Operation Fortitude South .
The Allied story for FUSAG was that the army group , based in south @-@ east England , would invade the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region several weeks after a smaller diversionary landing in Normandy . In reality , the main invasion force would land in Normandy on D @-@ Day . As D @-@ Day approached , the LCS moved on to planning tactical deceptions to help cover the progress of the real invasion forces . As well as naval operations , the LCS also planned operations involving paratroopers and ground deceptions . The latter would come into effect once landings were made but the former ( involving naval , air and special forces units ) were used to cover the approach of the true invasion fleet .
In preparation for the coming landings , Allied scientists had worked on techniques for obscuring the size and disposition of an invasion force . The German defences relied on the Seetakt radar system . Scientists from the Telecommunications Research Establishment discovered that the resolution of the Seetakt was about 520 yards ( 480 m ) . To deceive the radar system they proposed dropping clouds of aluminium foil ( chaff , then code @-@ named Window ) at two mile intervals . The clouds would appear as a continuous blip , similar to one created by an approaching fleet , on German screens . The Allies also repurposed radio equipment , code named Moonshine , to jam the Seetakt signal . Allied command decided that , rather than mask the approaching fleet , these measures would serve to alert German defences . So it was decided to combine these techniques with small groups of boats to simulate an entire invasion fleet aimed at the Calais region .
Allied planners proposed that small boats , towing large radar reflecting balloons ( code named Filbert ) and carrying both Moonshine jamming and standard wireless equipment ( for transmitting fake traffic ) , would advance toward the French coast under a cloud of Window . The chaff and other countermeasures would hide the small size of the naval force while wireless traffic would play on the FUSAG story to mislead the Germans into expecting a major landing . A third deceptive force , Operation Big Drum , would use radar countermeasures on the western flank of the true invasion fleet . This operation was intended to lend confusion as to the extent of the landings in Normandy .
= = Glimmer and Taxable = =
Glimmer and Taxable were very similar operations . They were executed in the early hours of 6 June 1944 whilst the invasion fleet was approaching Normandy . Taxable simulated an invasion force approaching Cap d 'Antifer and Glimmer threatened Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais . By dropping chaff in progressive patterns , Royal Air Force ( RAF ) bombers were able to create the illusion of a large fleet on coastal radar screens . Beneath the chaff , small boats towed radar reflector balloons and simulated the radio traffic expected of a large fleet . Once German forces were drawn to the coast , it was planned that the RAF would attempt to contain them in this region , and away from Normandy , by bombing bridges and roads .
The operations required precise flying in elongated circuits with replacement aircraft having to merge in seamlessly to avoid tell @-@ tale gaps . The bombers were staged at 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) intervals parallel to the French coast . Once in position they would spend two and a half minutes flying toward the coast , dropping chaff at fifteen @-@ second intervals . Then the aircraft would turn and head away from the coast for two minutes and ten seconds . By repeating this circuit , the wide cloud of chaff edged toward the coast just like a real sea @-@ borne fleet . The aircraft had to be modified by cutting a hole in the nose to allow the large quantities of chaff to be dropped .
The larger of the two operations , Taxable , was carried out by 18 small boats , a mix of Harbour Defence Motor Launches ( HDML ) and RAF Pinnaces , designated Special Task Force A. Chaff was dropped by Lancaster bombers from the No. 617 " Dam Busters " Squadron . Each aircraft carried an expanded crew of up to 14 . The squadron began training for the operation on 7 May , but were not aware of their final target .
Task Force A left port in the evening of 5 June , but struggled in bad seas which affected their equipment and ability to converge at their meeting point . By 00 : 37 on 6 June the lead boats were on schedule and had reached the muster point . Between 02 : 00 and 04 : 00 the ships operated radar and radio equipment as they headed toward a point 7 miles ( 11 km ) offshore . From there the task force simulated a landing attempt ; by running fast to within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the beach before returning to the 7 @-@ mile marker under cover of smoke . During this time only a small German response was observed including searchlights and intermittent gunfire . Shortly after 05 : 00 the operation ended and the task force laid mines before heading toward Newhaven , reaching port by midday .
The air operations for Glimmer were conducted by No. 218 " Gold Coast " Squadron under Wing Commander R. M. Fenwick @-@ Wilson . The squadron , which flew Short Stirling bombers , was much smaller than No. 617 and so no relief aircraft were available . Instead each aircraft carried two pilots who rotated flying duties . The naval contingent , Special Task Force B under the command of Lieutenant Commander W. M. Rankin , consisted of 12 HDMLs equipped with jamming gear , radios and radar @-@ reflecting balloons . The task force began jamming operations at approximately 01 : 00 followed by radio chatter around an hour later .
Glimmer elicited more response from German forces than Taxable including reconnaissance planes sent to investigate the " fleet " . After completing their assignment ( which , unlike Taxable , did not include laying mines ) the ships returned to port , reaching their berths by 13 : 00 on D @-@ Day .
= = Big Drum = =
Big Drum was similar to the other D @-@ Day naval deceptions , but without an airborne component . Task Force C consisted of four HDMLs , whose job was to operate as a distraction on the western flank of the invasion . The plan originally called for the task force , which was attached to Force U ( the westernmost convoy of the invasion fleet ) , to operate radar jamming equipment as it approached the French coast , holding 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) off shore until first light . After the Germans failed to respond , the ships moved to within 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of the coast . No response , either in the air or on the shore , was observed , and the convoy returned safely to Newhaven .
= = Impact = =
Taxable , Glimmer and Big Drum were complicated in execution , requiring coordination of air and naval forces . Launched in poor weather conditions , Taxable did not appear to have the desired effect and failed to elicit any significant response from the Germans . The reaction to Glimmer was more encouraging . The attacks on the bomber squadrons indicated , at least to the satisfaction of RAF Bomber Command , that the Germans believed a genuine threat existed . There is no evidence that Big Drum elicited any specific response from the shore . According to historian Mary Barbier , the adverse conditions and complexity of the operations contributed to the limited enemy response .
From intelligence intercepts it appears that German forces in the Pas de Calais region reported an invasion fleet . In addition , there are reports of the decoys being fired on by shore batteries in that area . In an 11 June report on the operations , Lieutenant Commander Ian Cox ( who was in charge of deception units ) indicated that German forces had been convinced by the fake radio traffic . Intercepted dispatches from Hiroshi Ōshima , the Japanese ambassador to Germany , made reference to the naval deceptions . An 8 June dispatch referred to the Calais region and stated " an enemy squadron that had been operating there has now withdrawn " .
Although disappointed not to have seen any action during the night of D @-@ Day , and still unsure of their actual impact , the bomber crews felt proud of the operations . Squadron Leader Les Munro of No. 617 Squadron wrote , " I have always considered the operation in one sense to be the most important the squadron carried out in my time – not because [ of ] bad weather , nor because of any threat of enemy action and not measured by any visible results , but because of the very exacting requirements to which we had to fly and navigate " .
= Metropolitan Railway =
The Metropolitan Railway ( also known as the Met ) was a passenger and goods railway that served London from 1863 to 1933 , its main line heading north @-@ west from the capital 's financial heart in the City to what were to become the Middlesex suburbs . Its first line connected the main @-@ line railway termini at Paddington , Euston , and King 's Cross to the City . The first section was built beneath the New Road using the " cut @-@ and @-@ cover " method between Paddington and King 's Cross and in tunnel and cuttings beside Farringdon Road from King 's Cross to near Smithfield , near the City . It opened to the public on 10 January 1863 with gas @-@ lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives , the world 's first underground railway .
The line was soon extended from both ends , and northwards
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via a branch from Baker Street . It reached Hammersmith in 1864 , Richmond in 1877 and completed the Inner Circle in 1884 , but the most important route was the line north into the Middlesex countryside , where it stimulated the development of new suburbs . Harrow was reached in 1880 , and the line eventually extended to Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire , more than 50 miles ( 80 kilometres ) from Baker Street and the centre of London .
Electric traction was introduced in 1905 and by 1907 electric multiple units operated most of the services , though electrification of outlying sections did not occur until decades later . Unlike other railway companies in the London area , the Met developed land for housing , and after World War I promoted housing estates near the railway using the " Metro @-@ land " brand . On 1 July 1933 , the Met was amalgamated with the Underground Electric Railways Company of London and the capital 's tramway and bus operators to form the London Passenger Transport Board .
Former Met tracks and stations are used by the London Underground 's Metropolitan , Circle , District , Hammersmith & City , Piccadilly , and Jubilee lines , and by Chiltern Railways .
= = History = =
= = = Paddington to the City , 1853 – 63 = = =
= = = = Establishment = = = =
In the first half of the 19th century the population and physical extent of London grew greatly . The increasing resident population and the development of a commuting population arriving by train each day led to a high level of traffic congestion with huge numbers of carts , cabs , and omnibuses filling the roads and up to 200 @,@ 000 people entering the City of London , the commercial heart , each day on foot . By 1850 there were seven railway termini around the urban centre of London : London Bridge and Waterloo to the south , Shoreditch and Fenchurch Street to the east , Euston and King 's Cross to the north , and Paddington to the west . Only Fenchurch Street station was within the City .
The congested streets and the distance to the City from the stations to the north and west prompted many attempts to get parliamentary approval to build new railway lines into the City . None were successful , and the 1846 Royal Commission investigation into Metropolitan Railway Termini banned construction of new lines or stations in the built @-@ up central area . The concept of an underground railway linking the City with the mainline termini was first proposed in the 1830s . Charles Pearson , Solicitor to the City , was a leading promoter of several schemes and in 1846 proposed a central railway station to be used by multiple railway companies . The scheme was rejected by the 1846 commission , but Pearson returned to the idea in 1852 when he helped set up the City Terminus Company to build a railway from Farringdon to King 's Cross . Although the plan was supported by the City , the railway companies were not interested and the company struggled to proceed .
The Bayswater , Paddington , and Holborn Bridge Railway Company was established to connect the Great Western Railway 's ( GWR 's ) Paddington station to Pearson 's route at King 's Cross . A bill was published in November 1852 and in January 1853 the directors held their first meeting and appointed John Fowler as its engineer . After successful lobbying , the company secured parliamentary approval under the name of the " North Metropolitan Railway " in the summer of 1853 . The bill submitted by the City Terminus Company was rejected by Parliament , which meant that the North Metropolitan Railway would not be able to reach the City : to overcome this obstacle , the company took over the City Terminus Company and submitted a new bill in November 1853 . This dropped the City terminus and extended the route south from Farringdon to the General Post Office in St. Martin 's Le Grand . The route at the western end was also altered so that it connected more directly to the GWR station . Permission was also sought to connect to the London and North Western Railway ( LNWR ) at Euston and to the Great Northern Railway ( GNR ) at King 's Cross , the latter by hoists and lifts . The company 's name was also to be changed again , to Metropolitan Railway . Royal assent was granted to the North Metropolitan Railway Act on 7 August 1854 .
Construction of the railway was estimated to cost £ 1 million . Initially , with the Crimean War under way , the Met found it hard to raise the capital . While it attempted to raise the funds it presented new bills to Parliament seeking an extension of time to carry out the works . In July 1855 , an Act to make a direct connection to the GNR at King 's Cross received royal assent . The plan was modified in 1856 by the Metropolitan ( Great Northern Branch and Amendment ) Act and in 1860 by the Great Northern & Metropolitan Junction Railway Act .
Although the GWR agreed to contribute £ 175 @,@ 000 and a similar sum was promised by the GNR , sufficient funds to make a start on construction had not been raised by the end of 1857 . Costs were reduced by cutting back part of the route at the western end so that it did not connect directly to the GWR station , and by dropping the line south of Farringdon . In 1858 , Pearson arranged a deal between the Met and the City of London Corporation whereby the Met bought land it needed around the new Farringdon Road from the City for £ 179 @,@ 000 and the City purchased £ 200 @,@ 000 worth of shares . The route changes were approved by Parliament in August 1859 , meaning that the Met finally had the funding to match its obligations and construction could begin .
= = = = Construction = = = =
Despite concerns about undermining and vibrations causing subsidence of nearby buildings and compensating the thousands of people whose homes were destroyed during the digging of the tunnel construction began in March 1860 . The line was mostly built using the " cut @-@ and @-@ cover " method from Paddington to King 's Cross ; east of there it continued in a 728 yards ( 666 m ) tunnel under Mount Pleasant , Clerkenwell then followed the culverted River Fleet beside Farringdon Road in an open cutting to near the new meat market at Smithfield .
The trench was 33 feet 6 inches ( 10 @.@ 2 m ) wide , with brick retaining walls supporting an elliptical brick arch or iron girders spanning 28 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 7 m ) . The tunnels were wider at stations to accommodate the platforms . Most of the excavation work was carried out manually by navvies , although a primitive earth @-@ moving conveyor was used to remove excavated spoil from the trench .
Within the tunnel , two lines were laid with a 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) gap between . To accommodate both the standard gauge trains of the GNR and the broad gauge trains of the GWR , the track was three @-@ rail mixed gauge , the rail nearest the platforms being shared by both gauges . Signalling was on the absolute block method , using electric Spagnoletti block instruments and fixed signals .
Construction was not without incident . In May 1860 , a GNR train overshot the platform at King 's Cross and fell into the workings . Later in 1860 , a boiler explosion on an engine pulling contractor 's wagons killed the driver and his assistant . In May 1861 , the excavation collapsed at Euston causing considerable damage to the neighbouring buildings . The final accident occurred in June 1862 when the Fleet sewer burst following a heavy rainstorm and flooded the excavations . The Met and the Metropolitan Board of Works managed to stem and divert the water and the construction was delayed by only a few months .
Trial runs were carried out from November 1861 while construction was still under way . The first trip over the whole line was in May 1862 with William Gladstone among the guests . By the end of 1862 work was complete at a cost of £ 1 @.@ 3 million .
= = = = Opening = = = =
Board of Trade inspections took place in late December 1862 and early January 1863 to approve the railway for opening . After minor signalling changes were made , approval was granted and a few days of operating trials were carried out before the grand opening on 9 January 1863 , which included a ceremonial run from Paddington and a large banquet for 600 shareholders and guests at Farringdon . Charles Pearson did not live to see the completion of the project ; he died in September 1862 .
The 3 @.@ 75 @-@ mile ( 6 km ) railway opened to the public on Saturday 10 January 1863 . There were stations at Paddington ( Bishop 's Road ) ( now Paddington ) , Edgware Road , Baker Street , Portland Road ( now Great Portland Street ) , Gower Street ( now Euston Square ) , King 's Cross ( now King 's Cross St Pancras ) , and Farringdon Street ( now Farringdon ) .
The railway was hailed a success , carrying 38 @,@ 000 passengers on the opening day , using GNR trains to supplement the service . In the first 12 months 9 @.@ 5 million passengers were carried and in the second 12 months this increased to 12 million .
The original timetable allowed 18 minutes for the journey . Off @-@ peak service frequency was every 15 minutes , increased to ten minutes during the morning peak and reduced 20 minutes in the early mornings and after 8 pm . From May 1864 , workmen 's returns were offered on the 5 : 30 am and 5 : 40 am services from Paddington at the cost of a single ticket ( 3d ) .
Initially the railway was worked by GWR broad @-@ gauge Metropolitan Class steam locomotives and rolling stock . Soon after the opening disagreement arose between the Met and the GWR over the need to increase the frequency , and the GWR withdrew its stock in August 1863 . The Met continued operating a reduced service using GNR standard @-@ gauge rolling stock before purchasing its own standard @-@ gauge locomotives from Beyer , Peacock and rolling stock .
The Metropolitan initially ordered 18 tank locomotives , of which a key feature was condensing equipment which prevented most of the steam from escaping while trains were in tunnels ; they have been described as " beautiful little engines , painted green and distinguished particularly by their enormous external cylinders . " The design proved so successful that eventually 120 were built to provide traction on the Metropolitan , the District Railway ( in 1871 ) and all other ' cut and cover ' underground lines . This 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 tank engine can therefore be considered as the pioneer motive power on London 's first underground railway ; ultimately , 148 were built between 1864 and 1886 for various railways , and most kept running until electrification in 1905 .
In the belief that it would be operated by smokeless locomotives , the line had been built with little ventilation and a long tunnel between Edgware Road and King 's Cross . Initially the smoke @-@ filled stations and carriages did not deter passengers and the ventilation was later improved by making an opening in the tunnel between Gower Street and King 's Cross and removing glazing in the station roofs . With the problem continuing after the 1880s , conflict arose between the Met , who wished to make more openings in the tunnels , and the local authorities , who argued that these would frighten horses and reduce property values . This led to an 1897 Board of Trade report , which reported that a pharmacist was treating people in distress after having travelled on the railway with his ' Metropolitan Mixture ' . The report recommended more openings be authorised but the line was electrified before these were built .
= = = Extensions and the Inner Circle , 1863 – 84 = = =
= = = = Farringdon to Moorgate and the City Widened Lines = = = =
With connections to the GWR and GNR under construction and connections to the Midland Railway and London , Chatham and Dover Railway ( LC & DR ) planned , the Met obtained permission in 1861 and 1864 for two additional tracks from King 's Cross to Farringdon Street and a four @-@ track eastward extension to Moorgate . The Met used two tracks : the other two tracks , the City Widened Lines , used mainly by other railway companies .
A pair of single @-@ track tunnels at King 's Cross connecting the GNR to the Met opened on 1 October 1863 when the GNR began running services , the GWR returning the same day with through suburban trains from such places as Windsor . By early autumn 1864 the Met had sufficient carriages and locomotives to run its own trains and increase the frequency to six trains an hour .
On 1 January 1866 , LC & DR and GNR joint services from Blackfriars Bridge began operating via the Snow Hill tunnel under Smithfield market to Farringdon and northwards to the GNR . The extension to Aldersgate Street and Moorgate Street ( now Barbican and Moorgate ) had opened on 23 December 1865 and all four tracks were open on 1 March 1866 .
The new tracks from King 's Cross to Farringdon were first used by a GNR freight train on 27 January 1868 . The Midland Railway junction opened on 13 July 1868 when services ran into Moorgate Street before its St Pancras terminus had opened . The line left the main line at St Paul 's Road Junction , entering a double @-@ track tunnel and joining the Widened Lines at Midland Junction .
= = = = Hammersmith & City Railway = = = =
In November 1860 , a bill was presented to Parliament , supported by the Met and the GWR , for a railway from the GWR 's main line a mile west of Paddington to the developing suburbs of Shepherd 's Bush and Hammersmith , with a connection to the West London Railway at Latimer Road . Authorised on 22 July 1861 as the Hammersmith and City Railway ( H & CR ) , the 2 miles 35 chains ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) line , constructed on a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high viaduct largely across open fields , opened on 13 June 1864 with a broad @-@ gauge GWR service from Farringdon Street , with stations at Notting Hill ( now Ladbroke Grove ) , Shepherd 's Bush ( replaced by the current Shepherd 's Bush Market in 1914 ) and Hammersmith . The link to the West London Railway opened on 1 July that year , served by a carriage that was attached or detached at Notting Hill for Kensington ( Addison Road ) . Following an agreement between the Met and the GWR , from 1865 the Met ran a standard @-@ gauge service to Hammersmith and the GWR a broad @-@ gauge service to Kensington . In 1867 , the H & CR became jointly owned by the two companies . The GWR began running standard @-@ gauge trains and the broad gauge rail was removed from the H & CR and the Met in 1869 . In 1871 , two additional tracks parallel to the GWR between Westbourne Park and Paddington were brought into use for the H & CR and in 1878 the flat crossing at Westbourne Park was replaced by a diveunder . In August 1872 , the GWR Addison Road service was extended over the District Railway via Earl 's Court to Mansion House . This became known as the Middle Circle and ran until January 1905 , although from 1 July 1900 trains terminated at Earl 's Court . Additional stations were opened at Westbourne Park ( 1866 ) , Latimer Road ( 1868 ) , Royal Oak ( 1871 ) , Wood Lane ( 1908 ) and Goldhawk Road ( 1914 ) .
Between 1 October 1877 and 31 December 1906 some services on the H & CR were extended to Richmond over the London and South Western Railway ( L & SWR ) via its station at Hammersmith ( Grove Road ) .
= = = = Inner Circle = = = =
The early success of the Met prompted a flurry of applications to Parliament in 1863 for new railways in London , many of them competing for similar routes . To consider the best proposals , the House of Lords established a select committee , which issued a report in July 1863 with a recommendation for an " inner circuit of railway that should abut , if not actually join , nearly all of the principal railway termini in the Metropolis " . A number of railway schemes were presented for the 1864 parliamentary session that met the recommendation in varying ways and a joint committee composed of members of both Houses of Parliament was set up to review the options .
Proposals from the Met to extend south from Paddington to South Kensington and east from Moorgate to Tower Hill were accepted and received royal assent on 29 July 1864 . To complete the circuit , the committee encouraged the amalgamation of two schemes via different routes between Kensington and the City , and a combined proposal under the name Metropolitan District Railway ( commonly known as the District railway ) was agreed on the same day . Initially , the District and the Met were closely associated and it was intended that they would soon merge . The Met 's chairman and three other directors were on the board of the District , John Fowler was the engineer of both companies and the construction works for all of the extensions were let as a single contract . The District was established as a separate company to enable funds to be raised independently of the Met .
Starting as a branch from Praed Street junction , a short distance east of the Met 's Paddington station , the western extension passed through fashionable districts in Bayswater , Notting Hill , and Kensington . Land values here were higher and , unlike the original line , the route did not follow an easy alignment under existing roads . Compensation payments for property were much higher . In Leinster Gardens , Bayswater , a façade of two five @-@ storey houses was built at Nos. 23 and 24 to conceal the gap in a terrace created by the railway passing through . To ensure adequate ventilation , most of the line was in cutting except for a 421 @-@ yard ( 385 m ) tunnel under Campden Hill . Construction of the District proceeded in parallel with the work on the Met and it too passed through expensive areas . Construction costs and compensation payments were so high that the cost of the first section of the District from South Kensington to Westminster was £ 3 million , almost three times as much as the Met 's original , longer line .
The first section of the Met extension opened to Brompton ( Gloucester Road ) ( now Gloucester Road ) on 1 October 1868 , with stations at Paddington ( Praed Street ) ( now Paddington ) , Bayswater , Notting Hill Gate , and Kensington ( High Street ) ( now High Street Kensington ) . Three months later , on 24 December 1868 , the Met extended eastwards to a shared station at South Kensington and the District opened its line from there to Westminster , with other stations at Sloane Square , Victoria , St James 's Park , and Westminster Bridge ( now Westminster ) .
The District also had parliamentary permission to extend westward from Brompton and , on 12 April 1869 , it opened a single @-@ track line to West Brompton on the WLR . There were no intermediate stations and at first this service operated as a shuttle . By summer 1869 separate tracks had been laid between South Kensington and Brompton and from Kensington ( High Street ) to a junction with the line to West Brompton . During the night of 5 July 1870 the District secretly built the disputed Cromwell curve connecting Brompton and Kensington ( High Street ) .
East of Westminster , the next section of the District 's line ran in the new Victoria Embankment built by the Metropolitan Board of Works along the north bank of the River Thames . The line opened from Westminster to Blackfriars on 30 May 1870 with stations at Charing Cross ( now Embankment ) , The Temple ( now Temple ) and Blackfriars .
On its opening the Met operated the trains on the District , receiving 55 per cent of the gross receipts for a fixed level of service . Extra trains required by the District were charged for and the District 's share of
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the income dropped to about 40 per cent . The District 's level of debt meant that the merger was no longer attractive to the Met and did not proceed , so the Met 's directors resigned from the District 's board . To improve its finances , the District gave the Met notice to terminate the operating agreement . Struggling under the burden of its very high construction costs , the District was unable to continue with the remainder of the original scheme to reach Tower Hill and made a final extension of its line just one station east from Blackfriars to a previously unplanned City terminus at Mansion House .
On Saturday 1 July 1871 an opening banquet was attended by Prime Minister William Gladstone , who was also a shareholder . The following Monday , Mansion House opened and the District began running its own trains . From this date , the two companies operated a joint Inner Circle service between Mansion House and Moorgate Street via South Kensington and Edgware Road every ten minutes , supplemented by a District service every ten minutes between Mansion House and West Brompton and H & CR and GWR suburban services between Edgware Road and Moorgate Street . The permissions for the railway east of Mansion House were allowed to lapse . At the other end of the line , the District part of South Kensington station opened on 10 July 1871 and Earl 's Court station opened on the West Brompton extension on 30 October 1871 .
In 1868 and 1869 , judgements went against the Met in a number of hearings , finding financial irregularities such as the company paying a dividend it could not afford and expenses being paid out of the capital account . In 1870 , its directors were found guilty of a breach of trust and ordered to compensate the company . Although they all appealed and were allowed in 1874 to settle for a much lower amount , to restore shareholders ' confidence the directors had all been replaced by October 1872 and Edward Watkin appointed chairman . Watkin was an experienced railwayman and already on the board of several railway companies , including the South Eastern Railway ( SER ) , and had an aspiration to construct a line from the north through London to that railway .
Due to the cost of land purchases , the Met 's eastward extension from Moorgate Street was slow to progress and it had to obtain an extension of the Act 's time limit in 1869 . The extension was begun in 1873 , but after construction exposed burials in the vault of a Roman Catholic chapel , the contractor reported that it was difficult to keep the men at work . The first section opened to the Great Eastern Railway 's ( GER 's ) recently opened terminus at Liverpool Street on 1 February 1875 . For a short time , while the Met 's station was being built , services ran into the GER station via a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ chain ( 70 m ) curve , the Met opening its station later that year on 12 July and this curve not being used again by regular traffic . During the extension of the railway to Aldgate several hundred cartloads of bullocks ' horn were discovered in a layer 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) below the surface . A terminus opened at Aldgate on 18 November 1876 , initially for a shuttle service to Bishopsgate before all Met and District trains worked through from 4 December .
Conflict between the Met and the District and the expense of construction delayed further progress on the completion of the inner circle . In 1874 , frustrated City financiers formed the Metropolitan Inner Circle Completion Railway Company with the aim of finishing the route . This company was supported by the District and obtained parliamentary authority on 7 August 1874 . The company struggled to raise the funding and an extension of time was granted in 1876 . A meeting between the Met and the District was held in 1877 with the Met now wishing to access the SER via the East London Railway ( ELR ) . Both companies promoted and obtained an Act of Parliament in 1879 for the extension and link to the ELR , the Act also ensuring future co @-@ operation by allowing both companies access to the whole circle . A large contribution was made by authorities for substantial road and sewer improvements . In 1882 , the Met extended its line from Aldgate to a temporary station at Tower of London . Two contracts to build joint lines were placed , from Mansion House to the Tower in 1882 and from the circle north of Aldgate to Whitechapel with a curve onto the ELR in 1883 . From 1 October 1884 , the District and the Met began working trains from St Mary 's via this curve onto the ELR to the SER 's New Cross station . After an official opening ceremony on 17 September and trial running a circular service started on Monday 6 October 1884 . On the same day the Met extended some H & CR services over the ELR to New Cross , calling at new joint stations at Aldgate East and St Mary 's . Joint stations opened on the circle line at Cannon Street , Eastcheap ( Monument from 1 November 1884 ) and Mark Lane . The Met 's Tower of London station closed on 12 October 1884 after the District refused to sell tickets to the station . Initially , the service was eight trains an hour , completing the 13 miles ( 21 kilometres ) circle in 81 – 84 minutes , but this proved impossible to maintain and was reduced to six trains an hour with a 70 @-@ minute timing in 1885 . Guards were permitted no relief breaks during their shift until September 1885 , when they were permitted three 20 @-@ minute breaks .
= = = Extension Line , 1868 – 99 = = =
= = = = Baker Street to Harrow = = = =
In April 1868 , the Metropolitan & St John 's Wood Railway ( M & SJWR ) opened a single @-@ track railway in tunnel to Swiss Cottage from new platforms at Baker Street ( called Baker Street East ) . There were intermediate stations at St John 's Wood Road and Marlborough Road , both with crossing loops , and the line was worked by the Met with a train every 20 minutes . A junction was built with the Inner Circle at Baker Street , but there were no through trains after 1869 .
The original intention of the Metropolitan & St. John 's Wood Railway was to run to underground north @-@ east to Hampstead Village , and indeed this appeared on some maps . Although in the event this was not completed in full and the line was built in a north @-@ western direction instead , a short heading of tunnel was built north of Swiss Cottage station in the direction of Hampstead . This is still visible today when traveling on a southbound Metropolitan line service .
In the early 1870s , passenger numbers were low and the M & SJWR was looking to extend the line to generate new traffic . Recently placed in charge of the Met , Watkin saw this as the priority as the cost of construction would be lower than in built @-@ up areas and fares higher ; traffic would also be fed into the Circle . In 1873 , the M & SJWR was given authority to reach the Middlesex countryside at Neasden , but as the nearest inhabited place to Neasden was Harrow it was decided to build the line 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) further to Harrow and permission was granted in 1874 . To serve the Royal Agricultural Society 's 1879 show at Kilburn , a single line to West Hampstead opened on 30 June 1879 with a temporary platform at Finchley Road . Double track and a full service to Willesden Green started on 24 November 1879 with a station at Kilburn & Brondesbury ( now Kilburn ) . The line was extended 5 miles 37 @.@ 5 chains ( 8 @.@ 80 km ) to Harrow , the service from Baker Street beginning on 2 August 1880 . The intermediate station at Kingsbury Neasden ( now Neasden ) was opened the same day . Two years later , the single @-@ track tunnel between Baker Street and Swiss Cottage was duplicated and the M & SJWR was absorbed by the Met .
In 1882 , the Met moved its carriage works from Edgware Road to Neasden . A locomotive works was opened in 1883 and a gas works in 1884 . To accommodate employees moving from London over 100 cottages and ten shops were built for rent . In 1883 , a school room and church took over two of the shops ; two years later land was given to the Wesleyan Church for a church building and a school for 200 children .
= = = = Harrow to Verney Junction and Brill = = = =
In 1868 , the Duke of Buckingham opened the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway ( A & BR ) , a 12 @.@ 75 @-@ mile ( 20 @.@ 5 km ) single track from Aylesbury to a new station at Verney Junction on the Buckinghamshire Railway 's Bletchley to Oxford line . At the beginning lukewarm support had been given by the LNWR , which worked the Bletchley to Oxford line , but by the time the line had been built the relationship between the two companies had collapsed . The Wycombe Railway built a single @-@ track railway from Princes Risborough to Aylesbury and when the GWR took over this company it ran shuttles from Princes Risborough through Aylesbury to Quainton Road and from Quainton Road to Verney Junction .
The A & BR had authority for a southern extension to Rickmansworth , connecting with the LNWR 's Watford and Rickmansworth Railway . Following discussions between the Duke and Watkin it was agreed that this line would be extended south to meet the Met at Harrow and permission for this extension was granted in 1874 and Watkin joined the board of the A & BR in 1875 . Money was not found for this scheme and the Met had to return to Parliament in 1880 and 1881 to obtain permission for a railway from Harrow to Aylesbury . Pinner was reached in 1885 and an hourly service from Rickmansworth and Northwood to Baker Street started on 1 September 1887 . By then raising money was becoming very difficult although there was local support for a station at Chesham . Authorised in 1885 , double track from Rickmansworth was laid for 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) , then single to Chesham . Services to Chesham calling at Chorley Wood and Chalfont Road ( now Chalfont & Latimer ) started on 8 July 1889 .
The Met took over the A & BR on 1 July 1891 and a temporary platform at Aylesbury opened on 1 September 1892 with trains calling at Amersham , Great Missenden , Wendover and Stoke Mandeville . In 1894 , the Met and GWR joint station at Aylesbury opened . Beyond Aylesbury to Verney Junction , the bridges were not strong enough for the Met 's locomotives . The GWR refused to help , so locomotives were borrowed from the LNWR until two D Class locomotives were bought . The line was upgraded , doubled and the stations rebuilt to main @-@ line standards , allowing a through Baker Street to Verney Junction service from 1 January 1897 , calling at a new station at Waddesdon Manor , a rebuilt Quainton Road , Granborough Road and Winslow Road .
From Quainton Road , the Duke of Buckingham had built a 6 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) branch railway , the Brill Tramway . In 1899 , there were four mixed passenger and goods trains each way between Brill and Quainton Road . There were suggestions of the Met buying the line and it took over operations in November 1899 , renting the line for £ 600 a year . The track was relaid and stations rebuilt in 1903 . Passenger services were provided by A Class and D Class locomotives and Oldbury rigid eight @-@ wheeled carriages .
In 1893 , a new station at Wembley Park was opened , initially used by the Old Westminsters Football Club , but primarily to serve a planned sports , leisure and exhibition centre . A 1 @,@ 159 @-@ foot ( 353 m ) tower ( higher than the recently built Eiffel Tower ) was planned , but the attraction was not a success and only the 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) tall first stage was built . The tower became known as " Watkin 's Folly " and was dismantled in 1907 after it was found to be tilting .
Around 1900 , there were six stopping trains an hour between Willesden Green and Baker Street . One of these came from Rickmansworth and another from Harrow , the rest started at Willesden Green . There was also a train every two hours from Verney Junction , which stopped at all stations to Harrow , then Willesden Green and Baker Street . The timetable was arranged so that the fast train would leave Willesden Green just before a stopping service and arrived at Baker Street just behind the previous service .
= = = = Great Central Railway = = = =
Watkin was also director of the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway ( MS & LR ) and had plans for a 99 @-@ mile ( 159 km ) London extension to join the Met just north of Aylesbury . There were suggestions that Baker Street could be used as the London terminus , but by 1891 – 2 the MS & LR had concluded it needed its own station and goods facilities in the Marylebone area . An Act for this railway was passed in 1893 , but Watkin became ill and resigned his directorships in 1894 . For a while after his departure the relationship between the companies turned sour .
In 1895 , the MS & LR put forward a bill to Parliament to build two tracks from Wembley Park to Canfield Place , near Finchley Road station , to allow its express trains to pass the Met 's stopping service . The Met protested before it was agreed that it would build the lines for the MS & LR 's exclusive use . When rebuilding bridges over the lines from Wembley Park to Harrow for the MS & LR , seeing a future need the Met quadrupled the line at the same time and the MS & LR requested exclusive use of two tracks . The MS & LR had the necessary authority to connect to the Circle at Marylebone , but the Met suggested onerous terms . At the time the MS & LR was running short of money and abandoned the link .
Because of the state of the relationship between the two companies the MS & LR was unhappy being wholly reliant on the Met for access to London and , unlike its railway to the north , south of Aylesbury there were several speed restrictions and long climbs , up to 1 in 90 in places . In 1898 , the MS & LR and the GWR jointly presented a bill to Parliament for a railway ( the Great Western and Great Central Joint Railway ) with short connecting branches from Grendon Underwood , north of Quainton Road , to Ashendon and from Northolt to Neasden . The Met protested , claiming that the bill was ' incompatible with the spirit and terms ' of the agreements between it and the MS & LR . The MS & LR was given authority to proceed , but the Met was given the right to compensation . A temporary agreement was made to allow four MS & LR coal trains a day over the Met lines from 26 July 1898 . The MS & LR wished these trains to also use the GWR route from Aylesbury via Princes Risborough into London , whereas the Met considered this was not covered by the agreement . A train scheduled to use the GWR route was not allowed access to the Met lines at Quainton Road in the early hours of 30 July 1898 and returned north . A subsequent court hearing found in the Met 's favour , as it was a temporary arrangement .
The MS & LR changed its name to the Great Central Railway ( GCR ) in 1897 and the Great Central Main Line from London Marylebone to Manchester Central opened for passenger traffic on 15 March 1899 . Negotiations about the line between the GCR and the Met took several years and in 1906 it was agreed that two tracks from Canfield Place to Harrow would be leased to the GCR for £ 20 @,@ 000 a year and the Metropolitan and Great Central Joint Railway was created , leasing the line from Harrow to Verney Junction and the Brill branch for £ 44 @,@ 000 a year , the GCR guaranteeing to place at least £ 45 @,@ 000 of traffic on the line . Aylesbury station , which had been jointly run by the GWR and the Met , was placed with a joint committee of the Great Western & Great Central and Metropolitan & Great Central Joint Committees , and generally known as Aylesbury Joint Station . The Met & GC Joint Committee took over the operation of the stations and line , but had no rolling stock . The Met provided the management and the GCR the accounts for the first five years before the companies switched functions , then alternating every five years until 1926 . The Met maintained the line south of milepost 28 @.@ 5 ( south of Great Missenden ) , the GCR to the north .
= = = Electrification , 1900 – 14 = = =
= = = = Development = = = =
At the start of the 20th century , the District and the Met saw increased competition in central London from the new electric deep @-@ level tube lines . With the opening in 1900 of the Central London Railway from Shepherd 's Bush to the City with a flat fare of 2d , the District and the Met together lost four million passengers between the second half of 1899 and the second half of 1900 . The polluted atmosphere in the tunnels was becoming increasingly unpopular with passengers and conversion to electric traction was seen as the way forward . Electrification had been considered by the Met as early as the 1880s , but such a method of tracton was still in its infancy , and agreement would be needed with the District because of the shared ownership of the Inner Circle . A jointly owned train of six coaches ran an experimental passenger service on the Earl 's Court to High Street Kensington section for six months in 1900 . This was considered a success , tenders were requested and in 1901 a Met and District joint committee recommended the Ganz three @-@ phase AC system with overhead wires . This was accepted by both parties until the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) took control of the District . The UERL was led by the American Charles Yerkes , whose experience in the United States led him to favour DC with a third rail similar to that on the City & South London Railway and Central London Railway . After arbitration by the Board of Trade a DC system with four rails was taken up and the railways began electrifying using multiple @-@ unit stock and electric locomotives hauling carriages . In 1904 , the Met opened a 10 @.@ 5 MW coal @-@ fired power station at Neasden , which supplied 11 kV 33 @.@ 3 Hz current to five substations that converted this to 600 V DC using rotary converters .
Meanwhile , the District had been building a line from Ealing to South Harrow and had authority for an extension to Uxbridge . In 1899 , the District had problems raising the finance and the Met offered a rescue package whereby it would build a branch from Harrow to Rayners Lane and take over the line to Uxbridge , with the District retaining running rights for up to three trains an hour . The necessary Act was passed in 1899 and construction on the 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) long branch started in September 1902 , requiring 28 bridges and a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long viaduct with 71 arches at Harrow . As this line was under construction it was included in the list of lines to be electrified , together with the railway from Baker Street to Harrow , the inner circle and the joint GWR and Met H & C. The Met opened the line to Uxbridge on 30 June 1904 with one intermediate station at Ruislip , initially worked by steam . Wooden platforms the length of three cars opened at Ickenham on 25 September 1905 , followed by similar simple structures at Eastcote and Rayners Lane on 26 May 1906 .
= = = = Running electric trains = = = =
Electric multiple units began running on 1 January 1905 and by 20 March all local services between Baker Street and Harrow were electric . The use of six @-@ car trains was considered wasteful on the lightly used line to Uxbridge and in running an off @-@ peak three @-@ car shuttle to Harrow the Met aroused the displeasure of the Board of Trade for using a motor car to propel two trailers . A short steam train was used for off @-@ peak services from the end of March while some trailers were modified to add a driving cab , entering service from 1 June .
On 1 July 1905 , the Met and the District both introduced electric units on the inner circle until later that day a Met multiple unit overturned the positive current rail on the District and the Met service was withdrawn . An incompatibility was found between the way the shoe @-@ gear was mounted on Met trains and the District track and Met trains were withdrawn from the District and modified . Full electric service started on 24 September , reducing the travel time around the circle from 70 to 50 minutes .
The GWR built a 6 MW power station at Park Royal and electrified the line between Paddington and Hammersmith and the branch from Latimer Road to Kensington ( Addison Road ) . An electric service with jointly owned rolling stock started on the H & CR on 5 November 1906 . In the same year , the Met suspended running on the East London Railway , terminating instead at the District station at Whitechapel until that line was electrified in 1913 . The H & CR service stopped running to Richmond over the L & SWR on 31 December 1906 , although GWR steam rail motors ran from Ladbroke Grove to Richmond until 31 December 1910 .
The line beyond Harrow was not electrified so trains were hauled by an electric locomotive from Baker Street , changed for a steam locomotive en route . From 1 January 1907 , the exchange took place at Wembley Park . From 19 July 1908 , locomotives were changed at Harrow . GWR rush hour services to the city continued to operate , electric traction taking over from steam at Paddington from January 1907 , although freight services to Smithfield continued to be steam hauled throughout .
In 1908 , Robert Selbie was appointed General Manager , a position he held until 1930 . In 1909 , limited through services to the City restarted . Baker Street station was rebuilt with four tracks and two island platforms in 1912 . To cope with the rise in traffic the line south of Harrow was quadrupled , in 1913 from Finchley Road to Kilburn , in 1915 to Wembley Park . However , the line from Finchley Road to Baker Street remained double track , causing a bottleneck .
= = = = London Underground = = = =
To promote travel by the underground railways in London a joint marketing arrangement was agreed . In 1908 , the Met joined this scheme , which included maps , joint publicity and through ticketing . UNDERGROUND signs were used outside stations in Central London . Eventually the UERL controlled all the underground railways except the Met and the Waterloo & City and introduced station name boards with a red disc and a blue bar . The Met responded with station boards with a red diamond and a blue bar . Further coordination in the form of a General Managers ' Conference faltered after Selbie withdrew in 1911 when the Central London Railway , without any reference to the conference , set its season ticket prices significantly lower than those on the Met 's competitive routes . Suggestions of merger with the Underground Group were rejected by Selbie , a press release of November 1912 noting the Met 's interests in areas outside London , its relationships with main @-@ line railways and its freight business .
= = = = East London Railway = = = =
After the Met and the District had withdrawn from the ELR in 1906 , services were provided by the South Eastern Railway , the London , Brighton , and South Coast Railway ( LB & SCR ) and the Great Eastern Railway . Both the Met and the District wanted to see the line electrified , but could not justify the whole cost themselves . Discussions continued , and in 1911 it was agreed that the ELR would be electrified with the UERL providing power and the Met the train service . Parliamentary powers were obtained in 1912 and through services restarted on 31 March 1913 , the Met running two trains an hour from both the SER 's and the LB & SCR 's New Cross stations to South Kensington and eight shuttles an hour alternately from the New Cross stations to Shoreditch .
= = = = Great Northern & City Railway = = = =
The Great Northern & City Railway ( GN & CR ) was planned to allow trains to run from the GNR line at Finsbury Park directly into the City at Moorgate . The tunnels were large enough to take a main @-@ line train with an internal diameter of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) , in contrast to those of the Central London Railway with a diameter less than 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . The GNR eventually opposed the scheme , and the line opened in 1904 with the northern terminus in tunnels underneath GNR Finsbury Park station .
Concerned that the GNR would divert its Moorgate services over the City Widened Lines to run via the GN & CR , the Met sought to take over the GN & CR . A bill was presented in 1912 – 13 to allow this with extensions to join the GN & CR to the inner circle between Moorgate and Liverpool Street and to the Waterloo & City line . The takeover was authorised , but the new railway works were removed from the bill after opposition from City property owners . The following year , a bill was jointly presented by the Met and GNR with amended plans that would have also allowed a connection between the GN & CR and GNR at Finsbury Park . Opposed , this time by the North London Railway , this bill was withdrawn .
= = = War and " Metro @-@ land " , 1914 – 32 = = =
= = = = World War I = = = =
On 28 July 1914 World War I broke out and on 5 August 1914 the Met was made subject to government control in the form of the Railway Executive Committee . It lost significant numbers of staff who volunteered for military service and from 1915 women were employed as booking clerks and ticket collectors . The City Widened Lines assumed major strategic importance as a link between the channel ports and the main lines to the north , used by troop movements and freight . During the four years of war the line saw 26 @,@ 047 military trains which carried 250 @,@ 000 long tons ( 254 @,@ 000 t ) of materials , although the sharp curves prevented ambulance trains returning with wounded using this route . Government control was relinquished on 15 August 1921 .
= = = = Metro @-@ land development = = = =
Unlike other railway companies , which were required to dispose of surplus land , the Met was in a privileged position with clauses in its acts allowing it to retain such land that it believed was necessary for future railway use . Initially , the surplus land was managed by the Land Committee , made up of Met directors . In the 1880s , at the same time as the railway was extending beyond Swiss Cottage and building the workers ' estate at Neasden , roads and sewers were built at Willesden Park Estate and the land was sold to builders . Similar developments followed at Cecil Park , near Pinner and , after the failure of the tower at Wembley , plots were sold at Wembley Park .
In 1912 , Selbie , then General Manager , thought that some professionalism was needed and suggested a company be formed to take over from the Surplus Lands Committee to develop estates near the railway . However , World War I delayed these plans and it was 1919 , with expectation of a housing boom , before the Metropolitan Railway Country Estates Limited ( MRCE ) was formed . Concerned that Parliament might reconsider the unique position the Met held , the railway company sought legal advice , which was that although the Met had authority to hold land , it had none to develop it . An independent company was created , although all but one of its directors were also directors of the Met . The MRCE developed estates at Kingsbury Garden Village near Neasden , Wembley Park , Cecil Park and Grange Estate at Pinner , and the Cedars Estate at Rickmansworth , and created places such as Harrow Garden Village .
The term Metro @-@ land was coined by the Met 's marketing department in 1915 when the Guide to the Extension Line became the Metro @-@ land guide , priced at 1d . This promoted the land served by the Met for the walker , visitor and later the house @-@ hunter . Published annually until 1932 , the last full year of independence , the guide extolled the benefits of " The good air of the Chilterns " , using language such as " Each lover of Metroland may well have his own favourite wood beech and coppice — all tremulous green loveliness in Spring and russet and gold in October " . The dream promoted was of a modern home in beautiful countryside with a fast railway service to central London .
From about 1914 the company promoted itself as " The Met " , but after 1920 the commercial manager , John Wardle , ensured that timetables and other publicity material used " Metro " instead . Land development also occurred in central London when in 1929 Chiltern court , a large , luxurious block of apartments , opened at Baker Street , designed by the Met 's architect Charles Walter Clark , who was also responsible for the design of a number of station reconstructions in outer " Metro @-@ land " at this time .
= = = = Infrastructure improvements = = = =
To improve outer passenger services , powerful 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) H Class steam locomotives were introduced in 1920 , followed in 1922 – 23 by new electric locomotives with a top speed of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . The generating capacity of the power station at Neasden was increased to approximately 35 MW and on 5 January 1925 electric services reached Rickmansworth , allowing the locomotive change over point to be moved .
In 1924 and 1925 , the British Empire Exhibition was held on the Wembley Park Estate and the adjacent Wembley Park station was rebuilt with a new island platform with a covered bridge linking to the exhibition . The Met exhibited an electric multiple unit car in 1924 , which returned the following year with electric locomotive No. 15 , subsequently to be named " Wembley 1924 " . A national sports arena , Wembley Stadium was built on the site of Watkin 's Tower . With a capacity of 125 @,@ 000 spectators it was first used for the FA Cup Final on 28 April 1923 where the match was preceded by chaotic scenes as crowds in excess of capacity surged into the stadium . In the 1926 Metro @-@ land edition , the Met boasted that that had carried 152 @,@ 000 passengers to Wembley Park on that day .
In 1925 , a branch opened from Rickmansworth to Watford . Although there had been a railway station in Watford since 1837 , in 1895 the Watford Tradesmen 's Association had approached the Met with a proposal for a line to Watford via Stanmore . They approached again in 1904 , this time jointly with the local District Council , to discuss a new plan for a shorter branch from Rickmansworth . A possible route was surveyed in 1906 and a bill deposited in 1912 seeking authority for a joint Met & GCR line from Rickmansworth to Watford town centre that would cross Cassiobury Park on an embankment . There was local opposition to the embankment and the line was cut back to a station with goods facilities just short of the park . The amended Act was passed on 7 August 1912 and the Watford Joint Committee formed before the start of World War I in 1914 delayed construction . After the war , the 1921 Trade Facilities Act offered government financial guarantees for capital projects that promoted employment , and taking advantage of this construction started in 1922 . During construction the Railways Act 1921 meant that in 1923 the London and North Eastern Railway ( LNER ) replaced the GCR . Where the branch met the extension line two junctions were built , allowing trains access to Rickmansworth and London . Services started on 3 November 1925 with one intermediate station at Croxley Green ( now Croxley ) , with services provided by Met electric multiple units to Liverpool Street via Moor Park and Baker Street and by LNER steam trains to Marylebone . The Met also ran a shuttle service between Watford and Rickmansworth . During 1924 – 5 the flat junction north of Harrow was replaced with a 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) long diveunder to separate Uxbridge and main @-@ line trains . Another attempt was made in 1927 to extend the Watford branch across Cassiobury Park to the town centre , the Met purchasing a property on Watford High Street with the intention of converting it to a station . However , the proposals for tunnelling under the park proved controversial and the scheme was dropped .
There remained a bottleneck at Finchley Road where the fast and slow tracks converged into one pair for the original M & SJWR tunnels to Baker Street . In 1925 , a plan was developed for
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km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 134 officers and men , although it increased to 142 during wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Blanche had two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on a platform between her funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Career = =
The ship was ordered on 4 March 1929 from Hawthorn Leslie of Hebburn , under the 1928 Naval Programme . She was laid down on 29 July 1929 , and launched on 29 May 1930 , as the tenth RN ship to carry this name . Blanche was completed on 14 February 1931 at a cost of £ 225 @,@ 195 , excluding items supplied by the Admiralty such as guns , ammunition and communications equipment . After her commissioning , she was assigned to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet until 1936 . The ship was refitted that year and reassigned , with her flotilla , to Home Fleet , after its completion . Blanche spent six months deployed off the southern Spanish coast during the Spanish Civil War , based in Gibraltar . She was attacked by five Nationalist bombers on 6 March 1938 , but they all missed . The ship received a brief overhaul at Portsmouth between 1 April and 11 June 1938 and was then assigned to the anti @-@ submarine flotilla based at the Isle of Portland . During the Munich Crisis , Blanche was one of the destroyers that escorted the ocean liner RMS Aquitania and the battleship HMS Revenge in the English Channel on 30 September . She was given a more thorough refit in Sheerness Dockyard between 1 April and 15 July 1939 and became the emergency destroyer at the Nore upon its completion .
Blanche was assigned to the 19th Destroyer Flotilla when World War II began and spent the next two months escorting convoys and patrolling in the Channel and North Sea . The ship and her sister Basilisk were escorting the minelayer Adventure on the morning of 13 November in the Thames Estuary when they entered a minefield laid the night before by several German destroyers . Adventure and Blanche both struck mines ; the latter lost all power and capsized at 0950 . One man was killed and twelve more were wounded . She was the first British destroyer sunk by the Germans during the war .
= Central African Republic women 's national football team =
The Central African Republic women 's national football team represents the Central African Republic ( CAR ) in women 's international football competitions . The team has not played any international matches to date , but the country 's youth national team has played in several matches and events , including an Under @-@ 19 World Cup qualifying competition in which the team lost in the semi @-@ finals . As is the case across Africa , the women 's game faces numerous challenges . Football was only formally organised in 2000 , and there are only 400 players competing at the national level .
= = Women 's World Cup record = =
1991 to 2003 - Did not enter
2007 - Withdrew
2011 to 2015 - Did not enter
= = African Women 's Championship = =
1991 to 2004 - Did not enter
2006 - Withdrew
2008 to 2014 - Did not enter
= = Team = =
In 1985 , only a few countries had women 's national football teams , and the Central African Republic was no exception . In 2006 , the team trained five times a week .
As of March 2012 , the team was not ranked by FIFA due to it not having played any international matches .
The country has a national under @-@ 20 side . This team has participated in the qualifying competition for the FIFA U @-@ 20 Women 's World Cup , which prior to 2006 was an under @-@ 19 tournament in which the CAR team also took part . In 2002 , the qualifiers began with an African Women 's Under @-@ 19 Championship . The CAR faced Equatorial Guinea in a home @-@ and @-@ away series in the first round , winning both matches by scores of 1 – 0 and 2 – 0 . The country was set to play Zimbabwe in the quarterfinals , but Zimbabwe withdrew from the competition . In the semi @-@ finals , the CAR met South Africa in a home match , but lost 0 – 2 . The team was scheduled to play a return match in South Africa , but the host country refused to grant the Central African players visas , which led to South Africa 's disqualification from the tournament . South Africa appealed the decision and visas were subsequently issued to Central African players , but the team then withdrew from the competition . In 2010 , the Central African Republic women 's national under @-@ 20 football team participated in the African Women 's U @-@ 20 World Cup qualifiers . They had a walkover win against São Tomé and Príncipe in the first round but did participate in the second or third rounds .
= = Background and development = =
The development of women 's football in Africa faces several challenges , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women , inequalities and human rights abuses targeting women . Many quality players leave the country seeking greater opportunity in Europe or the United States . In addition , most of the funding for women 's football in Africa comes from FIFA , not the local national football associations .
The Fédération Centrafricaine de Football , the CAR 's national football association , was founded in 1961 and became a FIFA affiliate in 1964 . In the CAR , there is no national association staffer dedicated to women 's football and no women on the board or in the executive committee . With assistance from FIFA , the federation developed a women 's programme starting in 2000 . A national competition and school competition were later introduced . Football is one of the most popular women 's sports in the CAR . There were about 200 registered youth players in the country and 200 registered senior players as of 2006 . There are 80 club @-@ level teams with women on them , 20 of which are exclusively for women .
= 1962 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1962 Pacific hurricane season was a moderately active Pacific hurricane season that included two hurricane landfalls . The 1962 Pacific hurricane season officially started on May 15 , 1962 in the eastern Pacific and June 1 , 1962 in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility and lasted until November 30 , 1962 in both regions . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean .
The first of two hurricane landfalls , Hurricane Valerie , struck northwestern Mexico in June . The other , Hurricane Doreen , hit further to the north of Valerie in October . The most impacting storm of the season was Tropical Storm Claudia , after its remnants dropped heavy rainfall in portions of Arizona . The rainfall left damaging flooding across rivers and towns . No people were killed , but damage totaled to $ 11 million ( 1962 USD ) . Moreover , Tropical Storm Bernie also made landfall along the Baja California peninsula , later providing rain to Arizona . An unusually high number of storms threatened the Palmyra Atoll , where only 1 % of known Pacific tropical cyclones have threatened . In all , a total of 16 storms were observed , which was above average though only two ( Valerie and Doreen ) reached hurricane intensity .
= = Seasonal summary = =
With 16 named storms , the season was above the 1949 @-@ 2006 average of 13 named storms and was the most active season ever recorded that that time ; however , this record was broken in the 1968 Pacific hurricane season , which saw 18 storms . Despite the activity , only two hurricane were observed and no major hurricanes ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ) were noted . These totals are well below their long @-@ term averages of seven and three respectively . This season was part of a decade @-@ long absence of major hurricanes ; during the 1960s , only one major hurricane was observed and none were noted from 1960 @-@ 66 . However , it is possible that some storms were missed due to the lack of satellite coverage in the region ; at that time , satellite data was still scarce , and 1962 is still four years shy of the start of the geostationary satellite era , which began in 1966 . Moreover , the Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) was in the midst of a cold phase during this time period , which has a tendency to suppress Pacific hurricane activity . During the season , tropical cyclone advisories were issued by the Naval Fleet Warning Central ( NFWC ) in Alameda , which held responsibility for the basin until 1970 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Valerie = = =
The first tropical cyclone of the season – Hurricane Valerie – was first observed on June 24 , about 245 mi ( 400 km ) west of Acapulco , Guerrero . It moved northwestward along the coast , producing high seas and strong winds in southwestern Mexico . Valerie was estimated to have attained peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . It turned to the northeast and struck near Mazatlán on June 25 , dissipating early the next day .
= = = Tropical Storm Willa = = =
On July 8 , Tropical Storm Willa developed south of the Baja California peninsula . It maintained a west @-@ northwestward track throughout its duration , remaining a minimal tropical storm . On July 10 , the storm dissipated .
= = = Tropical Storm Ava = = =
In the middle of August , a tropical storm formed off the southwest coast of Mexico . Given the name Ava , it tracked to the northwest before turning more to the north . It dissipated on August 20 .
= = = Unnamed August tropical storm = = =
As the previous storm was dissipating , another tropical storm developed to its west . Lasting only two days , it dissipated on August 22 about halfway between Hawaii and the west coast of Mexico .
= = = Hurricane " C " = = =
On August 24 , satellite imagery indicated a hurricane with a defined eye was located over the central Pacific Ocean . It slowly weakened as it moved over lukewarm waters , and deteriorated more rapidly after wind shear increased . By August 28 , the system consisted of a circulation with only weak associated convection . It weakened to a tropical depression on August 30 , although it remained a tropical cyclone until September 2 . At that time it was last observed about 200 mi ( 320 km ) south of Hilo , Hawaii .
= = = Tropical Storm Bernice = = =
A tropical storm named Bernice developed on September 2 west of Jalisco . After moving northwestward for two days , the storm turned to the north , striking Baja California on September 6 before dissipating . The remnants of the storm later brought moderate rain to Arizona .
= = = Tropical Storm Claudia = = =
Later in the month , another storm similar to Bernice existed . Tropical Storm Claudia formed on September 20 to the southwest of Acapulco . It maintained a general northwest movement for its duration . On September 23 , Claudia crossed over the western portion of the Baja California peninsula , moved over water , and again struck the peninsula before dissipating .
The remnant moisture caused severe flash floods in the vicinity of Tucson , with 5 to 7 inches ( 130 to 180 mm ) of precipitation falling over the headwaters of the washes of Santa Rosa , Jackrabbit , and Brawley during a 14- to 15 @-@ hour period . Over 7 inches ( 180 mm ) of rainfall also fell near the Arizona @-@ Sonora Desert Museum . The ensuing flood of the Santa Cruz River and its tributaries produced a path of destruction about 100 miles ( 160 km ) long and up to 8 miles ( 13 km ) wide . Santa Rosa Wash conveyed 53 @,@ 100 cubic feet per second ( 1 @,@ 500 m3 / s ) at its peak ; Los Robles Wash carried up to 32 @,@ 600 cu ft / s ( 920 m3 / s ) , while the Santa Cruz River proper peaked at 9 @,@ 200 cu ft / s ( 260 m3 / s ) . The washes and rivers reached depths of up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) , and overflowed its banks in places by 1 to 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 1 @.@ 83 m ) . Flooding from the storm inundated the towns of Marana and Sells , both in Pima County . Helicopters rescued 27 families from Fort Huachuca . There was one indirect death related to the flooding , due to an ambulance not being able to reach an elderly woman . The flooding also killed many cattle , and damage in Pima and Pinal counties exceeded $ 11 million ( 1962 USD ) , much of it from crop damage . The flooding prompted a disaster declaration by former governor Paul Fannin , which provided funds for the affected people .
= = = Unnamed September tropical storm = = =
On September 26 , a tropical storm developed off the southwest coast of Mexico . The storm moved to the west @-@ northwest for several days , dissipating on September 30 .
= = = September and October Central Pacific tropical cyclones = = =
In September and October , satellite imagery indicated that there were five tropical storms in the central Pacific Ocean . The first , designated Tropical Storm " R " , passed about 200 mi ( 320 km ) north of Palmyra Island on September 28 . It represented about 1 % of storms in the basin to directly affect the island , after it produced westerly winds there . Tropical Storm " T " existed on September 29 without affecting land . Similarly , Tropical Storm " X " existed on October 2 over open Pacific waters . The next day , Tropical Storm " Z " passed near Johnston Island during the Operation Dominic I and II nuclear tests , although no impact was reported . Lastly , satellite imagery indicated Tropical Storm " A " on October 27 to the northeast of Palmyra Island
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= = = Hurricane Doreen = = =
The last storm of the season was Hurricane Doreen , which formed on October 1 off the southwest Mexican coast . It moved northwestward before curving to the north , although later it turned again to the northwest . Doreen was estimated to have attained peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . On October 4 , Doreen made its closest approach to the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula as it began a motion to the northeast . Later that day , the hurricane moved over southern Sonora before dissipating on October 5 . Hurricane Doreen was responsible for light rainfall in the U.S. states of Arizona , New Mexico , and West Texas .
= = = Tropical depressions = = =
There were two non @-@ developing tropical depressions during the season .
Surface observations and satellite imagery indicated the formation of a tropical depression about 275 mi ( 443 km ) north of Palmyra Island on July 29 . It moved west @-@ northwestward without developing further , and eventually dissipated on August 2 over the central Pacific .
On August 31 , the Joint Hurricane Warning Center named a tropical depression in the Central Pacific basin as Tropical Depression 63 , following the West Pacific 's numbering . The advisories were discontinued 275 nautical miles ( 509 km ) from the South Point of Big Island , where it was no longer considered a threat to shipping lanes or any land masses .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1962 . No names were retired from this list . This is a part of list 1 and list 2 , which was used from 1960 @-@ 1965 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= LGBT themes in Hindu mythology =
LGBT themes in Hindu mythology involve Hindu deities or heroes whose attributes or behavior can be interpreted as lesbian , gay , bisexual or transgender ( LGBT ) , or as having elements of gender variance and non @-@ heterosexual sexuality . Traditional Hindu literary sources do not speak of homosexuality directly , but changes of sex , homoerotic encounters , and intersex or third gender characters are often found both in traditional religious narratives such as the Vedas , Mahabharata , Ramayana and Puranas as well as in regional folklore .
Hindu mythology has many examples of deities changing gender , manifesting as different genders at different times , or combining to form androgynous or hermaphroditic beings . Gods change sex or manifest as an Avatar of the opposite sex in order to facilitate sexual congress . Non @-@ divine beings also undergo sex @-@ changes through the actions of the gods , as the result of curses or blessings , or as the natural outcome of reincarnation .
Hindu mythology contains numerous incidents where sexual interactions serve a non @-@ sexual , sacred purpose ; in some cases , these are same @-@ sex interactions . Sometimes the gods condemn these interactions but at other times they occur with their blessing .
In addition to stories of gender and sexual variance that are generally accepted by mainstream Hinduism , modern scholars and queer activists have highlighted LGBT themes in lesser known texts , or inferred them from stories that traditionally are considered to have no homoerotic subtext . Such analyses have caused disagreements about the true meaning of the ancient stories .
= = Gender variance of deities = =
Many deities in Hinduism and Indian mythology are represented as both male and female at different times and in different incarnations or may manifest with characteristics of both genders at once , such as Ardhanarishvara , created by the merging of the god Shiva and his consort Parvati . The name Ardhanarishvara means " The Lord whose half is a woman " . This form of Shiva represents the " totality that lies beyond duality " , and is associated with communication between mortals and gods and between men and women . Alain Danielou says that " The hermaphrodite , the homosexual and the transvestite have a symbolic value and are considered privileged beings , images of the Ardhararishvara . " . A similar merger occurs between the beauty and prosperity goddess Lakshmi and her husband Vishnu , forming the hermaphrotitic or androgynous Lakshmi @-@ Narayana .
In the Bhagavata Purana , Vishnu takes the form of the enchantress , Mohini , in order to trick the demons into giving up Amrita , the elixir of life . Shiva later becomes attracted to Mohini and spills his semen on the rocks which turn into gold . In the Brahmanda Purana , Shiva 's wife Parvati " hangs her head in shame " when she sees her husband 's pursuit of Mohini . In some stories Shiva asks Vishnu to take on the Mohini form again so he can see the actual transformation for himself . Stories in which Shiva knows of Mohini 's true nature have been interpreted to " suggest the fluidity of gender in sexual attraction " .
Pattanik writes that those focusing only on homoeroticism miss the narrative 's deeper metaphysical significance : Mohini 's femininity represents the material aspect of reality , and Mohini 's seduction is another attempt to induce Shiva into taking an interest in worldly matters . He cites another story to show that only Vishnu has the power to " enchant " Shiva : a demon tries to kill Shiva by taking the form of a woman ( placing sharp teeth in " his " vagina ) . Shiva recognizes the impostor and kills the demon by the placing a " thunderbolt " on his " manhood " during their act of " lovemaking " .
In the later , Puranic story of the origin of God Ayyappa , Vishnu as Mohini becomes pregnant from Shiva , and gives birth to Ayyappa , who he @-@ she abandons in shame . Pattanaik writes that rather than Mohini becoming pregnant , Ayyappa sprang from Shiva 's semen , which he ejaculated upon embracing Mohini . In another version , the Pandyan king Rajasekhara of Pantalam adopts the baby . In this version , Ayyappa is referred to as ayoni jata , " not born from a vagina " , and later Hariharaputra , " the son of Vishnu and Shiva " , and grows up to be a great hero .
According to Tamil versions of the Mahabharata , the god Krishna – an incarnation of Vishnu – also took the form of Mohini and married Aravan . This was in order to give Aravan the chance to experience love before his death , as he had volunteered to be sacrificed . Krishna remained in mourning in the Mohini form for some time after Aravan 's death . This marriage and death of Aravan are commemorated annually in a rite known as Thali , during which Hijra ( Indian " third gender " ) take on the role of Krishna @-@ Mohini and " marry " Aravan in a mass @-@ wedding , followed by an 18 @-@ day festival . The festival ends with a ritual burial of Aravan , while the Hirjas mourn in Tamil style : by beating their chests in ritual dances , breaking their bangles and changing into white mourning clothes .
= = Gender variance in heroes = =
Changes of sex and cross @-@ dressing also occur in myths about non @-@ divine figures . One such figure is Shikhandi , a character in the Mahabharata . He was originally born as a girl named ' Shikhandini ' to Drupada , the king of Panchala . In a previous lifetime , Shikandini was a woman named Amba , who was rendered unmarriageable by the hero Bhishma . Humiliated , Amba undertook great austerities , and the gods granted her wish to be the cause of Bhishma 's death . Amba was then reborn as Shikhandini . A divine voice told Drupada to raise Shikhandini as a son ; so Drupada raised her like a man , trained her in warfare and arranged for her to marry a female . On the wedding night , Shikhandini 's wife discovered that her " husband " was female , and insulted her . Shikhandini fled , but met a yaksha who exchanged his sex with her . Shikhandini returned as a man with the name ' Shikhandi ' and led a happy married life with his wife and children . During the Kurukshetra war , Bhishma recognised him as Amba reborn and refused to fight ' a woman ' . Accordingly , Arjuna hid behind Shikhandi in order to defeat the almost invincible Bhishma . In the Javanese telling , Srikandi ( as she is known ) never becomes a man , but is a woman equal to men , and is the wife of Arjuna . After his death , Shikhandi 's masculinity was transferred back to the yaksha .
Arjuna himself is an example of gender variance . When Arjuna refused her amorous advances , the nymph Urvashi cursed Arjuna ; he would become a " kliba , " a member of the third gender . Krishna assured Arjuna that this curse would serve as the perfect disguise for Arjuna during his last year of exile . Arjuna took the name Brihannala and dressed in women 's clothes , causing the curse to take effect . Thus Arjuna gained entry into the city ruled by king Virata , where he taught the arts of music , singing and dancing to the princess Uttarā and her female attendees . Doniger describes Arjuna 's cross @-@ dressing disguise as a source of comedy in the story , with references to his " hairy arms " . In the Padma Purana , Arjuna is also physically transformed into a woman when he requests permission to take part in Krishna 's mystical dance , which only women may attend .
The story of Ila , a king cursed by Shiva and Parvati to be a man one month and a woman the next , appears in several traditional Hindu texts . After changing sex , Ila loses the memory of being the other gender . During one such period , Ila marries Budha ( the god of the planet Mercury ) . Although Budha knows of Ila 's alternating gender , he doesn 't enlighten the ' male ' Ila , who remains unaware of his life as a woman . The two live together as man and wife only when Ila is female
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. In the Ramayana version , Ila bears Budha a son , although in the Mahabharata Ila is called both mother and father of the child . After this birth the curse is lifted and Ila is totally changed into a man who goes on to father several children with his wife .
= = Patrons of LGBT and third sex people = =
Numerous deities have been considered patrons of third @-@ sex or homoerotically @-@ inclined people . This patronage can originate in mythological stories about the deity , or from religious practices and rituals . For example , Conner and Sparks argue that the goddess of fire , love and sexuality , Arani , has been linked to lesbian eroticism via rituals in her honor : for example two pieces of wood perceived as feminine , called the adhararani and utararani , are rubbed together , simulating a spiritual lesbian interaction .
Bahuchara Mata is a patron goddess of the Hirja . In popular iconography she is often shown riding a rooster and carrying a sword , trident and a book . Various stories link Bahuchara to castration or other changes in physical sexual characteristics , sometimes as the result of her aiming curses against men . Bahuchara is believed to have originated as a mortal woman who became martyred . In one story , Bahuchara is attacked by a bandit who attempts to rape her , but she takes his sword , cuts off her breasts and dies . In another story , Bahuchara curses her husband when she catches him sneaking to the woods to engage in homoerotic behavior , causing his genitals to fall off and forcing him to dress as a woman .
Stories also link Bahuchara to gender variance after she becomes divine . One myth concerns a king who prayed to Bahuchara for a son . Bahuchara complied , but the prince grew up to be impotent . One night Bahuchara appeared to the prince in a dream and ordered him to cut off his genitals , wear women 's clothes and become her servant . Bahuchara is believed to continue to identify impotent men and command them to do the same . If they refuse , she punishes them : for their next seven incarnations they will be impotent . This myth is the origin of the cult of Bahuchara Mata , whose devotees are required to self @-@ castrate and remain celibate .
Samba , the son of Krishna , is also a patron of eunuchs , transgender people and homoeroticism . Samba dresses in women 's clothes to mock and trick people , and so that he can more easily enter the company of women and seduce them . In the Mausala Purana , Samba , dressed as woman , is cursed after being questioned about " her " supposed pregnancy . As a result of the curse , Samba , although remaining male , gives birth to an iron pestle and mortar .
= = Same @-@ sex sexual interactions = =
Homosexual or bisexual activity also occurs between gods , although such interactions are most usually considered purely ritualistic , or have purposes other than sexual pleasure . Agni , the god of fire , wealth and creative energy , has same @-@ sex sexual encounters that involve accepting semen from other gods . Although married to the goddess Svaha , Agni is also shown as being part of a same @-@ sex couple with Soma , the god of the moon . Agni takes a receptive role in this relationship , accepting semen from Soma with his mouth , paralleling Agni 's role in accepting sacrifices from Earth to Heaven . Orthodox Hinduism emphasises that these are " mithuna " , ritual sexual encounters , and Agni and his mouth represent the feminine role .
Agni also accepts semen in myths of the conception and birth of Karttikeya , a god of male beauty and battle . Numerous versions of Karttikeya 's birth story exist , many having a conception from only male input , although heterosexual sex or desire also plays a part . However , Parvati is credited as Karttikeya 's mother due to her having sexual intercourse with Shiva , causing him to ejaculate . Ganga is Karttikeya 's mother in other versions , accepting semen from Agni and carrying the unborn child . The male progenitor is sometimes Shiva , Agni , or a combination of the two . In the Shiva Purana and the Ramayana , the gods fear the outcome of Shiva and Parvati 's " unending embrace , " and interrupt their coitus . Shiva then appears before the gods and declares " now let him step forward who will accept the semen I discharge " . At the prompting of the gods , Agni captures Shiva 's semen in his hands and swallows it . In these stories , Parvati and Shiva condemn Agni 's actions , calling them " wicked " or " improper . " In the eleventh century text Kathasaritsagara , however , Shiva forces the reluctant Agni to receive his semen . The semen causes a burning sensation in those that ingest it , prompting Agni to divest it into wives of a group of sages , under Shiva 's advice . The sages ' wives in turn drop the semen into the Ganges river ( the Ganga ) , where it flows to the shore from which Kārttikeya springs . In the Mahabharata , Kārttikeya is also the son of Agni , who ejaculates into the hands of one of the Krittikas ( the Pleiades ) , who in turn throws the semen into a lake , from whence Kārttikeya is born . In some myths , Agni ejaculates onto a mountain that was itself made from Shiva 's divine semen , making Kārttikeya the child of the two gods , according to an interpretation by Markandeya in the Vana Parva .
Mitra and Varuna , are gods of great intimacy and often mentioned together in Vedic literature . These Adityas preside over the universal waters wherein Mitra controls the ocean depths and lower portals while Varuna rules over the ocean ’ s upper regions , rivers and shorelines .
In Vedic literature , Mitra and Varuna are portrayed as icons of affection and intimate friendship between males ( the Sanskrit word mitra means “ friend ” or “ companion ” ) . They are depicted riding a shark or crocodile together while bearing tridents , ropes , conch shells and water pots . Sometimes they are portrayed seated side @-@ by @-@ side on a golden chariot drawn by seven swans . Ancient Brahmana texts furthermore associate Mitra and Varuna with the two lunar phases and same @-@ sex relations : “ Mitra and Varuna , on the other hand , are the two half @-@ moons : the waxing one is Varuna and the waning one is Mitra . During the new @-@ moon night these two meet and when they are thus together they are pleased with a cake offering . Verily , all are pleased and all is obtained by any person knowing this . On that same night , Mitra implants his seed in Varuna and when the moon later wanes , that waning is produced from his seed . ” ( Shatapatha Brahmana 2 @.@ 4 @.@ 4 @.@ 19 ) Varuna is similarly said to implant his seed in Mitra on the full @-@ moon night for the purpose of securing its future waxing . In Hinduism , the new- and full @-@ moon nights are discouraged times for procreation and consequently often associated with citrarata or unusual types of intercourse .
The Bhagavata Purana ( 6 @.@ 18 @.@ 3 @-@ 6 ) lists Varuna and Mitra as having children through ayoni or non @-@ vaginal sex . For example , Varuna fathered the sage Valmiki when his semen fell upon a termite mound , and Agastya and Vasistha were born from water pots after Mitra and Varuna discharged their semen in the presence of Urvasi . This account is similar to Gay couples having children through surrogate mothers in modern days .
Some versions of the Bengali text Krittivasa Ramayana contain a story of two queens that conceived a child together . When the famous king of the Sun Dynasty , Maharaja Dilipa , died , the demigods become concerned that he did not have an heir . Shiva appeared before the king 's two widowed queens and commanded , " You two make love together and by my blessings you will bear a beautiful son . " The two queens execute Shiva 's order and one of them conceived a child . The child was born boneless , but by the blessings of the sage Ashtavakra , the child was restored to full health . Ashtavakra named the child " Bhagiratha " – he who was born from two vulvas ( bhaga ) . Bhagiratha later became one of the most famous kings of India and is credited with bringing the Ganges River down to earth through his austerities .
The elephant @-@ headed , wisdom god Ganesha 's conception has numerous versions . Some sources consider him to be the progeny of Shiva and Parvati , although conception occurs outside the womb . However , most versions consider him to have been produced purely through the actions of Parvati , who in the Shiva Purana fashioned him from clay to protect her from Shiva 's advances while she was bathing . However , when Ganesha blocks Shiva , he is beheaded and later restored to life by Shiva . In a 13th @-@ century Kashmiri text , Jayadratha 's Haracaritacintamani , Ganesha 's birth is the result of Parvati 's menstrual blood being washed into the Ganges , where they are swallowed by Parvati 's elephant @-@ headed handmaiden Malini , who in turn gives birth , giving Ganesha an all @-@ female origin . Courtright considers the birth to be " less auspicious " due to the lack of male input and use of bodily fluids such as sweat or menstrual blood , but Ruth Vanita points out that Hindus consider Ganesha 's birth auspicious , and that the use of non @-@ procreative bodily fluids is considered sacred and purifying in many Hindu rituals .
= = Sangam literature = =
Sangam literature use the word ‘ Pedi ’ to refer to people born with Intersex condition , it also refers to antharlinga hijras and various types of Hirja . Likewise , the famous sangam period characters of King Koperunchozhan and Pisuranthaiyar are another example for same sex love . They are said to have not seen each other at
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all and yet shared love and regard for each other , so much , that they die at the same time at different places . “ For instance , the friendship between King Pari and poet Kabilar is shown as something more than just friendship . There are lyrical undertones suggestive of the intimate relationship they had . But since there are no explicit representation , one can only postulate a possibility .
= = Critical analysis = =
Hindu traditional literary sources say little about homosexuality directly . Homoeroticism in traditional texts is often masked by adherence to strict gender and caste rules . Critical study is further hampered by the lack of Sanskrit words for modern conceptions ( such as homosexuality ) , although words for specific same @-@ sex sexual acts exist . Timothy Murphy writes that LGBT themes are often ignored by " heterosexist scholars " , and even early investigations into sexual minorities in Hindu culture failed to analyse stories or artwork depicting same @-@ sex sexual acts between mythological beings . Murphy describes the study of LGBT topics in Hindu culture as " still in their infancy " .
Goldman writes of transsexualism in Hindu literature : " Few cultures have accorded this phenomenon so prominent a place in the realms of mythology and religion as has that of traditional India . " Goldman considers the numerous myths concerning gender change to be a manifestation of patriarchal cultures desire to control the sexuality of women , but writes that many myths " project a positive valuation of women and femininity " . Changes in gender may be caused by a god or through the use of magic , in order to deceive others or to facilitate a romantic encounter . A change in gender may also occur spontaneously due to changes in a person 's spiritual or moral character , either in a single life , or through reincarnation .
According to the Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions , queer theorists and activists have reinterpreted ancient texts " searching for alternative voices " that demonstrate the diversity of gender models and sexualities in Hinduism . These scholars include Gita Thadani , who attempted to uncover lesbian subtext in ancient Vedic and Sanskrit texts in Sakhiyani : lesbian desire in ancient and modern India , and Ruth Vanita , who attempts " to locate spaces of same @-@ sex intimacy in vernacular texts " in Same @-@ sex love in India : readings from literature and history .
Some LGBT interpretations of popular stories and characters have been controversial . Ganeśa : Lord of obstacles , Lord of beginnings , applied psychoanalytic approaches to Hindu stories . The book stated that Ganesha 's trunk represented a flaccid penis and his love of sweets indicated a desire to perform homosexual oral sex . The deductions of this book , and similar application of psychoanalysis to the study of Hinduism , has been questioned by Western and Indian academics including Antonio De Nicholas , Krishnan Ramaswamy , S.N.Balagangadhara , Saraha Claerhout , who have stated that the book is based on mistranslations and psychoanalytic misinterpretations . The book became infamous in India , triggering protests and resulting in a public apology from the publishers and withdrawal of the book in India .
The scholarship of Wendy Doniger , which focuses on interpretation of Hindu texts through psychoanalysis , is similarly controversial and has been criticised . Doniger has been described as " being rude , crude and very lewd in the hallowed portals of Sanskrit Academics . " Doniger 's works that feature LGBT interpretations of Hindu myths include the books Siva : The Erotic Ascetic , Tales of Sex and Violence , and Splitting the difference : gender and myth in ancient Greece and India . Michael Witzel , a Professor of Sanskrit , said that Wendy Doniger 's knowledge of Vedic Sanskrit is severely flawed . Nicholas Kazanas , a European Indologist , has also criticised Doniger 's works and wrote that Doniger seems to be obsessed with only one meaning of myths : the most sexual imaginable .
= = = General = = =
Conner , Randy P. ; Sparks , David Hatfield ; Sparks , Mariya ( 1998 ) . Cassell 's Encyclopedia of Queer Myth , Symbol and Spirit . UK : Cassell . ISBN 0 @-@ 304 @-@ 70423 @-@ 7 .
Courtright , Paul B. ( 1989 ) . Ganesa : Lord of Obstacles , Lord of Beginnings . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 505742 @-@ 3 .
Das Wilhelm , Amara . Tritiya @-@ Prakriti : People of the Third Sex . 2006 : Xlibris Corporation . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4134 @-@ 6420 @-@ 7 .
Doniger , Wendy ( 1999 ) . Splitting the difference : gender and myth in ancient Greece and India ( Volumes 1996 – 1997 of Jordan lectures in comparative religion ) . University of Chicago Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 15641 @-@ 5 .
Doniger O 'Flaherty , Wendy ( 1987 ) . Tales of sex and violence : folklore , sacrifice , and danger in the Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa . Motilal Banarsidass . ISBN 978 @-@ 81 @-@ 208 @-@ 0267 @-@ 4 .
Goldman , Robert P. ( July – Sept 1993 ) . " Transsexualism , gender , and anxiety in traditional India " . The Journal of the American Oriental Society ( The American Oriental Society ) .
Greenberg , Yudit Kornberg ( 2007 ) . Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions . ABC @-@ CLIO . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 85109 @-@ 980 @-@ 1 .
Murphy , Timothy F. ( 2000 ) . Reader 's guide to lesbian and gay studies . Taylor & Francis . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57958 @-@ 142 @-@ 8 .
Pattanaik , Devdutt ( 2001 ) . The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore . Routledge . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56023 @-@ 181 @-@ 3 .
Penczak , Christopher ( 2003 ) . Gay Witchcraft : Empowering the Tribe . Weiser . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57863 @-@ 281 @-@ 7 .
Thadani , Giti ( 1996 ) . Sakhiyani : lesbian desire in ancient and modern India . Cassell . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 304 @-@ 33452 @-@ 0 .
Vanita , Ruth ; Kidwai , Saleem ( 2001 ) . Same @-@ sex love in India : readings from literature and history . Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 29324 @-@ 6 .
Wilhelm , Amara Das ( 2004 ) . Hindu Deities and the Third Sex .
= Sunshine Days =
" Sunshine Days " is the eighteenth and penultimate episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and the series ' 200th episode overall . It originally aired on the Fox network on May 12 , 2002 . The entry was written and directed by executive producer Vince Gilligan . The episode is a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology , or overarching fictional history , of The X @-@ Files . " Sunshine Days " earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 2 , was viewed by 6 @.@ 5 million households , and 10 @.@ 4 million viewers in its initial broadcast . It received mixed reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , Doggett , Reyes , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and Scully stumble on to a bizarre murder case where the main suspect is a man with an unusual obsession for The Brady Bunch . Despite their initial differences — both in investigative style and love of The Brady Bunch — the four of them soon learn that the man 's telekinetic ability is the ultimate , undeniable proof of an X @-@ File .
The episode marked Gilligan 's second directorial effort , after season seven 's " Je Souhaite " . The Brady Bunch house set featured in the episode was completely rebuilt . According to Anderson , people came " from all over Los Angeles " to get their pictures taken on the set . In addition , it contained several elaborate effects . " Sunshine Days " was the final " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " entry in the series ; the series finale , " The Truth " would deal with the series ' overarching alien colonization mythology .
= = Plot = =
In Van Nuys , California , two men in their early twenties named Blake and Mike ( Tyson Turrou and David Faustino ) sneak into a house that Blake claims was where the comedy television series The Brady Bunch was filmed . Inside , they find a perfect recreation of the house from the series ; Mike , unsettled , gets worried and leaves , but Blake plods on . Blake is subsequently sent hurtling through the air and smashes into Mike 's car , killing Blake .
John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) are called in to investigate . They interview Mike , who claims that Blake died after visiting " The Brady Bunch House " . The three speak to the owner , Oliver Martin ( Michael Emerson ) , but upon entering discover that the house looks nothing like the one featured in the teaser . Doggett , feeling something is not right , checks Martin 's trashcan and finds asphalt shingles ; earlier , on top of Mike 's car , Doggett had found a piece of a shingle . He deduces that Blake was thrown through Martin 's roof . Later that night , Mike looks into Martin 's house and sees the whole Brady family eating dinner . He storms into the house , only to find that the family has disappeared . Suddenly , he is confronted by Martin , who tells him to leave . Mike refuses , and is thrown through the roof , only to be embedded in the yard .
Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) looks through various X @-@ Files and discovers one about a young boy named Anthony Fogelman who possessed psychokinesis . She learns that Fogelman later changed his name to Oliver Martin . She meets with Dr. John Rietz ( John Aylward ) , a parapsychologist who worked with the young Fogelman . Rietz claims that , despite being extremely lonely , Martin was not dangerous and that his power faded as he grew up . Reyes makes the connection that Fogelman changed his name to Oliver based on Cousin Oliver from The Brady Bunch . Scully notes that , in the show , Oliver was portrayed as a " jinx " , and the three agents deduce that Fogelman must see himself as one , too .
Doggett and Reitz decide to talk to Fogelman . Initially , he is apprehensive and nearly sends Doggett hurtling through the roof . It is revealed that Fogelman 's powers are temperamental and sometimes he cannot control them , such as the case with Mike and Blake . Reyes and Scully show up and convince him that his powers could positively impact the world . The agents take him to Washington , D.C. and demonstrate his powers to Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) by making him float in midair . Suddenly , however , Fogelman collapses . Scully later reports that his body is destroying itself because of his extreme power . Doggett realizes that Fogelman must stop using his powers ; he notes that his power had faded earlier when Dr. Rietz was studying him as a boy . Doggett tells Rietz that his power faded because , with Rietz around , Fogelman did not feel lonely . Rietz visits Fogelman in the hospital , and the two rekindle their friendship , saving Fogelman 's life . Scully laments the fact that there may not be any vindication for the X @-@ Files , but that cases like Fogelman 's might show that there is proof of " more important things . "
= = Production = =
" Sunshine Days " was written and directed by executive producer Vince Gilligan . The episode marked Gilligan 's second directorial effort , after season seven 's " Je Souhaite " . Gilligan called the episode his " goodbye to the audience , and goodbye to the characters " because he realized that " would be the last time I 'd ever be writing from them . " Furthermore , " Sunshine Days " was the final " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " entry in the series ; the show 's finale , " The Truth " would deal with the series ' overarching alien colonization mythology .
The elaborate The Brady Bunch house set featured in the episode was built completely by the production crew , according to series co @-@ star Gillian Anderson . She recounts the fact that , due to the original set having been long ago disassembled , people came " from all over Los Angeles " to get their pictures taken on the set . Anderson , who was a fan of popular sitcoms made by Sherwood Schwartz , like Gilligan 's Island and The Brady Bunch , called the experience " wild " . The scene wherein Fogelman 's house turns into an outside field was created via the technique of Chroma Keying . A shot of both The Brady Bunch house and an outside field were filmed . Then , the actors were filmed against a blue screen . A matte of the scenes were then cut and the scenes were composited against each other . Due to the fact that the shot was an extended scene , Paul Rabwin later noted that the effects were " a little tricky " to get right ; Rabwin noted that the shots ' mattes had to cover the " little strands of hair " on Anderson 's head , because missing the strands is what " gives [ the effect ] away " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Sunshine Days " originally aired on the Fox network on May 12 , 2002 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on March 16 , 2003 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 5 million households and by 10 @.@ 4 million viewers . " Sunshine Days " earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 2 , meaning that roughly 6 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , were tuned in to the episode . It was the forty @-@ sixth most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending May 12 . Fox promoted the episode with the promise that it was the " most bizarre " episode of The X @-@ Files to ever have been shown .
Critical reception to " Sunshine Days " was mixed . Aaron Kinney from Salon magazine was critical of the producers ' idea to air the entry as the penultimate episode leading up to the heavily @-@ promoted series finale . Kinney pointed out that the episode had little to do with the show 's overarching storyline , but it was nevertheless touted as part of The X @-@ Files " Endgame " promotion strategy . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it a " C " grade . She sarcastically wrote , " nine years of mytharc to start to wrap up . And so the penultimate episode of The X @-@ Files , naturally , is devoted to The Brady Bunch . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two noted that the episode " is not one of Gilligan 's very best stories " , citing issues with its tone and its characterization of Oliver Martin . The two , however , did praise Gilligan 's humanized style , writing , " he gives Scully the proof of the paranormal she 's been needing " but shows that the most important " things to care about in life " are " humans " . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it a 7 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this was a pleasant yet bittersweet episode , one that leaves the characters in relative peace . It is the first time that we get a glimpse of what the writers are thinking as the series comes to a close . Now all that 's left is the mythology , which I can only hope will end on a similarly pleasant note . " M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , said that " the central story falls a bit flat " , but the episode worked well as a " paean to medium of television itself " and he felt it was an appropriate vehicle for the series ' penultimate installment .
= Southern Cross Expedition =
The Southern Cross Expedition , officially known as the British Antarctic Expedition 1898 – 1900 , was the first British venture of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration , and the forerunner of the more celebrated journeys of Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton . The brainchild of the Norwegian @-@ born , half @-@ British explorer and schoolmaster Carsten Borchgrevink , it was the first expedition to over @-@ winter on the Antarctic mainland , the first to visit the Great Ice Barrier since James Clark Ross 's expedition of 1839 to 1843 , and the first to effect a landing on the Barrier 's surface . It also pioneered the use of dogs and sledges in Antarctic travel .
The expedition was privately financed by the British magazine publisher Sir George Newnes . Borchgrevink 's party sailed in the ship Southern Cross , and spent the southern winter of 1899 at Cape Adare , the northwest extremity of the Ross Sea coastline . Here they carried out an extensive programme of scientific observations , although opportunities for inland exploration were severely restricted by the mountainous and glaciated terrain surrounding the base . In January 1900 the party left Cape Adare in Southern Cross to explore the Ross Sea , following the route taken by Ross sixty years earlier . They reached the Great Ice Barrier , where a team of three made the first sledge journey on the Barrier surface , during which a new Farthest South record latitude was established at 78 ° 50 ′ S.
On its return to England the expedition was coolly received by London 's geographical establishment which was resentful of the pre @-@ emption of a role they envisaged for their own National Antarctic ( Discovery ) Expedition . There were also questions about Borchgrevink 's leadership qualities , and criticism of the limited amounts of scientific information which the expedition provided . Despite the groundbreaking achievements in Antarctic survival and travel , Borchgrevink was never accorded the heroic status of Scott or Shackleton , and his expedition was soon forgotten in the dramas which surrounded these and other Heroic Age explorers . However , Roald Amundsen , conqueror of the South Pole in 1911 , acknowledged that Borchgrevink 's expedition had removed the greatest obstacles to Antarctic travel , and had opened the way for all the expeditions that followed .
= = Background = =
Born in Oslo in 1864 to a Norwegian father and an English mother , Carsten Borchgrevink emigrated to Australia in 1888 , where he worked on survey teams in the interior before accepting a provincial schoolteaching appointment in New South Wales . In 1894 he joined a commercial expedition , led by Henryk Bull in the whaler Antarctic , which penetrated Antarctic waters and reached Cape Adare , the western portal to the Ross Sea . A party including Bull and Borchgrevink briefly landed there and claimed to be the first men to set foot on the Antarctic continent — although the American sealer John Davis believed he had landed on the Antarctic Peninsula in 1821 . They also visited Possession Island in the Ross Sea , leaving a message in a tin box as proof of their journey . Borchgrevink was convinced that the Cape Adare location , with its huge penguin rookery providing a ready supply of fresh food and blubber , could serve as a base at which a future expedition could overwinter and subsequently explore the Antarctic interior .
Determined that he would lead such an expedition himself , after his return from Cape Adare Borchgrevink spent much of the next three years attempting to gain financial backing in Australia and England . Despite some encouragement from the Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) , whose International Congress he addressed in 1895 , he was initially unsuccessful . The RGS was harbouring plans of its own for a large @-@ scale National Antarctic Expedition ( which eventually transpired as the Discovery Expedition 1901 – 04 ) and was in search of funds ; Borchgrevink was regarded by RGS president Sir Clements Markham as a foreign interloper and a rival for funding . However , Borchgrevink eventually managed to persuade publisher Sir George Newnes ( whose business rival Alfred Harmsworth was backing the RGS venture ) to meet the full cost of his expedition , some £ 40 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 4 @,@ 018 @,@ 400 in 2016 ) . This gift infuriated Markham and the RGS , since Newnes 's donation , had it come their way , would have been enough " to get the National Expedition on its legs " .
Newnes stipulated that Borchgrevink 's expedition must sail under the British flag , and be styled the British Antarctic Expedition . Borchgrevink readily agreed to this , even though only two of the entire expedition party were British . This increased the hostility and contempt of Markham , who chastised RGS librarian Hugh Robert Mill for attending the Southern Cross Expedition launch . There , Mill had toasted the success of the expedition in stirring terms , calling it " a reproach to human enterprise " that there were parts of the earth that man had never attempted to reach . He hoped that this reproach would be lifted through " the munificence of Sir George Newnes and the courage of Mr Borchgrevink " .
= = Organisation = =
= = = Expedition objectives = = =
Borchgrevink 's expedition objectives comprised commercial , scientific and geographical goals . He considered forming a company to exploit the extensive guano deposits that he had observed during his 1894 – 95 voyage , but this came to nothing . In numerous addresses to scientific societies , he stressed the extent of work that could be carried out by a resident expedition , including the possibility of establishing the location of the South Magnetic Pole . The team of scientists that Borchgrevink appointed , though inexperienced , covered a wide range of disciplines — magnetism , meteorology , biology , zoology , taxidermy and cartography . Borchgrevink also hoped that the expedition 's scientific achievements could be matched by spectacular geographical discoveries and journeys , even perhaps an attempt on the geographical South Pole itself . With no knowledge of the continent 's geography , he was unaware that the
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using a vocoder on the verses to imitate another person . Musically " Juxtapozed with U " has echoes of Philadelphia soul and the " plastic soul " of David Bowie 's album Young Americans and was inspired by the Paul McCartney and Stevie Wonder track " Ebony and Ivory " . Rhys has claimed that he sees " Juxtapozed with U " as " fairly subversive " because its polished pop style was in stark contrast to the " macho " guitar music the band felt was prevalent in 2001 .
Critical reaction to the track was generally positive with some reviewers describing it as the band 's best single to date . A promotional music video was produced to accompany " Juxtapozed with U " ' s release as a single . Directed by Dawn of the New Assembly / H5 the video features a computer generated women and man seen as thermal images . The couple drive around New York and attend a party on the top floor of a skyscraper which is enveloped in flames towards the end of the track . An alternative video , directed by Fukme 99 , was included on the DVD version of Rings Around the World . This video features three people walking through the streets of Hammersmith , dressed in cardboard costumes as a camcorder , clapperboard and microphone . The characters meet up with a fourth person wearing a large cardboard head and arms and then dance with several other people dressed in cardboard outside a group of warehouse . The DVD version of Rings Around the World also includes two remixes of " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " by Lesser and the Super Furry Animals themselves .
= = Themes and recording = =
" Juxtapozed with U " was inspired by the Paul McCartney and Stevie Wonder track " Ebony and Ivory " as well as the work of Marvin Gaye and Caetano Veloso . The track was originally conceived as a duet , with the band approaching both Brian Harvey from East 17 , and Bobby Brown to sing alongside Gruff Rhys . Both turned the band down so Rhys sang the verses through a vocoder to imitate another person , something which he has described as a " very schizophrenic thing to do " . Rhys has claimed his lyrics address social injustice and are about " house prices going up , and people being left behind by the super rich " . The song has echoes of the Philadelphia soul music of the 1970s as well as David Bowie 's " plastic " approximation of the sound on his 1975 album Young Americans . The group tried to make the song as " plastic " as possible : " if we 'd tried to make it sound authentic , it would have been awful . " According to Rhys the band were keen to challenge people 's opinions of them with the track which is a " shocking song , because you can 't shock with loud guitars any more " and , as a polished uplifting pop song , is " fairly subversive " when contrasted with the macho guitar music which the band felt was prevalent in 2001 . The track was recorded in 2000 at Monnow Valley Studio , Rockfield , Monmouthshire and was produced by the Super Furry Animals and Chris Shaw .
= = Musical structure = =
" Juxtapozed with U " is 3 minutes 8 seconds long and is in the key of A major . The track begins with a drum fill , featuring flanging , before a harp , strings , acoustic guitar and bass join at 2 seconds . An electric guitar joins at 13 seconds playing a melody line . The song breaks down at 25 seconds for the first verse with just bass , drums , acoustic guitar and occasional synthesizer accompanying Gruff Rhys 's vocals which are fed through a vocoder . The first chorus begins at 47 seconds with the strings and harp re @-@ entering while Rhys sings the words " You 've got to tolerate all those people that you hate , I 'm not in love with you but I won 't hold that against you " twice without the use of a vocoder . The song breaks down again for the second verse after which the second chorus enters at 1 minute 33 seconds . The outro begins at 1 minute 58 seconds with Rhys singing " Let 's get juxtaposed , juxtaposed , just suppose I 'm juxtaposed with you " supported by harmony backing vocals . The rest of the band continue singing these words while Rhys begins singing the chorus lyrics , starting at 2 minutes 43 seconds . The track ends with Rhys singing the words " Let 's get juxtaposed " backed only by harmony vocals .
= = = Alternative versions = = =
Two remixes of " Juxtapozed with U " are included on the DVD version of Rings Around The World . The first , by the Super Furry Animals themselves , is 3 minutes 23 seconds in length and largely follows the arrangement of the original with lengthy instrumental passages between each verse and chorus . Electronic drums and keyboards play alongside Gruff Rhys 's vocals with barely any recognisable instrumentation from the version of the track which appears on Rings Around the World . The second remix by Lesser is 3 minutes 22 seconds long and begins with a short sample of Rhys singing the words " All the people that you hate " before breaking down to finger clicking and clapping . Rhys 's vocals enter again , singing the title phrase , before samples of the original 's string section and drums enter at 1 minute 11 seconds . The rest of the track continues with Rhys 's vocals backed by disjointed drum and string samples , breaking down towards the end to just the lead vocals and a harp . The remix ends with Rhys singing the line " Til someone stole my name " a cappella .
= = Critical response = =
" Juxtapozed with U " received a generally positive response from critics . Drowned in Sound described the track as the Super Furry Animals ' best single to date and stated that " its one of those songs which you will undoubtedly find yourself singing along to it as if you 've heard it a million times before , its that catchy " while Allmusic saw the track as an example of the band 's " exceptional songwriting " . The NME gave the song their " Single of the week " award on its release , calling it " a total surprise and an absolute delight " , going on to claim that " Juxtapozed with U " is " genius " and shows the band " going pop with grace , style and total conviction . " Both Pitchfork Media and the Dallas Observer likened the song to Philadelphia soul music and The Guardian described it as a " string @-@ laden soul ballad with the sort of treated robot vocal Daft Punk are fond of " . Uncut described the track as a " delirious soul pastiche " and suggested Rhys 's lyrics make a " wry plea for understanding between races and classes " while PopMatters claimed the song is about gentrification . Entertainment Weekly was critical of " Juxtapozed with U " , describing it as an " awful lite @-@ rock homage " which resembles the theme tune to The Love Boat .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music videos = =
= = = Fukme 99 video = = =
A Fukme 99 directed video was included on the DVD version of Rings Around the World on its release in July 2001 . The video begins with the phrase " Get real ! " in pink letters and features three people , dressed in cardboard costumes as a camcorder , clapperboard and microphone respectively , wandering around the streets of Hammersmith . The camcorder is refused entry into a shop and is taunted by schoolchildren while the clapperboard is told to leave the scene of a film by one of the crew . The microphone is shown attempting to hand out flyers alongside a man dressed in a banana costume who is much more successful at getting people to take the leaflets from him . The camcorder , microphone and clapperboard then meet up in a car park before going to the house of a man with a large cardboard head and arms . The four walk towards some warehouses where they dance with several other people dressed in cardboard , including a mobile phone and camera , as well as the man dressed as a banana who appeared earlier in the video . Rhys has described this sequence as a " big dance routine with ... cardboard outsiders " .
Keyboard player Cian Ciaran has stated that the band deliberately tried to avoid making videos that looked like just " another pop promo ... like MTV " for the DVD version of Rings Around the World and asked the directors to make the visuals as " extreme as possible " . Ciaran claims the directors had to " work even harder at creating something interesting " due to the limited budget available .
= = = Dawn of the New Assembly / H5 video = = =
A promotional video , directed by Dawn of the New Assembly / H5 , was produced to accompany the release of " Juxtapozed with U " as a single . According to Gruff Rhys the band made separate videos for Rings Around the World 's three singles as they saw the videos included on the DVD release of the album as " pure art " whereas they needed promotional music videos that were more like adverts for the songs . The video is computer generated and begins with stylised shots of traffic moving across the Brooklyn Bridge , New York . The camera zooms in to show a man and women , who appear as thermal images , driving one of the cars . The man checks his watch and puts a CD in the car 's stereo before the video switches to an outside shot of the vehicle driving through a tunnel and a busy street . Another street is shown with many neon signs , including one which says " Broadway " and another with features the legend " Juxtapozed with U , Super Furry Animals " . The couple continue driving until they reach the Guggenheim Art Museum where they park beside a valet who opens the car 's passenger door . The next shot shows the museum 's interior exhibit which consists of a black and neon blue grids with various mathematical symbols and currency signs on the walls . The couple talk to one of the crowd in the club before leaving the building and walking past the valet to a lift which takes them to a party on the roof of a skyscraper . Shots of a swimming pool on the skyscraper 's roof and the couple kissing are intercut with images of fire engines driving through the streets past the Chrysler Building . These fire engines arrive below the skyscraper where the party is taking place and several people , including the couple , look down on them from above . Firemen are shown fighting a blaze on several floors of the skyscraper and a helicopter is seen flying to rescue the partygoers . In the last few seconds of the video the skyscraper explodes and the helicopter crashes into the roof of the building . The Dawn of the New Assembly / H5 video appears on the DVD release of the band 's greatest hits album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 and the Enhanced CD version of the " Juxtapozed with U " single .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
Digipak Enhanced CD ( 6712242 )
" Juxtapozed with U " – 3 : 10
" Tradewinds " – 5 : 37
" Happiness is a Worn Pun " – 3 : 21
" Juxtapozed with U ( Video ) " – 3 : 10
12 " ( 6712246 ) , MC ( 6712244 )
" Juxtapozed with U " – 3 : 10
" Tradewinds " – 5 : 37
" Happiness is a Worn Pun " – 3 : 21
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys – vocals
Huw Bunford – guitar
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan – drums
Beti Rhys – harp
John Telfer – flute
Harriet Harris – violin
S. Herbert – violin
Jackie Norrie – violin
Sonia Slany – violin , string arrangements
Nick Barr – viola
Clare Smith – viola
Nick Cooper – cello
Sophie Harris – cello
Kris Jenkins – percussion
= = Chart positions = =
= Double Nickels on the Dime =
Double Nickels on the Dime is the third studio album by American punk trio Minutemen , released on the Californian independent record label SST Records in 1984 . A double album containing 45 songs , Double Nickels on the Dime combines elements of punk rock , funk , country , spoken word and jazz , and references a variety of themes , from the Vietnam War and racism in America , to working class experience and linguistics .
After recording new material , the band each selected songs for different sides of the double album , with the fourth side named " Chaff " . Several songs on Double Nickels on the Dime were outsourced to or inspired by contemporaries , such as Black Flag 's Henry Rollins and Jack Brewer of Saccharine Trust .
Double Nickels on the Dime is seen not only as Minutemen 's crowning achievement , but , according to critic Mark Deming , " one of the very best American rock albums of the 1980s " . The album now appears on many professional lists of the all @-@ time best rock albums , including Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . Slant Magazine listed the album at # 77 on its list of " Best Albums of the 1980s " .
= = Background = =
Minutemen were formed by guitarist D. Boon and bassist Mike Watt , both from San Pedro , California , in 1980 . After their previous band , The Reactionaries , disbanded in 1979 , the pair continued to write new material and formed the band with drummer Frank Tonche a year later . Minutemen signed to the Californian independent record label SST Records following their second gig . George Hurley , the former drummer of The Reactionaries , replaced Tonche as drummer soon afterwards . The Minutemen were noted in the California punk scene for a philosophy of " jamming econo " ; a sense of thriftiness reflected in their touring and presentation . They soon released numerous recordings through SST and their own label , New Alliance Records , while touring with hardcore punk bands like Black Flag and Hüsker Dü .
In January 1983 , Minutemen were asked by ex @-@ Blue Cheer keyboardist and local producer Ethan James to contribute a song to Radio Tokyo Tapes , a compilation named after the Californian studio where James worked . The band agreed and contributed three songs to the compilation , with James recording them all for free . These three songs , and another five recorded in May 1983 for a total of $ 50 , were included in their 1983 EP Buzz or Howl Under the Influence of Heat . The band had recorded solely with SST engineer Spot prior to the recordings . However , they were so impressed by the sessions that they enlisted James to record their next full @-@ length album ; Watt later commented : " Ethan , although not knowing us much , tapped right in . " After their European tour in mid @-@ 1983 with Black Flag , Minutemen entered Radio Tokyo Studios in November to record their next studio album .
= = Recording and production = =
Minutemen originally recorded an " album 's worth of material " with James in November 1983 in Radio Tokyo Studios . However , after hearing labelmates Hüsker Dü 's double album Zen Arcade ( 1984 ) , which had been recorded a month earlier , Minutemen decided to write more material . Watt later commented : " It wasn 't really a competition even . When I wrote ' Take that Hüskers ! " in [ the album 's liner notes ] it was acknowledging that they gave us the idea to make a double album . " Unlike Hüsker Dü 's Zen Arcade , Minutemen did not have a unifying concept , but soon decided that the record 's concept would be their cars .
The band wrote almost two dozen more songs for a second recording session with James in April 1984 . Double Nickels on the Dime was then mixed on a single eight @-@ track in one night by James and cost $ 1 @,@ 100 to record . Several songs on the album were recorded elsewhere ; a studio @-@ recorded cover of Creedence Clearwater Revival 's " Don 't Look Now " was replaced with a live version of the song , and according to Watt , " Love Dance " was written at Ian MacKaye 's Dischord House .
For sequencing , the band decided that each band member would be allocated a side of the record , an arrangement inspired by Pink Floyd 's 1969 double album Ummagumma . The band drew straws to select songs ; Hurley won the draw and decided to pick his solo track " You Need the Glory " , followed by Boon and Watt . The fourth side of the record was named " Side Chaff " , an admission that the songs present were the leftover songs .
= = Music = =
The album is referred by Watt to be their art record in the documentary " We Jam Econo- The Story of The Minutemen " . The songwriting styles of Boon and Watt on Double Nickels on the Dime contrasted . Boon tended to write the band 's anthems , and often explored wider political issues . " This Ain 't No Picnic " , was an example of his approach . Exploring racism and the strife of the working class with both gravity and humor , he composed the song after his supervisor would not let him listen to jazz and soul music on the radio at his day job , claiming it was " nigger shit . "
Watt favored complex and abstract lyrical themes , exemplified by songs such as " The Glory Of Man " and " My Heart and the Real World " . Influenced by James Joyce 's novel Ulysses ( the subject of " June 16th " ) and the stream of consciousness literary technique in general , Watt 's lyrics were often complex and philosophical . On " Take 5 , D. " , Boon felt that the lyrics were " too spacey " . Watt agreed to rewrite the song , adding : " There ain 't nothing going to be more real . " He found a new set of lyrics : a note from a friend 's landlady about a shower .
Double Nickels on the Dime contained several inside jokes that were missed by the band 's audience . Watt later remarked : " No one knew what the fuck we were talking about . We 'd explain it to people and they 'd say , ' I don 't get it , what 's so funny about that ? ' And we couldn 't tell them because it was our whole angle on the rock & roll , our worldview on the music scene . "
= = Imagery = =
The album was named Double Nickels on the Dime as a reaction to the Sammy Hagar song " I Can 't Drive 55 , " a protest against the federally imposed speed limit of 55 miles per hour on all U.S. highways . Minutemen decided that driving fast " wasn 't terribly defiant " ; Watt later commented that " the big rebellion thing was writing your own fuckin ' songs and trying to come up with your own story , your own picture , your own book , whatever . So he can 't drive 55 , because that was the national speed limit ? Okay , we 'll drive 55 , but we 'll make crazy music . "
The band illustrated the theme on the cover of Double Nickels on the Dime , which depicts Watt driving his Volkswagen Beetle at exactly 55 miles per hour ( " double nickels " in trucker slang ) traveling southbound through downtown Los Angeles on Route 110 , also known as the Harbor Freeway , toward the band 's hometown of San Pedro , California . " The title means fifty @-@ five miles per hour on the button , like we were Johnny Conservative . " Dirk Vandenberg , the band 's " buddy / contributor , " took photos from the backseat as Watt drove under the sign to San Pedro ; it took three circuits of the highway and two days of photography before Minutemen were happy with the cover . Vandenberg later commented on the cover art : " There were three elements that Mike [ Watt ] wanted in the photo : a natural kind of glint in his eyes reflected in the rearview mirror , the speedometer pinned exactly at 55mph , and , of course , the San Pedro sign guiding us home " . However , when the cover was presented to SST , " someone botched the cropping for the print and cut off the end of the word Pedro . "
= = Release = =
SST Records released Double Nickels on the Dime on double vinyl in July 1984 . SST delayed the release of Zen Arcade by Hüsker Dü so that both albums could be released simultaneously . After the release of Double Nickels on the Dime , Minutemen toured almost constantly to promote the record . One 1984 tour saw the band playing 57 dates in 63 days . The album sold fifteen thousand copies during 1984 , a respectable amount for a band on an independent record label . As of 2008 , Double Nickels on the Dime remains Minutemen 's best @-@ selling record .
No singles were released to promote Double Nickels on the Dime , but two videos , " This Ain 't No Picnic " and " Ain 't Talkin ' ' Bout Love " ( a cover of a song by Van Halen , which the aforementioned Hagar would eventually join ) , were released as " flyers " . Made for $ 440 by a University of California , Los Angeles graduate , Anthony Johnson , " This Ain 't No Picnic " was Minutemen 's first video and was later nominated for an MTV award . The video for " This Ain 't No Picnic " features the band playing amidst rubble as a fighter plane " piloted " by Ronald Reagan , edited from public domain footage , fires at them . The video of " Ain 't Talkin ' ' Bout Love " , released by SST as a promotional video , was a 40 @-@ second recording of a live performance .
In August 1987 , Watt and producer Vitus Matare remastered Double Nickels on the Dime for a CD release . To ensure that the CD would be compatible with all players , they omitted all car jams except Boon 's , and three songs : " Mr. Robot 's Holy Orders " , " Ain 't Talkin ' ' bout Love " and " Little Man With A Gun In His Hand . " Watt commented later that the remix was a " nightmare " and " totally worse than the Ethan James mix . " Watt reverted to the original mix for a 1989 CD release of Double Nickels on the Dime , but did not include the previously omitted songs . In a January 2006 interview , Watt announced his intention to discuss a remastered full Double Nickels on the Dime CD release with SST owner Greg Ginn .
= = Critical recognition = =
Upon its release , Double Nickels on the Dime received critical acclaim from a range of American critics ; however as a regional independent record label , many of SST 's releases did not attract attention from British music magazines . Village Voice critic Robert Christgau gave Double Nickels on the Dime an A- rating , describing Boon as a " somewhat limited singer " but " a hell of a reader , with a guitar that rhymes " , and remarking " this is poetry @-@ with @-@ jazz as it always should have been . " Christgau later said that he underrated the album on its original release . Double Nickels on the Dime placed at number 14 in the publication 's end of year Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . Reviewing the album in February 1985 for Rolling Stone , David Fricke awarded the album three and a half stars , and also praised Boon 's technique , stating : " The telegraphic stutter and almost scientific angularity of singer @-@ guitarist D. Boon 's chordings and breakneck solos heighten the jazzier tangents he dares to take , " but that " Double Nickels on the Dime 's best moments go far too quickly . "
Later reviews have also been positive : Allmusic 's Mark Deming described Double Nickels on the Dime as a " quantum leap into greatness " for Minutemen , describing the album as " full of striking moments that cohere into a truly remarkable whole " and awarding a full five stars . Journalist Michael Azerrad , profiling Minutemen in his book Our Band Could Be Your Life ( titled after a lyric from " History Lesson – Part II " ) , named Double Nickels on the Dime as " one of the greatest achievements of the indie era " and described it as a " Whitman 's sampler of left @-@ wing politics , moving autobiographical vignettes , and twisted Beefheartian twang " . Several publications have raised their rating of the album in the years since its release ; Rolling Stone re @-@ reviewed Double Nickels on the Dime for the 2004 Album Guide and gave it its classic rating , a full five stars .
Although not commercially successful upon its release , Double Nickels on the Dime marked the point where many punk bands began to ignore the stylistic limitations of the hardcore scene . According to American Hardcore : A Tribal History author Steven Blush , Double Nickels on the Dime was , along with Zen Arcade , " either the pinnacle or downfall of the pure hardcore scene . " Watt later commented that Double Nickels on the Dime was the " best album I ever played on . "
= = Accolades = =
The information regarding accolades attributed to Double Nickels on the Dime is adapted from AcclaimedMusic.net.
* designates unordered lists .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Original vinyl release = = =
= = = Differences = = =
To ensure that the CD version would be compatible with all players , the following tracks were omitted from all CD releases : " Mr. Robot 's Holy Orders " , " Ain 't Talkin ' ' bout Love " and " Little Man With A Gun In His Hand " . " Don 't Look Now " and " Dr. Wu " were removed from 1987 release , but included in 1989 release . Three of the " car jams " were removed from 1989 release , but included in 1987 release .
= = Credits = =
All information taken from the 1989 CD release of Double Nickels on the Dime :
D. Boon – vocals , guitar
Mike Watt – bass ( vocals on " Take 5 , D. " , " Dr. Wu " , and " The Politics of Time " )
George Hurley – drums , vocals
Joe Baiza – guitar on " Take 5 , D. "
John Rocknowski – guitar on " Take 5 , D. "
Dirk Vandenberg – guitar on " Take 5 , D. "
Ethan James – producer and engineer
= Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Mahdi =
Sayyid Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Mahdi , KBE ( Arabic : عبد الرحمن المهدي ) ( 1885 – 1959 ) was one of the leading religious and political figures during the colonial era in the Anglo @-@ Egyptian Sudan ( 1898 – 1955 ) , and continued to exert great authority as leader of the Neo @-@ Mahdists after Sudan became independent . The British tried to exploit his influence over the Sudanese people while at the same time profoundly distrusting his motives . Throughout most of the colonial era of the Anglo @-@ Egyptian Sudan the British saw Sayyid Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Mahdi as important as a moderate leader of the Mahdists . However , the British would not support him in his ambition to become King of Sudan when the country gained independence .
Abd al @-@ Rahman was the posthumous son of Muhammad Ahmad bin Abd Allah , who had proclaimed himself the Mahdi or messianic redeemer of the Islamic faith in 1
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spent many of his childhood years on a large cattle ranch in Montana " that was owned by his wealthy grandfather , Lafe Waterbury . According to Church accounts , Hubbard passed long days on the ranch " riding , breaking broncos , hunting coyote and taking his first steps as an explorer . " Another Church biography describes his grandfather as a " wealthy Western cattleman " from whom Hubbard " inherited his fortune and family interests in America , Southern Africa , etc . "
Contemporary records and Hubbard 's relatives contradict this depiction . Hubbard 's grandfather , Lafe Waterbury , briefly owned a plot of land covering 320 acres ( 0 @.@ 5 mi2 ) near Kalispell , where he pastured horses and worked as a veterinarian . A local city directory for 1913 stated Waterbury 's assets as a relatively modest $ 1 @,@ 550 . The Hubbards and Waterburys lived in a pair of townhouses , not a ranch , in the center of Helena , only two blocks from each other and not far from the Montana State Capitol . They also owned a small plot outside the city . Hubbard 's aunt told the Los Angeles Times in 1990 that the family did not have a ranch , " just several acres ( with ) a barn on it . ... We had one cow ( and ) four or five horses . "
= = Childhood = =
= = = Growing up = = =
Biographical accounts published by the Church of Scientology depict Hubbard as a child prodigy . He is portrayed as riding a horse before he was able to walk and able to read and write by the time he was four . According to a Scientology account , the young Hubbard lived in the rugged West , " [ r ] iding horses at the age of three and a half " and facing dangers such as " escaping a pack of coyotes astride his mare named Nancy Hanks . " He was said to have " considered until he was 10 years old that the handling of a rifle or hunting coyotes or trying to break broncos was more useful than school knowledge " , and " [ a ] ttempts to send him to school were seldom availing . "
According to the Church publication What is Scientology ? , Hubbard was " reading and writing at an early age , and soon satisfying his insatiable curiosity with the works of Shakespeare , the Greek philosophers , and other classics . " His mother Ledora is described as " a rarity in her time . A thoroughly educated woman , who had attended teacher 's college prior to her marriage to Ron 's father , she was aptly suited to tutor her young son . " Christensen comments that this presentation of the exceptional qualities of his mother is typical of hagiographies – such as the Virgin Mary – and forms a kind of after @-@ the @-@ event rationalization , in which qualities assigned to the subject are also attributed to the subject 's mother . Presenting Ledora as " aptly suited " to educate her son suggests that she was , in effect , chosen to be his mother ; she is not presented as responsible for stimulating her son 's interest in the classics but was there simply to assist his development . ( Indeed , as Christiansen notes , his parents do not have important roles in his official biography and are only significantly mentioned at the beginning of the story , where their respective professions are emphasized . )
Hubbard 's official biographers also state that , during his childhood in Montana , he was befriended by " Old Tom " , a medicine man from the Native American Blackfeet tribe . He is also purported to have become , at six years old , " one of the few whites ever admitted into Blackfoot society as a bona fide blood brother " . This has been disputed by his unofficial biographers . Jon Atack notes that the Blackfoot reservation was over a hundred miles away from Helena . A Los Angeles Times investigation in 1990 reported that " Old Tom " was not listed in a 1907 register of the Blackfeet and that the tribe did not practice blood brotherhood . Although the Church of Scientology states that Hubbard was awarded blood brotherhood " in a ceremony that is still recalled by tribal elders " , a Scientologist of fractional Blackfoot ancestry sought during the mid @-@ 1980s to prove that Hubbard had been a Blackfoot blood brother but was unsuccessful .
= = = Boy Scouts and " Snake " Thompson = = =
During the 1920s , the Hubbards repeatedly relocated around the United States and overseas . Harry Hubbard rejoined the Navy as an enlisted man but was promoted to Ensign in October 1918 and Lieutenant in November 1919 . His posting aboard the USS Oklahoma in 1921 required his wife and son to relocate to the ship 's home ports , first San Diego , then Seattle . Hubbard joined the local Boy Scouts and later said that when he was 13 , he became the " youngest Eagle Scout in the country " . The Boy Scouts of America has said that , at the time , it did not keep a record of the ages of its Eagle Scouts , only an alphabetical list of those who had received the award . Journalist Michael Streeter comments that , in light of this , " it remains unclear just how Hubbard would have known he was its youngest member . "
A Scientology biography states that Hubbard 's achievement of Eagle Scout status was " an early indication that he did not plan to live an ordinary life . " Christiansen notes that this passage implies that Hubbard consciously " planned " to live an extraordinary life , strengthening the underlying idea that from early childhood he worked towards the goals that led to Scientology . He was presented to President Calvin Coolidge in a ceremony that the Church of Scientology describes as Hubbard having " represented American Scouting at the White House " , by which time " the thirteen @-@ year @-@ old L. Ron Hubbard had become a reasonably famous figure in fairly adventurous circles . " Atack describes the event more prosaically as a meet @-@ and @-@ greet in which Hubbard was one of forty boys who spoke their names to the President and shook his hand . Another Scientology biography says that Hubbard became " the fast friend of the President 's son , Calvin Coolidge , Jr . , whose untimely death is probably responsible for L. Ron Hubbard 's early interest in healing research . " Atack deems this fictitious , as Calvin Coolidge , Jr. and Hubbard never crossed paths .
The Hubbards traveled to Washington , D.C. in 1923 aboard the USS U.S. Grant , traveling from Seattle to Hampton Roads , Virginia , via the Panama Canal . During this trip , Hubbard reportedly received an education in Freudian psychology from Commander Joseph " Snake " Thompson , a U.S. Navy psychoanalyst and student of Sigmund Freud . According to the Church of Scientology , Thompson " took it upon himself to pass on the essentials of Freudian theory to his young friend . " Hubbard later said that through Thompson 's friendship , " I attended many lectures given at naval hospitals and generally became conversant with psychoanalysis as it had been exported from Austria by Freud . " Another Scientology text states that Thompson spent " many an afternoon in the Library of Congress teaching L. Ron Hubbard what he [ knew ] of the human mind . "
There is no independent confirmation of Hubbard 's claims , though Thompson 's existence has been proven . This encounter is used in Scientology 's biographies as evidence that Hubbard was trained in a scientific approach to the mind , but found it unsatisfying . Christiansen notes that Dianetics was " very much inspired by Freudian theory " . Hubbard 's invocation of Thompson therefore serves to highlight his claimed knowledge of Freud 's ideas , but also his exceptional maturity ; as the official account has it , " Ron was also left with many unanswered questions " which prompted him to undertake further enquiries . This , in Christiansen 's view , has strong parallels with the story of the child Jesus : " in particular , the emphasis on the clever child having different skills and qualities from those of boys of the same age " , as displayed in incidents such as the twelve @-@ year @-@ old Jesus lecturing the scribes in the Temple of Jerusalem .
The following year , Harry Ross Hubbard was posted to Puget Sound Naval Shipyard at Bremerton , Washington . His son was enrolled at Union High School , Bremerton and later studied at Queen Anne High School in Seattle . In 1927 , Hubbard 's father was sent to the U.S. Naval Station in Guam . Although Hubbard 's mother also went to Guam , Hubbard himself did not accompany them but was placed in his grandparents ' care in Helena , Montana , to complete his schooling .
= = Travels in the Far East and Pacific = =
= = = First trip to Asia = = =
Between 1927 and 1929 , Hubbard traveled to Japan , China , the Philippines , and Guam . What is Scientology and other Scientology texts present this era as a time when he sought , and was freely offered , ancient Eastern wisdom but found it lacking , as he had earlier with Western science . A biographical account in Hubbard 's 1982 novel Battlefield Earth says that , " he worked ... aboard a coastal trader which plied the seas between Japan and Java . He came to know old Shanghai , Beijing and the Western Hills at a time when few Westerners could enter China . " He is said to have spent weeks questioning Buddhist lamas and watching them meditate . He also recounted meeting Old Mayo , supposedly the last Chinese magician in a line that stretched back to the Court of Kublai Khan . According to the Church of Scientology , these travels were funded by his " wealthy grandfather " . Hubbard is described not as a tourist but as a gifted student , intensely curious for answers to human suffering and warmly received everywhere because he was perceived as special . He is purported to have faced many dangers in the company of " Major Ian Macbean of the British Secret Service " , including an " encounter with Cantonese pirates , the engineering of a jungle road across Guam 's denser corner , and the evening he decked an Italian swordsman named Giovinni . ( Although not before he took a saber cut across the left cheek , and Macbean nearly lost a hand ) . "
Hubbard 's unofficial biographers present a very different account of his Asian travels , drawing on his school records , his contemporary diaries , and his father 's service record . Hubbard recorded two trips to the east coast of China in his diaries . The first was made in the company of his mother while traveling from the United States to Guam in 1927 . It consisted of a brief stop @-@ over in two Chinese ports before the pair transferred to a U.S. Navy transport , the USS Gold Star , for the journey to Guam . Hubbard spent about six weeks on the island before returning to the United States . He used his diary to record his impressions of the places he visited , noting his unfavorable impression of the poverty and the appearance of the inhabitants of Japan and China , whom he described as " gooks " , " lazy " , and " ignorant " . His second visit was a family holiday that took Hubbard and his parents to China via the Philippines in 1928 . It is unclear whether he ever traveled to western China , Tibet , or India ; Atack comments that Hubbard 's only corroborated visit to India appears to have been a flight change at Calcutta in 1959 .
On his return to the United States in September 1927 , Hubbard enrolled at Helena High School , but earned poor grades . He abandoned school the following May and went back west to stay with his aunt and uncle in Seattle . In June , he traveled to Guam on a U.S. Navy transport , the USS Henderson , to reunite with his parents . His mother took over his education in the hope of putting him forward for the entrance examination to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis , Maryland .
= = = Second trip to Asia = = =
A number of naval families , including Hubbard 's , traveled from Guam to China aboard the USS Gold Star between October and December 1928 . The ship visited Manila in the Philippines and traveled on to Qingdao ( Tsingtao ) , from where Hubbard and his parents traveled inland to Beijing , before returning to the ship for transport to Shanghai and Hong Kong and finally back to Guam . The Church of Scientology presents a completely different version of this family holiday , stating that Hubbard " made his way deep into Manchuria 's Western Hills and beyond – to break bread with Mongolian bandits , share campfires with Siberian shamans and befriend the last in the line of magicians from the court of Kublai Khan . " According to Atack , these occurrences are not mentioned in the diary that Hubbard kept of his trip . Many years later , Hubbard said that " I was a harum @-@ scarum kid ; I wasn 't thinking about deep philosophic problems . "
As on his previous trip , Hubbard recorded his impressions in his diary . He remained unimpressed with China . After seeing Qingdao he wrote : " A Chinaman can not live up to a thing , he always drags it down . " He characterized the sights of Beijing as " rubberneck stations " for tourists and described the palaces of the Forbidden City as " very trashy @-@ looking " and " not worth mentioning " . He visited a section of the Great Wall of China near Beijing , which did impress him , but his overall conclusion of the Chinese was very negative : " They smell of all the baths they didn 't take . The trouble with China is , there are too many chinks here . "
Back on Guam , Hubbard spent much of his time writing dozens
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Tichborne 's infant son , Henry Alfred , as the 12th baronet . Lady Doughty , Sir Edward 's widow , had initially accepted the evidence from Australia but changed her mind soon after the Claimant 's arrival in England . Lady Tichborne 's brother Henry Seymour denounced the Claimant as false when he found that the latter neither spoke nor understood French ( Roger 's first language as a child ) and lacked any trace of a French accent . The Claimant was unable to identify several family members and complained about attempts to catch him out by presenting him with impostors . Vincent Gosford , a former Tichborne Park steward , was unimpressed by the Claimant , who , when asked to name the contents of a sealed package that Roger left with Gosford before his departure in 1853 , said he could not remember . The family believed that the Claimant had acquired from Bogle and other sources information that enabled him to demonstrate some knowledge of the family 's affairs , including , for example , the locations of certain pictures in Tichborne Park . Apart from Lady Tichborne a distant cousin , Anthony John Wright Biddulph , was the only relation who accepted the Claimant as genuine ; however , as long as Lady Tichborne was alive and maintaining her support , the Claimant 's position remained strong .
On 31 July 1867 the Claimant underwent a judicial examination at the Chancery Division of the Royal Courts of Justice . He testified that after his arrival in Melbourne in July 1854 he had worked for William Foster at a cattle station in Gippsland under the name of Thomas Castro . While there , he had met Arthur Orton , a fellow Englishman . After leaving Foster 's employment the Claimant had subsequently wandered the country , sometimes with Orton , working in various capacities before setting up as a butcher in Wagga Wagga in 1865 . On the basis of this information , the Tichborne family sent an agent , John Mackenzie , to Australia to make further enquiries . Mackenzie located Foster 's widow , who produced the old station records . These showed no reference to " Thomas Castro " , although the employment of an " Arthur Orton " was recorded . Foster 's widow also identified a photograph of the Claimant as Arthur Orton , thus providing the first direct evidence that the Claimant might in fact be Orton . In Wagga Wagga one local resident recalled the butcher Castro saying that he had learned his trade in Wapping . When this information reached London , enquiries were made in Wapping by a private detective , ex @-@ police inspector Jack Whicher , and the Claimant 's visit in December 1866 was revealed .
= = = Orton = = =
Arthur Orton , a butcher 's son born on 20 March 1834 in Wapping , had gone to sea as a boy and had been in Chile in the early 1850s . Sometime in 1852 he arrived in Hobart , Tasmania , in the transport ship Middleton and later moved to mainland Australia . His employment by Foster at Gippsland terminated around 1857 with a dispute over wages . Thereafter he disappears ; if he was not Castro , there is no further direct evidence of Orton 's existence , although strenuous efforts were made to find him . The Claimant hinted that some of his activities with Orton were of a criminal nature and that to confound the authorities they had sometimes exchanged names . Most of Orton 's family failed to recognise the Claimant as their long @-@ lost kinsman , although it was later revealed that he had paid them money . However , a former sweetheart of Orton 's , Mary Ann Loder , did identify the Claimant as Orton .
= = = Financial problems = = =
Lady Tichborne died on 12 March 1868 , thus depriving the Claimant of his principal advocate and his main source of income . He outraged the family by insisting on taking the position of chief mourner at her funeral mass . His lost income was rapidly replaced by a fund , set up by supporters , that provided a house near Alresford and an income of £ 1 @,@ 400 a year .
In September 1868 , together with his legal team , the Claimant went to South America to meet face @-@ to @-@ face with potential witnesses in Melipilla who might confirm his identity . He disembarked at Buenos Aires , ostensibly to travel to Valparaíso overland and there rejoin his advisers who were continuing by sea . After waiting two months in Buenos Aires he caught a ship home . His explanations for this sudden retreat — poor health and the dangers from brigands — did not convince his backers , many of whom withdrew their support ; Holmes resigned as his solicitor . Furthermore , on their return his advisers reported that no one in Melipilla had heard of " Tichborne " , although they remembered a young English sailor called " Arturo " .
The Claimant was now bankrupt . In 1870 his new legal advisers launched a novel fundraising scheme : Tichborne Bonds , an issue of 1 @,@ 000 debentures of £ 100 face value , the holders of which would be repaid with interest when the Claimant obtained his inheritance . About £ 40 @,@ 000 was raised , though the bonds quickly traded at a considerable discount and were soon being exchanged for derisory sums . The scheme allowed the Claimant to continue to meet his living and legal expenses for a while . After a delay while the Franco @-@ Prussian War and its aftermath prevented key witnesses from leaving Paris , the civil case that the Claimant hoped would confirm his identity finally came to court in May 1871 .
= = Civil case : Tichborne v. Lushington , 1871 – 72 = =
The case was listed in the Court of Common Pleas as Tichborne v. Lushington , in the form of an action for the ejectment of Colonel Lushington , the tenant of Tichborne Park . The real purpose , however , was to establish the Claimant 's identity as Sir Roger Tichborne and his rights to the family 's estates ; failure on his part would expose him as an impostor . In addition to Tichborne Park 's 2 @,@ 290 acres ( 930 ha ) , the estates included manors , lands and farms in Hampshire , and considerable properties in London and elsewhere , which altogether produced an annual income of over £ 20 @,@ 000 , equivalent to several millions in 21st century terms .
= = = Evidence and cross @-@ examination = = =
The hearing , which took place within the Palace of Westminster , began on 11 May 1871 before Sir William Bovill , who was Chief Justice of the Common Pleas . The Claimant 's legal team was led by William Ballantine and Harding Giffard , both highly experienced advocates . Opposing them , acting on instructions from the bulk of the Tichborne family , were John Duke Coleridge , the Solicitor General ( he was promoted to Attorney @-@ General during the hearing ) , and Henry Hawkins , a future High Court judge who was then at the height of his powers as a cross @-@ examiner . In his opening speech , Ballantine made much of Roger Tichborne 's unhappy childhood , his overbearing father , his poor education and his frequently unwise choices of companions . The Claimant 's experiences in an open boat following the wreck of the Bella had , said Ballantine , impaired his memories of his earlier years , which explained his uncertain recall . Attempts to identify his client as Arthur Orton were , Ballantine argued , the concoctions of " irresponsible " private investigators acting for the Tichborne family .
The first witnesses for the Claimant included former officers and men from Roger Tichborne 's regiment , all of whom declared their belief that he was genuine . Among servants and former servants of the Tichborne family called by Ballantine was John Moore , Roger 's valet in South America . He testified that the Claimant had remembered many small details of their months together , including clothing worn and the name of a pet dog the pair had adopted . Roger 's cousin Anthony Biddulph explained that he had accepted the Claimant only after spending much time in his company .
On 30 May Ballantine called the Claimant to the stand . During his examination @-@ in @-@ chief , the Claimant answered questions on Arthur Orton , whom he described as " a large @-@ boned man with sharp features and a lengthy face slightly marked with smallpox " . He had lost sight of Orton between 1862 and 1865 , but they had met again in Wagga Wagga , where the Claimant had discussed his inheritance . Under cross @-@ examination the Claimant was evasive when pressed for further details of his relationship with Orton , saying that he did not wish to incriminate himself . After questioning him on his visit to Wapping , Hawkins asked him directly : " Are you Arthur Orton ? " to which he replied " I am not " . The Claimant displayed considerable ignorance when questioned about his time at Stonyhurst . He could not identify Virgil , confused Latin with Greek , and did not understand what chemistry was . He caused a sensation when he declared that he had seduced Katherine Doughty and that the sealed package given to Gosford , the contents of which he earlier claimed not to recall , contained instructions to be followed in the event of her pregnancy . Rohan McWilliam , in his chronicle of the affair , comments that from that point on the Tichborne family were fighting not only for their estates but for Katherine Doughty 's honour .
= = = Collapse of case = = =
On 7 July the court adjourned for four months . When it resumed , Ballantine called more witnesses , including Bogle and Francis Baigent , a close family friend . Hawkins contended that Bogle and Baigent were feeding the Claimant with information , but in cross @-@ examination he could not dent their belief that the Claimant was genuine . In January 1872 Coleridge began the case for the defence with a speech during which he categorised the Claimant as comparable with " the great impostors of history " . He intended to prove that the Claimant was Arthur Orton . He had over 200 witnesses lined up , but it transpired that few were required . Lord Bellew , who had known Roger Tichborne at Stonyhurst , testified that Roger had distinctive body tattoos which the Claimant did not possess . On 4 March the jury notified the judge that they had heard enough and were ready to reject the Claimant 's suit . Having ascertained that this decision was based on the evidence as a whole and not solely on the missing tattoos , Bovill ordered the Claimant 's arrest on charges of perjury and committed him to Newgate prison .
= = Appeal to the public , 1872 – 73 = =
From his cell in Newgate the Claimant vowed to resume the fight as soon as he was acquitted . On 25 March 1872 he published in the Evening Standard an " Appeal to the Public " , requesting financial help to meet his continuing legal and living costs : " I appeal to every British soul who is inspired by a love of justice and fair play , and is willing to defend the weak against the strong " . The Claimant had garnered considerable popular support during the civil trial ; his fight was perceived by many as symbolising the problems faced by the working classes when seeking justice in the courts . In the wake of his appeal , support committees were formed throughout the country . When he was bailed early in April , on sureties provided by Lord Rivers and Guildford Onslow , a large crowd cheered him as he left the Old Bailey .
At a public meeting in Alresford on 14 May , Onslow reported that subscriptions to the defence fund were already pouring in , and that invitations to visit and speak had been received from many towns . As the Claimant addressed meetings up and down the country , journalists following the campaign often commented on his pronounced cockney accent , suggestive of East London origins . The campaign drew in some high @-@ level supporters , among whom was George Hammond Whalley , a controversial anti @-@ Catholic who was MP for Peterborough . He and Onslow were sometimes incautious in their speeches ; after a meeting in St James 's Hall , London , on 11 December 1872 , each made specific charges against the Attorney General and the Government of trying to pervert the course of justice . They were both fined £ 100 for contempt of court .
With few exceptions the mainstream press was hostile to the Claimant 's campaign . To counteract this , his supporters launched two short @-@ lived newspapers : the Tichborne Gazette in May 1872 and the Tichborne News and Anti @-@ Oppression Journal in June . The former was wholly devoted to the Claimant 's cause and ran until Onslow 's and Whalley 's contempt convictions in December 1872 . The Tichborne News , which concerned itself with a broader range of perceived injustices , closed after four months .
= = Criminal case : Regina v. Castro , 1873 – 74 = =
= = = Judges and counsel = = =
The criminal case , to be heard in the Queen 's Bench , was listed as Regina v. Castro , the name Castro being the last uncontested alias of the Claimant . Because of its expected length , the case was scheduled as a " trial at bar " , a device that allowed a panel rather than a single judge to hear it . The president of the panel was Sir Alexander Cockburn , the Lord Chief Justice . His decision to hear this case was controversial , since during the civil case he had publicly denounced the Claimant as a perjurer and a slanderer . Cockburn 's co @-@ judges were Sir John Mellor and Sir Robert Lush , both experienced Queen 's Bench justices .
The prosecution team was largely that which had opposed the Claimant in the civil case , minus Coleridge . Hawkins led the team , his main assistants being Charles Bowen and James Mathew , both future judges . The Claimant 's team was significantly weaker ; he would not reengage Ballantine , and his other civil case lawyers declined to act for him again . Others refused the case , possibly because they knew they would have to present evidence concerning the seduction of Katherine Doughty . The Claimant 's backers eventually engaged Edward Kenealy , an Irish lawyer of acknowledged gifts but known eccentricity . Kenealy had previously featured in several prominent defences , including those of the poisoner William Palmer and the leaders of the 1867 Fenian Rising . He was assisted by undistinguished juniors : Patrick MacMahon , an Irish MP who was frequently absent , and the young and inexperienced Cooper Wyld . Kenealy 's task was made more difficult when several of his upper @-@ class witnesses refused to appear , perhaps afraid of the ridicule they anticipated from the Crown 's lawyers . Other key witnesses from the civil case , including Moore , Baigent and Lipscombe , likewise would not give evidence at the criminal trial .
= = = Trial = = =
The trial , one of the lengthiest cases heard in an English court , began on 21 April 1873 and lasted until 28 February 1874 , occupying 188 court days . The tone was dominated by Kenealy 's confrontational style ; his personal attacks extended not only to witnesses but to the Bench and led to frequent clashes with Cockburn . Under the legal rules that then applied to criminal cases the Claimant , though present in court , was not allowed to testify . Away from the court he revelled in his celebrity status ; the American writer Mark Twain , who was then in London , attended an event at which the Claimant was present and " thought him a rather fine and stately figure " . Twain observed that the company were " educated men , men moving in good society .... It was ' Sir Roger ' , always ' Sir Roger ' on all hands , no one withheld the title " .
Altogether , Hawkins called 215 witnesses , including numbers from France , Melipilla , Australia and Wapping , who testified either that the Claimant was not Roger Tichborne or that he was Arthur Orton . A handwriting expert swore that the Claimant 's writing resembled Orton 's but not Roger Tichborne 's . The entire story of rescue by the Osprey was , Hawkins asserted , a fraud . A ship of that name had arrived in Melbourne in July 1854 but did not correspond to the Claimant 's description . Furthermore , the Claimant had provided the wrong name for Osprey 's captain , and the names he gave for two of Osprey 's crew were found to belong to members of the crew of the Middleton , the ship which had landed Orton at Hobart . No mention of a rescue had been found in Osprey 's log or in the Melbourne harbourmaster 's records . Giving evidence on the contents of the sealed packet , Gosford revealed that it contained information regarding the disposition of certain properties , but nothing relating to Katherine Doughty 's seduction or pregnancy .
Kenealy 's defence was that the Claimant was victim of a conspiracy which encompassed the Catholic Church , the government and the legal establishment . He frequently sought to demolish witnesses ' character , as with Lord Bellew , whose reputation he destroyed by revealing details of the peer 's adultery . Kenealy 's own witnesses included Bogle and Biddulph , who remained steadfast , but more sensational testimony came from a sailor called Jean Luie , who claimed that he had been on the Osprey during the rescue mission . Luie identified the Claimant as " Mr Rogers " , one of six survivors picked up and taken to Melbourne . On investigation Luie was found to be an impostor , a former prisoner who had been in England at the time of the Bella ’ s sinking . He was convicted of perjury and sentenced to seven years ' imprisonment .
= = = Summing @-@ up , verdict and sentence = = =
After closing addresses from Kenealy and Hawkins , Cockburn began summing @-@ up on 29 January 1874 . His speech was prefaced by a severe denunciation of Kenealy 's conduct , " the longest , severest and best merited rebuke ever administered from the Bench to a member of the bar " according to the trial 's chronicler John Morse . The tone of the summing @-@ up was partisan , frequently drawing the jury 's attention to the Claimant 's " gross and astonishing ignorance " of things he would certainly know if he were Roger Tichborne . Cockburn rejected the Claimant 's version of the sealed package contents and all imputations against Katherine Doughty 's honour . Of Cockburn 's peroration , Morse remarked that " never was a more resolute determination manifested [ by a judge ] to control the result " . While much of the press applauded Cockburn 's forthrightness , his summing @-@ up was also criticised as " a Niagara of condemnation " rather than an impartial review .
The jury retired at noon on Saturday 28 February , and returned to the court within 30 minutes . Their verdict declared that the Claimant was not Roger Tichborne , that he had not seduced Katherine Doughty , and that he was indeed Arthur Orton . He was thus convicted of perjury . The jury added a condemnation of Kenealy 's conduct during the trial . After the judges refused his request to address the court , the Claimant was sentenced to two consecutive terms of seven years ' imprisonment . Kenealy 's behaviour ended his legal career ; he was expelled from the Oxford circuit mess and from Gray 's Inn , so that he could no longer practise . On 2 December 1874 the Lord Chancellor revoked Kenealy 's patent as a Queen 's Counsel .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Popular movement = = =
The court 's verdict swelled the popular tide in favour of the Claimant . He and Kenealy were hailed as heroes , the latter as a martyr who had sacrificed his legal career . George Bernard Shaw , writing much later , highlighted the paradox whereby the Claimant was perceived simultaneously as a legitimate baronet and as a working @-@ class man denied his legal rights by a ruling elite . In April 1874 Kenealy launched a political organisation , the " Magna Charta Association " , with a broad agenda that reflected some of the Chartist demands of the 1830s and 1840s . In February 1875 Kenealy fought a parliamentary by @-@ election for Stoke @-@ upon @-@ Trent as " The People 's Candidate " , and won with a resounding majority . However , he failed to persuade the House of Commons to establish a royal commission into the Tichborne trial , his proposal securing only his own vote and the support of two non @-@ voting tellers , against 433 opposed . Thereafter , within parliament Kenealy became a generally derided figure , and most of his campaigning was conducted elsewhere . In the years of the Tichborne movement 's popularity a considerable market was created for souvenirs in the form of medallions , china figurines , teacloths and other memorabilia . However , by 1880 interest in the case had declined , and in the General Election of that year Kenealy was heavily defeated . He died of heart failure a few days after the election . The Magna Charta Association continued for several more years , with dwindling support ; The Englishman , the newspaper founded by Kenealy during the trial , closed down in May 1886 , and there is no evidence of the Association 's continuing activities after that date .
= = = Claimant 's release and final years = = =
The Claimant was released on licence on 11 October 1884 after serving 10 years . He was much slimmer ; a letter to Onslow dated May 1875 reports a loss of 148 pounds ( 67 kg ) . Throughout his imprisonment he had maintained that he was Roger Tichborne , but on release he disappointed supporters by showing no interest in the Magna Charta Association , instead signing a contract to tour with music halls and circuses . The British public 's interest in him had largely waned ; in 1886 he went to New York but failed to inspire any enthusiasm there and ended up working as a bartender .
He returned in 1887 to England , where , although not officially divorced from Mary Ann Bryant , he married a music hall singer , Lily Enever . In 1895 , for a fee of a few hundred pounds , he confessed in The People newspaper that he was , after all , Arthur Orton . With the proceeds he opened a small tobacconist 's shop in Islington ; however , he quickly retracted the confession and insisted again that he was Roger Tichborne . His shop failed , as did other business attempts , and he died destitute , of heart disease , on 1 April 1898 . His funeral caused a brief revival of interest ; around 5 @,@ 000 people attended Paddington cemetery for the burial in an unmarked pauper 's grave . In what McWilliam calls " an act of extraordinary generosity " the Tichborne family allowed a card bearing the name " Sir Roger Charles Doughty Tichborne " to be placed on the coffin before its interment . The name " Tichborne " was registered in the cemetery 's records .
= = = Appraisal = = =
Commentators have generally accepted the trial jury 's verdict that the Claimant was Arthur Orton . However , McWilliam cites the monumental study by Douglas Woodruff ( 1957 ) , in which the author posits that the Claimant could just possibly have been Roger Tichborne . Woodruff 's principal argument is the sheer improbability that anyone could conceive such an imposture from scratch , at such a distance , and then implement it : " [ I ] t was carrying effrontery beyond the bounds of sanity if Arthur Orton embarked with a wife and retinue and crossed the world , knowing that they would all be destitute if he did not succeed in convincing a woman he had never met and knew nothing about first @-@ hand , that he was her son " .
In 1876 , while the Claimant was serving his prison sentence , interest was briefly raised by the claims of William Cresswell , an inmate of a Sydney lunatic asylum , that he was Arthur Orton . There was circumstantial evidence that indicated some connection with Orton , and the Claimant 's supporters campaigned to have Cresswell brought to England . Nothing came of this , although the question of Cresswell 's possible identity remained a matter of dispute for years . In 1884 a Sydney court found the matter undecided , and ruled that the status quo should be maintained ; Cresswell stayed in the asylum . Shortly before his death in 1904 he was visited by the contemporaneous Lady Tichborne , who found no physical resemblance to any member of the Tichborne family .
Attempts have been made to reconcile some of the troubling uncertainties and contradictions within the case . To explain the degree of facial resemblance ( which even Cockburn accepted ) of the Claimant to the Tichborne family , Onslow suggested in The Englishman that Orton 's mother was an illegitimate daughter of Sir Henry Tichborne , Roger Tichborne 's grandfather . An alternative story has Orton 's mother seduced by James Tichborne , making Orton and Roger half @-@ brothers . Other versions have Orton and Roger as companions in crime in Australia , with Orton killing Roger and assuming his identity . The Claimant 's daughter by Mary Ann Bryant , Teresa Mary Agnes , maintained that her father confessed to her that he had killed Arthur Orton and thus could not disclose details of his Australian years . There is no direct evidence for any of these theories . Teresa continued to proclaim her identity as a Tichborne daughter , and in 1924 was imprisoned for making threats and demands for money to the family .
Woodruff submits that the legal verdicts , although fair given the evidence before the courts , have not fully resolved the " great doubt " that Cockburn admitted hung over the case . Woodruff wrote in 1957 : " Probably for ever , now , its key long
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ization . When the repulsive forces within the liquid metal surface exceeds the forces of the surface tension , it vigorously explodes .
= = = Compounds with the group 14 elements = = =
Lithium and sodium react with carbon to form acetylides , Li2C2 and Na2C2 , which can also be obtained by reaction of the metal with acetylene . Potassium , rubidium , and caesium react with graphite ; their atoms are intercalated between the hexagonal graphite layers , forming graphite intercalation compounds of formulae MC60 ( dark grey , almost black ) , MC48 ( dark grey , almost black ) , MC36 ( blue ) , MC24 ( steel blue ) , and MC8 ( bronze ) ( M
= K , Rb , or Cs ) . These compounds are over 200 times more electrically conductive than pure graphite , suggesting that the valence electron of the alkali metal is transferred to the graphite layers ( e.g. M + C −
8 ) . Upon heating of KC8 , the elimination of potassium atoms results in the conversion in sequence to KC24 , KC36 , KC48 and finally KC60 . KC8 is a very strong reducing agent and is pyrophoric and explodes on contact with water . While the large alkali metals ( K , Rb , and Cs ) initially form MC8 , the smaller ones initially form MC6 .
When the alkali metals react with the heavier elements in the carbon group , ionic substances with cage @-@ like structures are formed , such as the silicide M4Si4 ( M =
K , Rb , or Cs ) , which contains M + and tetrahedral Si4 −
4 ions . The chemistry of alkali metal germanides , involving the germanide ion Ge4 − and other cluster ( Zintl ) ions such as Ge2 −
4 , Ge4 −
9 , Ge2 −
9 , and [ ( Ge9 ) 2 ] 6 − , is largely analogous to that of the corresponding silicides . Alkali metal stannides are mostly ionic , sometimes with the stannide ion ( Sn4 − ) , and sometimes with more complex Zintl ions such as Sn4 −
9 , which appears in tetrapotassium nonastannide ( K4Sn9 ) . The monatomic plumbide ion ( Pb4 − ) is unknown , and indeed its formation is predicted to be energetically unfavourable ; alkali metal plumbides have complex Zintl ions , such as Pb4 −
9 .
= = = Nitrides and pnictides = = =
Lithium , the lightest of the alkali metals , is the only alkali metal which reacts with nitrogen at standard conditions , and its nitride is the only stable alkali metal nitride . Nitrogen is an unreactive gas because breaking the strong triple bond in the dinitrogen molecule ( N2 ) requires a lot of energy . The formation of an alkali metal nitride would consume the ionisation energy of the alkali metal ( forming M + ions ) , the energy required to break the triple bond in N2 and the formation of N3 − ions , and all the energy released from the formation of an alkali metal nitride is from the lattice energy of the alkali metal nitride . The lattice energy is maximised with small , highly charged ions ; the alkali metals do not form highly charged ions , only forming ions with a charge of + 1 , so only lithium , the smallest alkali metal , can release enough lattice energy to make the reaction with nitrogen exothermic , forming lithium nitride . The reactions of the other alkali metals with nitrogen would not release enough lattice energy and would thus be endothermic , so they do not form nitrides at standard conditions . ( Sodium nitride ( Na3N ) and potassium nitride ( K3N ) , while existing , are extremely unstable , being prone to decomposing back into their constituent elements , and cannot be produced by reacting the elements with each other at standard conditions . )
All the alkali metals react readily with phosphorus and arsenic to form phosphides and arsenides with the formula M3Pn ( where M represents an alkali metal and Pn represents a pnictogen ) . This is due to the greater size of the P3 − and As3 − ions , so that less lattice energy needs to be released for the salts to form . These are not the only phosphides and arsenides of the alkali metals : for example , potassium has nine different known phosphides , with formulae K3P , K4P3 , K5P4 , KP , K4P6 , K3P7 , K3P11 , KP10.3 , and KP15 . While most metals form arsenides , only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides . The structure of Na3As is complex with unusually short Na – Na distances of 328 – 330 pm which are shorter than in sodium metal , and this indicates that even with these electropositive metals the bonding cannot be straightforwardly ionic . Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula M3As are known , such as LiAs , which has a metallic lustre and electrical conductivity indicating the presence of some metallic bonding . The antimonides are unstable and reactive as the Sb3 − ion is a strong reducing agent ; reaction of them with acids form the toxic and unstable gas stibine ( SbH3 ) . Bismuthides are not even wholly ionic ; they are intermetallic compounds containing partially metallic and partially ionic bonds .
= = = Oxides and chalcogenides = = =
All the alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen at standard conditions . They form various types of oxides , such as simple oxides ( containing the O2 − ion ) , peroxides ( containing the O2 −
2 ion , where there is a single bond between the two oxygen atoms ) , superoxides ( containing the O −
2 ion ) , and many others . Lithium burns in air to form lithium oxide , but sodium reacts with oxygen to form a mixture of sodium oxide and sodium peroxide . Potassium forms a mixture of potassium peroxide and potassium superoxide , while rubidium and caesium form the superoxide exclusively . Their reactivity increases going down the group : while lithium , sodium and potassium merely burn in air , rubidium and caesium are pyrophoric ( spontaneously catch fire in air ) .
The smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the more complex anions ( the peroxide and superoxide ) due to their small size . This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms , forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom . This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with oxygen at room temperature . This effect becomes drastically weaker for the larger sodium and potassium , allowing them to form the less stable peroxides . Rubidium and caesium , at the bottom of the group , are so large that even the least stable superoxides can form . Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed , the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised . ( The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist , but do not form upon direct reaction of the metal with oxygen at standard conditions . ) In addition , the small size of the Li + and O2 − ions contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure . Under controlled conditions , however , all the alkali metals , with the exception of francium , are known to form their oxides , peroxides , and superoxides . The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful oxidizing agents . Sodium peroxide and potassium superoxide react with carbon dioxide to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas , which allows them to be used in submarine air purifiers ; the presence of water vapour , naturally present in breath , makes the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide even more efficient . All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red ozonides ( MO3 ) through low @-@ temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with ozone : the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid ammonia .
Rubidium and caesium can form even more complicated oxides than the superoxides . Rubidium can form Rb6O and Rb9O2 upon oxidation in air , while caesium forms an immense variety of oxides , such as the ozonide CsO3 and several brightly coloured suboxides , such as Cs
7O , Cs
4O , Cs
11O
3 , Cs
3O ( dark @-@ green ) , CsO , Cs
3O
2 , as well as Cs
7O
2 . The latter may be heated under vacuum to generate Cs
2O .
The alkali metals can also react analogously with the heavier chalcogens ( sulfur , selenium , tellurium , and polonium ) , and all the alkali metal chalcogenides are known ( with the exception of francium 's ) . Reaction with an excess of the chalcogen can similarly result in lower chalcogenides , with chalcogen ions containing chains of the chalcogen atoms in question . For example , sodium can react with sulfur to form the sulfide ( Na2S ) and various polysulfides with the formula Na2Sx ( x from 2 to 6 ) , containing the S2 − x ions . Due to the basicity of the Se2 − and Te2 − ions , the alkali metal selenides and tellurides are alkaline in solution ; when reacted directly with selenium and tellurium , alkali metal polyselenides and polytellurides are formed along with the selenides and tellurides with the Se2 − x and Te2 − x ions . The alkali metal polonides are all ionic compounds containing the Po2 − ion ; they are very chemically stable and can be produced by direct reaction of the elements at around 300 – 400 ° C.
= = = Hydrides and halides = = =
The alkali metals are among the most electropositive elements on the periodic table and thus tend to bond ionically to the most electronegative elements on the periodic table , the halogens , forming salts known as the alkali metal halides . The reaction is very vigorous and can sometimes result in explosions . This includes sodium chloride , otherwise known as common salt . The reactivity becomes higher from lithium to caesium and drops from fluorine to iodine . All of the alkali metal halides have the formula MX where M is an alkali metal and X is a halogen . They are all white ionic crystalline solids . All the alkali metal halides are soluble in water except for lithium fluoride ( LiF ) , which is insoluble in water due to its very high lattice enthalpy . The high lattice enthalpy of lithium fluoride is due to the small sizes of the Li + and F − ions , causing the electrostatic interactions between them to be strong : a similar effect occurs for magnesium fluoride , which lithium has a diagonal relationship with . The alkali metals also react similarly with hydrogen to form ionic alkali metal hydrides .
= = = Coordination complexes = = =
Alkali metal cations do not usually form coordination complexes with simple Lewis bases due to their low charge of just + 1 and their relatively large size ; thus the Li + ion forms most complexes and the heavier alkali metal ions form less and less . In aqueous solution , the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes ( [ M ( H2O ) 6 ) ] + ) , with the exception of the lithium ion , which due to its small size forms tetrahedral tetrahydrate complexes ( [ Li ( H2O ) 4 ) ] + ) ; the alkali metals form these complexes because their ions are attracted by electrostatic forces of attraction to the polar water molecules . Because of this , anhydrous salts containing alkali metal cations are often used as desiccants . Alkali metals also readily form complexes with crown ethers ( e.g. 12 @-@ crown @-@ 4 for Li + , 15 @-@ crown @-@ 5 for Na + , and 18 @-@ crown @-@ 6 for K + ) and cryptands due to electrostatic attraction .
= = = Ammonia solutions = = =
The alkali metals dissolve slowly in liquid ammonia , forming hydrogen gas and the alkali metal amide ( MNH2 , where M represents an alkali metal ) : this was first noted by Humphry Davy in 1809 and rediscovered by W. Weyl in 1864 . The process may be speeded up by a catalyst . Similar solutions are formed by the heavy divalent alkaline earth metals calcium , strontium , barium , as well as the divalent lanthanides , europium and ytterbium . The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of solution , leaving intensely coloured ammonia solutions of the alkali metals . In 1907 , Charles Krause identified the colour as being due to the presence of solvated electrons , which contribute to the high electrical conductivity of these solutions . At low concentrations ( below 3 M ) , the solution is dark blue and has ten times the conductivity of aqueous sodium chloride ; at higher concentrations ( above 3 M ) , the solution is copper @-@ coloured and has approximately the conductivity of liquid metals like mercury . In addition to the alkali metal amide salt and solvated electrons , such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation ( M + ) , the neutral alkali metal atom ( M ) , diatomic alkali metal molecules ( M2 ) and alkali metal anions ( M − ) . These are unstable and eventually become the more thermodynamically stable alkali metal amide and hydrogen gas . Solvated electrons are powerful reducing agents and are often used in chemical synthesis .
= = = Organometallic = = =
Being the smallest alkali metal , lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable organometallic compounds , which are bonded covalently . Organolithium compounds are electrically non @-@ conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures , and tend to form oligomers with the structure ( RLi ) x where R is the organic group . As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the charge density of the bond on the carbon atom , effectively creating a carbanion , organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles . For use as bases , butyllithiums are often used and are commercially available . An example of an organolithium compound is methyllithium ( ( CH3Li ) x ) , which exists in tetrameric ( x
= 4 ) and hexameric ( x =
6 ) forms .
The application of organosodium compounds in chemistry is limited in part due to competition from organolithium compounds , which are commercially available and exhibit more convenient reactivity . The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is sodium cyclopentadienide . Sodium tetraphenylborate can also be classified as an organosodium compound since in the solid state sodium is bound to the aryl groups . Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even more reactive than organosodium compounds and of limited utility . A notable reagent is Schlosser 's base , a mixture of n @-@ butyllithium and potassium tert @-@ butoxide . This reagent reacts with propene to form the compound allylpotassium ( KCH2CHCH2 ) . cis @-@ 2 @-@ Butene and trans @-@ 2 @-@ butene equilibrate when in contact with alkali metals . Whereas isomerization is fast with lithium and sodium , it is slow with the higher alkali metals . The higher alkali metals also favour the sterically congested conformation . Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been reported , establishing that they , like the sodium compounds , are polymeric . Organosodium , organopotassium , organorubidium and organocaesium compounds are all mostly ionic and are insoluble ( or nearly so ) in nonpolar solvents .
= = Extensions = =
Although francium is the heaviest alkali metal that has been discovered , there has been some theoretical work predicting the physical and chemical characteristics of the hypothetical heavier alkali metals . Being the first period 8 element , the undiscovered element ununennium ( element 119 ) is predicted to be the next alkali metal after francium and behave much like their lighter congeners ; however , it is also predicted to differ from the lighter alkali metals in some properties . Its chemistry is predicted to be closer to that of potassium or rubidium instead of caesium or francium . This is unusual as periodic trends , ignoring relativistic effects would predict ununennium to be even more reactive than caesium and francium . This lowered reactivity is due to the relativistic stabilisation of ununennium 's valence electron , increasing ununennium 's first ionisation energy and decreasing the metallic and ionic radii ; this effect is already seen for francium . This assumes that ununennium will behave chemically as an alkali metal , which , although likely , may not be true due to relativistic effects . The relativistic stabilisation of the 8s orbital also increases ununennium 's electron affinity far beyond that of caesium and francium ; indeed , ununennium is expected to have an electron affinity higher than all the alkali metals lighter than it . Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in the polarisability of ununennium . On the other hand , ununennium is predicted to continue the trend of melting points decreasing going down the group , being expected to have a melting point between 0 ° C and 30 ° C.
The stabilisation of ununennium 's valence electron and thus the contraction of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to be lowered to 240 pm , very close to that of rubidium ( 247 pm ) , so that the chemistry of ununennium in the + 1 oxidation state should be more similar to the chemistry of rubidium than to that of francium . On the other hand , the ionic radius of the Uue + ion is predicted to be larger than that of Rb + , because the 7p orbitals are destabilised and are thus larger than the p @-@ orbitals of the lower shells . Ununennium may also show the + 3 oxidation state , which is not seen in any other alkali metal , in addition to the + 1 oxidation state that is characteristic of the other alkali metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkali metals : this is because of the destabilisation and expansion of the 7p3 / 2 spinor , causing its outermost electrons to have a lower ionisation energy than what would otherwise be expected . Indeed , many ununennium compounds are expected to have a large covalent character , due to the involvement of the 7p3 / 2 electrons in the bonding .
Not as much work has been done predicting the properties of the alkali metals beyond ununennium . Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table would put element 169 , unhexennium , under ununennium , Dirac @-@ Fock calculations predict that the next alkali metal after ununennium may actually be element 165 , unhexpentium , which is predicted to have the electron configuration [ Uuo ] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p1 / 22 9s1 . Further calculations show that unhexpentium would follow the trend of increasing ionisation energy beyond caesium , having an ionisation energy comparable to that of sodium , and that it should also continue the trend of decreasing atomic radii beyond caesium , having an atomic radius comparable to that of potassium . However , the 7d electrons of unhexpentium may also be able to participate in chemical reactions along with the 9s electron , possibly allowing oxidation states beyond + 1 and perhaps even making unhexpentium behave more like a boron group element or group 11 element than an alkali metal . Due to the alkali and alkaline earth metals both being s @-@ block elements , these predictions for the trends and properties of ununennium and unhexpentium also mostly hold quite similarly for the corresponding alkaline earth metals unbinilium ( Ubn ) and unhexhexium ( Uhh ) .
The probable properties of further alkali metals beyond unhexpentium have not been explored yet as of 2015 ; in fact , it is suspected that they may not be able to exist . In periods 8 and above of the periodic table , relativistic and shell @-@ structure effects become so strong that extrapolations from lighter congeners become completely inaccurate . In addition , the relativistic and shell @-@ structure effects ( which stabilise the s @-@ orbitals and destabilise and expand the d- , f- , and g @-@ orbitals of higher shells ) have opposite effects , causing even larger difference between relativistic and non @-@ relativistic calculations of the properties of elements with such high atomic numbers . Interest in the chemical properties of ununennium and unhexpentium stems from the fact that both elements are located close to the expected locations of islands of stabilities , centered at elements 122 ( 306Ubb ) and 164 ( 482Uhq ) .
= = Other similar substances = =
= = = Hydrogen = = =
The element hydrogen , with one electron per neutral atom , is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table for convenience , but hydrogen is not normally considered to be an alkali metal ; when it is considered to be an alkali metal , it is because of its atomic properties and not its chemical properties . Under typical conditions , pure hydrogen exists as a diatomic gas consisting of two atoms per molecule ( H2 ) ; however , the alkali metals only form diatomic molecules ( such as dilithium , Li2 ) at high temperatures , when they are in the gaseous state .
Hydrogen , like the alkali metals , has one valence electron and reacts easily with the halogens but the similarities end there . Its placement above lithium is primarily due to its electron configuration and not its chemical properties . It is sometimes placed above carbon due to their similar electronegativities or fluorine due to their similar chemical properties .
The first ionisation energy of hydrogen ( 1312 @.@ 0 kJ / mol ) is much higher than that of the alkali metals . As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom , hydrogen often behaves like a halogen , forming the negative hydride ion , and is sometimes considered to be a halogen . ( The alkali metals can also form negative ions , known as alkalides , but these are little more than laboratory curiosities , being unstable . ) It was expected for some time that liquid hydrogen would show metallic properties ; while this has been shown to not be the case , under extremely high pressures , such as those found at the cores of Jupiter and Saturn , hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal ; in this phase , it is known as metallic hydrogen . The electrical resistivity of liquid metallic hydrogen at 3000 K is approximately equal to that of liquid rubidium and caesium at 2000 K at the respective pressures when they undergo a nonmetal @-@ to @-@ metal transition .
The 1s1 electron configuration of hydrogen , while superficially similar to that of the alkali metals ( ns1 ) , is unique because there is no 1p subshell . Hence it can lose an electron to form the hydron H + , or gain one to form the hydride ion H − . In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals ; in the latter case , the halogens , but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well . Group 14 is the best fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as ionization energy and electron affinity , but none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory . As an example of hydrogen 's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size , the hydrogen ion is very small ( radius around 150 fm compared to
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this reaction will be able to create any atoms of ununennium in the near future , given the extremely difficult task of making sufficient amounts of 254Es , which is favoured for production of ultraheavy elements because of its large mass , relatively long half @-@ life of 270 days , and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms , to make a large enough target to increase the sensitivity of the experiment to the required level ; einsteinium has not been found in nature and has only been produced in laboratories . However , given that ununennium is only the first period 8 element on the extended periodic table , it may well be discovered in the near future through other reactions ; indeed , another attempt to synthesise ununennium by bombarding a berkelium target with titanium ions is under way at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt , Germany . Currently , none of the period 8 elements have been discovered yet , and it is also possible , due to drip instabilities , that only the lower period 8 elements , up to around element 128 , are physically possible . No attempts at synthesis have been made for any heavier alkali metals , such as unhexpentium , due to their extremely high atomic number .
= = Occurrence = =
= = = In the Solar System = = =
The Oddo – Harkins rule holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers , with the exception of hydrogen . This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another , thus increasing their atomic number . In elements with even atomic numbers , protons are paired , with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other , enhancing stability . All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them ( the noble gases and the alkaline earth metals ) in the Solar System . The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesized in supernovae and not in stellar nucleosynthesis . Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesized in both Big Bang nucleosynthesis and in stars : the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium , beryllium and boron due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 nucleons , and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the triple @-@ alpha process , fusing three helium nuclei to form carbon , and skipping over those three elements .
= = = On Earth = = =
The Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun , but the planets acquired different compositions during the formation and evolution of the solar system . In turn , the natural history of the Earth caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements . The mass of the Earth is approximately 5 @.@ 98 × 1024 kg . It is composed mostly of iron ( 32 @.@ 1 % ) , oxygen ( 30 @.@ 1 % ) , silicon ( 15 @.@ 1 % ) , magnesium ( 13 @.@ 9 % ) , sulfur ( 2 @.@ 9 % ) , nickel ( 1 @.@ 8 % ) , calcium ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) , and aluminium ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) ; with the remaining 1 @.@ 2 % consisting of trace amounts of other elements . Due to mass segregation , the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron ( 88 @.@ 8 % ) , with smaller amounts of nickel ( 5 @.@ 8 % ) , sulfur ( 4 @.@ 5 % ) , and less than 1 % trace elements .
The alkali metals , due to their high reactivity , do not occur naturally in pure form in nature . They are lithophiles and therefore remain close to the Earth 's surface because they combine readily with oxygen and so associate strongly with silica , forming relatively low @-@ density minerals that do not sink down into the Earth 's core . Potassium , rubidium and caesium are also incompatible elements due to their large ionic radii .
Sodium and potassium are very abundant in earth , both being among the ten most common elements in Earth 's crust ; sodium makes up approximately 2 @.@ 6 % of the Earth 's crust measured by weight , making it the sixth most abundant element overall and the most abundant alkali metal . Potassium makes up approximately 1 @.@ 5 % of the Earth 's crust and is the seventh most abundant element . Sodium is found in many different minerals , of which the most common is ordinary salt ( sodium chloride ) , which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater . Other solid deposits include halite , amphibole , cryolite , nitratine , and zeolite . Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating , which still occurs now in places such as Utah 's Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea . Despite their near @-@ equal abundance in Earth 's crust , sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean , both because potassium 's larger size makes its salts less soluble , and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium .
Despite its chemical similarity , lithium typically does not occur together with sodium or potassium due to its smaller size . Due to its relatively low reactivity , it can be found in seawater in large amounts ; it is estimated that seawater is approximately 0 @.@ 14 to 0 @.@ 25 parts per million ( ppm ) or 25 micromolar . Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in ferromagnesium minerals , where its crustal concentration is about 18 ppm , comparable to that of gallium and niobium . Commercially , the most important lithium mineral is spodumene , which occurs in large deposits worldwide .
Rubidium is approximately as abundant as zinc and more abundant than copper . It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite , pollucite , carnallite , zinnwaldite , and lepidolite , although none of these contain only rubidium and no other alkali metals . Caesium is more abundant than some commonly known elements , such as antimony , cadmium , tin , and tungsten , but is much less abundant than rubidium .
Francium @-@ 223 , the only naturally occurring isotope of francium , is the product of the alpha decay of actinium @-@ 227 and can be found in trace amounts in uranium and thorium minerals . In a given sample of uranium , there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 1018 uranium atoms . It has been calculated that there is at most 30 g of francium in the earth 's crust at any time , due to its extremely short half @-@ life of 22 minutes .
= = Production and isolation = =
The production of pure alkali metals is difficult due to their extreme reactivity with commonly used substances , such as water . The alkali metals are so reactive that they cannot be displaced by other elements and must be isolated through high @-@ energy methods such as electrolysis .
Lithium salts have to be extracted from the water of mineral springs , brine pools , and brine deposits . The metal is produced electrolytically from a mixture of fused lithium chloride and potassium chloride .
Potassium occurs in many minerals , such as sylvite ( potassium chloride ) . It is occasionally produced through separating the potassium from the chlorine in potassium chloride , but is more often produced through electrolysis of potassium hydroxide , found extensively in places such as Canada , Russia , Belarus , Germany , Israel , United States , and Jordan , in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s and early 1900s . It can also be produced from seawater . Sodium occurs mostly in seawater and dried seabed , but is now produced through electrolysis of sodium chloride by lowering the melting point of the substance to below 700 ° C through the use of a Downs cell . Extremely pure sodium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of sodium azide .
For several years in the 1950s and 1960s , a by @-@ product of the potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium . Alkarb contained 21 % rubidium while the rest was potassium and a small fraction of caesium . Today the largest producers of caesium , for example the Tanco Mine , Manitoba , Canada , produce rubidium as by @-@ product from pollucite . Today , a common method for separating rubidium from potassium and caesium is the fractional crystallization of a rubidium and caesium alum ( Cs , Rb ) Al ( SO4 ) 2 · 12H2O , which yields pure rubidium alum after approximately 30 different reactions . The limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limits the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 tonnes per year . Caesium , however , is not produced from the above reaction . Instead , the mining of pollucite ore is the main method of obtaining pure caesium , extracted from the ore mainly by three methods : acid digestion , alkaline decomposition , and direct reduction . Both metals are produced as by @-@ products of lithium production : after 1958 , when interest in lithium 's thermonuclear properties increased sharply , the production of rubidium and caesium also increased correspondingly .
Francium @-@ 223 , the only naturally occurring isotope of francium , is produced naturally as the product of the alpha decay of actinium @-@ 227 . Francium can be found in trace amounts in uranium and thorium minerals ; it has been calculated that at most there are 30 g of francium in the earth 's crust at any given time . As a result of its extreme rarity in nature , most francium is synthesized in the nuclear reaction 197Au + 18O → 210Fr + 5 n , yielding francium @-@ 209 , francium @-@ 210 , and francium @-@ 211 . The greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is about 300 @,@ 000 neutral atoms , which were synthesized using the nuclear reaction given above .
From their silicate ores , all the alkali metals may be obtained the same way : sulfuric acid is first used to dissolve the desired alkali metal ion and aluminium ( III ) ions from the ore ( leaching ) , whereupon basic precipitation removes aluminium ions from the mixture by precipitating it as the hydroxide . The remaining insoluble alkali metal carbonate is then precipitated selectively ; the salt is then dissolved in hydrochloric acid . The result is then left to evaporate and the alkali metal can then be isolated through electrolysis .
Lithium and sodium are typically isolated through electrolysis from their liquid chlorides , with calcium chloride typically added to lower the melting point of the mixture . The heavier alkali metals , however , is more typically isolated in a different way , where a reducing agent ( typically sodium for potassium and magnesium or calcium for the heaviest alkali metals ) is used to reduce the alkali metal chloride . The liquid or gaseous product ( the alkali metal ) then undergoes fractional distillation for purification .
= = Applications = =
Lithium , sodium , and potassium have many applications , while rubidium and caesium are very useful in academic contexts but do not have many applications yet . Lithium is often used in batteries , and lithium oxide can help process silica . Lithium can also be used to make lubricating greases , air treatment , and aluminium production .
Pure sodium has many applications , including use in sodium @-@ vapour lamps , which produce very efficient light compared to other types of lighting , and can help smooth the surface of other metals . Being a strong reducing agent , it is often used to reduce many other metals , such as titanium and zirconium , from their chlorides . Sodium compounds have many applications as well , the most well @-@ known being table salt . Sodium is also used in soap as salts of fatty acids .
Potassium compounds are often used as fertilisers as potassium is an important element for plant nutrition . Potassium hydroxide is a very strong base , and is used to control the pH of various substances .
Rubidium and caesium are often used in atomic clocks . Caesium atomic clocks are extraordinarily accurate ; if a clock had been made at the time of the dinosaurs , it would be off by less than four seconds ( after 80 million years ) . For that reason , caesium atoms are used as the definition of the second . Rubidium ions are often used in purple fireworks , and caesium is often used in drilling fluids in the petroleum industry .
Francium has no commercial applications , but because of francium 's relatively simple atomic structure , among other things , it has been used in spectroscopy experiments , leading to more information regarding energy levels and the coupling constants between subatomic particles . Studies on the light emitted by laser @-@ trapped francium @-@ 210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels , similar to those predicted by quantum theory .
= = Biological role and precautions = =
The bioinorganic chemistry of the alkali metal ions has been extensively reviewed . Solid state crystal structures have been deternined for many complexes of alkali metal ions in small peptides , nucleic acid constituents , carbohydrates and ionophore complexes .
Lithium naturally only occurs in traces in biological systems and has no known biological role , but does have effects on the body when ingested . Lithium carbonate is used as a mood stabiliser in psychiatry to treat bipolar disorder ( manic @-@ depression ) in daily doses of about 0 @.@ 5 to 2 grams , although there are side @-@ effects . Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness , slurred speech and vomiting , among other symptoms , and poisons the central nervous system , which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage . Its biochemistry , the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an essential trace element , although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified .
Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems , generally functioning as electrolytes inside and outside cells . Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume , blood pressure , osmotic equilibrium and pH ; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day . Sodium chloride ( also known as common salt ) is the principal source of sodium in the diet , and is used as seasoning and preservative , such as for pickling and jerky ; most of it comes from processed foods . The DRI for sodium is 1 @.@ 5 grams per day , but most people in the United States consume more than 2 @.@ 3 grams per day , the minimum amount that promotes hypertension ; this in turn causes 7 @.@ 6 million premature deaths worldwide .
Potassium is the major cation ( positive ion ) inside animal cells , while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells . The concentration differences of these charged particles causes a difference in electric potential between the inside and outside of cells , known as the membrane potential . The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by ion pumps in the cell membrane . The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an action potential — a " spike " of electrical discharge . The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as neurotransmission , muscle contraction , and heart function .
Rubidium has no known biological role , but may help stimulate metabolism , and , similarly to caesium , replace potassium in the body causing potassium deficiency . Caesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people , but most caesium compounds are mildly toxic because of chemical similarity of caesium to potassium , allowing the caesium to replace the potassium in the body , causing potassium deficiency . Exposure to large amounts of caesium compounds can cause hyperirritability and spasms , but as such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources , caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant . The median lethal dose ( LD50 ) value for caesium chloride in mice is 2 @.@ 3 g per kilogram , which is comparable to the LD50 values of potassium chloride and sodium chloride . Caesium chloride has been promoted as an alternative cancer therapy , but has been linked to the deaths of over 50 patients , on whom it was used as part of a scientifically unvalidated cancer treatment . Radioisotopes of caesium require special precautions : the improper handling of caesium @-@ 137 gamma ray sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries . Perhaps the best @-@ known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987 , in which an improperly @-@ disposed @-@ of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic in the city of Goiânia , Brazil , was scavenged from a junkyard , and the glowing caesium salt sold to curious , uneducated buyers . This led to four deaths and serious injuries from radiation exposure . Together with caesium @-@ 134 , iodine @-@ 131 , and strontium @-@ 90 , caesium @-@ 137 was among the isotopes distributed by the Chernobyl disaster which constitute the greatest risk to health .
Francium has no biological role and is most likely to be toxic due to its extreme radioactivity , causing radiation poisoning , but since the greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is about 300 @,@ 000 neutral atoms , it is unlikely that most people will ever encounter francium .
= HMS Emerald ( 1795 ) =
HMS Emerald was a 36 @-@ gun Amazon @-@ class frigate that Sir William Rule designed in 1794 for the Royal Navy . The Admiralty ordered her construction towards the end of May 1794 and work began the following month at Northfleet dockyard . She was completed on 12 October 1795 and then sailed to the Mediterranean to join the fleet under Admiral John Jervis .
In 1797 , Emerald was one of several vessels sent to hunt down and capture the crippled Santisima Trinidad , which had managed to escape from the British victory at the Battle of Cape St Vincent . Emerald was supposed to have been present at the Battle of the Nile but in May 1798 a storm separated her from Horatio Nelson 's squadron and she arrived in Aboukir Bay nine days too late . She was part of Rear @-@ Admiral John Thomas Duckworth 's squadron during the Action of 7 April 1800 , off Cadiz .
Emerald served in the Caribbean throughout 1803 in Samuel Hood 's fleet , and took part in the invasion of St Lucia in July , then Surinam the following spring . Returning to home waters for repairs in 1806 , she served in the western approaches before joining a fleet under Admiral James Gambier in 1809 , and taking part in the Battle of the Basque Roads . In November 1811 she sailed to Portsmouth where she was laid up in ordinary . Fitted out as a receiving ship in 1822 , she was eventually broken up in January 1836 .
= = Construction = =
Emerald was one of four Amazon @-@ class frigates built to William Rule 's design . She and her sister ship , Amazon , were ordered on 24 May 1794 and were both built to the same dimensions : 143 feet 2 1 ⁄ 2 inches ( 43 @.@ 6 m ) along the gun deck , 119 feet 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 36 @.@ 4 m ) at the keel , with a beam of 38 feet 4 inches ( 11 @.@ 7 m ) and a depth in the hold of 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) . They were of 933 67 ⁄ 94 tons ( bm ) .
Emerald 's initial build was completed at Thomas Pitcher 's dockyard in Northfleet at a cost of £ 14 @,@ 419 and she was launched on 31 July 1795 , twenty @-@ seven days after Amazon . After launching , Emerald was immediately taken up @-@ river to Woolwich to receive coppering , which finished 12 October 1795 . She was later fitted @-@ out at a further cost of £ 9 @,@ 390 . A second pair of Amazon @-@ class ships were ordered on 24 January 1795 . They were marginally smaller at 925 87 ⁄ 94 tons ( bm ) and were built from pitch pine .
= = Career = =
= = = Mediterranean service = = =
Emerald was first commissioned in August 1795 , under Velters Cornewall Berkeley and in January 1797 , she sailed for the Mediterranean . Although attached to Admiral John Jervis ' fleet at the time , Emerald did not take part in the Battle of Cape St Vincent on 14 February , but was instead anchored in nearby Lagos Bay with other vessels .
On 16 February , the victorious British fleet and its prize ships entered the bay . Jervis ordered the three frigates , Emerald , Minerve , and Niger , of 40 and 32 guns respectively , to search for the disabled flagship , Santisima Trinidad ; previously seen being towed from the battle . Two smaller craft ; Bonne @-@ Citoyenne , a corvette of 20 guns , and the 14 @-@ gun sloop Raven , joined the three frigates . The British squadron on 20 February sighted Santissima Trinidad under tow by a large frigate and in the company of a brig , but Berkeley , considering his small squadron insufficient , declined to engage ; eventually the Spanish ships sailed from sight . The 32 @-@ gun HMS Terpsichore , whilst cruising alone , later located Santissima Trinidad and engaged her but the out @-@ gunned British frigate was forced to abandon her attack .
= = = = Action of 26 April 1797 = = = =
Following the Battle of Cape St Vincent , the British pursued the remainder of the Spanish fleet to Cadiz , where Jervis began a long @-@ running blockade of the port . On 26 April , whilst cruising in the company of the 74 @-@ gun Irresistible , Emerald helped capture a 34 @-@ gun Spanish ship and destroy another . The two Spanish vessels were sailing close to the coast when , at around 06 : 00 , Jervis 's fleet sighted them . Jervis sent Emerald and Irresistible , under Captain George Martin , to investigate . The British discovered the ships to be the frigates Santa Elena and Ninfa . They had been carrying silver from Havana to Cadiz , but had transferred their cargo the previous night to a fishing boat that had warned them of the proximity of the British fleet .
Aware that the British were pursuing them , the two Spanish ships sought shelter just north of Trafalgar in Conil Bay , the entrance to which was protected by a large rocky ledge . Irresistible and Emerald successfully negotiated this obstacle at around 14 : 30 and engaged the Spanish anchored in the Bay .
The Spanish ships surrendered at approximately 16 : 00 . Eighteen Spaniards were killed and thirty wounded during in the fighting , with the British suffering one killed and one wounded . The remaining crew of Santa Elena avoided capture by cutting their vessel 's cables and drifting her on shore so they could flee on foot . The British subsequently managed to drag Santa Elena back off the beach , but she was badly damaged and sank at sea .
The British took Ninfa into service as HMS Hamadryad , a 36 @-@ gun frigate with a main battery of 12 @-@ pounders . The British were unable to retrieve the cargo of silver , which later arrived safely in Cadiz .
= = = = Second bombardment of Cadiz = = = =
Captain Thomas Waller took command of Emerald in mid @-@ 1797 , and was stationed with Admiral Jervis ' fleet off Cadiz . On 3 July Jervis attempted to bring the protracted blockade to an end by ordering a bombardment of the town . The action resulted in the capture of two Spanish mortar boats but achieved little else .
A second bombardment was decided upon and on the night of 5 July , Emerald , in the company of Terpsichore and the 74 @-@ gun Theseus , provided an escort and protection for three bomb vessels , Thunder , Terror , and Strombolo . This second attack caused much damage , and the next morning , the Spanish hurriedly moved ten of their line @-@ of @-@ battle ships out of range . A third bombardment , planned for 8 July , was cancelled when the weather became unfavourable .
= = = = Attack on Santa Cruz = = = =
Later , in July 1797 , Emerald took part in the unsuccessful attack on Santa Cruz . A planned attack in April , proposed by Admiral Nelson , had been aborted as the troops required to execute it were unavailable . When Jervis was subsequently advised that the Spanish treasure fleet was anchored there , he revived Nelson 's idea .
For the new attack , the plan was for Nelson to take three ships of the line , three frigates , including Emerald , and 200 marines , for an amphibious landing outside the Spanish stronghold . The frigates would then engage the batteries to the north @-@ east of Santa Cruz while the marines stormed the town . However , a combination of strong currents and heavy Spanish fire forced the British to abandon the attack . Several further attempts were made between 22 and 25 July ; although the British were able to land troops , Spanish resistance was too strong and the British had to ask for an honourable withdrawal .
After the attack , Nelson sent Emerald with his report to Jervis , who in turn sent her on to England with dispatches . Waller arrived at the Admiralty on 1 September , with the news of the failed attacks .
= = = = Alexandria = = = =
While serving with Jervis on the Lisbon station in December 1797 , Emerald , under the temporary command of Lord William Proby , captured the 8 @-@ gun privateer , Chasseur Basque .
In May 1798 , Jervis dispatched a squadron of five ships , including Emerald and commanded by Nelson in the 74 @-@ gun Vanguard , to locate a large invasion fleet that had left Toulon . After receiving intelligence on 22 May , Nelson correctly guessed the French fleet 's destination and set course for Alexandria . Emerald , having previously become separated from the rest of the squadron in a storm on 21 May ; arrived at Aboukir Bay on 12 August having missed the Battle of the Nile , which occurred between 1 @-@ 3 August 1798 .
When Nelson left for Naples on 19 August 1798 , he left behind a squadron under Samuel Hood to patrol the waters around the port and along the coast . The squadron comprised three 74s Zealous , Goliath , Swiftsure , three frigates Emerald , Seahorse , and Alcmene , and the corvette Bonne Citoyenne . On 2 September the squadron encountered and destroyed the French aviso Anémone .
Emerald and Seahorse chased Anemone inshore where she anchored in the shallow water , out of reach of the two British frigates . When the frigates launched their boats to cut @-@ out Anėmone , she cut her anchor cable and drifted on to the shore . As the Frenchmen were attempting to escape along the coast , unfriendly Arabs captured them and stripped them of their clothes , shooting those who resisted . A heavy surf prevented the boats that the British had lowered from landing , but a midshipman from Emerald , the young Francis Fane , swam ashore with a line and empty cask in order to rescue the commander and seven others who had escaped naked to the beach . Anėmone had a crew of 60 men under the command of Enseigne de Vaisseau ( Ensign ) Garibou , and was also carrying General Camin and Citoyen Valette , Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp
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Division . The resulting Battle of Fromelles was an unmitigated disaster . In one night , the 5th Division sustained 5 @,@ 533 casualties , while the 61st Division lost 1 @,@ 547 . Haking was principally responsible but McCay bore some of the blame . He made tactical errors ; his order to vacate the first trench after it was cleared " undoubtedly contributed to the causes of failure " . His refusal to permit a truce to recover wounded further damaged his popularity . For his part , McCay was mentioned in despatches a second time .
The 5th Division was out of action for some months . It finally moved with the rest of the I Anzac Corps to the Somme sector in October . After months of fighting and recent rain , the front line area was a devastated muddy morass . McCay was ordered to undertake an attack with the 2nd Division 's 7th Infantry Brigade at Flers , which cost 819 casualties and gained no ground . Once again , McCay 's handling of his division showed poor planning and tactics . Moreover , at Flers he showed that he had not learned from the lessons of Fromelles . His relief was now only a matter of time . Nonetheless , McCay remained in command of the 5th Division until 18 December 1916 when he was granted medical leave in the United Kingdom for treatment on his leg , which the doctors diagnosed as neuralgia . Birdwood took the opportunity of removing McCay , ostensibly on medical grounds . McCay was mentioned in despatches a third time .
= = = = United Kingdom = = = =
On the recommendation of Brigadier General Robert Anderson , the Commandant , Administrative Headquarters , AIF , and against the opposition of Birdwood , Senator Pearce appointed McCay as commander of the AIF Depots in the United Kingdom . These depots received and trained reinforcements arriving from Australia , and rehabilitated and retrained convalescents who were released from hospital . McCay established his headquarters at Tidworth , in the heart of the Salisbury Plain where most of the Australian camps were located . He occupied this post for the remainder of the war , failing in bids to return to an active command at the head of the 5th Division , the Australian Corps , or the 3rd Division when Monash was promoted to corps commander . A bid to replace Birdwood as administrative commander of the AIF also came to naught . For his services in the United Kingdom , McCay was mentioned in despatches a fourth time , made a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1918 , and a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1919 .
On 10 March 1919 , McCay handed over command of the AIF Depots in the United Kingdom to Major General Charles Rosenthal . After a farewell dinner hosted by Monash , he embarked for Australia , where his AIF appointment was terminated . In 1919 , along with George Swinburne and Generals White and Legge , he produced a report on the organisation of the post @-@ war Army . In 1920 , he joined Generals Chauvel , White , Monash , Legge , and Hobbs to produce a second report on the subject . McCay retired from the Army in 1926 with the honorary rank of lieutenant general .
= = Later life = =
McCay resumed his old job as Deputy Chairman of the State Savings Bank of Victoria on 10 June 1919 , a few days after he returned to Melbourne . He also resumed his relationship with Ella Gavan Duffy . On 30 December 1919 , the Premier of Victoria , Harry Lawson , McCay 's successor in Legislative Assembly seat of Castlemaine and a former student at Castlemaine Grammar and Scotch College , appointed McCay as chairman of the Fair Profits Commission , a consumer protection body set up to monitor prices and profits . After his term ended in 1921 , he was appointed to the advisory board of the War Service Homes Scheme of the Repatriation Commission . He was also Chairman of its Disposals Board from 1921 to 1922 . In 1922 , the State Savings Bank of Victoria took over the construction of war service homes in Victoria . During the 1923 Victorian Police strike , Monash appointed McCay to create , and later command the Special Constabulary Force that was established to carry out police duties during the strike . McCay ran this organisation from the Melbourne Town Hall , and later the Repatriation Department offices , which were made available rent free by the Commonwealth Government . The Special Constabulary Force was wound up in May 1924 .
McCay 's daughter Mardi matriculated from Sacré Cœur School in 1914 and earned Master of Arts and Diploma of Education degrees from the University of Melbourne . In 1922 , she entered the Society of the Sacred Heart . She taught at Kincoppal @-@ Rose Bay , School of the Sacred Heart , Sydney until 1956 when she returned to Sacré Cœur as Mistress of Studies . Bixie also attended Sacré Cœur and the University of Melbourne , at Janet Clarke Hall , where she became only the third woman in Victoria to earn a Master of Laws degree , and was enrolled as a barrister on 10 June 1925 . Like Joan Rosanove , she could not obtain room in the Selborne Chambers , as women were not allowed to do so , so she put up her plate in the building next door . McCay followed his daughter and became a barrister , enrolling on 8 October 1925 . In 1930 , she married George Reid , a young barrister who later became Attorney @-@ General of Victoria .
McCay became ill in 1930 with cancer . In his last months he destroyed all his papers . He died on 12 October 1930 . He was survived by his daughters , now Reverend Mother McCay and Mrs George Reid , and six brothers and two sisters . He was given , at his request , a non @-@ military funeral at Cairns Memorial Presbyterian Church in East Melbourne , and was buried at Box Hill Cemetery . For pallbearers he had Generals John Monash , Harold Edward Elliott , Cecil Henry Foott , R. E. Williams , and J. Stanley , along with Sir William McBeath , the chairman of the State Savings Bank ; William Thwaites , his law partner ; and businessman A. S. Baillieu . Among the other mourners was Generals Brudenell White and John Patrick McGlinn , who had been his deputy commander of AIF Depots in the United Kingdom ; John Latham , the Leader of the Opposition ; Dr W. S. Littlejohn , the headmaster of Scotch College and Sir John MacFarland , the Chancellor of the University of Melbourne .
= = Legacy = =
McCay is a controversial figure in Australian history . Disagreement about his significance and reputation began before his death and continues to the present . General Sir Brudenell White considered McCay to be " one of the greatest soldiers that ever served Australia , greater even than Monash . " McCay 's achievements included the creation of the Military Board and the Australian Army Intelligence Corps , and the development of the Staff Corps , " laying the foundations on which the Australian Army was built . " In writing Volume III of the Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 – 1918 , which covered 1916 , official historian Charles Bean exonerated McCay of blame for Fromelles . This led to a public debate in the pages of The Bulletin in 1929 between critics of McCay and his defenders , led by Elliott . A revival of interest in Australian military history and the rediscovery of graves at Fromelles in the 21st Century led to a number of books being written about the battle , which tended to be critical of McCay .
= Brunei at the 2004 Summer Olympics =
Brunei , as Brunei Darussalam , competed at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , Greece , which took place between 13 to 29 August 2004 . The country 's participation in Athens marked its fourth appearance at the Summer Olympics since its debut in the 1988 Summer Olympics .
The Brunei delegation included only one track and field athlete , meaning Brunei , along with British Virgin Islands and Liechtenstein , sent the lowest number of athletes to the 2004 Summer Games at one . The athlete selected was Jimmy Anak Ahar , who was a middle @-@ distance runner that was selected via a wildcard as the nation had no athletes that met the " A " or " B " standards in any event . Ahar was also selected as flag bearer for the opening ceremony . Ultimately , Ahar did not progress beyond the heats , meaning Brunei won no medals at this Summer Olympics .
= = Background = =
Although Brunei first participated in the Summer Olympic in the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea , it was only represented by one official . It would not be until the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , United States that the country would send athletes to the Games . Since then , it has participated in four Summer Olympics between its debut and the 2004 Summer Olympics . No Brunei athlete had ever won a medal at the Summer Olympics before the 2004 Athens Games .
The Brunei National Olympic Committee ( NOC ) selected one athlete via a wildcard . Usually , a NOC would be able to enter up to three qualified athletes in each individual event as long as each athlete met the " A " standard , or one athlete per event if they met the " B " standard . However , since Brunei had no athletes that met either standard , they were allowed to select an athlete as a wildcard . The one athlete that was selected to compete in the Athens Games was Jimmy Anak Ahar in the Men 's 1500 meters . Sending only one athlete to the Athens Games meant that the country , along with British Virgin Islands and Liechtenstein , was notable for sending the lowest number of athletes to the 2004 Summer Games . Ahar was flag bearer for the opening ceremony . Among officials , sports official Sofian Ibrahim represented the country .
= = Athletics = =
Making his Summer Olympic debut , Jimmy Anak Ahar was notable for becoming the youngest ever competitor to represent Brunei at the Olympics aged 22 . The age record stood until the 2012 Summer Olympics , when Anderson Chee Wei Lim surpassed it . Ahar qualified for the 2004 Athens Games as a wildcard , as his best time , three minutes , 59 @.@ 81 seconds at the 2003 Southeast Asian Games Men 's 1500 meters , was 21 @.@ 81 seconds slower than the " B " qualifying standard required . He competed on 20 August in the Men 's 1500 meters against thirteen other athletes in the third heat . He ran a time of 4 minutes , 14 @.@ 11 seconds , finishing 13th . He ranked ahead of Tanzania 's Samwel Mwera ( who did not start ) , and behind Guam 's Neil Weare ( 4 minutes , 5 @.@ 86 seconds ) , in a heat led by Great Britain 's Michael East ( 3 minutes , 37 @.@ 37 seconds ) . Overall , Ahar placed 39th out of the 41 athletes that competed , and was 32 @.@ 97 seconds behind the slowest athlete that progressed to the next round . Therefore , that was the end of his competition .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
= On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ( novel ) =
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service is the tenth novel in Ian Fleming 's James Bond series , first published in the UK by Jonathan Cape on 1 April 1963 . The initial and secondary print runs sold out , with over 60 @,@ 000 books sold in the first month . Fleming wrote the book in Jamaica whilst the first film in the Eon Productions series of films , Dr. No , was being filmed nearby .
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service is the second book in what is known as the " Blofeld trilogy " , which begins with Thunderball and concluded with You Only Live Twice . The story centres on Bond 's ongoing search to find Ernst Stavro Blofeld after the Thunderball incident ; through contact with the College of Arms in London Bond finds Blofeld based in Switzerland . After meeting him and discovering his latest plans , Bond attacks the centre where he is based , although Blofeld escapes in the confusion . Bond meets and falls in love with Contessa Teresa " Tracy " di Vicenzo during the story . The pair marry at the end of the story but Blofeld kills Bond 's wife , hours after the ceremony .
Fleming made a number of revelations about Bond 's character within the book , including showing an emotional side that was not present in the previous stories . In common with Fleming 's other Bond stories , he used the names and places of people he knew or had heard of and Blofeld 's research station on Piz Gloria was based on Schloss Mittersill , which the Nazis had turned into a research establishment examining the Asiatic races .
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service received broadly good reviews in the British and American press . The novel was adapted to run as a three @-@ part story in Playboy in 1963 and then as a daily comic strip in the Daily Express newspaper in 1964 – 1965 . In 1969 the novel was adapted as the sixth film in the Eon Productions James Bond film series and was the only film to star George Lazenby as Bond . In 2014 On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was adapted as a play on BBC Radio , starring Toby Stephens .
= = Plot = =
For more than a year , James Bond , British Secret Service operative 007 , has been involved in " Operation Bedlam " : trailing the private criminal organisation SPECTRE and its leader , Ernst Stavro Blofeld . The organisation had hijacked two nuclear devices and subsequently blackmailed the western world , as described in Thunderball . Convinced SPECTRE no longer exists , Bond is frustrated by MI6 's insistence that he continue the search and his inability to find Blofeld . He composes a letter of resignation for his superior , M.
Whilst composing his letter , Bond encounters a beautiful , suicidal young woman named Contessa Teresa " Tracy " di Vicenzo first on the road and subsequently at the gambling table , where he saves her from a coup de deshonneur by paying the gambling debt she is unable to cover . The following day Bond follows her and interrupts her attempted suicide , but they are captured by professional henchmen . They are taken to the offices of Marc @-@ Ange Draco , head of the Unione Corse , the biggest European crime syndicate . Tracy is the daughter and only child of Draco who believes the only way to save his daughter from further suicide attempts is for Bond to marry her . To facilitate this , he offers Bond a dowry of £ 1 million ( £ 20 million in 2016 pounds ) ; Bond refuses the offer , but agrees to continue romancing Tracy while her mental health improves .
Afterwards Draco uses his contacts to inform Bond that Blofeld is somewhere in Switzerland . Bond returns to England to be given another lead : the College of Arms in London has discovered that Blofeld has assumed the title and name Comte Balthazar de Bleuville and wants formal confirmation of the title and has asked the College to declare him the reigning count .
On a visit to the College of Arms , Bond finds that the family motto of Sir Thomas Bond is " The World Is Not Enough " , and that he might be ( though unlikely ) Bond 's ancestor . On the pretext that a genetically @-@ inherited minor physical abnormality ( a lack of earlobes ) needs a personal confirmation , Bond impersonates a College of Arms representative , Sir Hilary Bray to visit Blofeld 's lair atop Piz Gloria , where he finally meets Blofeld . Blofeld has undergone plastic surgery partly to remove his earlobes , but also to disguise himself from the police and security services who are tracking him down .
Bond learns Blofeld has been curing a group of young British and Irish women of their livestock and food allergies . In truth , Blofeld and his aide , Irma Bunt , have been brainwashing them into carrying biological warfare agents back to Britain and Ireland in order to destroy the agricultural economy , upon which post @-@ World War II Britain depends . Believing himself discovered , Bond escapes by ski from Piz Gloria , chased by SPECTRE operatives , a number of whom he kills in the process . Afterward , in a state of total exhaustion , he
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disperse activists who barricaded streets and threw petrol bombs . Throughout June , anti @-@ NATO protestors from around the world gathered at Istanbul to demonstrate .
Protests included opposition to US foreign policy ( especially opposition against the US @-@ led Afghanistan War and the Iraq War ) , opposition to NATO 's presence in the Balkans , opposition against NATO itself or against a new role for NATO , opposition against the continuing existence of nuclear weapons , and claims the USA abused NATO to support its policies in Afghanistan , Iraq and the wider Middle East .
A day before the summit , US president George W. Bush traveled to Ankara , the capital of Turkey for advance meetings with Turkish leaders . Then and during the summit demonstrations became larger and tens of thousands of Turks demonstrated in the streets of Istanbul . On June 28 , demonstrators tried to disrupt the NATO meeting by staging several simultaneous mass demonstrations around the city . Riot police sprayed tear gas at anti @-@ NATO demonstrators as protesters and police clashed in running street battles . At least 30 people , including five police officers , were injured when anti @-@ NATO protesters throwing stones and petrol bombs clashed with riot police . Some 20 persons were detained in these protests . The police broke up a smaller crowd , detaining at least six persons , in the Mecidiyeköy area when they tried to march towards the summit about 3 km to the south . In a separate protest , Greenpeace activists , dangling from a bridge over the Bosphorus Strait , unfurled a 30 @-@ meter banner showing a dove of peace with a nuclear missile in its beak and the phrase " Nukes out of NATO " .
= = Summit meetings = =
June 2004 was arguably of the most intense months of summitry in the history of transatlantic relations . The NATO summit followed on the D @-@ Day 's 60th anniversary celebrations in Normandy ( France ) on June 6 ; on the 30th G8 summit from June 8 until June 10 in Georgia ( United States ) ; and on the meetings with EU leaders in Dublin ( Ireland ) on June 24 .
The 2004 Istanbul summit consisted of four main meetings , all held in the Istanbul Lütfi Kırdar Convention and Exhibition Center : the North Atlantic Council ( NATO 's highest decision @-@ making body , attended by heads of state and government from each of the 26 Alliance member countries ) ; the NATO @-@ Russia Council ( which met only at the level of foreign ministers , since Russian President Vladimir Putin stayed away , reflecting ongoing tension between NATO and Russia over NATO enlargement and the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty ) ; the NATO @-@ Ukraine Commission ; and the Euro @-@ Atlantic Partnership Council ( 46 countries including many former Eastern bloc and former Soviet states ) .
Besides these meetings , several visits and question sessions were made on June 26 and June 27 , and several press conferences by heads of government of state or government were made after or in between the above @-@ mentioned meetings . Once the North Atlantic Council meeting on June 28 was concluded , a statement called the " Istanbul Declaration : Our security in a new era " was issued . In this statement the leaders summarized the main conclusions of the discussions .
Almost forgotten in coverage of the summit was that six new members from the former Warsaw Pact – Lithuania , Latvia , Estonia , Slovakia , Bulgaria and Romania – joined NATO in March 2004 and were formally welcomed into the Alliance .
= = = North Atlantic Council meeting ( June 28 ) = = =
= = = = Missions = = = =
= = = = = Expanded presence in Afghanistan = = = = =
Several days before the summit , NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer described Afghanistan as " priority number one " . During the summit , NATO members officially agreed that the NATO @-@ led International Security Assistance Force ( ISAF ) would take on command of four additional Provincial Reconstruction Teams ( PRTs ) ( one in Mazar @-@ e @-@ Sharif , Meymana , Feyzabad and Baghlan ) , falling short of the initial target of five . Until then ISAF only provided security in around the capital city Kabul and commanded one PRT in Kunduz . The 26 members agreed to contribute between them an additional 600 troops ( 23 @.@ 08 per country ) and three helicopters to the Afghan mission . The three helicopters came from Turkey , and had gone back within three months . NATO also vowed to beef up its Afghanistan peace force from 6 @,@ 500 to 10 @,@ 000 to help make the Afghan presidential election , 2004 secure , but no actual agreement for that many additional troops was made .
= = = = = End of the SFOR mission = = = = =
NATO members agreed to end the NATO @-@ led Stabilisation Force ( SFOR ) in Bosnia and Herzegovina , which began its mission in 1996 . NATO stressed that it would maintain a presence in the country to assist in certain areas such as defence reform , or the pursuit of persons indicted for war crimes . Heads of State and Government also welcomed a decision by the European Union to establish a follow @-@ on mission , which would take over the 7 @,@ 500 @-@ member mission and which will be supported by NATO under existing NATO @-@ EU agreements .
= = = = Middle East = = = =
The summit marked a shift in Alliance priorities towards greater involvement in the Middle East , a strategically important region , whose security and stability was regarded as closely linked to the Euro @-@ Atlantic security . The existing Mediterranean Dialogue ( MD ) cooperation was broadened , and two new major engagements were launched : the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative ( ICI ) and a training mission for Iraqi troops .
= = = = = Iraq troop training = = = = =
The summit was dominated by divisions over the Iraq war as NATO members were only able to agree to limited assistance in the form of training for Iraqi security forces . The NATO support given to Iraq troop training was in response to a request by the Iraqi Interim Government , and in accordance with United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546 , which requests international and regional organisations to contribute assistance to the multinational force . Even this limited agreement contained areas of contention , with France insisting that it would only help with training outside Iraq , while the United States favored that the training would take place inside Iraq . As a consequence , the deal was left deliberately vague and differences remained on whether NATO should train Iraqi officers inside Iraq , or limit itself to training outside the country and acting as a clearing house for national efforts . The commitment was also vague as it was not made clear what the size of the training mission would be or exactly when and where it would take place . German chancellor Gerhard Schroeder , known for his earlier opposition to the Iraq War , commented : " The engagement of NATO is reduced to training and only training . We have made clear that we don 't want to see German soldiers in Iraq . " Despite outwardly optimistic statements by the US concerning NATO 's commitment towards Iraqi troop training after the summit , France and Germany had refused to share the burden of responsibility for the situation in Iraq and did not support the US and British demand for sending NATO troops . Put differently , participation in the multinational forces in Iraq was left to the discretion of the particular alliance members and the USA relunctantly consented to troop training outside Iraq . Consequently , despite an outward show of NATO unity , the split over Iraq still persisted and tensions in interstate relations within the alliance were not resolved .
= = = = = Improved Mediterranean Dialogue = = = = =
NATO 's leaders invited their Mediterranean Dialogue ( MD ) partners ( Algeria , Egypt , Israel , Jordan , Mauritania , Morocco and Tunisia ) to elevate the MD to a genuine partnership by establishing a more ambitious and expanded framework for cooperation . This cooperation would be guided by the principle of joint ownership and taking into consideration their particular interests and needs .
= = = = = Istanbul Cooperation Initiative = = = = =
NATO leaders also decided to launch the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative ( ICI ) with selected states in the Greater Middle East , thus exceeding a Mediterranean scope . The initiative was an offer to engage in practical security cooperation activities with these states and each interested country would be considered by the North Atlantic Council on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis and on its own merit . The words " country " and " countries " in the ICI document do not exclude participation of the Palestinian Authority , but such partnership would be - like any other partnership - subject to the North Atlantic Council ’ s approval .
This initiative stands alongside NATO 's Partnership for Peace Program and the Mediterranean Dialogue . NATO members regard these partnerships as a response to the new challenges of the 21st century and as a complement to the G8 and US @-@ EU decisions to support calls for reform from within the Broader Middle East region . The ICI offers practical cooperation with interested nations in the Greater Middle East in such areas as : counter @-@ WMD ; counterterrorism ; training and education ; participation in NATO exercises ; the promotion of military interoperability ; disaster preparedness and civil emergency planning ; tailored advice on defense reform and civil @-@ military relations ; and cooperation on border security to help prevent illicit trafficking of drugs , weapons , and people .
= = = = Plans = = = =
= = = = = Plan to enhance operational capabilities = = = = =
NATO leaders endorsed measures to improve NATO ’ s ability to take on operations when and where necessary , committing themselves to be able at all times to deploy and sustain larger proportions of their forces on operations in order to ensure that NATO has a permanently available pool of assets and forces that can deployed . They also endorsed changes to NATO ’ s defence planning , hoping that the Alliance ’ s long @-@ term defence planning process would become more flexible , thereby helping member countries generate forces that can reach further , faster and still take on the full range of missions .
= = = = = Plan to enhance anti @-@ terrorism efforts = = = = =
NATO leaders hoped to boost the Alliance ’ s anti @-@ terrorism efforts with an agreement to improve intelligence sharing and to develop new , high @-@ tech defences against terrorist attacks . NATO members committed themselves to improve intelligence sharing through a Terrorist Threat Intelligence Unit . This Unit , created after the September 11 attacks , became permanent and . Its function is to analyze general terrorist threats , as well as those that are more specifically aimed at NATO . NATO also pledged itself to stand ready to assist any member country in dealing with potential or real terrorist attacks . The Alliance ’ s AWACS early warning radar aircraft and Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear Defence Battalion would be made available to any member that requests such assistance . Heads of State and Government also gave direction to develop a package of high @-@ tech capabilities to protect civilians and forces from terrorist attacks .
= = = NATO @-@ Russia Council meeting ( June 28 ) = = =
= = = = Linkage between the CFE ratification and the OSCE obligations = = = =
Discussions with Russia on NATO concessions in return for Russian President Vladimir Putin 's attendance had been underway for some months before the summit , and intensified as the summit date drew closer . On May 17 , in the run @-@ up to the NATO summit , NATO Secretary @-@ General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer indicated in a speech that Putin signalled that he might honor the summit with his presence if " the conditions will be right " . It is unclear what conditions were under discussion , but it is speculated that Putin 's conditions included an enhanced Russian role in NATO decision @-@ making through the NATO @-@ Russia Council ( NRC ) , NATO acceptance of Russia 's continued military presence in Moldova and Georgia ( the withdrawal of these troops was an obligation Russia had assumed at the Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe 's ( OSCE ) 1999 Istanbul summit ) ; a move of NATO members to ratify that same treaty and to place the three Baltic states , that joined NATO in March 2004 , under military restrictions . As Putin did not receive satisfaction in discussions ahead of the NATO summit - at least not to the extent that he hoped , he refused to attend the meeting . When NATO officials indicated that Putin would probably not attend the summit , Russia 's Foreign Affairs Minister Sergei Lavrov reacted on the same day ( June 2 ) by stressing the importance that Moscow attaches to enhancing its role in NRC and that Russia had not declined the invitation to attend the NRC meeting . Due to the replacement of Putin by Lavrov , the meeting was not held at the level of the Heads of State and Government ( as normally would be the case ) , but at the level of foreign ministers .
On June 26 , two days before the summit , US Under Secretary of State R. Nicholas Burns and US Ambassador to Russia Alexander Vershbow wrote a joint newspaper article in which they commented that the relations between NATO and Russia were good and that NATO and Russia took " a little @-@ noticed but enormous step in our maturing partnership " , referring to " Exercise Kaliningrad 2004 " which brought together some 1 @,@ 000 personnel from 22 NATO member and partner countries for a terrorism response exercise . In practice , several rifts between Russia and NATO were visible and became increasingly more so during the summit . One rift existed about NATO 's non @-@ ratification of the adapted CFE treaty and Russia 's non @-@ fulfillment of its OSCE obligations ( the withdrawal of Russian troops from Moldova and Georgia ) . Even before the summit commenced , the rift was visible as US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld stopped , en route to Istanbul , in Moldova where he called for the withdrawal of Russian forces from the country . Another reason for tension was the accession of seven Eastern European states to NATO in March 2004 and NATO 's increasing cooperation with other Eastern European and Caucasian states . On June 27 , Russia warned NATO to respect its security interests and expressed concern over NATO 's stepped up activity in the Caucasus and Central Asia .
During the NRC meeting , NATO leaders and NATO 's Secretary General made a clear linkage between their Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty ( adapted CFE treaty ) ratification and the withdrawal of Russian troops from Moldova and Georgia , and took no notice of Russia ’ s proposals for the earliest possible entry into force of the treaty and Russia 's ratification on the eve of the summit . According to Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov these withdrawal demands were incorrect , because " the political understandings did not set any time limit for physical action " . Put differently , Russia denied that it made clear commitments to withdraw its forces from Georgia and Moldova , a policy to which it adhered since 2002 , and reaffirmed its policy of seeking bilateral agreement with Georgia on the status and functioning of Russian military bases in that country . In addition , Russia argued that it faced new threats on its southern borders : the possibility of missile launches from Iran and the expansion of Islamist terrorism , which required - in the perspective of Russia - Russian military presence in Georgia and Armenia . Colonel Anatoli Tesiganouk , Head of Russia 's Military Forecasting Center , argued that NATO took no notice of Russia 's position because NATO 's leaders still had the same mental stereotypes that took shape during the Cold War ; that a large part of the Western elite still regarded Russia as a kind of USSR , ignoring the fact that Russia has not only new borders , but also new aspirations , new international partners , and new threats . These stereotypes could have wittingly or unwittingly affected the relations in the NATO @-@ Russia Council .
= = = = Russia 's Iraq and Afghanistan proposals = = = =
On Iraq , Lavrov proposed to hold a general conference with the participation of all Iraqi political forces ( including all opposition forces and including the " armed resistance to the occupation " ) and Iraq 's neighboring countries and the international community , including Russia . Regarding Afghanistan , Lavrov expressed the interest of Russia and other members of the Commonwealth of Independent States in suppressing terrorism and called for " establishing ties " and " developing cooperation " between NATO and the Collective Security Treaty Organization ( CSTO ) . Both proposals received at most a lukewarm response by NATO leaders .
= = = NATO @-@ Ukraine Commission meeting ( June 29 ) = = =
This meeting was between NATO leaders and president of Ukraine Leonid Kuchma . NATO members expressed appreciation for Ukraine ’ s contributions to NATO @-@ led and other international peace support efforts such as KFOR . Ukraine also offered to support Operation Active Endeavour in the Mediterranean ( a naval operation of NATO which is designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction ) , an offer which NATO would consider . Defence cooperation between NATO and Ukraine was reviewed and the possible launching of a Partnership for Peace Trust Fund to help Ukraine destroy the surplus munitions , small arms and light weapons was discussed .
NATO further welcomed Ukraine ’ s desire to achieve full integration into NATO , but stressed that this would require more than troop contributions and defence reform . This would require showing commitment to the values that underpin the Alliance ( democracy , rule of law , freedom of speech and media , and fair elections ) as was foreseen in the NATO @-@ Ukraine Action Plan , which was adopted during the 2002 Prague Summit . In particular NATO Secretary General de Hoop Scheffer criticized Kuchma 's record on freedom of press and preparations for the Ukrainian presidential election of November 2004 .
= = = Euro @-@ Atlantic Partnership Council meeting ( June 29 ) = = =
This meeting was mostly symbolic and did not have any concrete proposals or results . Nevertheless , some policies or earlier decisions were reaffirmed or emphasized . First of all , the Euro @-@ Atlantic Partnership Council ( EAPC ) Heads of State and Government met with President Hamid Karzai of the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan and discussed the progress in that country , and recognized the valuable role played by both Allies and Partners who make up the ISAF , but also emphasized that much remains to be done for Afghanistan to become a peaceful and stable country , fully integrated into the international community . Secondly , the commitment of the Euro @-@ Atlantic community to peace , security and stability in the Balkans was reaffirmed . Further , the presence of the Heads of State of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia and Montenegro at their meeting as observers was welcomed , and these leaders were urged them to meet the outstanding conditions set for Partnership for Peace membership by Allies . Thirdly , the resolve to fight terrorism was reaffirmed and some initiatives aimed at increasing the EAPC ’ s contribution in this fight were taken , thereby endorsing the further implementation of the Partnership Action Plan against Terrorism .
Fourthly , support for a major report on the future development of the Euro @-@ Atlantic Partnership , which outlines the core objectives of Partnership ( political dialogue and practical co @-@ operation , the promotion of democratic values across the Euro @-@ Atlantic area , preparing interested Partners for participation in NATO @-@ led operations and support Partners who wish to join the Alliance ) . Fifthly , the commitment to building a Partnership which would be tailored to the different needs of individual Partners was reaffirmed . In this respect , NATO 's intention to place a special focus on relations with the states of the Caucasus and Central Asia was welcomed , including the decision by the Alliance to appoint one liaison officer for each region . They also welcomed the launching of the Individual Partnership Action Plan process by several states of these two regions . Sixthly , NATO 's Policy on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings , which was developed in consultation with the EAPC partners , was endorsed .
The absence of Armenian president Robert Kocharyan drew some media attention . Kocharyan refused to join the summit in order to draw the alliance 's attention to problems in relations between the Turkey and Armenia , in particular Turkey 's refusal to consider the deaths of almost one million Armenians during World War I a genocide .
= = Announcement of the transfer of Iraqi sovereignty = =
While the transfer of Iraqi sovereignty was not decided during the summit , this transfer had some connections to the summit . First of all , the news of the unexpected transfer was made public during the summit . BBC News reports that Iraq 's foreign minister Hoshyar Zebari , speaking after a breakfast meeting with Blair in Istanbul on June 28 , " slipped " prematurely that the handover of sovereignty to his country was being brought forward to coincide with the meeting . Later that day , US National Security advisor Condoleezza Rice gave US president Bush during the summit the following note : " Mr. President , Iraq is sovereign . Letter was passed from [ Paul ] Bremer at 10 : 26 am Iraq time - Condi " . Bush scribbled in the margin of this note : " Let freedom reign ! " . Bush then turned to British prime minister Tony Blair , seated next to him , whispered that the handover had happened , and the two men shook hands . Later that day , Bush and Blair held a joint press conference , in which they welcomed the transfer . Secondly , the news of the handover pushed the summit from the front pages .
= = Reviews = =
The international media reported that expectations for a successful summit were deliberately set low , because NATO leaders wanted to avoid a flare @-@ up over the Iraq War . Therefore , they agreed to meet the modest goals the Alliance had already set for itself in trying to stabilize Afghanistan , and endorsed a tepid version of the Bush administration ’ s initiative to promote modernization and democracy in the Arab world . The newspaper further commented that the summit had " a sort of " Waiting for Godot " quality about it — European leaders biding time , neither creating a crisis nor mending fences , in the hope that the American election in November will somehow spare them from the choice between having to deal with Bush and letting Iraq , and NATO , slide into further disarray . " Other analysis were even more critical : " There have been NATO summits at which neither a special occasion was acknowledged nor decisions of particular relevance made . One example is the NATO summit in Istanbul in 2004 , where the concluded measures hardly required a meeting of the heads of state and government , and the media presence was not justified by the agreed @-@ upon resolutions . " US and other government officials however emphasized that the summit was significant in terms of the alliance 's unprecedented outreach beyond its traditional North Atlantic focus and its aggressive emphasis on force planning to tackle new challenges worldwide .
Whether or not the summit is considered important for its content , the meeting held some symbolic importance . First of all , it was the first NATO summit between the leaders of the North @-@ American and Western European states , and Eastern European states , states that were finally , after decades of Cold War tensions , together in the same alliance . The media attention that these new members received during the summit , opened public debates about whether there was still a consensus about the purpose , the perceived threats and the future borders of NATO among its 26 members . That this was not the case , became clear in the run @-@ up to the 2006 Riga Summit . Secondly , the holding of the summit in Istanbul made it the most eastern summit in NATO 's history . It marked the increasingly key role played by Turkey as a major strategic hub due to its location close to the hotbeds of tension and conflict in the South Caucasus and the Middle East . The location of the summit made clear that NATO ’ s security concerns had shifted towards the southeastern part of the European continent . By shifting eastwards , the Alliance ’ s centre of gravity ventured into very different areas from those on which the Cold War military NATO had focused .
NATO 's 2004 Istanbul summit was also remarkably silent on the subject of nuclear weapons policy and non @-@ proliferation , as opposed to pre @-@ summit diplomacy and earlier post @-@ Cold War NATO summits and contrary to the demonstrations going on in Istanbul . In June 2004 , shortly before the summit , NATO issued two fact sheets on nuclear policy , portraying the developments within NATO in a favourable light in the run up to the 2005 Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty Review Conference . In practice , no real changes since the end of the Cold War were implemented , as since the 1994 US Nuclear posture review the number of US nuclear weapons based in Europe remained unchanged , and as Cold War nuclear sharing arrangements dating back to the 1960s remained in force . Additionally , no changes were made to Alliance nuclear policy since the 1999 Strategic Concept .
= Baby Boy ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Baby Boy " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Beyoncé , featuring singer Sean Paul . It was written by Beyoncé , Sean Paul , Scott Storch , Robert Waller , and Jay @-@ Z for Beyoncé 's debut solo studio album Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) . It was also on the Grammy Award @-@ winning album Dutty Rock which was re @-@ released in 2003 . Containing a lyrical interpolation of " No Fear " by hip hop group O.G.C , " Baby Boy " is an R & B and dancehall song with reggae and Arabic music influences ; its lyrics detail a woman 's fantasies .
Columbia Records released " Baby Boy " as the second single from Dangerously in Love to United States radios on August 3 , 2003 . It was well received by music critics , who complimented the Indian , Middle Eastern music and dancehall styles in the song , as well as Beyoncé 's collaboration with Paul . " Baby Boy " topped the US Billboard Hot 100 chart for nine consecutive weeks , and was Beyoncé 's longest @-@ running solo number @-@ one single until 2007 . It reached the top ten in many countries , and was certified platinum in Australia and the US .
The song 's music video was directed by Jake Nava and mostly shows Beyoncé dancing in various locations . " Baby Boy " has remained a staple of Beyoncé 's concert set list . The American Society of Composers , Authors , and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized it as one of the most performed songs of 2005 . During the same year , US singer @-@ songwriter Jennifer Armour filed a copyright infringement lawsuit claiming that Beyoncé had used the primary musical hook from her song " Got a Little Bit of Love for You " . The suit was dismissed .
= = Background and writing = =
In 2002 , Beyoncé went to Miami , Florida , in the United States , to work with American record producer Scott Storch for her debut solo album , Dangerously in Love . She and Storch wrote " Baby Boy " , with contributions from American songwriter Robert Waller and Beyoncé 's then @-@ boyfriend , hip hop artist Jay Z. The song also contains a lyrical interpolation of " No Fear " by hip hop group O.G.C. used towards the ending of the song : " We steppin ' in hotter this year " .
Once the track was supposedly done , Beyoncé had the idea that it would be " perfect " if Jamaican reggae artist Sean Paul contributed a vocal track . Beyoncé contacted Paul about a possible collaboration for " Baby Boy " . Sean Paul agreed , and flew in from Jamaica to join the recording sessions of the song . He contributed a toast verse , and they finished recording " Baby Boy " in March 2003 , during the later stages of the album 's recording .
= = Music and theme = =
" Baby Boy " is a midtempo contemporary R & B and dancehall song with reggae , house and Arabian music influences . It was composed using common time in the key of C minor , and set in moderate groove of 92 beats per minute . Storch 's knowledge on Indian and Middle Eastern music contributes to its Eastern influences . Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly noted that " ' Baby Boy ' goes full @-@ tilt Bollywood ' n da hood , with Sean Paul ripping a pulsing tabla raga " . Beyoncé 's vocals are accompanied by clicky and castanet @-@ sounding beats , synthesized handclaps and slaps . According to Roger Friedman of Fox News Channel , " Baby Boy " is based on the 1995 reggae song " Here Comes the Hotstepper " , performed by Jamaican singer Ini Kamoze .
" Baby Boy " is considered to be a sequel in ways to " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " ; a 2002 Jay @-@ Z song featuring Beyoncé . The lyrics detail a woman 's fantasies , and in keeping with the album 's overall theme , Beyoncé 's deemed them as personal to her . Paul remarked , " She 's telling me about her fantasies and picturing me and her going here and there , all over the world ... I 'm answering back , like , ' I 'm wit it ' . " The lyrics are constructed in the toast – chorus – verse form ; Sean Paul performs the toasting while Beyoncé sings all other verses and choruses . The pattern is repeated twice ; a further chorus and verse follow , resolving at the toasting and final verse .
= = Release and reception = =
" Baby Boy " was released as the second single from the debut studio album , Dangerously in Love . It was added to United States contemporary hit radios and rhythmic contemporary radios playlists on August 3 , 2003 . The song was released in maxi single in Canada on October 7 , 2003 , and as a CD single in Germany and in the US on October 13 , and October 14 , 2003 respectively . " Baby Boy " was included in the revamped version of Paul 's second album , Dutty Rock ( 2003 ) .
" Baby Boy " was generally well received by critics . Rolling Stone magazine reviewer Anthony DeCurtis wrote that Beyoncé sounded as if she was " having fun " on the song , while Stephen Thomas Erlewine of the online music guide service Allmusic described Beyoncé 's vocals as " assured and sexy " . Mark Anthony Neal of the international webzine PopMatters , regarded " Baby Boy " as one of the " high @-@ profile collaborations " on Dangerously in Love . Lisa Verrico of the daily British newspaper The Times described the song a " Latino @-@ tinged collaboration ... Paul does a reggae rap in the middle , but it 's when he chats while Beyoncé half raps that the pair have real chemistry " . Yancey Strickler of the Flak magazine wrote that " ' Baby Boy ' ' s diwali stutter is enhanced by Sean Paul 's dancehall monotone " .
James Anthony of the British newspaper The Guardian commented that the track " bridges the gap between the genres of R & B and dancehall " . Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols wrote that " the ... house @-@ spiced ' Baby Boy ' successfully meld [ s ] [ Beyoncé 's ] breathy cooing with hip , interesting production . " British record label EMI was honored by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) during the 2005 Pop Music Awards as Publisher of the Year for publishing " Baby Boy " , among other songs . Scott Storch earned Songwriter of the Year at the same event .
= = Chart performance = =
" Baby Boy " attained a positioning on the commercial charts before its physical release in the US . The track led to a higher Billboard 200 chart placing for Dangerously in Love , and helped the album to attain multi @-@ platinum certification in the US . The single debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 , the official singles chart of America , at number fifty @-@ seven , while " Crazy in Love " was still in the top spot . " Baby Boy " dominated the US airplays , and ultimately reaching the top of the Hot 100 . It reached the chart 's top spot eight weeks after its debut , and stayed there for nine consecutive weeks . The single stayed number one for a week longer than " Crazy in Love " had , becoming Beyoncé 's longest @-@ charting number @-@ one single . The feat was not broken until Beyoncé 's 2006 single " Irreplaceable " , from her second album B 'Day ( 2006 ) , which spent ten weeks at the top spot in late 2006 to early 2007 due to heavy radio play . " Baby Boy " stayed on the Hot 100 for twenty @-@ nine weeks , and was certified platinum on June 6 , 2006 , by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . " Baby Boy " achieved success on Billboard crossover and mainstream radio charts , appearing on the Top 40 Tracks , Rhythmic Top 40 and Top 40 Mainstream , as well as on the Hot 100 Airplay , Hot Dance Airplay and Hot Dance Music / Club Play . As at October 6 , 2010 , " Baby Boy " had sold 6 @,@ 000 physical units in the US .
Internationally , " Baby Boy " performed just as well , peaking inside the top ten on most charts . The single debuted at number two in the United Kingdom , becoming the chart 's highest debut and " Baby Boy " ' s highest entry internationally . Though it spent eleven weeks on the chart , it failed to top it ( being held off by " Where Is the Love ? " by The Black Eyed Peas ) . In most European countries , the single entered the top ten . In Australia and New Zealand , " Baby Boy " peaked at number three and two , respectively . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipment in excess of 70 @,@ 000 units .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Baby Boy " was filmed by English director Jake Nava , who also shot Beyoncé 's " Crazy in Love " video . It was recorded in Miami , Florida on August 7 – 8 , 2003 . Parts of the video were captured in a house with different style rooms : one in a Japanese style and one in an old English style .
Scenes featuring Beyoncé and Paul are shown separately . The video begins with Paul sitting on a throne while toasting ; Beyoncé is leaning against a wall and dancing . In the following scene , Beyoncé is seen on a bed tossing herself . Paul is shown with several women who are lying on the floor caressing each other . Beyoncé walks towards the beach ; she spots a man , and the two touch and flirt . As the second verse of the begins , Beyoncé is at a party . At the party Beyoncé decides to dance with the same man that she interacted with earlier . Then , water floods the floor of the party as she sings " the dance floor becomes the sea " . As the second chorus of the song begins , the video is cut with scenes of Beyoncé and four back @-@ up dancers dancing on a platform in the sand on the beach . The original track is interrupted towards the end with an Arabic instrumental , designed for the music video . This section showcases Beyoncé vigorously dancing on the sand .
Sal Cinquemani of the online publication Slant Magazine , described the video as a " baby @-@ oil @-@ logged follow @-@ up " to " Crazy in Love " ' s " bootylicous video " . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the video at number nine on their list of Beyoncé 's ten best music videos , praising the extended belly @-@ dancing breakdown . " Baby Boy " premiered on MTV 's program Total Request Live on August 25 , 2003 at number ten and reached the top spot . It stayed on the show for forty @-@ one days , the same chart run " Me , Myself and I " earned .
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé first performed " Baby Boy " live at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards ; she sang it in a medley with the pre @-@ recorded vocals of Paul . Beyoncé later sang " Baby Boy " with Paul at the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards . " Baby Boy " has been included on the set list for most of Beyoncé 's concert tours . It served as opening song of her Dangerously in Love World Tour that began in late 2003 . During her performance of the song on the tour , she was initially suspended from the ceiling of the arena that was gradually lowered to a red lounger — a prop she also used during the 2003 MTV VMAs . The footage taken in London 's Wembley Arena in the UK was included on the Live at Wembley concert DVD . Beyoncé also performed " Baby Boy " with her former group Destiny 's Child 's farewell tour Destiny Fulfilled ... And Lovin ' It , and it was included on the Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta concert DVD .
" Baby Boy " was a part of Beyoncé 's set list on The Beyoncé Experience in Los Angeles and I Am ... World Tour . On August 5 , 2007 , Beyoncé performed the song at the Madison Square Garden in Manhattan ; wearing a belly @-@ dancer @-@ type outfit , she descended the staircase holding an umbrella and was met by three guys wearing fatigues . A short section of the reggae classic " Murder She Wrote " was incorporated into " Baby Boy " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the performance , writing that Beyoncé " needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas . But she was in constant motion , strutting in costumes " . She performed in a similar arrangement at the Los Angeles ' Staples Center on September 2 , 2007 . She was dressed in a belly dancing outfit , and the performance was executed with several male backup dancers and live instrumentation . Beyoncé re @-@ produced the dance she executed in the song 's music video . When Beyoncé performed " Baby Boy " in Sunrise , Florida on June 29 , 2009 , she was wearing a glittery gold leotard . When her performance began , she was suspended in the air , and then lowered to the B @-@ Stage to where she sang " Baby Boy " with an excerpt from Dawn Penn 's " You Don 't Love Me ( No , No , No ) " . Animated graphics of turn
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s belief that the pilot had lowered the landing gear when he had not , 5 ) pilot had turned over control to the co @-@ pilot on the final approach and the pilot had reported to base that the landing gear was down when it was not - indicator lights showing the landing gear was still up were working and apparently ignored . As a result , the B @-@ 1B impacted and slid on the runway , which caused approximately $ 8 million of damage to the aircraft and runway .
= = Specifications ( B @-@ 1B ) = =
Data from USAF Fact Sheet , Jenkins , Pace , Lee except where noted
General characteristics
Crew : four ( aircraft commander , copilot , offensive systems officer and defensive systems officer )
Payload : 125 @,@ 000 lb ( 56 @,@ 700 kg ) ; internal and external ordnance combined
Length : 146 ft ( 44 @.@ 5 m )
Wingspan : Extended : 137 ft ( 42 m )
Swept : 79 ft ( 24 m )
Height : 34 ft ( 10 @.@ 4 m )
Wing area : 1 @,@ 950 ft ² ( 181 @.@ 2 m ² )
Airfoil : NACA69 @-@ 190 @-@ 2
Empty weight : 192 @,@ 000 lb ( 87 @,@ 100 kg )
Loaded weight : 326 @,@ 000 lb ( 148 @,@ 000 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 477 @,@ 000 lb ( 216 @,@ 400 kg )
Powerplant : 4 × General Electric F101 @-@ GE @-@ 102 augmented turbofans
Dry thrust : 14 @,@ 600 lbf ( 64 @.@ 9 kN ) each
Thrust with afterburner : 30 @,@ 780 lbf ( 136 @.@ 92 kN ) each
Fuel capacity , optional : 10 @,@ 000 U.S. gal ( 37 @,@ 900 L ) fuel tank each in 1 – 3 internal weapons bays
Performance
Maximum speed : At altitude : Mach 1 @.@ 25 ( 721 kn or 830 mph or 1 @,@ 335 km / h ) at 50 @,@ 000 ft or 15 @,@ 000 m altitude
At low level : Mach 0 @.@ 92 ( 700 mph or 1 @,@ 100 km / h ) at 200 – 500 ft or 61 – 152 m altitude
Range : 5 @,@ 100 nmi ( 5 @,@ 900 mi ; 9 @,@ 400 km )
Combat radius : 2 @,@ 993 nmi ( 3 @,@ 444 mi ; 5 @,@ 543 km )
Service ceiling : 60 @,@ 000 ft ( 18 @,@ 000 m )
Wing loading : 167 lb / ft ² ( 816 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 38
Armament
Hardpoints : six external hardpoints for 50 @,@ 000 pounds ( 23 @,@ 000 kg ) of ordnance ( use for weapons restricted by arms treaties ) and three internal bomb bays for 75 @,@ 000 pounds ( 34 @,@ 000 kg ) of ordnance .
Bombs : 84 × Mk @-@ 82 Air inflatable retarder ( AIR ) general purpose ( GP ) bombs
81 × Mk @-@ 82 low drag general purpose ( LDGP ) bombs
84 × Mk @-@ 62 Quickstrike sea mines
24 × Mk @-@ 84 general purpose bombs
24 × Mk @-@ 65 naval mines
30 × CBU @-@ 87 / 89 / CBU @-@ 97 Cluster Bomb Units ( CBU )
30 × CBU @-@ 103 / 104 / 105 Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser ( WCMD ) CBUs
24 × GBU @-@ 31 JDAM GPS guided bombs ( Mk @-@ 84 GP or BLU @-@ 109 warhead )
15 × GBU @-@ 38 JDAM GPS guided bombs ( Mk @-@ 82 GP warhead )
48x GBU @-@ 38 JDAM ( using rotary launcher mounted multiple ejector racks )
48x GBU @-@ 54 LaserJDAM ( using rotary launcher mounted multiple ejector racks )
24 × AGM @-@ 154 Joint Standoff Weapon ( JSOW )
96 × or 144 × GBU @-@ 39 Small Diameter Bomb GPS guided bombs ( not fielded on B @-@ 1 yet )
24 × AGM @-@ 158 Joint Air to Surface Standoff Missile ( JASSM )
24 × B61 or B83 nuclear bombs ( no longer carried )
Avionics
1 × AN / APQ @-@ 164 forward @-@ looking offensive Passive electronically scanned array radar
1 × AN / ALQ @-@ 161 radar warning receiver and defensive jamming equipment
1 × AN / ASQ @-@ 184 defensive management system
1 × Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod ( optional )
= = Notable appearances in media = =
= Tantalum =
Tantalum is a chemical element with symbol Ta and atomic number 73 . Previously known as tantalium , its name comes from Tantalus , a villain from Greek mythology . Tantalum is a rare , hard , blue @-@ gray , lustrous transition metal that is highly corrosion @-@ resistant . It is part of the refractory metals group , which are widely used as minor components in alloys . The chemical inertness of tantalum makes it a valuable substance for laboratory equipment and a substitute for platinum . Its main use today is in tantalum capacitors in electronic equipment such as mobile phones , DVD players , video game systems and computers . Tantalum , always together with the chemically similar niobium , occurs in the minerals tantalite , columbite and coltan ( a mix of columbite and tantalite ) .
= = History = =
Tantalum was discovered in Sweden in 1802 by Anders Ekeberg . One year earlier , Charles Hatchett had discovered the element columbium . In 1809 , the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston compared the oxides derived from both columbium — columbite , with a density 5 @.@ 918 g / cm3 , and tantalum — tantalite , with a density 7 @.@ 935 g / cm3 , and concluded that the two oxides , despite their difference in measured density , were identical . He decided to keep the name tantalum . After Friedrich Wöhler confirmed these results , it was thought that columbium and tantalum were the same element . This conclusion was disputed in 1846 by the German chemist Heinrich Rose , who argued that there were two additional elements in the tantalite sample , and he named them after the children of Tantalus : niobium ( from Niobe , the goddess of tears ) , and pelopium ( from Pelops ) . The supposed element " pelopium " was later identified as a mixture of tantalum and niobium , and it was found that the niobium was identical to the columbium already discovered in 1801 by Hatchett .
The differences between tantalum and niobium were demonstrated unequivocally in 1864 by Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand , and Henri Etienne Sainte @-@ Claire Deville , as well as by Louis J. Troost , who determined the empirical formulas of some of their compounds in 1865 . Further confirmation came from the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac , in 1866 , who proved that there were only two elements . These discoveries did not stop scientists from publishing articles about the so @-@ called ilmenium until 1871 . De Marignac was the first to produce the metallic form of tantalum in 1864 , when he reduced tantalum chloride by heating it in an atmosphere of hydrogen . Early investigators had only been able to produce impure tantalum , and the first relatively pure ductile metal was produced by Werner von Bolton in Charlottenburg in 1903 . Wires made with metallic tantalum were used for light bulb filaments until tungsten replaced it in widespread use .
The name tantalum was derived from the name of the mythological Tantalus , the father of Niobe in Greek mythology . In the story , he had been punished after death by being condemned to stand knee @-@ deep in water with perfect fruit growing above his head , both of which eternally tantalized him . ( If he bent to drink the water , it drained below the level he could reach , and if he reached for the fruit , the branches moved out of his grasp . ) Ekeberg wrote " This metal I call tantalum ... partly in allusion to its incapacity , when immersed in acid , to absorb any and be saturated . "
For decades , the commercial technology for separating tantalum from niobium involved the fractional crystallization of potassium heptafluorotantalate away from potassium oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate , a process that was discovered by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac in 1866 . This method has been supplanted by solvent extraction from fluoride @-@ containing solutions of tantalum .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Tantalum is dark ( blue @-@ gray ) , dense , ductile , very hard , easily fabricated , and highly conductive of heat and electricity . The metal is renowned for its resistance to corrosion by acids ; in fact , at temperatures below 150 ° C tantalum is almost completely immune to attack by the normally aggressive aqua regia . It can be dissolved with hydrofluoric acid or acidic solutions containing the fluoride ion and sulfur trioxide , as well as with a solution of potassium hydroxide . Tantalum 's high melting point of 3017 ° C ( boiling point 5458 ° C ) is exceeded among the elements only by tungsten , rhenium and osmium for metals , and carbon .
Tantalum exists in two crystalline phases , alpha and beta . The alpha phase is relatively ductile and soft ; it has body @-@ centered cubic structure ( space group Im3m , lattice constant a
= 0 @.@ 33058 nm ) , Knoop hardness 200 – 400 HN and electrical resistivity 15 – 60 µΩּcm . The beta phase is hard and brittle ; its crystal symmetry is tetragonal ( space group P42 / mnm , a =
1 @.@ 0194 nm , c = 0 @.@ 5313 nm ) , Knoop hardness is 1000 – 1300 HN and electrical resistivity is relatively high at 170 – 210 µΩּcm . The beta phase is metastable and converts to the alpha phase upon heating to 750 – 775 ° C. Bulk tantalum is almost entirely alpha phase , and the beta phase usually exists as thin films obtained by magnetron sputtering , chemical vapor deposition or electrochemical deposition from an eutectic molten salt solution .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Tantalum forms oxides with the oxidation states + 5 ( Ta2O5 ) and + 4 ( TaO2 ) . The most stable oxidation state is + 5 , as seen in tantalum pentoxide . Tantalum pentoxide is the starting material for several tantalum compounds . The compounds are created by dissolving the pentoxide in basic hydroxide solutions or by melting it in another metal oxide . Such examples are lithium tantalate ( LiTaO3 ) and lanthanum tantalate ( LaTaO4 ) . In the lithium tantalate , the tantalate ion TaO −
3 does not occur ; instead , this part of the formula represents linkage of TaO7 −
6 octahedra to form a three @-@ dimensional perovskite framework ; while the lanthanum tantalate contains lone TaO3 −
4 tetrahedral groups .
The fluorides of tantalum can be used for its separation from niobium . Tantalum forms halogen compounds in the oxidation states of + 5 , + 4 , and + 3 of the type TaX
5 , TaX
4 , and TaX
3 , although multi @-@ core complexes and substoichiometric compounds are also known . Tantalum pentafluoride ( TaF5 ) is a white solid with a melting point of 97 @.@ 0 ° C and tantalum pentachloride ( TaCl5 ) is a white solid with a melting point of 247 @.@ 4 ° C. Tantalum pentachloride is hydrolyzed by water and reacts with additional tantalum at elevated temperatures by forming the black and highly hygroscopic tantalum tetrachloride ( TaCl4 ) . While the trihalides can be obtained by reduction of the pentahalides with hydrogen , the dihalides do not exist . A tantalum @-@ tellurium alloy forms quasicrystals . Tantalum compounds with oxidation states as low as − 1 have been reported in 2008 . As in the cases of most other refractory metals , the hardest known compounds of tantalum are its stable nitrides and carbides . Tantalum carbide , TaC , like the more commonly used tungsten carbide , is a very hard ceramic that is used in cutting tools . Tantalum ( III ) nitride is used as a thin film insulator in some microelectronic fabrication processes . Chemists at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in the United States have developed a tantalum carbide @-@ graphite composite material that is one of the hardest materials ever synthesized . Korean researchers have developed an amorphous tantalum @-@ tungsten @-@ copper alloy that is more flexible and two to three times stronger than commonly used steel alloys . There are two tantalum aluminides , TaAl3 and Ta3Al . These are stable , refractory , and reflective , and they have been proposed as coatings for use in infrared wave mirrors .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Natural tantalum consists of two isotopes : 180mTa ( 0 @.@ 012 % ) and 181Ta ( 99 @.@ 988 % ) . 181Ta is a stable isotope . 180mTa ( m denotes a metastable state ) is predicted to decay in three ways : isomeric transition to the ground state of 180Ta , beta decay to 180W , or electron capture to 180Hf . However , radioactivity of this nuclear isomer has never been observed , and only a lower limit on its half life of 2 @.@ 0 × 1016 years has been set . The ground state of 180Ta has a half life of only 8 hours . 180mTa is the only naturally occurring nuclear isomer ( excluding radiogenic and cosmogenic short @-@ living nuclides ) . It is also the rarest isotope in the Universe , taking into account the elemental abundance of tantalum and isotopic abundance of 180mTa in the natural mixture of isotopes ( and again excluding radiogenic and cosmogenic short @-@ living nuclides ) .
Tantalum has been examined theoretically as a " salting " material for nuclear weapons ( cobalt is the better @-@ known hypothetical salting material ) . An external shell of 181Ta would be irradiated by the intensive high @-@ energy neutron flux from a hypothetical exploding nuclear weapon . This would transmute the tantalum into the radioactive isotope 182Ta , which has a half @-@ life of 114 @.@ 4 days and produces gamma rays with approximately 1 @.@ 12 million electron @-@ volts ( MeV ) of energy apiece , which would significantly increase the radioactivity of the nuclear fallout from the explosion for several months . Such " salted " weapons have never been built or tested , as far as is publicly known , and certainly never used as weapons .
Tantalum can be used as a target material for accelerated proton beams for the production of various short @-@ lived isotopes including 8Li , 80Rb , and 160Yb .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Tantalum is estimated to make up about 1 ppm or 2 ppm of the Earth 's crust by weight . There are many species of tantalum minerals , only some of which are so far being used by industry as raw materials : tantalite , microlite , wodginite , euxenite , polycrase . Tantalite ( Fe , Mn ) Ta2O6 is the most important mineral for tantalum extraction . Tantalite has the same mineral structure as columbite ( Fe , Mn ) ( Ta , Nb ) 2O6 ; when there is more tantalum than niobium it is called tantalite and when there is more niobium than tantalum is it called columbite ( or niobite ) . The high density of tantalite and other tantalum containing minerals makes the use of gravitational separation the best method . Other minerals include samarskite and fergusonite .
The primary mining of tantalum is in Australia , where the largest producer , Global Advanced Metals , formerly known as Talison Minerals , operates two mines in Western Australia , Greenbushes in the Southwest and Wodgina in the Pilbara region . The Wodgina mine was reopened in January 2011 after mining at the site was suspended in late @-@ 2008 due to the global financial crisis . Less than a year after it reopened , Global Advanced Metals announced that due to again " ... softening tantalum demand ... " , and other factors , tantalum mining operations were to cease at the end of February 2012 . Wodgina produces a primary tantalum concentrate which is further upgraded at the Greenbushes operation before being sold to customers . Whereas the large @-@ scale producers of niobium are in Brazil and Canada , the ore there also yields a small percentage of tantalum . Some other countries such as China , Ethiopia , and Mozambique mine ores with a higher percentage of tantalum , and they produce a significant percentage of the world 's output of it . Tantalum is also produced in Thailand and Malaysia as a by @-@ product of the tin mining there . During gravitational separation of the ores from placer deposits , not only is cassiterite ( SnO2 ) found , but a small percentage of tantalite also included . The slag from the tin smelters then contains economically useful amounts of tantalum , which is leached from the slag .
World tantalum mine production has undergone an important geographic shift since the start of the 21st century when production was predominantly from Australia and Brazil . Beginning in 2007 and through 2014 , the major sources of tantalum production from mines dramatically shifted to the DRC , Rwanda , and some other African countries . Future sources of supply of tantalum , in order of estimated size , are being explored in Saudi Arabia , Egypt , Greenland , China , Mozambique , Canada , Australia , the United States , Finland , and Brazil .
It is estimated that there are less than 50 years left of tantalum resources , based on extraction at current rates , demonstrating the need for increased recycling .
= = Status as a conflict resource = =
Tantalum is considered a conflict resource . Coltan , the industrial name for a columbite – tantalite mineral from which columbium ( i.e. niobium ) and tantalum are extracted , can also be found in Central Africa , which is why tantalum is being linked to warfare in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( formerly Zaire ) . According to an October 23 , 2003 United Nations report , the smuggling and exportation of coltan has helped fuel the war in the Congo , a crisis that has resulted in approximately 5 @.@ 4 million deaths since 1998 – making it the world ’ s deadliest documented conflict since World War II . Ethical questions have been raised about responsible corporate behavior , human rights , and endangering wildlife , due to the exploitation of resources such as coltan in the armed conflict regions of the Congo Basin . However , although important for the local economy in Congo , the contribution of coltan mining in Congo to the world supply of tantalum is usually small . The United States Geological Survey reports in its yearbook that this region produced a little less than 1 % of the world 's tantalum output in 2002 – 2006 , peaking at 10 % in 2000 and 2008 .
The stated aim of the Solutions for Hope Tantalum Project is to " source conflict @-@ free tantalum from the Democratic Republic of Congo "
= = Production and fabrication = =
Several steps are involved in the extraction of tantalum from tantalite . First , the mineral is crushed and concentrated by gravity separation . This is generally carried out near the mine site .
= = = Chemical refining = = =
Tantalum ores often contain significant amounts of niobium , which is itself a valuable metal . As such , both metals are extracted so that they may be sold . The overall process is one of hydrometallurgy . A large number of chemical treatment procedures for the breakdown of primary sources have been developed . Some of these have been adopted for commercial production while others have been tested on a fairly large scale . There are yet a few others that have been tested only on a laboratory scale . All these processes can essentially be divided into reduction to metallic or compound form ( via aluminothermic or carbothermic reduction reactions ) , chlorination , alkaline fusion and acid dissolution .
Extraction begins with a leaching , a step in which the ore is treated with hydrofluoric acid and sulfuric acid to produce water @-@ soluble hydrogen fluorides . This allows the metals to be separated from the various non @-@ metallic impurities in the rock .
Ta2O5 + 14 HF → 2 H2 [ TaF7 ] + 5 H2O
Nb2O5 + 10 HF → 2 H2 [ NbOF5 ] + 3 H2O
The tantalum and niobium hydrogen fluorides are then removed from the aqueous solution by liquid @-@ liquid extraction using organic solvents , such as cyclohexanone or methyl isobutyl ketone . This step allows the simple removal of various metal impurities ( e.g. iron , manganese , titanitum , zirconium ) which remain in the aqueous phase in the form of fluorides . Separation of the tantalum and niobium is then achieved by pH adjustment . Niobium requires a higher level of acidity to remain soluble in the organic phase and can hence be selectively removed by extraction into less acidic water . The pure tantalum hydrogen fluoride solution is then neutralised with aqueous ammonia to give tantalum hydroxide ( Ta ( OH ) 5 ) , which is calcined to tantalum pentoxide ( Ta2O5 ) .
H2 [ TaF7 ] + 5 H2O + 7 NH3 → Ta ( OH ) 5 + 7 NH4F
2 Ta ( OH ) 5 → Ta2O5 + 5 H2O
Alternatively , the tantalum fluoride can be treated with potassium fluoride to produce potassium heptafluorotantalate ( K2 [ TaF7 ] )
H2 [ TaF7 ] + 2 KF → K2 [ TaF7 ] + 2 HF
This is used to produce metallic tantalum by reduction with sodium , at approximately 800 ° C in molten salt .
K2 [ TaF7 ] + 5 Na → Ta + 5 NaF + 2 KF
In an older method , called the Marignac process , the tantalum and niobium were separated by treating the initial aqueous mixture of hydrogen fluorides with potassium fluoride :
H2 [ TaF7 ] + 2 KF → K2 [ TaF7 ] + 2 HF
H2 [ NbOF5 ] + 2 KF → K2 [ NbOF5 ] + 2 HF
The resulting niobium and tantalum potassium @-@ fluorides ( K2 [ TaF7 ] , K2 [ NbOF5 ] ) could then be separated by fractional crystallization , due to their different water solubiliies .
= = = Electrolysis = = =
Electrolysis using a modified version of the Hall – Héroult process . Instead of requiring the input oxide and output metal to be in liquid form , tantalum electrolysis operates on non @-@ liquid powdered oxides . The initial discovery came in 1997 when Cambridge University researchers immersed small samples of certain oxides in baths of molten salt and reduced the oxide with electric current . The cathode uses powdered metal oxide . The anode is made of carbon . The molten salt at 1 @,@ 000 ° C ( 1 @,@ 830 ° F ) is the electrolyte . The first refinery has enough capacity to supply 3 @-@ 4 % of annual global demand .
= = = Fabrication and metalworking = = =
All welding of tantalum must be done in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium in order to shield it from contamination with atmospheric gases . Tantalum is not solderable . Grinding tantalum is difficult , especially so for annealed tantalum . In the annealed condition , tantalum is extremely ductile and can be readily formed as metal sheets .
= = Applications = =
= = = Electronics = = =
The major use for tantalum , as the metal powder , is in the production of electronic components , mainly capacitors and some high @-@ power resistors . Tantalum electrolytic capacitors exploit the tendency of tantalum to form a protective oxide surface layer , using tantalum powder , pressed into a pellet shape , as one " plate " of the capacitor , the oxide as the dielectric , and an electrolytic solution or conductive solid as the other " plate " . Because the dielectric layer can be very thin ( thinner than the similar layer in , for instance , an aluminium electrolytic capacitor ) , a high capacitance can be achieved in a small volume . Because of the size and weight advantages , tantalum capacitors are attractive for portable telephones , personal computers , and automotive electronics .
= = = Alloys = = =
Tantalum is also used to produce a variety of alloys that have high melting points , strength , and ductility . Alloyed with other metals , it is also used in making carbide tools for metalworking equipment and in the production of superalloys for jet engine components , chemical process equipment , nuclear reactors , and missile parts . Because of its ductility , tantalum can be drawn into fine wires or filaments , which are used for evaporating metals such as aluminium . Since it resists attack by body fluids and is nonirritating , tantalum is widely used in making surgical instruments and implants . For example , porous tantalum coatings are used in the construction of orthopedic implants due to tantalum 's ability to form a direct bond to hard tissue .
Tantalum is inert against most acids except hydrofluoric acid and hot sulfuric acid , and hot alkaline solutions also cause tantalum to corrode . This property makes it a useful metal for chemical reaction vessels and pipes for corrosive liquids . Heat exchanging coils for the steam heating of hydrochloric acid are made from tantalum . Tantalum was extensively used in the production of ultra high frequency electron tubes for radio transmitters . The tantalum is capable of capturing oxygen and nitrogen by forming nitrides and oxides and therefore helps to sustain the high vacuum needed for the tubes .
= = = Other uses = = =
The high melting point and oxidation resistance lead to the use of the metal in the production of vacuum furnace parts . Tantalum is extremely inert and is therefore formed into a variety of corrosion resistant parts , such as thermowells , valve bodies , and tantalum fasteners . Due to its high density , shaped charge and explosively formed penetrator liners have been constructed from tantalum . Tantalum greatly increases the armor penetration capabilities of a shaped charge due to its high density and high melting point . It is also occasionally used in precious watches e.g. from Audemars Piguet , F.P. Journe , Hublot , Montblanc , Omega , and Panerai . Tantalum is also highly bioinert and is used as an orthopedic implant material . The high stiffness of tantalum makes it necessary to use it as highly porous foam or scaffold with lower stiffness for hip replacement implants to avoid stress shielding . Because tantalum is a non @-@ ferrous , non @-@ magnetic metal , these implants are considered to be acceptable for patients undergoing MRI procedures . The oxide is used to make special high refractive index glass for camera lenses .
= = Precautions = =
Compounds containing tantalum are rarely encountered in the laboratory . The metal is highly biocompatible and is used for body implants and coatings , therefore attention may be focused on other elements or the physical nature of the chemical compound .
People can be exposed to tantalum in the workplace by breathing it in , skin contact , or eye contact . The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for tantalum exposure in the workplace as 5 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 5 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday and a short @-@ term limit of 10 mg / m3 . At levels of 2500 mg / m3 , tantalum is immediately dangerous to life and health .
= Brønsted – Lowry acid – base theory =
The Brønsted – Lowry theory is an acid – base reaction theory which was proposed independently by Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry in 1923 . The fundamental concept of this theory is that when an acid and a base react with each other , the acid forms its conjugate base , and the base forms its conjugate acid by exchange of a proton ( the hydrogen cation , or H + ) . This theory is a generalization of the Arrhenius theory .
= = Definitions of acids and bases = =
In the Arrhenius theory acids are defined as substances which dissociate in aqueous solution to give H + ( hydrogen ions ) . Bases are defined as substances which dissociate in aqueous solution to give OH − ( hydroxide ions ) .
In 1923 physical chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted in Denmark and Thomas Martin Lowry in England independently proposed the theory that carries their names . In the Brønsted – Lowry theory acids and bases are defined by the way they react with each other , which allows for greater generality . The definition is expressed in terms of an equilibrium expression
acid + base ⇌ conjugate base + conjugate acid .
With an acid , HA , the equation can be
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digital retailers . It peaked at number one on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles and number twenty eight on the US Adult R & B Airplay chart . At the 48th Grammy Awards held on February 8 , 2006 , at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , the cover received a nomination for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance .
Website Allmusic graded the album with three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . A writer further praised the CD of the album , writing that " a fun , late @-@ 1970s / early- ' 80s vibe pervades the record " . The writer added that the album " opens with a sexy cover of ... ' Wishing on a Star ' ... ' What 's It Gonna Be ' drips honeyed harmonies over a funky beat , while ' My First Time ' falls somewhere between Rufus and Shalamar , with its dreamy ' 80s @-@ funk @-@ fueled R & B. " He further praised the soulful slow @-@ tempo remix version of " Crazy in Love " and the high @-@ powered techno reworking of " Baby Boy " . The DVD was also included in Vibe magazine 's list of " Get in Tune With New Music " in June 2004 . In an interview with The New York Times in 2007 , American singer Miranda Lambert stated that she admired Beyoncé 's performance in Live at Wembley , saying " The charisma and the confidence — she ’ s the ultimate diva . " She further revealed that the album inspired her to " take little bits from that [ Beyoncé 's performance ] for her live shows . "
= = Chart performance = =
Live at Wembley debuted at number seventeen on the Billboard 200 , selling 45 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The DVD was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipping 200 @,@ 000 copies . According to Nielsen SoundScan , it had sold 264 @,@ 000 copies in the US by October 2007 , while as of October 6 , 2010 , it has sold 197 @,@ 000 digital downloads . Live at Wembley entered the Swiss Albums Chart on May 16 , 2004 , at number seventy @-@ three , and moved to number eighty @-@ nine the following week , before dropping out of the chart . The album spent one week in the Portuguese Albums Chart at number twenty @-@ six . It also spent four weeks in the German Albums Chart , peaking at number fifty @-@ nine .
Live at Wembley peaked at number one on the Billboard Top Music Video chart in May 2004 . The album debuted atop the Australian DVD Chart the week ending on May 24 , 2004 , and remained in the chart for thirty @-@ two weeks , dropping out in January 2005 . It was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for selling 30 @,@ 000 copies . Live at Wembley spent twenty weeks in the Japanese Oricon Albums Chart , peaking at number eight . On July 22 , 2004 , the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan , denoting shipment of 100 @,@ 000 units . In Italy , the album appeared at number five on the FIMI DVD Chart ending April 4 , 2010 , but did not re @-@ enter the chart . Live at Wembley became the third best @-@ selling music DVD in the world in 2004 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Live at Wembley , adapted CD 's liner notes and Allmusic .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Homer to the Max =
" Homer to the Max " is the thirteenth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 7 , 1999 . In the episode , Homer discovers that a new television show , Police Cops , has a hero also named Homer Simpson . He is delighted with the positive attention he receives because of his name , but when the television character is rewritten from a hero to a bumbling idiot , he is mocked and taunted , so he changes his name to " Max Power " to rid himself of the negative attention . Max gains new friends , and is forced into a protest to prevent a forest from being knocked down . In the end , he changes his name back to Homer Simpson .
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Pete Michels . Since airing , it has received mixed reviews from television critics . Overall , the episode received a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 5 .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family looks through new mid @-@ season TV shows , and realize they are all pretty lousy . They settle on the pilot episode of Police Cops , a show which follows a suave and dashing detective named Homer Simpson and his partner Lance Kaufman . Homer is delighted with the positive attention he receives because he shares the dashing , intelligent character 's name . Despite the family telling him it is just a coincidence , Homer begins to receive congratulatory phone calls . He begins imitating the character , adopting his distinctive scarf and catchphrase , " ... and that 's the end of that chapter . "
Unfortunately , by the second episode of Police Cops , the Homer Simpson character has been rewritten from a handsome man into a stupid , fat , and lazy detective who uses a now ridiculous catchphrase " Uh @-@ oh , Spaghetti @-@ Os ! " when he makes a mistake , which results in Homer being mocked by his friends . Humiliated at being laughed at and being the subject of negative attention , Homer appeals to the producers to change the character back , demanding to know why they changed the character into a bumbling oaf . The producers refuse to either explain their reasons or change the character back . Then , after unsuccessfully attempting to sue the company for improper usage of his old name , Homer legally changes his name to " Max Power " ( a name he got off of a hair dryer ) .
Max seems to be more well @-@ adjusted with his new name as all the negative attention had faded away for good , but Marge is somewhat unhappy that he changed his name without consulting her , saying that she fell in love with " Homer Simpson " , though she understands that his new name is opening new doors to success for him . At work , Mr. Burns is impressed by the new name and compliments Max , who decides to shop at Costington 's in order to further improve his image . There , he meets a successful businessman named Trent Steel and , after a chat , they go out to lunch .
Trent invites Max and the family to a garden party . Despite Marge 's reservations , the couple attend the party , where they meet lots of famous people , including actor Woody Harrelson , then @-@ U.S. President Bill Clinton , TV producer Lorne Michaels , and actor Ed Begley , Jr .. Max finds out that the garden party is nothing more than an excuse to save a redwood forest from destruction , something which Max does not like . After traveling with the party guests to the forest , Max , Marge , and the rest of the guests chain themselves to the trees in order to prevent the bulldozers from knocking them down . Chief Wiggum arrives and decides to get rough with the protesters . Eddie and Lou start chasing Max around his tree , trying to " swab " him with mace . However , as Max runs round and round the tree , the chain begins cutting into the tree . The huge redwood falls , knocking down all the other redwoods in a large domino @-@ like chain reaction , angering their newfound friends .
That night at home , Marge is happy that Max has changed his name back to " Homer Simpson " . Homer , however , informs Marge that while he was at the courthouse , he took the opportunity to change her name to " Chesty La Rue " , along with the alternative names " Busty St. Clair " and " Hootie McBoob " .
= = Production = =
Pete Michels , director of the episode , had read a story in the newspaper about people with famous names . He came up with a way of how Homer 's life could be affected if he saw someone on TV with his name . While creating the Homer Simpson television character , the production staff was deciding if the character should be " cool " throughout the episode , or if he should be an idiot from the beginning . The staff decided to use both methods and have him become an idiot after being seen as cool in the first episode of the new program . The hat Homer wears while walking through the mall is a parody of one owned by Woody Allen . Ron Hauge , a The Simpsons show producer , suggested the name Max Power to a friend who wanted to change his name . His friend , however , did not take it . The episode would also inspire Tom Martin 's cousin to name his son Max Power .
= = Cultural references = =
The TV show Police Cops is a parody of the television series Miami Vice . One of the new TV shows features Archie Bunker in the show All in the Family 1999 . Homer suggests the names Hercules Rockefeller , Rembrandt Q. Einstein , and Handsome B. Wonderful to Judge Snyder for his name change . The " Max Power " song is sung to the melody of " Goldfinger " , the theme from the James Bond film Goldfinger ( 1964 ) . Actor Woody Harrelson , President Bill Clinton and producers Lorne Michaels , Brian Grazer and Jerry Bruckheimer are shown in attendance at the party ( Grazer 's appearance is identical to his guest @-@ voice appearance as himself from " When You Dish Upon a Star " , while Bruckheimer , who has not done a voice cameo for the show , is the thin man with a beard standing next to Grazer and wearing a bright sportcoast over a plain T @-@ shirt ) . The police attempting to " swab " the protestors is a reference to several incidents in 1997 in which sheriff 's deputies of Humboldt County , California , swabbed pepper spray in the eyes of environmental protesters . Actor Jeremy Piven is mentioned by Homer in this episode who asks the producers of Police Cops " Who 's Jeremy Piven ? " to which they reply " We don 't know " .
= = Reception = =
" Homer to the Max " finished 39th in the weekly ratings for the week of Feb 1 – 7 , 1999 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 5 .
Since airing , this episode has received mixed reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote that though it was " funny in all the right places , this is an episode of two distinct stories , neither of which mesh together . The whole Ed Begley , Jr. saving the forest bit seems to have been tacked on , as if the stuff about Homer finding his name being abused ( shades of Mr. Sparkle again ? ) ran out of steam . Not a bad show , more a sort of ' So what ? ' show . " Robert Canning of IGN gave the episode a 7 @.@ 7 / 10 rating , commenting that " it has a number of really funny scenes and memorable lines " , but overall " the storyline didn 't really have anywhere to go and the final half of the third act is a complete waste of time . " Morgan Larrick of About.com noted " Homer to the Max " as " one of the most unforgettable episodes " when reviewing the complete tenth season .
In an article written for the Modern Day Pirates titled " In Search of The Last Classic Simpsons Episode " , author Brandon listed " Homer to the Max " as a contender for the latest episode that made him feel like he was " watching The Simpsons in their heyday " . He believes it was " the last classic episode before [ the show 's ] episodes start to seriously get spotty in quality " , and from that point on , " they start to go months or even seasons between episodes with polish " .
= Lindsay Lohan =
Lindsay Dee Lohan ( born July 2 , 1986 ) is an American actress . She is also a model , singer , songwriter , director , and producer .
Lohan began her career as a child fashion model when she was three , and was later featured on the soap opera Another World for a year when she was 10 . At age 11 , Lohan made her motion picture debut in Disney 's remake of The Parent Trap ( 1998 ) , a critical and commercial success . Her next major motion picture , Disney 's remake of Freaky Friday ( 2003 ) , was also a critical and commercial success . With the release of Mean Girls ( 2004 ) , another critical and commercial success , and Disney 's Herbie : Fully Loaded ( 2005 ) , another commercial success , Lohan became a teen idol sensation , a household name and a frequent focus of paparazzi and tabloids . However , Lohan 's next starring role in the romantic comedy Just My Luck ( 2006 ) , received poor reviews and was only a modest commercial success . Following Just My Luck , Lohan focused on smaller , more mature roles in independent movies , receiving positive comments on her work , including A Prairie Home Companion ( 2006 ) , Bobby ( 2006 ) and Chapter 27 ( 2007 ) .
After recording several songs for her movie soundtracks , Lohan signed with Casablanca Records . Lohan 's debut studio album , titled Speak , was released in December 2004 and became the first high @-@ seller from Casablanca in several years , selling 1 million copies in the United States alone and peaking at number four on the Billboard 200 . Though the album received mostly lukewarm reviews , it was certified platinum . Lohan 's second album , titled A Little More Personal ( Raw ) , was released in December 2005 and featured darker material than her debut had . That album received mixed reviews , and it was certified gold .
In 2007 , two driving under the influence incidents led to Lohan being put on probation , and together with three visits to rehabilitation facilities caused the loss of several movie deals . In 2008 and 2009 , Lohan worked as a fashion model and launched the clothing line 6126 . She resumed her acting career with TV work in 2008 , and starred in the TV film Labor Pains ( 2009 ) . She appeared in Robert Rodriguez 's feature film Machete ( 2010 ) . Between 2010 and 2013 , Lohan went into rehabilitation three times , and spent much of her time entangled in legal problems stemming from misdemeanors and probation violations . In 2012 and 2013 , she did further television work , including starring as Elizabeth Taylor in the biographical TV film Liz & Dick ( 2012 ) . In 2013 , she starred in Paul Schrader 's independent film The Canyons . In 2014 , the docu @-@ series Lindsay aired on the Oprah Winfrey Network , and Lohan made her stage debut in the London West End production of Speed @-@ the @-@ Plow .
= = Early life = =
Lindsay Lohan was born on July 2 , 1986 , in New York City , and grew up in Merrick and Cold Spring Harbor on Long Island , New York . She is the eldest child of Dina and Michael Lohan . Her father , a former Wall Street trader , has been in trouble with the law on several occasions , while her mother is a former singer and dancer . Lohan has three younger siblings , all of whom have been models or actors : Michael , Jr . , who appeared with Lohan in The Parent Trap , Aliana , known as " Ali , " and Dakota " Cody " Lohan . Lohan is of Irish and Italian heritage , and she was reared as a Catholic . Her maternal antecedents were " well known Irish Catholic stalwarts " and her great @-@ grandfather , John L. Sullivan , was a co @-@ founder of the Pro @-@ life Party in Long Island . Lohan attended Cold Spring Harbor High School and Sanford H. Calhoun High School , where she did well in science and mathematics , until grade 11 , when she started homeschooling . Lohan is a natural red head .
Lohan 's parents have a turbulent history . They married in 1985 , separated when she was three , and later reunited . They separated again in 2005 and finalized their divorce in 2007 .
= = Acting career = =
= = = 1989 – 2006 : Beginnings and critical acclaim = = =
Lohan began her career as a child model with Ford Models at the age of three . She modeled for Calvin Klein Kids and Abercrombie , and appeared in over 60 television commercials for brands like Pizza Hut and Wendy 's , as well as a Jell @-@ O spot with Bill Cosby . By the age of 10 , when Lohan played Alexandra " Alli " Fowler in the television soap opera Another World , Soap Opera Magazine said she was already considered a show @-@ business veteran .
Lohan remained in the role for a year , before leaving to star in Disney 's 1998 family comedy The Parent Trap , a remake of the 1961 movie . She played dual roles of twins , separated in infancy , who try to reunite their long @-@ divorced parents , played by Dennis Quaid and Natasha Richardson . The film earned $ 92 million worldwide , and received largely positive reviews . Critic Kenneth Turan called Lohan " the soul of this film as much as Hayley Mills was of the original , " going on to say that " she is more adept than her predecessor at creating two distinct personalities . " The film won Lohan a Young Artist Award for best performance in a feature film as well as a three @-@ film contract with Disney . At the age of 14 , Lohan played Bette Midler 's daughter in the pilot episode of the short @-@ lived series Bette , but she resigned her role when the production moved from New York to Los Angeles . She also starred in two Disney television movies : Life @-@ Size alongside Tyra Banks in 2000 , and Get a Clue in 2002 .
Next Lohan starred alongside Jamie Lee Curtis in the 2003 remake of Disney 's family comedy Freaky Friday , playing a mother and daughter who switch bodies and have to take on each other 's roles . At Lohan 's initiative , her character was rewritten and changed from a Goth style to be more mainstream . Critic Roger Ebert wrote that Lohan " has that Jodie Foster sort of seriousness and intent focus beneath her teenage persona . " Freaky Friday earned Lohan the award for Breakthrough Performance at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards and , as of 2015 , it remained her most commercially successful film , earning $ 160 million worldwide as well as an 88 percent approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes .
In 2004 , Lohan had two lead roles . The first film , Disney 's teen comedy Confessions of a Teenage Drama Queen , earned a domestic box office total of $ 29 million , with Brandon Gray of Box Office Mojo commenting that it was " well above expectations as it was strictly for young girls . " But the film did not meet with critical acclaim . Robert K. Elder of the Chicago Tribune wrote that " though still a promising star , Lohan will have to do a little penance before she 's forgiven for Confessions . " Her second lead role that year , in the teen comedy Mean Girls , marked Lohan 's first movie independent of Disney . Based in part on the non @-@ fiction book Queen Bees and Wannabes , the film stars Lohan as a previously homeschooled 16 @-@ year @-@ old learning to navigate the social cliques of a public high school . It was a critical and commercial success , grossing $ 129 million worldwide and , according to Brandon Gray , " cementing her status as the new teen movie queen . " Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that " Lohan is sensitive and appealing , a solid locus for audience sympathy . " David Rooney from Variety said that " Lohan displays plenty of charm , verve and deft comic timing . " Lohan received four awards at the 2004 Teen Choice Awards for Freaky Friday and Mean Girls , including Breakout Movie Star . Mean Girls also earned her two awards at the 2005 MTV Movie Awards . With Mean Girls , Lohan 's public profile was raised significantly . Vanity Fair described how she became a household name . Paparazzi began following her and her love life and partying became frequent targets of gossip sites and the tabloid
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media . Following Mean Girls , which was scripted by former " Not Ready For Prime Time Actress " Tina Fey and featured several other veterans of Saturday Night Live 's " Not Ready For Prime Time Company , " Lohan hosted the show three times between 2004 and 2006 . In 2004 , when Lohan was 17 , she became the youngest host of the MTV Movie Awards and in 2006 she hosted the 2006 World Music Awards .
Lohan returned to Disney in 2005 , starring in the comedy Herbie : Fully Loaded , the fifth film in the series with the anthropomorphic car Herbie . Fully Loaded earned $ 144 million worldwide , but it received mixed reviews . Stephen Holden of The New York Times called Lohan " a genuine star who ... seems completely at home on the screen " , while James Berardinelli wrote that " as bright a starlet as she may be , Lohan ends up playing second fiddle to the car . " While shooting the film in 2004 , Lohan was hospitalized with a kidney infection brought on by stress in her personal life and from recording her first album while the film was in production , prompting Vanity Fair to label it Lohan 's " first disastrous shoot . " . She also guest @-@ starred in an episode of That ' 70s Show , of whose cast Wilmer Valderrama , her boyfriend at the time , was a regular member . According to Vanity Fair , the breakup with Valderrama contributed to Lohan 's issues during the Herbie shoot . In 2005 , Lohan became the first person to have a My Scene celebrity doll released by Mattel . She also voiced herself in the animated direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film My Scene Goes Hollywood , based on the series of dolls .
Following Mean Girls , Lohan spent several years living out of hotels in Los Angeles , of which two years were spent at the infamous Chateau Marmont , where comedy actor John Belushi , himself a former " Not Ready For Prime Time Actor , " had died . In late 2007 , after settling down in a more permanent residence , she explained that she " didn 't want to be alone " but that " it wasn 't a way of life ... not very consistent . " She had a series of car accidents that were widely reported , in August 2004 , October 2005 , and November of 2006 , when she suffered minor injuries because a paparazzo who was following her for a photograph hit her car .
Lohan 's next widely released film , the romantic comedy Just My Luck , opened in May 2006 and , according to Variety , earned her over $ 7 million . The opening weekend box office takings of $ 5 @.@ 7 million " broke lead actress Lindsay Lohan 's winning streak " according to Brandon Gray . The film received poor reviews and earned Lohan her first Golden Raspberry nomination for Worst Actress . Following Just My Luck , Lohan focused on smaller roles in more mature , independent movies . Robert Altman 's ensemble comedy A Prairie Home Companion , based on humorist Garrison Keillor 's works , in which Lohan co @-@ stars with Meryl Streep and Lily Tomlin , had a limited release in June 2006 . Peter Travers wrote for Rolling Stone that " Lohan rises to the occasion , delivering a rock @-@ the @-@ house version of ' Frankie and Johnny . ' " Co @-@ star Streep said of Lohan 's acting : " She 's in command of the art form " and " completely , visibly living in front of the camera . " The Emilio Estevez ensemble drama Bobby , about the hours leading up to the Robert F. Kennedy assassination , was released in theaters in November 2006 . Lohan received favorable comments for her performance , particularly a scene alongside Sharon Stone . As part of the Bobby ensemble cast , Lohan was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award . In 2006 , Lohan attended Alcoholics Anonymous meetings .
= = = 2007 – 2013 : Career interruptions = = =
Lohan 's next appearance was in Chapter 27 as a John Lennon fan who befriends Mark David Chapman , played by Jared Leto , on the day he murders Lennon . Filming finished in early 2006 , but the film was not released until March 2008 due to difficulties in finding a distributor . In May 2007 , the drama Georgia Rule was released . In the film , Lohan portrays an out @-@ of @-@ control teenager whose mother ( Felicity Huffman ) brings her to the house of her own estranged mother ( Jane Fonda ) . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " Lohan hits a true note of spiteful princess narcissism . " During filming in 2006 , Lohan was hospitalized , her representative saying " she was overheated and dehydrated . " At the time Lohan was going through a breakup with Hard Rock Cafe heir Harry Morton , which contributed to her problems on the set , according to Allure . In a letter that was made public , studio executive James G. Robinson called Lohan " irresponsible and unprofessional . " He mentioned " various late arrivals and absences from the set " and said that " we are well aware that your ongoing all night heavy partying is the real reason for your so @-@ called ' exhaustion . ' " In 2007 , Lohan was cast in the film Poor Things . But in May of that year , she was arrested on a charge of driving under the influence of alcohol ( DUI . ) The film 's producers initially voiced support , and production was put on hold , as Lohan entered the Promises Treatment Center rehabilitation facility where she stayed for 45 days . She ultimately lost the Poor Things part . In July , less than two weeks out of rehab , Lohan was arrested a second time on charges of possession of cocaine , driving under the influence and driving with a suspended license . In August , Lohan pleaded guilty to misdemeanor cocaine use and driving under the influence and was sentenced to an alcohol education program , community service , one day in jail , and was given three years probation . Lohan released a statement in which she said " it is clear to me that my life has become completely unmanageable because I am addicted to alcohol and drugs . " The same month she entered the Cirque Lodge Treatment Center in Sundance , Utah for a third stint at rehabilitation , staying for three months until her discharge in October . In November Lohan served 84 minutes in jail . A sheriff spokesman cited overcrowding and the nonviolent nature of the crime as reasons for the reduced sentence .
In early January 2007 , production on the film I Know Who Killed Me was put on hold when Lohan underwent appendix surgery . Lohan admitted herself to the Wonderland Center rehabilitation facility for a 30 @-@ day stay , though she continued shooting the film , returning to the facility at night . Shortly thereafter , Lohan withdrew from a film adaptation of Oscar Wilde 's A Woman of No Importance , her publicist stating that Lohan needed to " focus on getting better . " Lohan was replaced in The Edge of Love in April 2007 , shortly before filming was to begin , with the director citing " insurance reasons " and Lohan later explaining that she " was going through a really bad time then . "
In the wake of her second DUI arrest , Lohan withdrew from a scheduled appearance on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in which she had been due to promote I Know Who Killed Me , a low @-@ budget psychological horror @-@ thriller in which she stars as a stripper with a dual personality . The film premiered in July 2007 to what Entertainment Weekly called " an abysmal $ 3 @.@ 5 million . " It earned Lohan dual Golden Raspberry awards for Worst Actress , with Lohan coming first and second , tying with herself . Hollywood executives and industry insiders commented that it would be difficult for Lohan to find employment until she could prove that she was sober and reliable , citing possible issues with securing insurance .
In May 2008 , Lohan made her first screen appearance since I Know Who Killed Me , on ABC 's television series Ugly Betty . She guest starred in four episodes as Kimmie Keegan , an old schoolmate of the protagonist Betty Suarez . Articles about Lohan have appeared in various men 's magazines . She was voted No. 10 on the list of " 100 Sexiest Women " by readers of FHM in 2005 , No.13 in 2006 , No.30 in 2007 , and No.41 in 2008 , while Maxim placed her third on its " Hot 100 " list in 2006 and first in 2007 . Lohan has been the face of Jill Stuart , Miu Miu , and Dooney & Bourke , as well as the 2008 Visa Swap British fashion campaign . She was also the face of Italian clothing company Fornarina for its Spring / Summer 2009 campaign . Lohan has a long @-@ lasting fascination with Marilyn Monroe going back to when she saw Niagara during The Parent Trap shoot . In the 2008 Spring Fashion edition of New York magazine , Lohan re @-@ created Monroe 's final photo shoot , known as The Last Sitting , including nudity , saying that the photo shoot was " an honor . " The New York Times critic Ginia Bellafante found it disturbing , saying " the pictures ask viewers to engage in a kind of mock necrophilia . ... [ and ] the photographs bear none of Monroe 's fragility . " In 2008 , Lohan launched a clothes line , whose name 6126 was designed to represent Monroe 's birth date ( June 1 , 1926 ) . The line started with leggings , before expanding to a full collection , covering 280 pieces as of April 2010 . In April 2009 , Lohan released a self @-@ tanning spray under the brand name Sevin Nyne in collaboration with Sephora . In September 2009 , Lohan became an artistic adviser for the French fashion house Emanuel Ungaro . A collection by designer Estrella Archs with Lohan as adviser was presented in October , receiving a " disastrous " reception , according to Entertainment Weekly and New York . Lohan left the company in March 2010 .
In the comedy Labor Pains , Lohan plays a woman who pretends to be pregnant . During the shoot , Lohan 's manager worked with the paparazzi to encourage the media to show her working , as opposed to partying . It was originally planned for a theatrical release , but instead appeared as a TV movie on the ABC Family cable channel in July 2009 , " a setback for the star " according to Variety . The premiere received 2 @.@ 1 million viewers , " better @-@ than @-@ average " for the channel according to E ! Online . Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times wrote that " this is not a triumphant return of a prodigal child star . ... [ Labor Pains ] never shakes free of the heavy baggage Ms. Lohan brings to the role . " Lohan was a guest judge on US TV style contest Project Runway sixth season premiere episode , which aired in August 2009 .
In October 2009 , Lohan 's DUI probation was extended by an additional year , following several instances in which she failed to attend the court @-@ ordered substance abuse treatment classes .
Lohan narrated and presented the British television documentary Lindsay Lohan 's Indian Journey , about human trafficking in India . It was filmed during a week in India in December 2009 , and transmitted on BBC Three in April 2010 . The BBC was criticized for having hired Lohan , and while reviewers called the documentary compelling , they also found Lohan 's presence to be odd and distracting . Lohan said : " I hope my presence in India will bring awareness to the really important issues raised in making this film . " In April 2010 , Lohan was let go from the film The Other Side where she had been set to star , with the director saying she was " not bankable . " In May 2010 , Lohan traveled to the Cannes Film Festival to promote the biographical drama Inferno . She was set to star as the lead , adult @-@ film performer Linda Lovelace , but was later replaced while in court mandated rehab . Because she was in Cannes , Lohan missed a mandatory DUI progress hearing . A bench warrant was issued for her arrest which was rescinded after she posted bail . A judge determined that Lohan had violated the terms of her probation by missing several mandatory classes and meetings . She was sentenced to 90 days in jail , followed by 90 days of inpatient rehab treatment . However , Lohan served only 14 days of the jail sentence , due to overcrowding . She then entered an inpatient rehabilitation facility , from where she was released after only 23 days .
In June 2010 , Lohan was the subject of a fashion shoot in the photographer docu @-@ series Double Exposure on Bravo . Robert Rodriguez 's action exploitation film Machete opened in September 2010 . In the film , Lohan 's character takes drugs , is naked in much of her appearance , and later dons a nun 's habit while toting a machine gun . Its critical reviews were mixed . The Washington Post described her character as " a campier , trampier version of herself – or at least her tabloid image . " Premiere.com said she was " terrible " while Variety called it " her best work in some time . " Because of her rehabilitation and legal engagements , Lohan did not participate in promotion of the movie . Lohan filmed a sketch where she is dressed as Marilyn Monroe for Inappropriate Comedy in 2010 . The film had issues finding a distributor and was not released until 2013 , when it was met with poor box office and critical reception . Lohan appeared on the October 2010 cover of Vanity Fair . She told the magazine : " I want my career back " and " I know that I 'm a damn good actress . "
In September 2010 , Lohan 's probation was revoked following a failed drug test . She spent part of the day in jail before being released on bail . A few days later , she entered the Betty Ford Center , a drug and alcohol treatment center , where she remained on court order for three months until early January 2011 . In February 2011 , Lohan was charged with the theft of a necklace reported stolen from a jewelry store the month before . She was sentenced to community service and 120 days in jail for misdemeanor theft and probation violation , to which she pleaded no contest . Due to jail overcrowding , Lohan served the sentence under house confinement , wearing a tracking ankle monitor for 35 days . In November , Lohan was found to have violated the terms of her probation by failing to perform the required community service . She was sentenced to additional community service and 30 days in jail , of which she served less than 5 hours due to overcrowding .
Lohan appeared in the January / February 2012 issue of Playboy magazine , in a shoot inspired by a nude pictorial of Marilyn Monroe from the first issue of the magazine . Editor Hugh Hefner said Lohan 's issue was " breaking sales records . " Lohan had not appeared on Saturday Night Live since 2006 , when she hosted the show for the fourth time in March of 2012 . Her appearance received mixed to negative reviews . Critics appreciated the self @-@ deprecating references to her personal troubles , but also commented that she largely played a supporting role . The episode had the second highest ratings of the season with 7 @.@ 4 million viewers . In May 2012 , Lohan appeared briefly , as a celebrity judge , on the television series Glee , in the episode " Nationals . " Lohan stars as a surfer in the art film First Point by artist Richard Phillips . It debuted at Art Basel in June 2012 and features a score by Thomas Bangalter from Daft Punk . Comments from critics on Lohan 's work were mixed .
Lohan starred as Elizabeth Taylor in the biographical made @-@ for @-@ TV movie Liz & Dick , which premiered on the Lifetime cable channel in November 2012 . Reviews of Lohan 's performance were largely , but not unanimously , negative . The Hollywood Reporter said she was " woeful " while Variety called her " adequate . " Entertainment Weekly described the premiere ratings of 3 @.@ 5 millions as " a little soft . " On way to the Liz & Dick set in June 2012 , Lohan was in a car accident , where she sustained minor injuries and which caused a delay in production . During the production , paramedics were called to Lohan 's hotel room , treating her for exhaustion and dehydration .
In March 2013 , Lohan pleaded no contest to misdemeanor charges stemming from the June 2012 car accident ; reckless driving and providing false information to a police officer . She was sentenced to community service , psychotherapy and lockdown rehabilitation . Her probation was also extended for another two years . Between May and July 2013 Lohan spent 90 days in rehabilitation .
In April 2013 , the horror comedy Scary Movie 5 was released , where Lohan appears as herself alongside Charlie Sheen in the opening sketch . While the movie itself was panned by critics , a few reviewers found Lohan 's and Sheen 's to be one of the better scenes . The same month Lohan guest @-@ starred as herself in an episode of Sheen 's comedy series Anger Management .
In August 2013 , just days after Lohan left rehab , The Canyons was released , an independent erotic thriller directed by Paul Schrader and written by Bret Easton Ellis . It was made on a low budget , most of which was gathered through online fund raiser Kickstarter . Lohan received $ 100 a day and a share of the profits , and she was also credited as a co @-@ producer . The New York Times Magazine described Lohan as difficult to work with , and the shoot as fraught with conflict between Lohan and Schrader . Lohan and her co @-@ star , adult @-@ film actor James Deen , portray an actress and a producer in a volatile relationship . Reviews for the film were generally poor , but several critics praised Lohan 's performance . The New Yorker said she was " overwrought and unfocused " while Variety called her " very affecting " and Salon described her as " almost incandescent . " The same month Lohan filled in for Chelsea Handler as host of the cable talk show Chelsea Lately . She received mostly positive reviews for her appearance and the show garnered its best ratings of the year .
= = = 2014 – present : Future projects = = =
The 8 @-@ part docu @-@ series Lindsay was transmitted in March and April 2014 on Oprah Winfrey 's OWN cable network . The series followed Lohan 's life and work as she moved to New York City after leaving rehab . In the final episode , Lohan said that she had had a miscarriage which had interrupted filming of the series . The premiere had 693 @,@ 000 viewers , described as " so @-@ so " by The Hollywood Reporter . The ratings then slipped and the finale only had 406 @,@ 000 viewers . New York Daily News called the series " surprisingly routine , " Variety described it as boring , while Liz Smith said it was " compelling " and " usually painful to watch . " In April 2014 , Lohan guest @-@ starred in an episode of the CBS sitcom 2 Broke Girls.In July 2014 , she filed a lawsuit against Rockstar Games claiming elements in the video game Grand Theft Auto V were influenced by her image , voice and clothing line without permission . Rockstar responded in court papers that sought a dismissal of the case , saying that the case was frivolous and filed for publicity purposes .
Lohan made her stage debut in October 2014 , starring in the London West End production of David Mamet 's Speed @-@ the @-@ Plow , a satire about the movie business . She portrayed Karen , the secretary of a Hollywood executive , in a role originally played by Madonna . Reviews of Lohan 's performance were mixed , with the Associated Press describing critical reception overall as " lukewarm . " The Stage said she was " out of her league " while The Times wrote that she " can act a bit " and The Guardian said she " holds the stage with ease . " In December 2014 , the free @-@ to @-@ play video game app Lindsay Lohan ’ s The Price of Fame was released for the iOS and Android operating systems . Polygon said it was " funny , trashy and surprisingly self @-@ aware " while Vulture called it " a crappy knockoff of Kim Kardashian : Hollywood . " In May 2015 , a judge ended Lohan 's probation after she completed the community service that resulted from her 2012 reckless driving , making it the first time in nearly 8 years that she was probation free .
= = Music career = =
= = = 2001 – 05 : Speak and A Little More Personal ( Raw ) = = =
Lohan had planned on releasing an album in the summer of 2001 , according to her official website , llrocks.com. No album was released in 2001 , but Lohan had begun recording demo tracks with Emilio Estefan , Jr .. He and his wife , Gloria Estefan , signed Lohan to a five @-@ album production deal in September 2002 . " I am extremely excited to be working with Emilio . I am surrounded by a group of very talented people whom have made me feel like part of their family , " Lohan said to the press . Also in September , Lohan landed the role as the daughter in Disney 's remake , Freaky Friday , which required her to learn how to play the guitar and to sing . Lohan recorded a song for the film , " Ultimate , " which was released to Radio Disney to help promote the film . The song peaked at # 18 on Radio Disney 's Top 30 . Lohan announced that the song was separate from her singing career , since many teen idols such as Hilary Duff and Raven @-@ Symoné were expanding their careers from acting to singing . In 2003 , Lohan recorded four songs including a Radio Disney hit , " Drama Queen ( That Girl ) , " that were released for the soundtrack to Lohan 's film , Confessions of a Teenage Drama Queen .
Lohan began writing the tracks on her album in April 2004 . " I write a lot of lyrics and I 'm involved in the producing process , because it 's like , if I 'm singing it , I want it to be something that I can relate to , " Lohan said . " I 'm just trying to feel it out and see where it goes . I 'm playing guitar and I also love to dance , so [ the music will be ] somewhere along the lines of hip @-@ hop and rock . " She had begun working with Diane Warren and Randy Jackson , who were going to help write and produce her album . Diane Warren wrote the song , " I
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Decide , " for Lohan which was originally going to be on her album . When Lohan decided not to collaborate with Warren and Jackson , " I Decide " was instead released on the soundtrack to the film The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement and on to Radio Disney .
Lohan 's debut album , Speak , was released in the United States on December 7 , 2004 . The album was the first high @-@ seller from Casablanca Records in several years , selling 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units in the United States . The album received mostly negative reviews , with critics commenting that Lohan " isn 't a bad singer , but not an extraordinary singer either . " In the United States , the album peaked at number four on the Billboard 200 , selling 261 @,@ 762 copies in its first week . In Germany the album debuted at the # 53 position and took four weeks to complete its chart run . The first two singles from Speak , " Rumors " and " Over , " were both successes , with " Over " topping the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles where it stayed for three weeks . The song also did well internationally in countries such as Australia , Ireland , and the United Kingdom . " Rumors " peaked at # 6 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and also did well in Australia and Germany , where it reached # 14 . The music video for " Rumors " was nominated for " Best Pop Video " at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards . Both songs received heavy airplay on MTV 's Total Request Live . The final single , " First , " was released to help promote Lohan 's film , Herbie : Fully Loaded . The song earned small success in Australia and Germany . Lohan promoted the album by performing the songs in a number of live appearances . Plans for a tour in Taiwan were planned , but were later scrapped .
Lohan 's second album , A Little More Personal ( Raw ) , was released in December 2005 . It peaked at number 20 on the Billboard 200 chart , and was eventually certified Gold . Lohan co @-@ wrote most of the songs on the album , which received a mixed critical response . Slant Magazine called it " contrived ... for all the so @-@ called weighty subject matter , there 's not much meat on these bones . " Lohan herself directed the music video for the album 's only single , " Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) , " which features her sister Ali Lohan . The video is a dramatization of the pain Lohan said her family suffered at the hands of her father . It was her first song to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 57 .
= = = 2008 – present : Guest appearances and third studio album = = =
Following a switch to Universal Motown , Lohan began working on a third album , tentatively titled Spirit in the Dark , in late 2007 . In May 2008 , the single " Bossy " was released onto digital outlets , which reached number one on the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart . The single was meant to serve as the lead single from the album . Later that year , Lohan said that work on the album had stalled and that she wanted to avoid the stress of working on movies and music at the same time .
In 2015 , the English band Duran Duran announced that Lohan had been featured on the song " Dancephobia " from their upcoming fourteenth studio album , Paper Gods . In June 2016 , Lohan confirmed her intentions for recording and releasing her third studio album during an online video chat with her fans . Lohan confirmed that she owned her record label one final album , as per her contract , and would only release music once it would not upset her younger sister , Ali , who is also pursuing her own music career .
= = Personal life = =
In July 2007 , Lohan 's home was burglarized by the Bling Ring , a group of fashion @-@ motivated burglars whose ringleader considered Lohan to be their ultimate conquest . Video surveillance of the burglary recorded at Lohan 's home played a large role in breaking the case .
During the 2008 US presidential campaign , Lohan offered her services to Barack Obama 's Democratic election effort , but was declined . In a blog post , Lohan criticized the media and then Republican Vice Presidential candidate Sarah Palin for not focusing on policy , and described Palin as homophobic and anti @-@ choice . Lohan had previously expressed an interest in going to Iraq , during the Iraq War in 2006 , on a USO tour with Hillary Clinton . In the 2012 presidential election , Lohan supported Republican candidate Mitt Romney , something that prompted ABC News to call her a " political turncoat . " Only weeks later , she tweeted words supportive of Obama .
Speaking about her sexual orientation , Lohan said that she was not a lesbian . When asked if she was bisexual in 2008 , she responded " Maybe . Yeah , " adding , " I don 't want to classify myself . " However , in a 2013 interview , she said , " I know I ’ m straight . I have made out with girls before , and I had a relationship with a girl . ... I think I was looking for something different . "
In 2014 , Lindsay got involved in Brazilian politics . She tweeted to 8 @.@ 5 million followers : " ' Brasil needs change and I support Aecio Neves ! " , which has since been deleted , as has the Facebook post . Lohan supporting her candidate was not that great of a marketing move to help Neves 's image .
On October 17 , 2015 , Lohan posted an image on her personal Instagram account hinting that she herself might run for President in the 2020 presidential election . The caption cited the influence of rapper Kanye West , who also expressed ambitions for running for President in the 2020 election . In April , 2016 , it was reported that Lohan is studying Islam after she was spotted carrying the copy of Quran ; later on , Lohan confirmed the reports herself .
= = = Relationships and family = = =
Lohan reportedly dated fellow teen star Aaron Carter between 2000 and 2001 . The relationship garnered media attention with reports of a love triangle between Lohan , Carter , and actress and singer Hilary Duff . Lohan began dating actor Wilmer Valderrama in 2004 . She also guest @-@ starred in an episode of That ' 70s Show , where Valderrama was a regular . After their break @-@ up , Lohan wrote her second single , " Over , " about the experience . Lohan dated Hard Rock Cafe heir Harry Morton in 2006 . In May 2007 , Lohan dated British TV personality Calum Best . While in rehab in July 2008 , Lohan met and dated snowboarder Riley Giles . Lohan dated DJ Samantha Ronson in 2008 and 2009 . She co @-@ hosted club events with Ronson and accompanied her when she was DJ @-@ ing . In April 2009 , following her breakup with Ronson , Lohan appeared in a dating video spoof on the comedy website Funny or Die . It was viewed 2 @.@ 7 million times in the first week and received favorable comments from the media .
Lohan spoke about her turbulent childhood in 2007 , the same year her parents finalized their divorce : " I feel like a second parent in the sense that I helped raise my family ... I was put between my mother and father a lot . " Despite the conflicts , Lohan spoke very fondly of her family . However , in 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 she admitted that she had cut off contact with her father , describing his behavior as unpredictable and hard to deal with .
= = Filmography = =
= = Discography = =
Speak ( 2004 )
A Little More Personal ( Raw ) ( 2005 )
= Delaware Route 37 =
Delaware Route 37 ( DE 37 ) is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from Delaware Route 273 near Christiana northeast to U.S. Route 202 and Delaware Route 141 near the Wilmington Airport . The road runs through suburban neighborhoods before passing along the edge of Wilmington Airport , where it provides access to business parks . The Airport Road portion of DE 37 was originally a dirt road that was paved by 1942 . DE 37 was assigned to its current alignment by 1985 .
= = Route description = =
DE 37 heads to the northeast from DE 273 on the two @-@ lane , undivided Airport Road . It passes through suburban neighborhoods and then intersects DE 58 ( Churchmans Road ) in a commercial area . Past the DE 58 intersection , the route widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway and forms the northwestern boundary of the Wilmington Airport , with residential areas on the opposite side of the road . After the boundary with the airport , Airport Road splits to the northwest and DE 37 becomes Commons Boulevard , and it passes through the New Castle Corporate Commons , a business park located adjacent to the Wilmington Airport . It continues northeast to its terminus at US 202 and DE 141 .
DE 37 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 22 @,@ 752 vehicles at the US 202 / DE 141 intersection to a low of 9 @,@ 152 vehicles where it splits from Airport Road . None of DE 37 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , the Airport Road portion of DE 37 existed as a county road . This road was originally a dirt road that was paved by 1942 . In 1985 , the Commons Boulevard portion of the route was built and DE 37 was designated to run along its current alignment .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= The Shipment ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" The Shipment " is the fifty @-@ ninth episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the seventh episode of season three . It first aired on October 29 , 2003 on the UPN network in the United States . The episode was written by Chris Black and Brent V. Friedman . It was directed by David Straiton , his sixth episode of the series at that point .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , the crew follow a trail of information to a mining complex which is producing a compound used in the construction of a Xindi weapon , while Chief Engineer Charles " Trip " Tucker ( Connor Trinneer ) makes a discovery about the Xindi sidearms .
The episode was filmed in late August and early September at the same time as the season premier was first aired . It used a combination of standing sets along with a handful of new sets to represent locations on the Xindi planet . Two actors resumed their roles from earlier in the season ; John Cothran , Jr. had previously appeared as a Klingon in both Star Trek : The Next Generation and Deep Space Nine . Reviews were mostly positive for " The Shipment " , and it received a 3 @.@ 9 / 6 rating , which was an increase from the re @-@ run shown the previous week but was not as high as the following episode .
= = Plot = =
At the Xindi Council , Degra reports that the weapon should be ready in a matter of weeks . On Enterprise , the coordinates provided by Tarquin ( in " Exile " ) lead to a planet , and the crew decide to hide the ship while a shuttlecraft manned by Captain Archer , Lieutenant Reed and Major Hayes approaches it . Evading detection , they land and enter a Xindi settlement , where they find a great quantity of kemocite being refined . They then observe Gralik Durr and two associates discussing the deal they have to mine the kemocite for Degra . The away team then beams up a canister of kemocite for analysis , and then follow Gralik back to his home , where they confront him .
T 'Pol 's analysis shows that the Xindi probe which attacked Earth ( in " The Expanse " ) contained kemocite . Archer then tells Gralik that Degra will use the kemocite to build a weapon , but the Arboreal denies any knowledge of the plan . Back on Enterprise , Commander Tucker also learns that the kemocite is the key to Reptilian rifle technology . Archer approves his idea to reverse engineer a rifle , but Tucker unknowingly triggers a self @-@ destruct sequence and the weapon is beamed into space . Archer then decides not to destroy the kemocite mining complex as he doesn 't want the Xindi to think of them as aggressors .
On the planet , Gralik explains that Degra told him that the kemocite was for research , and explains how the Avian race were assumed to be made extinct in the Xindi Civil War . A Reptilian shuttle arrives early , carrying Degra , to collect the final shipment of kemocite . Gralik takes the away team to a cave that will protect them from scans , but they are soon attacked by robotic drones sent by the Reptilians . When Gralik returns home , he is confronted by Degra , who reveals the true purpose of the kemocite , to build a weapon to destroy a ruthless alien species . T 'Pol in the meantime has modified the canister of kemocite so that the ship can track it . Archer manages to sneak it aboard the shuttle and after the Reptilians leave , Archer thanks Gralik for his trust and help .
= = Production = =
Filming of the episode started on August 29 , 2003 , overlapping with the final day of the shoot for the episode " Exile " . As the final scenes to be shot for " Exile " only required Linda Park from the main cast , the remaining cast were freed up to shoot scenes for " The Shipment " . The first scenes to be filmed were those concerning the subplot of the episode where Tucker attempts to take apart the Xindi rifle . Filming resumed on the day after Labor Day with all of the main cast involved . Most of the sets used were the Enterprise standing sets , but additional sets were required to represent Gralik 's home , the Xindi complex and a forest and cave area . During the shoot , live footage was shot of the sets and was presented by Scott Bakula for Good Day Live in order to promote the series three premier " The Xindi " , which aired that evening .
It was the second episode of the season for director David Straiton after the second episode , " Anomaly " , and his sixth episode of the series overall . Chris Black and Brent Friedman wrote the episode together . They were both producers on the show ; Black a co @-@ executive producer and Friedman a consulting producer . They had each written episodes of the series separately with Friedman credited for " Raijin " . Black has several credits to his name on the show , including " First Flight " and " Carbon Creek " . The episode saw the return of John Cothran Jr . , who had previously played two Klingons in previously Star Trek series . These were Nu 'Daq in the The Next Generation episode " The Chase " and Telok in the Deep Space Nine episode " Crossover " . Other cast returning from earlier in the season were Steven Culp as Major Hayes and Randy Oglesby as the Xindi Degra . Executive producer Rick Berman later announced that Gralik would be returning to Enterprise , however " The Shipment " was the only on screen appearance of the character .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" The Shipment " was first aired in the United States on the UPN network on October 29 , 2003 . It received a 3 @.@ 9 / 6 share among all adults , with 6 percent of all adults watching television at the time of the broadcast . It was in sixth place for the night , one place behind Smallville on The WB which had a 4 @.@ 2 / 7 rating . It was an increase from the 2 @.@ 6 rating in the previous week for a re @-@ run episode aired up against a Major League Baseball World Series game on the Fox Network . The following week was sweeps week , and saw an increase in viewers for the episode " Twilight " up to a rating of 4 @.@ 07 , an increase of nearly 400 @,@ 000 viewers compared to " The Shipment " .
Michelle Erica Green , reviewing the episode for TrekNation , described the episode as " very classic Trek " . She was pleased to see that some character depth was being introduced into the new Xindi characters , and compared Gralik to Captain Dathon from the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " Darmok " but thought that Gralik didn 't get developed quite enough to be on the same level . Overall , she described the episode as " a very solid hour of entertainment , with very few nitpicks ... a slick package with the values I consider to be real Trek " . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " wasn 't enthusiastic about a particularly " lackluster " action scene which he felt was a bad cross between Star Trek : Insurrection and Andromeda . However , he was pleased with the other aspects of the plot and praised the clever scripting . He gave the episode a score of three out of four .
The only home media release of " The Shipment " has been as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray release of Enterprise was announced in early 2013 , and released on January 7 , 2014 .
= Æthelred ( bishop ) =
Æthelred ( or Ethelred ; died 30 June 888 ) was an Anglo @-@ Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury in medieval England . Although one source states that he was Bishop of Wiltshire prior to his elevation to Canterbury , this has been shown to be false . Much of Æthelred 's time in office was spent dealing with the dislocations caused by the invasion of England by Vikings . There were also conflicts with King Alfred the Great over ecclesiastical matters as well
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as the desire of the papacy to reform the English clergy .
= = Biography = =
Some sources , including the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , in the F version of that work , state that Æthelred was transferred in 870 from the Bishopric of Wiltshire to the see of Canterbury . However , the transfer has now been proven to be taken from the life of Ælfric of Abingdon , who was archbishop from 995 to 1005 . Although the story of his transfer is false , Æthelred was consecrated as archbishop in 870 . Why he was selected for Canterbury is unknown , as there is no contemporary information on his election .
Most of Æthelred 's time as archbishop was spent dealing with the effects of Viking raids , but he also had a conflict with King Alfred the Great over royal control of ecclesiastical affairs . It was during Æthelred 's archbishopric that the Golden Gospels , a still @-@ surviving 8th century gospel book , was ransomed from a raiding army and donated to Canterbury . Pope John VIII also urged Æthelred and Archbishop Wulfhere of York to reform the dress of the English clergy . The Anglo @-@ Saxon clergy wore the short tunic that was the normal costume of the laypeople of Britain . The Roman custom , however , was to wear long clerical robes or habits , and the Anglo @-@ Saxon custom was opposed by the papacy and other continental clergy . Whether Æthelred and Wulfred took steps to try to change the dress of their clergy is unknown , but the clothing customs of the Anglo @-@ Saxon clergy did not change .
Around 877 , Æthelred wrote to Pope John VIII to complain about King Alfred 's conduct towards Canterbury . The exact nature of the dispute is not clear , but the reply from the pope to the archbishop still exists . The pope told the archbishop that Canterbury had papal support and that the pope had written to the king urging the king to respect the rights of the archbishop . The writer Justin Pollard sees this letter as evidence of papal support for the deposition of Alfred , which Pollard alleges occurred at Christmas 878 and that the deposition was supported by Æthelred . Other historians , however , do not agree that there was a deposition of the king supported by the archbishop at this time .
Æthelred also reached an agreement with Ælfred , an ealdorman , where Ælfred was granted the life use of a Canterbury estate in return for bequeathing one of his estates to Canterbury after his death . The document that records this agreement is not dated , however , so it is unknown when exactly during Æthelred 's episcopate the document was drawn up . Another problem for the archbishop was a decline in the abilities of the scribes at Canterbury , which is dramatically illustrated by the document , which has a number of errors and duplications . Other documents of the period show that some of the scribes had little knowledge of Latin .
Æthelred died 30 June 888 .
= 2002 San Francisco Bowl =
The 2002 San Francisco Bowl was the inaugural edition of the post @-@ season college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Air Force Falcons at Pacific Bell Park in San Francisco , California on December 31 , 2002 . The game was the final contest of the 2002 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 20 – 13 victory for Virginia Tech .
Virginia Tech was selected for the inaugural edition of the San Francisco Bowl ( now the Fight Hunger Bowl ) after a 9 – 4 record during the 2002 college football season . Tech defeated several nationally ranked teams , including No. 14 LSU and No. 19 Texas A & M. Tech 's opponent , Air Force , received its bid following an 8 – 4 regular season . Air Force faced several BCS @-@ conference opponents during the regular season , including California and Northwestern .
The 2002 San Francisco Bowl kicked off in clear , 69 ° F ( 21 ° C ) weather , but the field was soggy after several days of rain . In the first seven minutes of the game , Air Force scored 10 consecutive unanswered points . The Tech defense eventually clamped down on the Falcons ' offense , however , and only allowed three points for the remainder of the game . The Virginia Tech offense slowly climbed back from the initial 10 @-@ point deficit , scoring a touchdown in the first quarter and a field goal in the second . By halftime , the Hokies had equalized the score at 10 – 10 .
In the second half , defense continued to dominate as Tech gradually built a lead . The Hokies scored the only points of a third quarter as running back Lee Suggs ran into the end zone from one yard out , allowing Tech to take a 17 – 10 lead into the fourth quarter . The Falcons didn 't give up easily , however . Air Force kicker Joey Ashcroft cut into the Tech lead with a 21 @-@ yard field goal . Tech matched the score later in the quarter to restore the one @-@ touchdown lead . As time ran down , Air Force had one final chance to tie the game and send it into overtime . Beginning at its own 18 @-@ yard line with 4 : 11 left to play , the Falcons drove deep into Tech territory . With seven seconds remaining , Air Force quarterback Chance Harridge tried to scramble into the end zone , but was stopped before the goal line by Tech cornerback Ronyell Whitaker . The defensive stop preserved the 20 – 13 Hokie victory , and Tech quarterback Bryan Randall was named the game 's most valuable player .
= = Team selection = =
= = = Air Force = = =
The Air Force Falcons began the 2002 season having gone 6 – 6 during the previous season , and hoping to put that disappointing showing behind them . On August 31 , 2002 , the Falcons did just that , defeating Northwestern in a blowout 52 – 3 victory . Following that win , the Falcons added five more in successive weeks , racing out to a 6 – 0 undefeated start . On October 19 , the Falcons faced No. 19 Notre Dame , and in a close @-@ fought game , suffered their first loss . In the five games that followed the loss to Notre Dame , the Falcons suffered three additional losses , culminating in a close regular @-@ season defeat by the San Diego State Aztecs .
After starting with six straight wins , the Falcons finished with an overall regular @-@ season record of 8 – 4 and a Mountain West Conference record of 4 – 3 , putting them third in the conference . Air Force was one of three bowl @-@ eligible teams in the Mountain West during the 2002 season . MWC champion Colorado State earned an automatic bid to the Liberty Bowl , and the Las Vegas Bowl , which had second pick of MWC teams , selected New Mexico . By default , this left Air Force to the San Francisco Bowl .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies football team began the 2002 season having gone 8 – 4 the previous season and having suffered a season @-@ ending defeat to Florida State in the 2002 Gator Bowl . The Hokies began the season against the Arkansas State Indians , hoping to rebuild after the loss of 11 starters from the previous season 's team . Against the Indians , Tech started the season with a record performance , scoring 56 first @-@ half points en route to a 63 – 7 rout .
That overwhelming start was just the beginning for the Hokies , who won their next seven games , racing to an 8 – 0 start and a No. 3 ranking in the national polls . In their ninth game of the season , however , the Hokies suffered their first loss , falling 21 – 28 to the Pittsburgh Panthers . The next week , Tech suffered an even closer loss , losing to Syracuse in triple overtime despite a record performance from Tech quarterback Bryan Randall , who accumulated 504 passing yards and five touchdown passes .
In the three games following the loss to Syracuse , Tech lost two , taking it to a final regular @-@ season record of 9 – 4 overall and a Big East conference record of 3 – 4 , meaning Tech was the fourth ranked team in the Big East that season . Prior to the season , the Big East had signed an agreement with the new San Francisco Bowl , giving that bowl the fifth pick of bowl @-@ eligible teams in the Big East . But with the Gator Bowl ( second pick of Big East teams ) selecting Notre Dame instead of a Big East team , all the Big East 's selections were pushed back one slot . Second @-@ place West Virginia University was pushed to the Continental Tire Bowl ( third pick ) and third @-@ place Pittsburgh was selected by the Insight Bowl ( fourth pick ) , leaving Virginia Tech to be selected by the San Francisco Bowl with the fifth pick .
= = Pregame buildup = =
On the day prior to the game , spread bettors favored Virginia Tech to win by 11 @.@ 5 points . Despite that advantage , Tech head coach Frank Beamer warned his team and the public about the threat underdog Air Force posed to the Hokies ' chances of winning . Both Beamer and Air Force head coach Fisher DeBerry were among the longest @-@ tenured coaches in college football at the time . DeBerry had been a college coach for 19 years , while Beamer had coached for 16 years . The game would be an opportunity for DeBerry to gain his 150th career win and defeat a ranked team for the first time since 1999 . Ticket sales prior to the game were sluggish , as both teams failed to sell out their assigned allotments , and local sales registered fewer than 8 @,@ 000 tickets sold . In addition , local media coverage of the game was very sparse .
= = = Offensive matchups = = =
= = = = Air Force = = = =
Prior to the San Francisco Bowl , Air Force 's offense was the No. 1 @-@ ranked rushing offense in the country , accumulating 314 @.@ 5 rushing yards on average per game . Air Force quarterback Chance Harridge had 1 @,@ 159 rushing yards and 22 rushing touchdowns , setting what was then an NCAA record for most rushing touchdowns in a single season by a quarterback . Through the air , he completed 60 of 125 passes during the regular season for 971 passing yards and 10 touchdowns . Heading into the San Francisco Bowl , he needed just 29 passing yards to become the 16th player in NCAA Division I @-@ A history to run for 1 @,@ 000 yards and pass for 1 @,@ 000 yards in a single season .
Air Force running back Leotis Palmer was having the best season of his career heading into the San Francisco Bowl . During the regular season , he accumulated 537 rushing yards , four rushing touchdowns and 113 passing yards for two touchdowns . Palmer and the Falcons had already clinched the season 's rushing title , cementing their status as the No. 1 rushing team in the country after West Virginia — the second @-@ place team — failed to gain sufficient yardage in its final game to pass the Falcons . Despite finishing with the top @-@ ranked rushing offense , none of Air Force 's offensive linemen received postseason honors . " It should give our players a lot of incentive for next year . Hopefully , if we repeat next year , maybe we 'll get two or three on there . You certainly don 't accumulate the number of yards we do unless you have people up front doing their job , " DeBerry said at the time .
Prior to the game , offensive tackle Blane Neufeld was pronounced unable to play due to a broken foot suffered two weeks prior to the San Francisco Bowl .
= = = = Virginia Tech = = = =
The Virginia Tech offense averaged 31 @.@ 5 points per game during the regular season . In the weeks before the San Francisco Bowl , Virginia Tech running back Lee Suggs was cast as the key for that offense in the game . Suggs , for whom the game would be his last as a collegiate player , rushed for 1 @,@ 255 yards and 20 touchdowns during the regular season . He needed just 149 more rushing yards to set the team 's record for single @-@ season rushing yards , which stood at 1 @,@ 403 . Even without the record , Suggs was predicted to be a high pick in that year 's NFL Draft . Suggs was supported by Virginia Tech center Jake Grove , who anchored a strong Tech offensive line . Though criticized as being too " nasty , " Grove led the team in knockdown blocks and was graded as the team 's most efficient lineman . About Grove , Suggs said , " He gets the blocking scheme straight . ... He gets us ready to go . "
Also benefiting from the offensive line 's strength was Tech quarterback Bryan Randall . Randall finished the regular season with 1 @,@ 957 passing yards and 12 passing touchdowns , completing 140 of his 225 passes during the process . He also was successful running the ball , carrying it for 527 yards and three touchdowns during the regular season .
= = = Defensive matchups = = =
= = = = Air Force = = = =
During the 2002 season , Air Force allowed an average of 360 @.@ 7 yards per game , fourth in the Mountain West and 57th nationally . This was an improvement over the 2001 season , when the Falcons allowed 452 @.@ 7 yards per game on average . Air Force also was allowing far fewer points per game . In 2002 , the Falcons allowed an average of 23 @.@ 6 points per game , down from more than 32 per game in the 2001 season . Air Force was successful in its kicking defense as well . Between 1990 and 2002 , Air Force ranked second in terms of blocked kicks with 79 . Virginia Tech was first , with 85 . Air Force strong safety Mark Marsh , replaced by converted quarterback Joel Kurzdorfer , was pronounced doubtful for the game due to a lower leg injury he suffered in the days leading up to the San Francisco Bowl .
= = = = Virginia Tech = = = =
The Virginia Tech defense looked to recover from its slide during the last five games of the regular season . During the Hokies ' first eight games ( all wins ) , Tech gave up averages of 10 @.@ 5 points , 267 @.@ 5 total yards and 40 @.@ 8 rushing yards per game . In the final five games ( in which Tech went 1 – 4 ) , the Hokie defense allowed averages of 32 @.@ 8 points , 446 @.@ 7 total yards and 229 @.@ 4 rushing yards per game . This led to doubts about Tech 's ability to stop the Falcons ' top @-@ ranked rushing attack . Head defensive coach Bud foster said , " ... right now you just kind of have a question mark : Are we going to do what we 're taught to do ? " That late @-@ season falter still saw Tech ranked as the No. 20 rushing defense in the country heading into the San Francisco Bowl , allowing an average of just 113 @.@ 31 yards per game .
One of the keys for the Hokie defense would be linebacker Brandon Manning , who attended the Air Force Academy 's preparatory school before deciding to walk on to Virginia Tech 's football team instead of attending the Academy . Manning was Tech 's No. 3 tackler in terms of statistics , accumulating 70 tackles during the course of the regular season . Virginia Tech defensive tackle Jimmy Williams injured his ankle two days prior to the game , causing him to be unable to play . Tech 's Richard Johnson was also listed as injured and unlikely to play .
= = Game summary = =
The 2002 San Francisco Bowl kicked off at 7 : 30 p.m. PST on December 31 , 2002 , in San Francisco , California . The weather at kickoff was clear and cool , with an air temperature of 69 ° F ( 21 ° C ) . Rain showers had fallen earlier in the day and throughout the week leading up to the game , causing the field to become slippery for players . The game was broadcast on ESPN2 , and Pam Ward , Chris Spielman , and Rob Stone were the sportscasters . The broadcast earned a television rating of 1 @.@ 6 , meaning an estimated 1 @.@ 69 million people watched the game on television . The game 's attendance was given as 25 @,@ 966 , but the actual attendance was far lower than that figure .
= = = First quarter = = =
Virginia Tech kicked off to Air Force to begin the game . The Falcons returned the kickoff to their 20 @-@ yard line , where the game began . On the game 's first play , running back Leotis Palmer ran for a short gain out of the Falcons ' triple option offense , which Air Force used throughout the game . After the short gain , Falcons quarterback Chance Harridge completed a 47 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Anthony Park . This was a surprise because the Falcons had been ranked among the least @-@ proficient teams in the country in terms of passing offense . The pass drove the Falcons offense deep into Virginia Tech territory , and Air Force continued to advance the ball with a series of short rushes that resulted in a first down . Then , on the sixth play of the Air Force drive , running back Matt Ward ran a reverse for 15 yards and the game 's first touchdown . Air Force kicker Joey Ashcroft successfully completed the extra point , and Air Force took a 7 – 0 lead with 12 minutes remaining in the first quarter .
Virginia Tech received the post @-@ touchdown kickoff and returned it to their 31 @-@ yard line , where the Tech offense took over on its first possession of the game . Tech running back Lee Suggs ran for a three @-@ yard gain , and quarterback Bryan Randall completed a 15 @-@ yard pass to take the Hokies to near midfield , earning Virginia Tech a first down in the process . But on the third play after taking possession , the Hokies turned the ball over as Tech running back Lee Suggs fumbled the ball . Air Force recovered the turnover and returned it to the Tech 35 @-@ yard line , where the Falcons offense returned to the field . Despite gaining possession of the ball deep inside Virginia Tech 's side of the field , Air Force was unable to move the ball forward with much success . After a quick first down provided by a penalty against Virginia Tech , the Hokie defense stiffened and denied the Falcons another . Air Force was forced to attempt a 45 @-@ yard field goal , which Ashcroft converted with 7 : 36 left in the quarter to give the Falcons a 10 – 0 .
Air Force 's post @-@ score kickoff went out of bounds , resulting in a penalty that allowed Tech to automatically start its second offensive possession of the game at its 35 @-@ yard line . On his first play , Randall completed a 19 @-@ yard pass that drove the Hokie offense into Air Force territory for the first time and
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gained Tech another first down . Two plays later , Randall completed another pass , this time a 16 @-@ yard toss that pushed Tech to the Air Force 30 @-@ yard line . Though the Hokies gained several more yards on short plays , they were unable to earn another first down . Tech kicker Carter Warley was sent into the game to attempt a 41 @-@ yard field goal , but the kick bounced off the right upright and Tech was denied three points . With 4 : 59 remaining in the first quarter , Air Force still held a 10 – 0 lead .
Following the missed field goal , Air Force 's offense began operations at its 24 @-@ yard line . Running back Anthony Butler broke free for an 18 @-@ yard gain on the third play of the drive , giving Air Force a first down . Two plays later , however , Harridge threw a pass that was intercepted by Tech linebacker Vegas Robinson . At the end of the play , Air Force committed a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty , which allowed the Tech offense to take over at the Air Force 15 @-@ yard line . Tech needed just two plays to drive the 15 yards and earn a touchdown , its first of the game . With 2 : 26 remaining in the quarter , Air Force 's lead had been cut to 10 – 7 .
After Tech 's kickoff , Air Force went three and out and was forced to punt . The Hokies took over at their 34 @-@ yard line after the kick . Bryan Randall completed two quick passes to wide receiver Shawn Witten for a total of 26 yards before time in the quarter ran out . At the end of the first quarter , Air Force had a 10 – 7 lead , but Virginia Tech was in possession of the ball and driving deeper into Air Force territory .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The Hokies began the second quarter in possession of the ball and facing a second down and one yard . After the Tech offense picked up one first down , it was unable to gain another . Facing a fourth down and needing five yards for a first down at the Air Force 29 @-@ yard line , Tech head coach Frank Beamer elected to try to gain the first down instead of trying a long field goal . Bryan Randall was sacked for a loss of 10 yards , however , and the Hokies turned the ball over to Air Force after failing to gain the first down .
Air Force began its offensive possession at its 39 @-@ yard line , and like Virginia Tech , soon found itself facing a fourth down . Like Virginia Tech , it elected to try to convert the down , but unlike Virginia Tech , the Falcons were successful in gaining the needed yardage . Two plays later , however , Harridge threw his second interception of the game to the Tech defense . Tech 's offense took the field , and gained a first down , but was forced to punt after failing to gain a second . Air Force likewise gained a first down on offense and did gain a second , but could not gain a third .
After another Falcon punt , the Hokies took over on offense at their 49 @-@ yard line with 4 : 12 remaining before halftime . Tech began advancing the ball , and was aided by a 15 @-@ yard penalty against Air Force that pushed the Hokies deep into Falcons territory . Running backs Kevin Jones and Lee Suggs advanced the ball on the ground with short rushes , and Randall contributed short passes at times , gaining needed first downs when required . Tech advanced the ball inside the Air Force 10 @-@ yard line , gaining a first down at the nine @-@ yard line . There , the Air Force defense stiffened . Tech gained four yards on three plays , but was unable to cross the goal line for another touchdown . Tech kicker Warley entered the game to attempt his second field goal try of the game . The 23 @-@ yard kick was more successful than his first try , and with 25 seconds remaining in the first half , tied the game at 10 – 10 .
Air Force received the kickoff and ran one quick rushing play to allow the first half to come to an end with the score tied at 10 .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Air Force received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Tech returned the kickoff to its 25 @-@ yard line , where the Hokie offense began the first drive of the second half . The Tech offense used rushes by Lee Suggs and passes by Bryan Randall to pick up several first downs and drive into Air Force territory . But once on the Falcons ' side of the field , Tech proved unable to gain another first down and was even pushed back into its own territory by a penalty . Tech was forced to punt , and Air Force began its first offensive possession of the second half at its 20 @-@ yard line after a touchback .
On the first Air Force play of the second half , quarterback Chance Harridge ran up the middle of the field for a 21 @-@ yard gain . The Falcons followed that first @-@ down play with a series of rushes that resulted in another first down , this time in Virginia Tech territory . But as the Hokies had done before them , the Falcons faltered inside opposition territory . Instead of punting the ball , however , Air Force head coach Fisher DeBerry kept his offense on the field to attempt to gain the needed two yards on fourth down . The attempt was unsuccessful , and Tech 's offense returned to the field with 7 : 40 remaining in the quarter .
The Hokies took over at their 39 @-@ yard line , and immediately found success . Randall connected on two 10 @-@ yard passes to take the Hokies into Air Force territory . The two passes were followed by a 16 @-@ yard run by Tech fullback Doug Easlick for another first down at the Air Force 24 @-@ yard line . From there , the Tech ground game continued to eat up yards and result in first downs . Kevin Jones ran the ball twice for 11 yards , then Lee Suggs ran the ball three times for 13 yards , the last carry also resulting in a touchdown . The score and subsequent extra point gave Tech its first lead of the game , 17 – 10 , with 4 : 45 remaining .
Following the post @-@ touchdown kickoff , the two teams traded punts . Air Force gained a first down before punting , Tech was forced into a three and out , and as the quarter came to an end , Air Force was facing a third down and seven yards at the Tech 29 @-@ yard line . Tech still held a 17 – 10 lead , but the Falcons appeared to be in striking distance .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Air Force began the final quarter of play in possession of the ball and facing a third down at the Virginia Tech 29 @-@ yard line . Needing seven yards for a first down , the Falcons picked up six . Instead of attempting a field goal on fourth down , DeBerry ordered another fourth @-@ down conversion , which was successful . Three plays later , Tech 's defense again forced a fourth down , and again DeBerry ordered a fourth @-@ down conversion . The try was again successful , and Air Force earned another first down . Virginia Tech 's defense continued to prevent Air Force from gaining a big play or a touchdown , however , and forced another fourth down . Considering his third fourth @-@ down conversion in the same drive , coach DeBerry instead sent in kicker Joey Ashcroft , who kicked a 21 @-@ yard field goal to cut Virginia Tech 's lead to 17 – 13 with 9 : 50 to go in the quarter .
Tech returned the post @-@ touchdown kickoff to its 34 @-@ yard line , where the Hokies began their first offensive drive of the fourth quarter . Randall ran for nine yards , Suggs for three , then Randall completed two passes for 16 yards to push the Hokies into Air Force territory . Once there , Tech continued to grind forward as Suggs ran the ball on five consecutive plays for 15 yards and a first down . After Randall was sacked for a loss of eight yards , however , Tech sent in Warley , who kicked a 37 @-@ yard line to restore Tech 's seven @-@ point lead , 20 – 13 , with 4 : 03 to go in the game .
With time running out , Air Force seemingly had one last opportunity to drive down the field and send the game into overtime with a touchdown and extra point or to win it outright with a touchdown and two @-@ point conversion . The Falcons began their drive at their 18 @-@ yard line after Tech 's kickoff . At the start , Air Force was aided by a 15 @-@ yard penalty against Virginia Tech . From there , the going was less easy , as Air Force used short rushes by Anthony Butler , Harridge , and Steve Massie to gain two first downs and advance the ball into Virginia Tech territory . Then , facing third down at the Virginia Tech 47 @-@ yard line , Harridge completed an 18 @-@ yard pass to tight end Adam Strecker . It was just Harridge 's second completion of the game — the first having taken place in the second play of the game . Following the pass , the Falcons were hampered by a 10 @-@ yard illegal blocking penalty , but a 19 @-@ yard pass to James Walker erased that deficit and gave Air Force a first down at the Virginia Tech 10 @-@ yard line . Time was rapidly running out , but there was still time for Air Force to attempt a few plays . Harridge threw two passes that fell incomplete , then attempted a desperation run towards the end zone . He was tackled five yards short of the goal line , however , and time expired .
Virginia Tech escaped with the 20 – 13 victory thanks to the defensive stop .
= = Statistical summary = =
Thanks to his performance during the game , Air Force quarterback Chance Harridge became just the fifth player in Air Force history and the 16th player in NCAA Division I @-@ A history to rush for 1 @,@ 000 yards and pass for 1 @,@ 000 yards in the same season . Despite that performance , Virginia Tech quarterback Bryan Randall was named the game 's most valuable player for his winning effort . Randall finished the game having completed 18 of his 23 passes for 177 yards . Harridge completed four of his 19 passes for 91 yards and two interceptions . After completing a pass on the second play of the game , Harridge did not complete another pass until there were less than five minutes remaining in the game , throwing 11 consecutive incomplete passes in the intervening period .
The 2002 San Francisco Bowl was the final collegiate game of Tech running back Lee Suggs , whose two touchdowns allowed him to finish his collegiate career with 336 points , the second @-@ most career points scored by a player in the Big East . Suggs also extended his NCAA @-@ record streak of consecutive games with a rushing touchdown to 27 . That record still stands today . Suggs finished the game with 19 carries for 70 rushing yards and two touchdowns . Tech wide receiver Ernest Wilford , who caught five passes for 50 yards , set what was then a school record for receptions in a season with 51 . This broke the record of 46 , set by Mike Burnop in 1971 .
Air Force finished the game with 227 rushing yards and 318 total yards on offense . The Falcons also committed four 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalties in addition to other , more minor , penalties accumulated during the game . Air Force 's leading rusher was Anthony Butler , who carried the ball 17 times for 75 yards . Anthony Park was the Falcons ' leading receiver , catching Harridge 's second @-@ play 47 @-@ yard throw for his only reception of the game .
= = Postgame effects = =
Virginia Tech 's win took it to a final 2002 record of 10 – 4 , while Air Force 's loss dropped it to a final record of 8 – 5 . Tech finished with its third 10 @-@ win @-@ or @-@ more season in four years , and secured a spot in the final Associated Press Top 25 poll of the season for the fifth consecutive season .
Attendance was low , in part due to Tech fans ' reluctance to travel across the country and pay high prices for the chance to do so . Travel agents indicated low business in the weeks leading up to the game , and Tech sold approximately 5 @,@ 000 tickets — a far lower total than the Hokies ' two previous bowl games , when 25 @,@ 000 tickets each were sold to games in Florida and Louisiana .
= Robin Friday =
Robin Friday ( 27 July 1952 – 22 December 1990 ) was an English footballer who played professionally as a forward for Reading and Cardiff City during a career that lasted four years in the mid @-@ 1970s . His on @-@ field performances were regarded as excellent , and he won Reading 's player of the year award in both of his full seasons there , as well as being the leading goal scorer . However , his habit of unsettling opponents through physical intimidation contributed to a heavily tarnished disciplinary record , and his personal life was one of heavy smoking , drinking , womanising and drug abuse . Despite his short career , he remains prominent in the memory of Reading and Cardiff supporters , both as a player and a personality . He has been voted Reading 's best ever player three times .
Born and raised in Acton , west London , Friday was scouted , but not retained , by four professional clubs during his teenage years . He appeared for local semi @-@ professional sides in the Isthmian League until he joined Charlie Hurley 's Fourth Division Reading team in 1974 — quickly becoming a key player , he helped Reading to win promotion to the Third Division during the 1975 – 76 season . As his drug habit intensified , Friday 's form began to dip in the first half of the 1976 – 77 season , leading Reading to sell him to Second Division side Cardiff City around the New Year . Friday travelled to join his new team by train without a valid ticket and had to be bailed by the Cardiff manager Jimmy Andrews before he signed for the club . He performed strongly on his debut , but afterwards his form declined and his personal life caused him to repeatedly miss matches altogether . Following a number of incidents , on and off the field — including kicking Mark Lawrenson in the face mid @-@ game — Friday retired from football in December 1977 , aged 25 . He died in Acton in 1990 , aged 38 , after suffering a heart attack .
The strongest aspects of Friday 's game were his ball skills , footballing intelligence and physical and mental strength . Andrews labelled Friday " the complete centre @-@ forward " , and , along with numerous contemporaries , retrospectively rated Friday as good enough for the England national team . In a 2004 BBC poll , Friday was voted the top " all @-@ time cult hero " for both Reading and Cardiff City . The Cardiff @-@ based band Super Furry Animals dedicated their 1996 single " The Man Don 't Give a Fuck " to his memory .
= = Early life and non @-@ League career = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Robin Friday and his twin brother , Tony , were born in Acton , west London , on 27 July 1952 . Their parents , Alf Friday , a driver for a laundry firm , and his wife Sheila , were both born in Acton and had married a year before , both aged 20 , having met three years earlier . Sheila 's father , Frederick Riding , had played professional football for Brentford before the Second World War . The Fridays lived with Sheila 's family until moving into a prefab of their own in Acton Green when Robin and Tony were aged two ; they moved to a maisonette in South Acton in 1962 when it was found that the prefab was sinking . Robin and Tony were later described by their mother as having been remarkably close , rarely arguing or fighting . A noticeable difference in personality was that Robin was shy , whereas Tony was more confident . The twins attended their first professional match at the age of two , when their father took them to a Brentford match at Griffin Park . From the age of four Alf took both boys to play football at a local park every afternoon .
Around the age of ten , Friday possessed notable ball @-@ skills , and according to his father could flick an orange up onto his neck , balance it and then let it roll it back down his body and catch it on his foot . As well as football , Robin played cricket to a high standard , boxed and played tennis . Despite their many similarities and common interest in sports and football in particular , the twins were wildly different in academic terms : while Tony did well at school , Friday was uninterested and according to his brother " was always bunking off , having birds around the park " .
Friday was scouted by numerous London sides during his teenage years , joining Crystal Palace 's school of excellence at 12 or 13 , then moving on to Queens Park Rangers aged 13 and then to Chelsea , with whom he attended the 1967 FA Cup Final ; as one of the club 's youth players , he was part of the team 's official party . However , Friday 's individual style of play and refusal to change his game resulted in each of these clubs losing patience with him . The twin brothers joined a men 's team , the Acton British Legion Reserves , aged 14 , and in some matches would play alongside their father . Tony played in midfield , and Robin up front , but according to Tony his brother was better as a goalkeeper than a forward : " He was a brilliant goalkeeper . He had no fear ... But he obviously preferred banging them in at the other end " . Around this time Robin became interested in music , dancing and attending concerts ; he also had a talent for drawing , but suddenly abandoned this interest at 15 . Robin became more outgoing than his brother and started taking drugs in his mid @-@ teens . He left school at 15 , a year before Tony , and began training as a plasterer .
= = = Borstal , first marriage and the Isthmian League = = =
Friday lasted two months as a plasterer before moving on to become first a van driver for a grocery firm , then a window cleaner . His laid @-@ back attitude and indifference was already clear : in his father 's words , " he didn 't care " . Friday regularly stole by this time , but despite numerous convictions , did not go to a detention centre until he was 16 . Having been caught stealing what Tony recalled to be " a car radio or something " , he was released almost immediately because he suffered from asthma . However , after he re @-@ offended three months later he was sent to Feltham Borstal where he served 14 months . During his time there , Friday became stronger and fitter and also starred for the Borstal football team . He was selected for the prison league 's all @-@ star men 's team , still aged 16 , and allowed out of Borstal to train and play with Reading 's youth team , for which he appeared three times in the South East Counties League during the 1968 – 69 season .
After his release , Friday returned to Acton , where he had a girlfriend called Maxine Doughan and a baby daughter called Nicola . Maxine was of mixed race . The local controversy surrounding the interracial relationship caused the couple and their circle of friends to be socially isolated , and led to a physical attack on the group one night in an Acton public house . Despite this , and the opposition by both sets of parents — Alf refused to even attend the wedding — they married , both aged 17 . Friday did not take his marital commitments seriously and continued to womanise , drink heavily and take narcotics . A friend who played for Walthamstow Avenue , a semi @-@ professional Isthmian League club from north @-@ east London , took Friday along to training one day in early 1971 . Friday played well enough for Walthamstow to sign him the same day on wages of £ 10 per week . Many of his new team @-@ mates were asphalters from east London , and Friday soon joined them in that trade .
Friday made his debut for Walthamstow on 27 March 1971 , against Bromley , coming off the bench to set up Walthamstow '
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after the order of Capuchin friars – the cowls of these friars closely resemble the monkey 's head coloration . The white @-@ headed capuchin has mostly black fur , with white to yellow like fur on the neck , throat , chest , shoulders , and upper arms . The face is pink or a white @-@ cream color and may have identifying marks such as dark brows or dark fur patches . An area of black fur on the crown of the head is distinctive . It has a prehensile tail that is often held coiled , giving the white @-@ headed capuchin the nickname " ringtail " .
Adults reach a length of between 335 and 453 mm ( 13 @.@ 2 and 17 @.@ 8 in ) , excluding tail , and a weight of up to 3 @.@ 9 kg ( 8 @.@ 6 lb ) . The tail is longer than the body , at up to 551 mm ( 21 @.@ 7 in ) in length . Males are about 27 % larger than females . The brain of a white @-@ headed capuchin is about 79 @.@ 2 g ( 2 @.@ 79 oz ) , which is larger than that of several larger monkey species , such as the mantled howler .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Social structure = = =
The white @-@ headed capuchin is a diurnal and arboreal animal . However , it does come down to the ground more often than many other New World monkeys . It moves primarily by walking on all four limbs . It lives in troops , or groups , of up to 40 monkeys ( mean 16 , range 4 – 40 ) and has a male / female adult sex ratio of 0 @.@ 71 on average ( range 0 @.@ 54 – 0 @.@ 88 ) . With rare exceptions , females spend their entire lives with their female kin . Males migrate to new social groups multiple times during the course of their lifetimes , migrating for the first time between 20 months and 11 years of age . The median age of migration in the Santa Rosa population is 4 @.@ 5 years . Males sometimes migrate alone , but more often they migrate in the company of other males who are often their kin . One of the unusual features of the kinship structure of the white @-@ headed capuchin , relative to other primate species , is the high degree of relatedness within groups that results from the long tenures of alpha males who sire most of the offspring . Alpha males have been known to keep their positions as long as 17 years in this species and this puts them in the unusual position of being available to sire the offspring of their daughters and granddaughters , who produce their first offspring at about 6 – 7 years of age . Typically , however , alpha males do not breed with their own daughters , even though they do sire virtually all offspring produced by females unrelated to them . Those subordinate males who are allies of the alpha male in group defense are the males who sire the offspring of the alpha male 's daughters . The high degree to which alpha males monopolize matings results in an unusually large number of paternal half @-@ siblings and full siblings in this species relative to other primate species .
Kinship is an important organizing factor in the structuring of female @-@ female social relationships . Particularly in larger groups , females preferentially associate with , groom , and provide coalitionary support to their matrilineally related female kin . They do not exhibit a similar preference for their paternal half sisters , which may mean that they only are capable of recognizing kinship through the maternal line . Dominance rank is also an important organizing factor , with females more often grooming and associating with females who are closer to them in the dominance hierarchy . Female @-@ female dyads groom far more than male @-@ female and male @-@ male dyads . Coalitionary aggression is common both among males and females , and capuchins seem to have an excellent understanding of the alliance structure in their group . For example , when capuchins are fighting , they sensibly recruit aid from someone who is both higher ranking than they are and also better friends with themselves than with their opponent .
Female capuchins have linear dominance hierarchies . In contrast to many Old World monkeys such as macaques , in which females socially inherit the rank just below their mothers and just above their next oldest sisters , capuchins do not have a highly predictable ranking within their matrilines . Males are typically dominant to females . The alpha male is always easy to discern , but there are sometimes ambiguous rankings among subordinate males . Male @-@ male relationships are tense , and affiliation between males is typically expressed by resting in contact , playing , or non @-@ conceptive sex rather than by grooming . Males cooperate in coalitions against potential predators , and also in defense of the group against other males . Occasionally male coalitionary aggression becomes so violent that males are killed , particularly if they are encountered roaming the forest unaccompanied by allies . Because aggression from other male capuchins is the leading cause of death ( aside from poaching by humans , where there is contact between humans and capuchins ) , male allies are critical for self @-@ defense during migration , and to assist in taking over other groups . Male emigration to a new troop typically occurs about every 4 years , so most males are in constant danger of having to defend themselves against other groups of males .
Immigrating males often kill young infants when they take over a group . Females band together to defend their infants from infanticidal males , but they rarely succeed in saving their infants . Because infants inhibit their mothers from ovulating by nursing frequently , males are able to bring females into estrus earlier by killing the infants and thereby terminating nursing ; this has the effect of increasing their breeding opportunities . Females do often mate with the killers of their infants , and with time , they typically become as supportive of the new alpha male as they had been of the previous one . The alpha male helps defend females from subordinate males within the group as well as from infanticidal males from other groups .
= = = Interactions between groups = = =
White @-@ faced capuchin troops occupy home ranges of between 32 and 86 hectares ( 79 and 213 acres ) . They travel between 1 and 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 62 and 1 @.@ 86 mi ) daily , averaging 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) per day . Although they engage in activity that has been described as " territorial " , more recent research indicates that white @-@ faced capuchin troops tend to behave aggressively to other white @-@ faced capuchin troops regardless of where they meet , and the aggression is not necessarily intended to exclude the other troops from a specific home range .
Home ranges overlap extensively , so groups are not territorial in the strictest sense of the word . Perhaps because of the intensity of male @-@ male competition and the threat of infanticide , interactions between groups are typically hostile : the males display aggressively toward one another and sometimes engage in physical aggression ( even killing an opponent ) , while females grab their infants and run . Typically , males are the primary participants in aggressive intergroup encounters , and it seems likely that males are defending access to the females in their groups . Alpha males , who have the largest reproductive stake in the group , participate at a higher rate than subordinate males . Groups with more males have an advantage over groups with fewer males , but the location of the encounter within the home range matters as well ; smaller groups defeat larger groups when the contest occurs in the core or center area of the smaller group 's home range .
= = = Interspecific interactions = = =
The white @-@ headed capuchin sometimes interacts with other sympatric monkey species . White @-@ headed capuchins sometimes travel with and even groom Geoffroy 's spider monkeys . However , aggressive interactions between the capuchins and spider monkeys also occur . Interactions between the white @-@ headed capuchin and mantled howler are infrequent , and sometimes result in the capuchins threatening the larger howlers . However , affiliative associations between the capuchins and howlers do sometimes occur , mostly involving juveniles playing together .
Although South American capuchin species often travel with and feed together with squirrel monkeys , the white @-@ headed capuchin only rarely associates with the Central American squirrel monkey . This appears to be related to the patchier , more dispersed distribution of food resources in Central America and the fact that there is less dietary overlap between the Central American squirrel monkey and the white @-@ headed capuchin than between their South American counterparts . Therefore , there is less benefit to the Central American squirrel monkey in associating with the white @-@ headed capuchin in order to exploit the capuchin 's knowledge of food resource distribution . In addition , compared to their South American counterparts , male white @-@ headed capuchins are relatively more alert to rival males than to predators , reducing the predator detection benefits that the Central American squirrel monkey receives from associating with the white @-@ headed capuchin compared to its South American counterparts . Since the squirrel monkeys generally initiate interactions with the capuchins in South America , the fact that similar associations would impose higher foraging costs and impart fewer predator detection benefits to the Central American squirrel monkey leads to fewer associations with the white @-@ headed capuchin .
Several non @-@ primate animal species tend to follow troops of white @-@ faced monkeys or are otherwise attracted by their presence. white @-@ lipped peccaries and common agoutis are attracted by feeding white @-@ headed capuchins , looking for fruit that the capuchins drop . Several species of bird are also known to follow white @-@ headed capuchins looking for food . These include the double @-@ toothed kite , the white hawk and the sharp @-@ shinned hawk .
= = = Diet = = =
The white @-@ headed capuchin is an omnivore . Its primary foods are fruit and insects . It forages at all levels of the forest , including the ground . Methods for finding food include stripping bark off of trees , searching through leaf litter , breaking dead tree branches , rolling over rocks , and using stones as anvils to crack hard fruits . Its prehensile tail assists with feeding , helping support the monkey when foraging for food below the branches .
Fruit can make up between 50 % and 67 % or more of the capuchin 's diet . In one study in Panama , white @-@ headed capuchins ate 95 different fruit species . Among its favorite fruits are figs from the family Moraceae , mangos and related fruits from the family Anacardiaceae , the bean @-@ like fruits from the family Leguminosae and fruits from the family Rubiaceae . It generally only eats ripe fruit , testing for ripeness by smelling , tasting and prodding the fruit . It typically eats only the pulp and juice , spitting out the seeds and fibers . Other plant matter eaten includes flowers , young leaves , seeds of certain plants , and bromeliads . It also uses the bromelids as a water source , drinking the water that gets trapped inside . In Carara National Park the capuchins have a varied diet in addition to the above of banana fruits and flowers , heliconia seeds , huevos de caballo fruits and anacardiaceae stems .
Insect prey eaten includes beetle larvae , butterfly and moth caterpillars , ants , wasps , and ant and wasp larvae . It also eats larger prey , such as birds , bird eggs , frogs , lizards , crabs , mollusks and small mammals . The population in Guanacaste , Costa Rica in particular is noted for hunting squirrels , magpies , white @-@ crowned parrots and baby coatis . The amount of vertebrate prey eaten varies by troop . Even neighboring troops can show significant differences in their diets .
The diet can vary between the rainy and dry season . For example , in Guanacaste , Costa Rica the white @-@ headed capuchin can eat a wide variety of fruits as well as caterpillars in the early rainy season ( June to November ) . But during the dry season , only figs and a few other types of fruit are available . During the dry season , chitinous insects , ant and wasp larvae and vertebrates become a particularly important part of the white @-@ headed capuchin 's diet . Access to water can also become an issue during the dry season . The white @-@ headed capuchin likes to drink daily , so in forests where water holes dry up during the dry season , there can be competition between troops over access to the remaining water holes .
= = = Tool use = = =
Capuchins are considered among the most intelligent of the New World monkeys ; they have been the subject of many studies on behaviour and intelligence . The capuchins ' intelligence is thought to be an adaptation to support their feeding habits ; they rely on ephemeral food sources which may be hard to find . In one particular study conducted in 2007 , capuchins were found to be among the ten most intelligent primates , second to spider monkeys among New World monkeys .
The white @-@ headed capuchin is known to rub parts of certain plants into their hair . Plants used in this manner include citrus fruits , vines of the genera Piper and Clematis , monkey comb ( genus Sloanea ) , dumb cane and custard apple . Ants and millipedes are also used in this way . It is not definitively known what this rubbing is for , but this may deter parasites such as ticks and insects , or it may serve as a fungicide or bactericide or anti @-@ inflammatory agent . Alternatively , it may be a form of scent marking .
The white @-@ headed capuchin also uses tools in other ways . It has been known to beat snakes with sticks in order to protect itself or to get the snake to release an infant . In captivity , it has been known to use tools to get to food or to defend itself , and in one case a white @-@ headed capuchin used a squirrel monkey as a projectile , hurling it at a human observer . It has been historically noted that the species is often able to recognize , and therefore avoid baited cage traps , and hidden net snares are often the only way to capture this monkey . Some populations also use trees or other hard surfaces as anvils in order to crack mollusks . And it sometimes uses sticks as probes to explore openings .
Though the white @-@ headed capuchin has perhaps the most extensive and most frequent tool use in comparison to the other gracile capuchins , its tool use is considerably inferior to that of robust capuchins , especially the tufted capuchin . Factors such as easier access to water and food may have to do with the white @-@ headed capuchin 's less extensive use of tools .
The white @-@ headed capuchin 's intelligence and ability to use tools allows them to be trained to assist paraplegics . Other species of capuchin monkeys are also trained in this manner . White @-@ headed capuchins can also be trained for roles on television and movies , such as Marcel on the television series Friends . They were also traditionally used as organ grinder monkeys .
= = = Communication = = =
The white @-@ headed capuchin is noisy . Loud calls , such as barks and coughs , are used to communicate threat warnings , and softer calls , such as squeals , are used in intimate discourse . Different types of threats , such as a threat from a terrestrial animal versus a threat from a bird , invoke different vocalizations . Facial expressions and scent are also important to communication . It sometimes engages in a practice known as " urine washing " , in which the monkey rubs urine on its feet . The exact purpose of this practice is unknown , but it may be a form of olfactory signal .
= = Reproduction = =
The white @-@ headed capuchin uses a polygamous mating system in which a male may mate with multiple females . Although the dominant male does not monopolize breeding , studies have shown that the dominant male does tend to father most of the young . Although a female may mate with several males , the dominant male may be more likely to copulate when the female is at peak fertility . Nonetheless , there is evidence that dominant males do tend to avoid breeding with their own daughters who are members of the troop . Such avoidance is rare among New World primates .
Copulation takes about 2 minutes , and the gestation period is 5 to 6 months . Usually a single young is born , but twins occur occasionally . Most births occur during the dry season from December to April . The infant is carried across its mother 's back for about 6 weeks . After about 4 to 5 weeks it can stray from its mother for brief periods and by about 3 months it can move around independently , although some infants will be mostly independent earlier . Weaning occurs between 6 and 12 months . While the mother rests , the young spends most of its time foraging or playing , either on its own or with other juveniles . Capuchins engage in high levels of alloparenting , in which monkeys other than the mother help care for the infant . Infants are carried by alloparents most often between 4 and 6 weeks in age . Males as well as females engage in alloparenting .
Like other capuchin species , the white @-@ headed capuchin matures slowly . Sexual maturity can be reached at 3 years . But on average , females give birth for the first time at 7 years old and give birth every 26 months thereafter . Males attain reproductive maturity at 10 years old . The white @-@ headed capuchin has a long life span given its size . The maximum recorded life span in captivity is over 54 years .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The white @-@ headed capuchin is found in much of Central America and a small portion of South America . In Central America , its range includes much of Honduras , Nicaragua , Costa Rica and Panama . It has also been reported to occur in eastern Guatemala and southern Belize , but these reports are unconfirmed . In South America the white @-@ headed capuchin is found in the extreme north @-@ western strip between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes Mountains in Colombia and northwestern Ecuador . It is among the most commonly seen monkeys in Central America 's national parks , such as Manuel Antonio National Park , Corcovado National Park , Santa Rosa National Park and Soberania National Park .
It should also be noted that while it is very common in Costa Rica and Panama , the monkey has been largely extirpated from Honduras and much of Nicaragua . Many Honduran capuchins were captured and relocated to the island of Roatán , and many Nicaraguan capuchins were captured and relocated to the island of Ometepe . In Nicaragua , wild capuchins may still be easily spotted in regions around Masaya , as well as around Bluefields and other locations around the South Caribbean coast . The monkey can also be observed near the Costa Rican border along the San Juan River , and in Kahka Creek Rainforest Preserve .
It is found in many different types of forest , including mature and secondary forests , and including evergreen and deciduous forests , dry and moist forests , and mangrove and montane forests . However , it appears to prefer primary or advanced secondary forests . Also , higher densities of white @-@ headed capuchins are found in older areas of forest and in areas containing evergreen forest , as well as areas with more water availability during the dry season .
= = Conservation status = =
The white @-@ headed capuchin is regarded as " least concern " from a conservation standpoint by IUCN . However , its numbers are affected by the fact that it is sometimes captured for the pet trade . Its status can also be harmed by deforestation . However , deforestation may also impact its main predator , the harpy eagle , more than it directly impacts the white @-@ headed capuchin , and so on a net basis deforestation may not be as harmful to the capuchin 's status . The white @-@ headed capuchin can adapt to forest fragmentation better than other species due to its ability to live in a wide variety of forest types and exploit a wide variety of food sources . The white @-@ headed capuchin is important to its ecosystems as a seed and pollen disperser . It also impacts the ecosystem by eating insects that act as pests to certain trees , by pruning certain trees , such as Gustavia superba and Bursera simaruba , causing them generate more branches and possibly additional fruit , and by accelerating germination of certain seeds when they pass through the capuchin 's digestive tract . In addition , the white @-@ headed capuchin sometimes kills Acacia collinsii plants when it rips through the plant 's branches to get to resident ant colonies .
= All I Want for Christmas Is You =
" All I Want for Christmas Is You " is a song performed by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , and written and produced by Carey . It was released by Columbia Records on November 1 , 1994 as the lead single from her first holiday album and fourth studio album , Merry Christmas . " Christmas " is an uptempo love song that includes bell chimes and heavy back @-@ up vocals , as well as use of synthesizers . The song 's lyrics declare that the narrator does not care about Christmas presents or lights ; all she wants for Christmas is to be with her lover .
Two music videos were commissioned for the song : the song 's primary music video features grainy home @-@ movie @-@ style footage of Carey , her dogs and family during the holiday season , as well as Carey dressed in a Santa suit frolicking on a snowy mountainside . Carey 's then @-@ husband Tommy Mottola makes a cameo appearance as Santa Claus , bringing Carey a gift and leaving on a red sleigh . The second video was filmed in black and white format , and features Carey dressed in 1960s style in homage to The Ronettes , alongside back up singers and female dancers . Carey has performed " All I Want for Christmas Is You " in a slew of live television appearances and tours throughout her career . In 2010 , Carey re @-@ recorded the song for her second holiday album , Merry Christmas II You , titled " All I Want for Christmas Is You ( Extra Festive ) " . Carey also re @-@ recorded the song as a duet with Canadian singer Justin Bieber for his 2011 album Under the Mistletoe , titled " All I Want for Christmas for You ( SuperFestive ! ) " . The song has also been covered by many artists over the years .
In the years since its original release , " All I Want for Christmas Is You " has been critically lauded and has become established as a Christmas standard ; it was once called " one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon " in The New Yorker , and continues to surge in popularity each holiday season . The song was commercially successful , reaching the number @-@ two position on the singles charts of Australia , Japan , the Netherlands , Norway , and the United Kingdom , and the top 10 in several other
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' admits Afanasieff . ' But that 's why it 's so popular — because it 's so simple and palatable ! " . At first , Afanasieff admitted that he was puzzled and " blanched " as to where Carey 's wanted to take the melody and vocal scales , though she was " adamant " in her direction for the song . In an interview with Billboard , Afanasieff described the type of relationship he and Carey shared in the studio and as songwriters for the song and in general :
It was always the same sort of system with us . We would write the nucleus of the song , the melody primary music , and then some of the words were there as we finished writing it . I started playing some rock ' n ' roll piano and started boogie woogie @-@ ing my left hand , and that inspired Mariah to come up with the melodic [ Sings . ] ' I don 't want a lot for Christmas . ' And then we started singing and playing around with this rock ' n ' roll boogie song , which immediately came out to be the nucleus of what would end up being ' All I Want For Christmas Is You . ' That one went very quickly : It was an easier song to write then some of the other ones . It was very formulaic ; not a lot of chord changes . I tried to make it a little more unique , putting in some special chords that you really don 't hear a lot of , which made it unique and special .
Then for the next week or two Mariah would call me and say , ' What do you think about this bit ? ' We would talk a little bit until she got the lyrics all nicely coordinated and done . And then we just waited until the sessions began , which were in the summer of ' 94 where we got together in New York and started recording . And that 's when we first hear her at the microphone singing , and the rest is history .
Afanasieff flew back to California where he finished the song 's programming and production . Originally , he had a live band play the drums and other instruments with the thought of giving it a more raw and affective sound . He was unhappy with the results of the recording and subsequently scrapped the effort and used his original , personal arrangement and programmed all the instruments heard on the song ( with the exception of the background vocals ) including the piano , effects , drums and triangle . While Carey continued writing material in her rented home in The Hamptons , Afanasieff completed the song 's programming and awaited to rendezvous with her a final time in order to layer and harmonize the background vocals . In touching on several aspects of what excited her to record and release a Christmas album , Carey went into detail on what writing and recording the song and album meant for her : " I 'm a very festive person and I love the holidays . I 've sung Christmas songs since I was a little girl . I used to go Christmas caroling . When it came to the album , we had to have a nice balance between standard Christian hymns and fun songs . It was definitely a priority for me to write at least a few new songs , but for the most part people really want to hear the standards at Christmas time , no matter how good a new song is . "
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" All I Want for Christmas Is You " is an uptempo song , composed with pop , soul , R & B , gospel , dance @-@ pop and rhythmic adult contemporary influences and stylings . By early August , Carey already had two original songs written alongside Afanasieff ; the " sad and balld @-@ y " " Miss You Most ( At Christmas Time ) " and the " Gospel @-@ tinged and religious " " Jesus Born on This Day " . The third and final original song the pair planned to write was to be centered and inspired and in the vein of a " Phil Spector , old rock ' n roll , sixties @-@ sounding Christmas song " . Critics have noted the song 's 1940 's , 1950 's , and 1960 's influences , and in conjunction with Carey 's voice and its simplistic melody , heralded it as its recipe for success . In discussing the song 's chord progression and stylistic approaches , Slate 's Adam Ragusea hailed the song as " the only Christmas song written in the last half @-@ century worthy of inclusion in the Great American Songbook . " The A.V. Club 's Annie Zaleski attributes the song 's enduring appeal to its ambiguity in being able to pin it down as belonging to a specific era . The song begins with a " sparking " bit of percussion " that resembles an antique music box or a whimsical snow globe . " After Carey 's a capella style vocal introduction , the song introduces other seasonal percussive signifiers including ; celebratory church @-@ like bells , cheerful sleigh bells , and " an underlying rhythmic beat that sounds like the loping pace of a horse or reindeer . These sounds echo religious and secular musical touchstones , without veering blatantly too much in either direction , and give the song an upbeat , joyous tone . " In an interview in 1994 , Carey described the song as " fun " , and continued : " It 's very traditional , old @-@ fashioned Christmas . It 's very retro , kind of ' 60s . " Afanasieff went further in breaking down the song 's musical elements : " A lush bed of keyboards , reminiscent of a small @-@ scale Wall of Sound , cushions the song 's cheery rhythms , while a soulful vocal chorus adds robust oohs , tension @-@ creating counter @-@ melodies , and festive harmonies . Most notably , however , the song 's jaunty piano chords and melody keep the song merrily bouncing along . " Critics noted the song a tad reminiscent of the works of Judy Garland and Nat King Cole , while also describing it as hearkening back to " ' 60s and ' 70s Motown covers of prewar Christmas classics , such as The Jackson 5 's [ and ] Stevie Wonder " . Slate 's Ragusea conceded that " All I Want For Christmas Is You " " sounds like it could have been written in the ' 40s and locked in a Brill Building safe . "
Lyrically , the song focuses on the yearning desire to be with a loved one for Christmas , regardless of whether they have to forgo the usual commercial aspect of the holiday season such as ornamental lights , trees , snow and presents . The song incorporates various instruments , including piano , drums , violin , oboe , flute , bell chimes , bass effect , and cowbells . The song layers background vocals throughout the chorus and sections of the bridge . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " All I Want for Christmas Is You " is set in common time and in the key of G major . Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the note of G3 to the high note of G5 . Carey wrote the song 's lyrics and melody , while Walter Afanasieff arranged and produced the piece with synthetically created computerized equipment . Slate 's Ragusea counts " at least 13 distinct chords at work , resulting in a sumptuously chromatic melody . The song also includes what I consider the most Christmassy chord of all — a minor subdominant , or ' iv , ' chord with an added 6 , under the words ' underneath the Christmas tree , ' among other places . ( You might also analyze it as a half @-@ diminished ' ii ' 7th chord , but either interpretation seems accurate ) . " According to Roch Parisien from AllMusic , the song contains " The Beach Boys @-@ style harmonies , jangling bells , and a sleigh @-@ ride pace , injecting one of the few bits of exuberant fun in this otherwise vanilla set . " In a piece on the song in Vogue , a writer felt the song 's lyrics helped solidify its status over two decades later : " those lyrics could have been sung by Frank Sinatra — well , maybe not Frank , but another singer back then . I think that ’ s what gives it that timeless , classic quality . "
= = Critical reception = =
" All I Want for Christmas Is You " was critically acclaimed by music critics . Parisien called the song " a year @-@ long banger " , complimenting its instrumentation and melody . Steve Morse , editor of The Boston Globe , wrote that Carey sang with a lot of soul . According to Barry Schwartz from Stylus Magazine , " to say this song is an instant classic somehow doesn 't capture its amazingicity ; it 's a modern standard : joyous , exhilarating , loud , with even a hint of longing . " Schwartz praised the song 's lyrics as well , describing them as " beautifully phrased , " and calling Carey 's voice " gorgeous " and " sincere . " Kyle Anderson from MTV labeled the track " a majestic anthem full of chimes , sleigh bells , doo @-@ wop flourishes , sweeping strings and one of the most dynamic and clean vocal performances of Carey 's career " . While reviewing the 2009 remix version , Becky Bain from Idolator called the song a " timeless classic " and wrote , " We love the original song to pieces — we blast it while decorating our Christmas tree and lighting our Menorah . " In his review for Carey 's Merry Christmas II You , Thomas Connor from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called the song " a simple , well @-@ crafted chestnut and one of the last great additions to the Christmas pop canon " . Shona Craven of Scotland 's The Herald , said , " [ it 's ] a song of optimism and joy that maybe , just maybe , hints at the real meaning of Christmas . " Additionally , she felt the main reason it was so successful is the subject " you " in the lyrics , explaining , " Perhaps what makes the song such a huge hit is the fact that it 's for absolutely everyone . " Craven opened her review with a bold statement : " Bing Crosby may well be turning in his grave , but no child of the 1980s will be surprised to see Mariah Carey 's sublime All I Want For Christmas Is You bounding up the charts after being named the nation 's top festive song . " In a 2006 retrospective look at Carey 's career , Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker said , the " charming " song was one of Carey 's biggest accomplishments , calling it " one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon " . Dan Hancox , editor of The National , quoted and agreed with Jones ' statement , calling the song " perfection " . In 2010 , Rolling Stone ranked " All I Want for Christmas Is You " fourth on its Greatest Rock and Roll Christmas Songs list , calling it a " holiday standard . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United Kingdom , the song entered the UK Singles Chart at No. 5 during the week of December 10 , 1994 . The following week , the song peaked at No. 2 , staying there for the final three weeks of December ( held out of the coveted " Christmas No. 1 " honor by East 17 's " Stay Another Day " ) . As of July 18 , 2016 , it had spent seventy @-@ two weeks on the UK Singles Chart . As of December 19 , 2013 , " All I Want for Christmas Is You " has sold one million copies in the UK . On December 11 , 2015 , it was certified double platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipment of 1 @.@ 2 million units ( including streams ) and remains Carey 's best @-@ selling single in the UK . In 2010 , " All I Want for Christmas Is You " was named the No. 1 holiday song of the decade in the United Kingdom . The song peaked at No. 2 on the Australian Singles Chart and was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 210 @,@ 000 units . In Denmark , it peaked at No. 4 , staying in the chart for sixteen weeks and being certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) . " All I Want for Christmas Is You " became Carey 's best @-@ selling single in Japan . It was used as the theme song to the popular drama 29 @-@ sai no Christmas ( 29才のクリスマス , lit . " Christmas in 29 Years , 29th Christmas " ) , and was titled Koibito @-@ tachi no Christmas ( 恋人たちのクリスマス , lit . " Lovers ' Christmas " ) . It sold in excess of 1 @.@ 1 million units in Japan . Due to strong sales and airplay , the song re @-@ charted in Japan in 2010 , peaking at No. 6 on the Japan Hot 100 . The single has been certified the Million award by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) on two different formats ( compact disc and ringtone ) , in 1994 and 2008 , respectively .
In the United States , in the first week of January 1995 , " All I Want for Christmas Is You " peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary and at No. 12 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart . The song placed on these two charts again in December 1995 and in December 1996 . The song was ineligible for inclusion on the Billboard Hot 100 during its original release , because it was not released commercially as a single . This rule lapsed in 1998 , however , allowing the song to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 ( peaking at No. 83 in January 2000 ) . The song topped the Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart in December 2005 , but it was unable to attain a new peak on the Billboard Hot 100 chart because it was considered a recurrent single and was thus ineligible for chart re @-@ entry . Every December from 2005 to 2008 , the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 Re @-@ currents chart . In 2012 , after the recurrent rule was revised to allow all songs in the top 50 onto the Billboard Hot 100 chart , the single re @-@ entered the chart at No. 29 and eventually attained a new peak of No. 21 on the week ending January 5 , 2013 , however dropping out the following week . In December 2013 , the song re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 26 . It has become the best @-@ selling holiday ringtone , and it is the first holiday ringtone to be certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Additionally , of songs recorded before the year 2000 , it is the nineteenth best @-@ selling digital single and the best @-@ selling digital single by a woman , and is also the overall best @-@ selling holiday digital single . In December 2015 , the song peaked at 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 , making it its highest peak since its original release . As of December 2012 , Nielsen SoundScan estimated total sales of the digital track at 3 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 downloads .
= = Remixes and re @-@ releases = =
When the song was first released as a single in 1994 , no remixes were commissioned except for the instrumental version , however this version was not released on the single that year . Carey re @-@ released the song commercially in Japan in 2000 , with a new remix known as the So So Def remix . The remix contains new vocals and is played over a harder , more urban beat ; it features raps by Jermaine Dupri and Bow Wow . The remix appears on Carey 's compilation album Greatest Hits ( 2001 ) as a bonus track . In 2009 , a remix produced by Carey and Low Sunday , called " Mariah 's New Dance Mix " , was released . The mix laid the original 1994 vocals over new electronic instrumentation . The remix garnered a positive response . MTV 's Kyle Anderson wrote that " it 's difficult to improve perfection , " but that the remix " does dress up the song in a disco thump that should make your office Christmas party 28 percent funkier than it was last year . " Idolator 's Becky Bain praised the song 's catchiness .
In 2010 , Carey re @-@ recorded the song for her thirteenth studio and second holiday album , Merry Christmas II You . Titled " All I Want for Christmas Is You ( Extra Festive ) " , the new version featured re @-@ recorded vocals , softer bell ringing and stronger drumming , and an orchestral introduction that replaced the slow vocal introduction . Steven J. Horowitz from Rap @-@ Up wrote that the new version " sound [ ed ] just as enjoyable as it did in 1994 . " While the song was praised , it drew criticism for being too similar to the original . Thomas Connor from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that the new version " just seems to add a few brassy backup singers to the exact same arrangement . " Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone agreed , writing that it was " hard to figure out what 's ' extra festive ' " about the new version . Dan Hancox , editor of The National , also felt the new version was unnecessary . In 2011 , Justin Bieber also recorded a version of the song as a duet with Carey on his holiday album , Under the Mistletoe .
= = Live performances = =
Carey has performed the song during concerts as well as live televised performances . It was part of the set @-@ list during the Japanese shows of Carey 's Daydream World Tour ( 1996 ) , Butterfly World Tour ( 1998 ) , Charmbracelet World Tour ( 2002 – 03 ) , and The Adventures of Mimi Tour ( 2006 ) . Additionally , Carey performed the song at the 2004 Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade , which aired on ABC . Carey sang the So So Def remix version at the opening night of her Angels Advocate Tour on New Year 's Eve . On November 9 , 2010 , Carey taped a live Christmas Special featuring the song , which aired on December 13 , 2010 on ABC . Additionally , Carey performed the song alongside " Oh Santa ! " airing on ESPN and ABC throughout the day on Christmas Day of 2010 . On December 3 , she performed both songs at the Walt Disney World Resort theme park , Magic Kingdom , in a performance that was taped and aired part of the Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade on ABC . She performed them again in a music video promoting the day 's NBA games that aired on both networks . Carey also included the track as the encore to her sold out , first annual Christmas concert series at the Beacon Theater in New York City . The show was entitled All I Want For Christmas Is You , A Night of Joy & Festivity .
= = Music videos = =
There are three music videos for " All I Want for Christmas Is You " . The first , primary video was shot in the style of a home video ; it was directed and filmed by Carey during the Christmas season of 1993 . The video begins with Carey placing holiday ornaments on a Christmas tree and frolicking through the snowy mountainside . Outdoor scenes were shot at the Fairy Tale Forest in New Jersey , where Carey 's then @-@ husband Tommy Mottola made a cameo appearance as Santa Claus . It continues with scenes of Carey getting ready for her album cover photo shoot and spending time with her dog Jack . It concludes with Santa Claus leaving Carey with a bag of presents and waving goodbye . In the song 's alternate video , inspired by The Ronettes , Carey dances in a 1960s @-@ influenced studio surrounded by go – go dancers . For a 1960s look , the video was filmed in black and white , with Carey in white boots and teased up hair . This video was also directed by Carey . There are two edits to this version of the video .
Another video was created for the So So Def remix , but it does not feature Carey or the hip @-@ hop musicians that perform in the song . Instead , the video is animated and based on a scene in the video from Carey 's " Heartbreaker " ( 1999 ) . It features cartoon cameo appearances by Carey , Jermaine Dupri , Bow Wow , Luis Miguel ( Carey 's boyfriend at the time ) , Carey 's dog Jack , and Santa Claus . Kris Kringle is credited with directing the music video . Since 2009 , the song has been included in a music video accompanying ESPN 's ( and their sister station , ABC ) Christmas Day coverage of the NBA . The music video for the duet featuring Bieber was filmed in Macy 's department store in New York , and features Bieber shopping with his friends whilst Carey is seen singing in the background .
= = Book adaptation = =
Carey released a children 's book based on " All I Want for Christmas Is You " on November 10 , 2015 .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = List of cover versions = =
= 28 cm SK L / 40 " Bruno " =
The 28 cm SK L / 40 " Bruno " ( SK — Schnelladekanone ( quick @-@ loading cannon ) L — Länge ( with a 40 caliber barrel ) was a German railroad gun . Originally a naval gun , it was adapted for land service after its ships were disarmed beginning in 1916 . It served on the Western Front and on coast defense duties in Occupied Flanders during World War I. Belgium received four guns as reparations after the war . The Germans used two of those guns in World War II after Belgium 's surrender during the Battle of France and on coast @-@ defense duties on the Gironde Estuary for the rest of the war .
= = Design and history = =
These 28 cm SK L / 40 guns were used as the main armament of the Braunschweig and Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , but they were transferred to the Army from the Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) when those ships began to be relegated to training duties in 1916 after the Battle of Jutland had proved that they were not suitable for contemporary naval combat . One change made for land service was the placement of a large counterweight just forward of the trunnions to counteract the preponderance of weight towards the breech . This , although heavy , was simpler than adding equilibrators to perform the same function . In 1917 , the first four guns , formerly used on SMS Lothringen , were placed in firing platform ( Bettungsschiessgerüst ) mountings for coast defense duty as part of Batterie Graf Spee on the island of Wangerooge .
The firing platform was a semi @-@ portable mount that could be emplaced anywhere after several weeks of labor to prepare the position . It rotated on a pivot at the front of the mount . The rear was supported by rollers resting on a semicircular rail and was generally equipped with a gun shield .
Twenty guns , from the battleships Braunschweig , Hessen , Preussen , Deutschland , Schlesien , and Schleswig @-@ Holstein were mounted on the railroad and firing platform ( Eisenbahn und Bettungsschiessgerüst ) ( E. u . B. ) mounts successfully used by other German railroad guns .
The E. u . B. could fire from any suitable section of track after curved wedges were bolted to the track behind each wheel to absorb any residual recoil after the gun cradle recoiled backwards . It also had a pintle built into the underside of the front of the mount . Two large rollers were fitted to the underside of the mount at the rear . Seven cars could carry a portable metal firing platform ( Bettungslafette ) that had a central pivot mount and an outer rail . It was assembled with the aid of a derrick or crane , which took between three and five days , and railroad tracks were laid slightly past the firing platform to accommodate the front bogies of the gun . The gun was moved over the firing platform and then lowered into position after the central section of rail was removed . After the gun 's pintle was bolted to the firing platform 's pivot mount , the entire carriage was jacked up so that the trucks and their sections of rail could be removed . The carriage was then lowered so that the rear rollers rested on the outer track . Concrete versions were also used . It could have up to 360 ° of traverse .
= = = Ammunition = = =
Ammunition was moved by means of an overhead rail from which a shell trolley carried individual shells to be placed in the loading tray fixed to the breech . An extensible rail could raised and braced in place to allow the shell trolley to reach shells placed on the ground or in an ammunition car behind the mount . This ammunition car sometimes had its own overhead rail to move the shells forward to where the trolley in the mount could reach it through a hatch in the roof . The shell and powder were manually rammed into the gun . The gun had to be loaded at zero elevation and thus needed to be re @-@ aimed between each shot . It used the German naval system of ammunition where the base charge was held in a metallic cartridge case and supplemented by another charge in a silk bag which was rammed first .
= = Combat history = =
The Navy kept most of the " Brunos " and used them on coast @-@ defense duties , mainly in Occupied Flanders to protect the ports of Ostend and Zeebrugge . Sailor Artillery Regiment ( German : Matrosen Artillerie Regiment ) 1 defended the latter with Batteries Hessen ( 3 or 4 guns ) and Braunschweig ( 4 x " Brunos " ) . Those same sources disagree about the number of guns assigned to Batteries Hannover ( 3 or 4 " Brunos " ) and Preussen ( 4 guns ) defending Ostende under the command of Sailor Artillery Regiment 2 . Battery Rossbach , with 2 guns , saw service against the British during the Spring Offensive in March – April 1918 . Only two " Brunos " were given to the Army - they served in Battery 746 and Bavarian Battery ( German : Bayerische Batterie ) 1005 . The latter gun , on E. u . B. mount No. 7 , formerly carried by Hessen , was captured by the Australian Army on 8 August 1918 . Its barrel is preserved today in Canberra , Australia , as the Amiens Gun .
After the Armistice was signed on 11 November 1918 , a battery of four " Brunos " stationed in Belgium sought asylum in the Netherlands . They were given to Belgium as reparations . Six were destroyed in 1921 – 22 by the Military Inter @-@ Allied Commission of Control .
After the surrender of Belgium on 28 May 1940 , two " Brunos " were used by Battery 655 between 8 and 10 June to fire on Brimont and Reims from Amifontaine . One gun was destroyed when a shell detonated prematurely in the barrel while firing on those targets . By the end of 1941 , two " Brunos " were assigned to Battery 721 and stationed at Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer defending the mouth of the Gironde Estuary under the command of Artillery Group Gironde @-@ South ( German : Artilleriegruppe Gironde @-@ Süd ) . The battery was able to retreat to Germany by 1 September 1944 after the invasion of Normandy began in June 1944 , but nothing is known of its activities afterwards .
= Million Dollar Challenge ( poker ) =
Million Dollar Challenge ( also referred to as the PokerStars Million Dollar Challenge and PokerStars.net Million Dollar Challenge ) is the most watched poker show in television history . It is sponsored by PokerStars . The show , which airs on the Fox Broadcasting Company , debuted on October 11 , 2009 . The show is hosted by Chris Rose and features Daniel Negreanu . The first season included five episodes following the FOX network Sunday National Football League coverage . The finale aired on December 27 , 2009 . The eight @-@ episode season 2 premiered on September 19 , 2010 and is scheduled to conclude on December 12 .
= = Show description = =
Million Dollar Challenge is a poker game show where amateur poker players attempt to defeat celebrities , professional poker players and , eventually , Daniel Negreanu in order to win the show 's grand prize , $ 1 million . In the first round , the amateur ( with Negreanu at their side , acting as their coach and lending advice ) must defeat a celebrity such as Jayde Nicole , Jerome Bettis , Joanna Krupa , John Salley or Tito Ortiz . If the contestant is able to defeat the celebrity the contestant wins a trip to the Bahamas and advances to the second round . In the second round , the amateur ( with Negreanu now helping them from a sound proof booth , giving them advice through a listening device in the amateur 's ear ) must defeat a professional poker player such as Vanessa Rousso , Barry Greenstein , Joe Cada or Chris Moneymaker . If the contestant is able to defeat the professional the contestant wins $ 25 @,@ 000 in addition to the trip to the Bahamas . At this point , the amateur has a decision to make . Keep the money and walk away $ 25 @,@ 000 richer , or risk the money ( the trip is still theirs to keep ) and play Daniel Negreanu heads @-@ up for $ 100 @,@ 000 , knowing that if they lose they walk away with nothing but the trip to the Bahamas . In the season finale , the champions from each episode compete against each other in a sit @-@ n @-@ go tournament , the winner of which plays Negreanu for $ 1 million .
= = Season 1 = =
The first three episodes of the season were the three most @-@ watched Poker television shows in U.S. history . The show aired on Sundays after the FOX National Football League coverage . In the first episode that aired on October 11 , contestant Father Andrew Trapp defeated John Salley , Rousso and Negreanu , winning $ 100 @,@ 000 and a trip to the Bahamas in the process , all of which he promised to donate to his church in Garden City , South Carolina . Trapp also won the chance to play in a mini @-@ tournament ( Episode 5 ) , the winner of which would play Negreanu for $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . On October 18 , after contestant Tracy Nguyen defeated Bettis and won a trip to the Bahamas , but lost to Barry Greenstein , the next contestant Sergeant Denny Luna defeated Nicole , Moneymaker to win $ 25 @,@ 000 and a trip to the Bahamas . Luna then chose to walk away ( and not risk the $ 25 @,@ 000 he had already won ) rather than face Negreanu in the $ 100 @,@ 000 match . On the November 22 episode after contestant Oluwasegun Odumuyiwa lost to Bettis , Brian Barboza defeated Nicole , Rousso and Negreanu , winning $ 100 @,@ 000 and a trip to the Bahamas . Barboza also won the chance to play in a mini @-@ tournament , the winner of which would play Negreanu for $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . In December Joanna Krupa and Joe Cada were announced as newly added as celebrity and professional opponents . Ortiz and Krupa appeared on the fourth episode , which aired on December 1
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so that those practitioners who work during the week can attend . During these ceremonies , Heathens often recite poetry to honor the deities , which typically draw upon or imitate the Early Medieval poems written in Old Norse or Old English . Mead or ale is also typically drunk , with offerings being given to deities , while fires , torches , or candles are often lit . There are also regional meetings of Heathens known as Things . At these , religious rites are performed , while workshops , stalls , feasts , and competitive games are also present . In the U.S. , there are two national gatherings , Althing and Trothmoot .
= = Racial issues = =
The question of race represents a major source of division among Heathens , particularly in the United States . Within the Heathen community , one viewpoint holds that race is entirely a matter of biological heredity , while the opposing position is that race is a social construct rooted in cultural heritage . In U.S. Heathen discourse , these viewpoints are described as the universalist and the folkish positions , respectively . These two factions – which Kaplan termed the " racialist " and " nonracialist " camps – often clash , with Kaplan claiming that a " virtual civil war " existed between them within the American Heathen community . The universalist and folkish division has also spread to other countries , however in contrast to North America and much of Northern Europe , discussions of race rarely arise among the Icelandic Heathen community as a result of the nation @-@ state 's predominantly ethnically homogeneous composition .
Contrasting with this binary division , Gardell categorizes Heathenry in the United States into three groups according to their stance on the issue of race : the " anti @-@ racist " group who denounce any association between the religion and racial identity , the " radical racist " faction who see it as the natural religion of the ' Aryan race ' which cannot rightly be followed by members of any other racial groups , and the " ethnic " faction who seek a middle @-@ path by acknowledging the religion 's roots in Northern Europe and its connection with those of Northern European heritage . Religious studies scholar Egil Asprem deemed Gardell 's threefold typology to be " indispensable to make sense of the diverging positions within the broader discourse " of Heathenry . The religious studies scholar Stefanie von Schnurbein also adopted this tripartite division , although referred to the groups as the " racial @-@ religious " , " a @-@ racist " , and " ethnicist " faction respectively .
Exponents of the universalist , anti @-@ racist approach believe that the deities of Northern Europe can call anyone to their worship , regardless of ethnic background . This group rejects the folkish emphasis on race , believing that even if unintended , it can lead to the adoption of racist attitudes toward those of non @-@ Northern European heritage . Anti @-@ racist practitioners such as Stephan Grundy have emphasized the fact that ancient Northern Europeans were known to marry and have children with members of other ethnic groups , and that in Norse mythology the Æsir also did the same with Vanir , Jötun , and humans , thus using such points to critique the racialist view . Universalists welcome practitioners of Heathenry who are not of Northern European ancestry ; for instance , there are Jewish and African American members of the U.S.-based Troth , while many of its white members are in biracial marriages . While sometimes retaining the idea of Heathenry as an indigenous religion , proponents of this view have sometimes argued that Heathenry is indigenous to the land of Northern Europe , rather than any race .
The folkish sector of the movement deems Heathenry to be the indigenous religion of a biologically distinct Nordic race . Some practitioners explain this by asserting that the religion is intrinsically connected to the collective unconscious of this race , with prominent American Asatruer Stephen McNallen developing this into a concept that he termed " metagenetics " . McNallen and many others in the " ethnic " faction of Heathenry explicitly deny that they are racist , although Gardell noted that their views would be deemed racist under certain definitions of the word . Gardell considered many " ethnic " Heathens to be ethnic nationalists , and many folkish practitioners express disapproval of multiculturalism and the mixture of different races in modern Europe , advocating a position of racial separatism . In this group 's discourse , there is much talk of " ancestors " and " homelands " , although these concepts may be very vaguely defined . Those adopting the " ethnic " folkish position have been criticized by both anti @-@ racist and radical racist factions , the former deeming " ethnic " Heathenry to be a front for racism and the latter deeming its adherents to be race traitors for their failure to fully embrace the white supremacist cause .
Some folkish Heathens are white supremacists and explicit racists , representing a " radical racist " faction that favours the terms " Odinism " and " Wotanism " . Kaplan stated that the " borderline separating racialist Odinism and National Socialism is exceedingly thin " , adding that this racialist wing inhabited " the most distant reaches " of the modern Pagan movement . Practitioners in this sector of the religion have paid tribute to Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany , and claimed that the white race is facing extinction at the hands of a Jewish world conspiracy . Many in the inner circle of The Order , a white supremacist militant group active in the U.S. during the 1980s , were Odinists , and various racist Heathens have espoused the Fourteen Words slogan developed by the Heathen and Order member David Lane . A number of racist organisations , such as the Order of Nine Angles and the Black Order , combine elements of Heathenism with Satanism , although other racist Heathens , such as Wotansvolk 's Ron McVan , have denounced the integration of these differing religious traditions . Racist Heathens are heavily critical of their anti @-@ racist counterparts , often declaring that the latter have been misled by the New Age movement and political correctness . Snook stated that both mainstream media and early academic studies of American Heathenry had focused primarily on the racist elements within the movement , thus neglecting their anti @-@ racist counterparts .
= = History = =
= = = Romanticist and Völkisch predecessors = = =
During the late 18th and 19th centuries , German Romanticism generated increased attention to the pre @-@ Christian belief systems of Germanic Europe , with various Romanticist intellectuals expressing the opinion that these ancient religions were " more natural , organic and positive " than Christianity . Such an attitude was promoted by the scholarship of Romanticist intellectuals like Johann Gottfried Herder , Jacob Grimm , and Wilhelm Grimm . This development went in tandem with a growth in nationalism and the idea of the volk , contributing to the establishment of the Völkisch movement in German @-@ speaking Europe . Criticising the Jewish roots of Christianity , in 1900 the Germanist Ernst Wachler published a pamphlet calling for the revival of a racialized ancient German religion . Other writers supported his claims , resulting in the formation of both the Bund fur Persönlichkeitskultur and the Deutscher Orden in 1911 and then the Germanisch @-@ deutsche Religions @-@ Gemeinschaft in 1912 .
Another development of Heathenry emerged within the occult völkisch movement known as Ariosophy . One of these völkisch Ariosophists was the Austrian occultist Guido von List , who established a religion that he termed " Wotanism " , with an inner core that he referred to as " Armanism " . List 's Wotanism was based heavily on the Eddas , although over time it came to be increasingly influenced by the occult teachings of the Theosophical Society . List 's ideas would be transmitted in Germany by a number of prominent right @-@ wingers , and adherents to his ideas were among the founders of the Reichshammerbund in Leipzig in 1912 , and included individuals who held key positions in the Germanenorden . The Thule Society founded by Rudolf von Sebottendorf developed from the Germanenorden , and displayed a Theosophical influenced interpretation of Norse mythology .
In 1933 , the eclectic German Faith Movement ( Deutsche Glaubensbewegung ) was founded by the religious studies scholar Jakob Wilhelm Hauer , who wanted to unite the disparate older Heathen groups . Although active throughout the Nazi era , his hopes that his " German Faith " would be declared the official faith of Nazi Germany were thwarted . Although the Heathen movement probably never had more than a few thousand followers during its 1920s heyday , it held the allegiance of many middle @-@ class intellectuals , including journalists , artists , illustrators , scholars , and teachers , and thus exhibited a wider influence on society .
The völkisch occultists – among them Pagans like List and Christians like Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels – " contributed importantly to the mood of the Nazi era " . Few however had a direct influence on the Nazi Party leadership , although the prominent exception was Karl Maria Wiligut , who was a friend and key influence on the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) leader Heinrich Himmler . Wiligut professed ancestral @-@ clairvoyant memories of ancient German society , proclaiming that Wotanism was in conflict with another ancient religion , Irminenschaft , which was devoted to a messianic Germanic figure known as Krist , who was later wrongly transformed into the figure of Jesus . However , many Heathen groups actually disbanded during the Nazi period , and were only able to re @-@ establish themselves after World War II , in West Germany , where freedom of religion had been re @-@ established . After the defeat of Nazi Germany , there was a social stigma surrounding völkisch ideas and groups , along with a common perception that the mythologies of the pre @-@ Christian Germanic societies had been tainted through their usage by the Nazi administration , an attitude that to some extent persisted into the 21st century .
The völkisch movement also emerged in 1930s Norway with the milieu surrounding such groups as the Ragnarok Circle and Hans S. Jacobsen 's Tidsskriftet Ragnarok journal ; prominent figures involved in this milieu were the writer Per Imerslund and composer Geirr Tveitt , although it left no successors in post @-@ war Norway . A variant of " Odinism " was developed by the Australian Alexander Rud Mills , who published The Odinist Religion ( 1930 ) and established the Anglican Church of Odin . Politically racialist , Mills viewed Odinism as a religion for what he considered to be the " British race " and deemed it to be in a cosmic battle with Judeo @-@ Christian religion . Having formulated " his own unique blend " of Ariosophy , Mills was heavily influenced by von List 's writings . Some of Heathenry 's roots have been traced to the " back to nature " movement of the early 20th @-@ century , among them the Kibbo Kift and the Order of Woodcraft Chivalry .
= = = Modern development = = =
In the early 1970s , Heathen organisations emerged in the United Kingdom , United States , Canada , Australia , and in Iceland , largely independently of each other . This has been partly attributed to the wider growth of the modern Pagan movement in the 1960s and 1970s , as well as the development of the New Age movement , which encouraged the establishment of new religious movements intent on reviving pre @-@ Christian religions . The 1990s and 2000s then saw the emergence of a range of new Heathen groups , many of which distanced themselves from overtly political agendas and placed a stronger emphasis on historical authenticity .
Heathenry emerged in the United States during the 1960s . In 1969 the Danish Odinist Else Christensen established the Odinist Fellowship from her home in Florida , U.S. Heavily influenced by Mills ' writings , she began publication of a magazine , The Odinist , although this focused to a greater extent on right @-@ wing and racialist ideas than theological ones . Stephen McNallen first founded the Viking Brotherhood in the early 1970s , before creating the Asatru Free Assembly in 1976 , which broke up in 1986 amid widespread political disagreements after McNallen 's repudiation of neo @-@ Nazis within the group . In the 1990s , McNallen founded the Asatru Folk Assembly ( AFA ) , an ethnically @-@ oriented Heathen group headquartered in California . Meanwhile , Valgard Murray and his kindred in Arizona founded the Ásatrú Alliance ( AA ) in the late 1980s , which shared the AFA 's perspectives on race and which published the Vor Tru newsletter . In 1987 , Stephen Flowers and James Chisholm founded The Troth , which was incorporated in Texas . Taking an inclusive , non @-@ racialist view , it soon grew into an international organisation .
In Iceland , the influence of pre @-@ Christian belief systems still pervaded the country 's cultural heritage into the 20th century . There , farmer Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson founded the Heathen group Ásatrúarfélagið in 1972 , which initially had 12 members . Beinteinsson served as Allsherjargodi ( chief priest ) until his death in 1993 , when he was succeeded by Jormundur Ingi Hansen . As the group expanded in size , Hansen 's leadership caused schisms , and to retain the unity of the movement , he stepped down and was replaced by Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson in 2003 , by which time Ásatrúarfélagið had accumulated 777 members and played a visible role in Icelandic society . In England , the British Committee for the Restoration of the Odinic Rite was established by John Yeowell in 1972 . In 1992 , Mark Mirabello published Odin Brotherhood , which claimed the existence of a secret society of Odinists ; most British Heathens doubt its existence .
In Sweden , the first Heathen groups developed in the 1970s ; early examples included the Breidablikk @-@ Gildet ( Guild of Breidablikk ) founded in 1975 and the Telge Fylking founded in 1987 , the latter of which diverged from the former by emphasising a non @-@ racialist interpretation of the religion . In 1994 , the Sveriges Asatrosamfund ( Swedish Asatru Assembly ) was founded , growing to become the largest Heathen organisation in the country . The first Norwegian Heathen group , Blindern Åsatrulag , was established as a student group at the University of Oslo in the mid @-@ 1980s , while the larger Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost was established in 1996 ; after a schism in that group , the Foreningen Forn Sed was formed in 1999 . In Denmark , a small group was founded near to Copenhagen in 1986 , although as a wider movement Heathenry would not be established until the 1990s , when a group calling itself Forn Siðr developed . In Germany , various groups established that explicitly rejected their religion 's völkisch and right @-@ wing past , most notably Rabenclan ( Raven 's Clan ) in 1994 and Nornirs Ætt ( Kin of the Norns ) in 2005 . Several foreign Heathen organisations also established a presence in the German Heathen scene ; in 1994 the Odinic Rite Deutschland ( Odinic Rite Germany ) was established , although it later declared its independence and became the Verein für germanisches Heidentum VfgH ( Society for Germanic Paganism ) , while the Troth also established a German group as Eldaring , which declared its independence in 2000 .
Heathen influences were apparent in forms of black metal from the 1990s , where lyrics and themes often expressed a longing for a pre @-@ Christian Northern past ; the mass media , however , typically associated such a genre with Satanism . From the mid @-@ 1990s , the internet greatly aided the propagation of Heathenry in various parts of the world . That decade also saw the strong growth of racist Heathenry among those incarcerated within the U.S. prison system as a result of outreach programs established by various Heathen groups . In this period , many Heathen groups also came to interact increasingly with other ethnic @-@ oriented Pagan groups in Eastern Europe , such as Lithuanian Romuva , and many joined the World Congress of Ethnic Religions on its formation in 1998 .
= = Demographics = =
Adherents of Heathenry can be found in Europe , North America , and Australasia . In 2007 , the religious studies scholar Graham Harvey stated that it was impossible to develop a precise figure for the number of Heathens across the world , however a self @-@ selected census conducted in 2013 found 16 @,@ 700 members in 98 countries , the bulk of whom lived in the United States . In 2016 , Schnurbein stated that there were probably no more than 20 @,@ 000 Heathens globally . She noted that , while there were some exceptions , most Heathen groups were between 60 @-@ 70 % male in their composition .
Many individuals are inspired to join the movement after enjoying German folk tales or Norse myths as children , or after being interested by the depiction of Norse religion in popular culture . Some others claim to have involved themselves in the religion after experiencing direct revelation through dreams , which they interpret as having been provided by the gods . As with other religions , a sensation of " coming home " has also been reported by many Heathens who have converted to the faith . Although practitioners typically live within Christian majority societies , they often express the view that Christianity has little to offer them . During her research , Schnurbein found that during the 1980s many Heathens had been motivated to join the religion in part by their own anti @-@ Christian ethos , but that this attitude had become less prominent among the Heathen community as the significance of the Christian churches had declined in Western nations after that point . Many Heathens are also involved in historical reenactment , focusing on the early medieval societies of Germanic Europe , although others are critical of this practice , believing that it blurs the boundary between life and fantasy .
= = = North America = = =
Although deeming it impossible to calculate the exact size of the Heathen community in the US , sociologist Jeffrey Kaplan estimated that , in the mid @-@ 1990s , there were around 500 active practitioners in the country , with a further thousand individuals on the periphery of the movement . He noted that
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s first female member in 1956 . Under Reck Club , the strict RAT rules slowly faded away . Anti @-@ hazing laws severely diminished Reck Club 's ability to punish Tech freshmen for disobeying the RAT rules in 1965 . By 1967 , the Club was given a more wholesome duty .
Reck Club was given charge of the Ramblin ' Wreck in 1967 following the disbandment of the Student Council 's Reck Committee . A member from Reck Club known as the Wreck Driver has been elected annually since 1967 to drive the Wreck onto Grant Field for football games and other school functions .
Reck Club was the first group to make attempts at humanoid mascots on Tech Campus . The first was a bee costume donned by Judi McNair of Reck Club . She sported her bee costume to home basketball games and pep rallies . In 1973 , a spandex @-@ clad hero named T @-@ Man and his faithful sidekick T2 patrolled campus in search of opposing mascots and fans . T @-@ Man would perform spirit skits at pep rallies and home basketball games . Often seen riding in the Ramblin ' Wreck , T @-@ Man was an anonymous member of the Reck Club until his mysterious disappearance in 1975 .
The Ramblin ' Reck Club today oversees several homecoming traditions such as the Freshman Cake Race , the Mini 500 , and the Wreck Parade . Reck Club also serves as a bridge between Georgia Tech Athletics and the Georgia Tech student body organizing the Swarm cheering section , pep rallies , flashcards sections , and other spirit related events .
= = = = Bull Dog Club = = = =
The Bull Dog Club was an honor society created in 1910 originally as a social branch of Tech 's Koseme Society . The Bull Dogs first major role was facilitating the first cross country races that eventually evolved into the Freshman Cake Race . The Bull Dogs only admitted rising juniors and seniors into their ranks in order to maintain prestige and honor in the club .
The Bull Dogs rise to Institute prominence also lead to their eventual demise . The Bull Dogs put a particular emphasis on mediating campus @-@ wide sporting events . The Bull Dogs utilized their Cake Race ties to the Athletic Association in order to coordinate the first intramurals on the athletic playing fields .
The Bull Dogs also aided in spirit and tradition upkeep on campus by aiding in Ramblin ' Wreck Parade judging , homecoming queen selection , and homecoming dance planning . Despite the Bull Dogs roles in homecoming celebrations , their intramural coordination became their primary focus by the 1960s . With the planning of the Student Athletic Center , intramurals were placed under official Institute control rather than the Bull Dogs and in 1969 the Bull Dogs were disbanded , relinquishing all homecoming duties to Ramblin ' Reck Club and the student government .
= = = = Georgia Tech Bands = = = =
The Georgia Tech Bands are student musical groups fielded at many of the home athletic and schoolwide events . None of the musicians receive scholarships for participating in the assorted bands meaning the bands are composed entirely of volunteers .
Every home football game and most away games include a 300 member Georgia Tech marching band performing during dead ball time and half @-@ time . The GT Bands also field smaller pep bands at home basketball , ice hockey , and volleyball games . The bands are known to follow teams for special events such as bowl games and basketball tournaments . The ice hockey pep band in particular travels to Savannah every year for the Thrasher cup . The band has some of the richest traditions on campus , including a strict enforcement of RAT caps amongst first year band members , no matter their actual year in college .
The first Georgia Tech bands were formed in 1908 and led by Robert " Biddy " Bidez . Bidez lead the group until his graduation in 1912 . He was succeeded by another student named Mike Greenblatt who continued in Bidez 's footsteps until 1913 . Greenblatt wrote the first versions of " Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech " . The first professional band director was Frank " Wop " Roman . Roman is noted for writing Tech 's Alma Mater as well as " Up With the White and Gold " . Roman copyrighted " Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech " in 1919 and led the bands until his death in 1928 . Since Roman there have been seven professional band directors . The directors have had varying levels of success and longevity .
= = = = Swarm = = = =
The Swarm is a spirit group consisting of 900 Georgia Tech students found seated along the north end zone during home football games and on the court during basketball games . The Swarm was started by the Suzanne " Suzy Swarm " Robinson of the Ramblin ' Reck Club in 1996 to increase the amount of student participation in the stands . The Swarm was only 250 members when it began in 1996 . The group increased to 650 members by 2001 and is currently 900 members strong . All Swarm members donate to the Alexander @-@ Tharpe fund and are given gold t @-@ shirts before every football and basketball season . One of the more popular traditions amongst Swarm members is the " Running of the Swarm . " Because all Swarm seating is general admission , there are no reserved seats . The Swarm members must run once the gate is opened to get the best seats .
= = = = Flashcards = = = =
A flashcard display is performed at every home football game by students . The flashcard section was first formed in 1957 by an organization known as the Block @-@ T Club . The idea for a flashcard section and group to organize its efforts was conceived by members of the Sigma Chi fraternity . Through the support of Ramblin ' Reck Club the first flashcard section featured 400 freshmen and highly coordinated flashcard images . The original flashcard sections were completely voluntary but now the Swarm maintains the tradition as a mandatory requirement of being a member of Swarm .
= = = = Goldfellas = = = =
The Goldfellas are a group of Georgia Tech superfans that paint their entire bodies yellow spelling out witty phrases in black letters on their chest . These painted fans attend every home football game and are located behind the South end zone goalpost . Occasionally , the Goldfellas will attend home basketball , volleyball , or other sporting events . The group had its origins in the 1998 Georgia Tech football season , when a group of guys painted up for the homecoming game against the favored Virginia Cavaliers , the second of the fabled 41 @-@ 38 games . The Jackets upset the Cavaliers and the tradition was started and passed on by residents in the now defunct Area II dormitories . Each member is given a unique face design that is retired upon his graduation . The group is not considered an official club as its members do not bow to any charters and are not affiliated with Swarm . The Goldfellas take pride in their complete lack of clothing besides a yellow wig and gym shorts . The group never sits during the course of a football game , not even during halftime . The largest gathering of the Goldfellas occurred in the 2007 football game against rival University of Georgia with over 80 Tech students painted up with the Goldfellas for the event .
= = = Fight songs = = =
= = = = Up With the White and Gold = = = =
Oh well it 's up with the White and Gold ,
Down with the Red and Black ,
Georgia Tech is out for a victory .
We 'll drop the battle @-@ axe on Georgia 's head ,
When we meet her our team is sure to beat her .
Down on the old farm there will be no sound
Till our bow @-@ wows rip through the air ;
When the battle is over Georgia 's team will be found
With the Yellow Jackets swarming around !
= = = = Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech = = = =
I 'm a Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech is Georgia Tech 's fight song . The composition is based on Son of a Gambolier by Charles Ives ( 1895 ) , and the lyrics are based on an old English and Scottish drinking song of the same name . Ramblin ' Wreck is played after every Georgia Tech score ( directly after a field goal / safety and preceded by Up With the White and Gold after a touchdown ) in a football game , and frequently during timeouts at basketball games . The title refers to the Ramblin ' Wreck , one of Tech 's mascots and a nickname for Tech students .
= = = = Alma Mater = = = =
Oh , sons of Tech , arise , behold !
The banner as it reigns supreme ,
For from on high the White and Gold
Waves in its triumphant gleam .
The spirit of the cheering throng
Resounds with joy revealing
A brotherhood in praise and song ,
In memory of the days gone by .
Oh , Scion of the Southland !
In our hearts you shall forever fly .
We cherish thoughts so dear for thee ,
Oh , Alma Mater , in our prayer .
We plead for you in victory ,
And in the victory we share !
But when the battle seems in vain
Our spirits never falter ,
We 're ever one in joy or pain ,
And our union is a lasting bond .
Oh ! May we be united .
Till the victory of life is won .
= = = = Budweiser Song = = = =
At every football game and every home basketball game , the fans of Georgia Tech perform an unusual dance at the end of the 3rd quarter in football and during the second to last television timeout of basketball . The dance is a simple bobbing motion which alternates every other person ( simulating the up @-@ and @-@ down motion of the heads of the familiar team of Clydesdale horses ) and is performed to the tune of an old Budweiser jingle . The Georgia Tech additional lyrics are as follows :
Go Georgia Tech !
Go Georgia Tech !
Go Georgia Tech !
Go Georgia Tech !
When you say Bud ... weiser , you 've said it all !
= = = Pi Mile Road Race = = =
The Dean George C. Griffin Pi Mile 5K Road Race is run annually in the Spring on the Georgia Tech campus . One of the longest continually running races in Atlanta , it is named after former Dean of Students , George C. Griffin , in honor of his tenure as a track and cross country coach . The race founder is alumnus L. McTier " Mac " Anderson , class of 1967 . The first race in 1973 was 3 miles long and was expanded to 3 @.@ 14 miles after 1975 — hence the Pi Mile . In 2002 , the race distance was slightly shortened to 5 kilometers , intendedly to attract more runners . Another race tradition is the Ghost Run , where all the entrants sign up as George P. Burdell ; participants pay the fee and get a t @-@ shirt but do not have to run .
Part of the race is run along the Tyler Brown Pi @-@ Mile Trail , a 3 @.@ 14 @-@ mile running course around well @-@ lit areas of the Georgia Tech campus , designated with disc @-@ shaped markers and maps along the way . Tyler Brown was a former Student Government Association President who ran daily for ROTC and pushed heavily for a well @-@ lit and safe running trail . Tyler Brown was killed in action in Iraq on September 14 , 2004 . The trail was completed in December 2004 and was dedicated in his honor in April 2005 .
= = Legends = =
= = = Yellow Jackets = = =
The term Yellow Jacket or Yellowjacket has been used to refer to students and the various sports teams as early as the 1890s . Fans of Georgia Tech would often wear yellow jackets to sporting events in support of the early Georgia Tech teams . The early football teams , lacking gold fabric for jerseys , wore yellow jerseys . John Heisman told the Atlanta Constitution that he wanted his teams to be referred to as the Yellow Jackets in October 1905 . In November 1906 , the Atlanta Journal portrayed a University of Georgia football player being attacked by a yellowjacket with the words " Somebody 's going to get stung " as the caption . This would be the first time and not the last time that the Georgia Tech sports teams would be referred to as the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets .
Buzz Bee became the anthropomorphized Yellow Jacket in 1979 . He was initially an impromptu student volunteer but is now an official cheerleader that requires an intense tryout process . This Buzz character would be the model for a new Georgia Tech emblem , designed in 1985 by Mike Lester .
= = = George P. Burdell = = =
The legendary imaginary Tech student George P. Burdell who enrolled in 1927 is said to possess nearly every degree Georgia Tech offers , after many students took a variety of classes in his name . In 1927 , a student , receiving 2 enrollment forms , also enrolled as George P. Burdell and attended as both names , so Burdell obtained a B.S. 1930 , got a Master 's , and in World War II , went to Harvard and joined the Army Air Forces . Since the 1960s , some students have managed to re @-@ enroll George P. Burdell in the Institute registrar 's computers . When Tech switched to online class registration , Burdell took every course offered that term . After initially vigorously searching for the hackers , the Institute has since accepted the presence of George P. Burdell in every year 's class . George P. Burdell is also a common tool for pranks at various school events and games . He usually gets paged over the stadium public address system at away sporting events .
= = = The Cumberland Game = = =
In 1916 , Georgia Tech 's football team ( coached by John Heisman — for whom the trophy is named ) defeated Cumberland 222 @-@ 0 , the largest margin of victory in college football history . Cumberland 's total net yardage was -28 ( minus 28 ) , and it had only one play for positive yards . Cumberland did not record a first down . Georgia Tech scored every time it got the ball ; although one page on Cumberland 's web site says that Georgia Tech scored on every offensive play , the play @-@ by @-@ play posted on its site indicates otherwise . Cumberland beat Georgia Tech 's baseball team 22 to 0 the previous year , reportedly with the help of professional players Cumberland had hired as " ringers , " an act which apparently infuriated Heisman .
= = = 41 – 38 = = =
41 – 38 is the score of two victories by Georgia Tech over Virginia in college football .
In 1990 , Virginia won its first seven games and raced out to a # 1 ranking in both polls . Undefeated but unheralded Georgia Tech came into Scott Stadium in Charlottesville and beat the Cavaliers 41 – 38 on a last @-@ second field goal by Scott Sisson . This victory set off celebrations back in Atlanta that culminated in GT students breaking into Bobby Dodd Stadium , closed for the road game that weekend , and tearing down a goalpost ( a common victory celebration when a game is played on one 's home field ) . GT went on to be ACC champion and co @-@ national champion with Colorado that season , which included Colorado 's Fifth Down Game against Missouri . Virginia 's season spiraled downhill from there , going 1 – 3 to finish 8 – 4 and ranked only # 22 .
In 1998 , the first year since 1990 that both teams had come into this game with high hopes , # 25 GT hosted undefeated # 7 UVA , and again pulled off the upset . This time , the Jackets came from three touchdowns behind and survived a 54 @-@ yard field goal miss by UVA kicker Todd Braverman as time ran out . Since then , any time the two teams have met with rankings and bowl positions on the line , GT fans have used " 41 – 38 " as a rallying cry , similar to Miami fans ' " Wide Right " against Florida State .
= = = Sideways the Dog = = =
Sideways ( March 1 , 1945 – August 14 , 1947 ) was a black and white female terrier who was thrown from a car near the Georgia Tech campus . Her injuries left the front and rear portions of her body out of alignment with each other and caused her to walk with an off @-@ center gait , leading to her nickname . She was a favorite of the students , and often slept in a different dorm room every night , being fed through the generosity of the student body and Brittain Dining Hall . She would often wander into classes and sleep during boring lectures .
Sideways died after accidentally ingesting some rat poison in one of the dorm rooms , and is buried on the grounds near the southeast corner of Tech Tower . A plaque marks her resting spot and briefly tells her story . It reads , " Sideways . Ever faithful and true . Companion of student body of Ga . Tech . "
The headstone was recently rotated 90 degrees clockwise from what is shown in the picture at right so that Sideways may be in death as she was in life .
= = = Stumpy 's bear = = =
After defeating the California Golden Bears in the 1929 Rose Bowl Game , Tech fullback Jack " Stumpy " Thomason acquired a live bear while in California . He brought the bear back to Tech and raised the bear in Atlanta . Named Bruin , the bear made a habit of drinking too much beer and rummaging through Midtown Atlanta dumpsters . After a lot of Atlantan complaints and two arrests by local police , Stumpy agreed to cage Bruin in Bobby Dodd Stadium . Bruin left Tech campus with Stumpy when Stumpy was acquired by the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1930 .
= = = Drownproofing = = =
From 1940 to 1987 , Tech offered a class called Drownproofing , which was required for graduation for students . The class was developed by Coach Fred Lanoue for the Naval School , which was located at Georgia Tech before and during World War II . He taught students how to float in water for extended periods of time with ankles and wrists bound , how ( unbound ) to swim 50 yards ( 46 m ) underwater , and other water survival skills . At the time it was considered a prime example of the difficulty of Tech 's curriculum , and referred to in jest by students as " Drowning 101 . "
= = = ANAK Society = = =
The ANAK Society is said to be the only official secret society on campus . Since its founding in 1908 , the ANAK Society has selected seniors who " exhibit a true love for Georgia Tech through their campus involvement and compassion for their fellow students , " according to their website . While members used to be publicly selected at the semi @-@ annual IFC dances when they were " tapped " on the shoulder , membership in the Society has been secret since 1960 . Only when members reach graduation are they publicly announced in The Technique . Most of the work of the Society is conducted anonymously with members seeking no recognition for their service . ANAK claims to have had a hand in establishing The Technique , The Blueprint , the Student Government Association , the Ramblin ' Reck Club , and Tech 's peaceful integration .
= = Jargon = =
= = = North Avenue Trade School = = =
Georgia Tech is sometimes called the " North Avenue Trade School , " although this was never its official title . The name stems from the fact that the campus is bordered to the south by North Avenue , and that the school in its earlier years was operated much like a trade school , with students working part of the day in a machine shop , and the other part of the day in classrooms . Today the name is still used in a humorous manner : the campus bookstore even sells shirts bearing the name " North Avenue Trade School . "
= = = The Institute = = =
Traditionally , Georgia Tech has been called " the Institute " while discouraging the nicknames " the university " or " the college " . The Institute had been divided into " Schools " which are now called " Colleges " for each field of study . When Georgia Tech 's football team played the University of Miami for its 2006 Homecoming game , several students were seen wearing gold t @-@ shirts that said , " Screw the U , Fear the I ! " ( mocking Miami 's tradition of being called the U ) .
The Georgia Institute of Technology is one of only five Division I Bowl Subdivision football programs without " University " in the school 's name . The others are Boston College and the three service academies ( United States Air Force Academy , United States Military Academy and the United States Naval Academy ) .
= = = Getting Shafted = = =
" Getting shafted " generally refers to the rigorous academic difficulty of Georgia Tech 's curriculum . The physical manifestation of this phrase is the Kessler Campanile , a " shaft @-@ like " structure near the Student Center . The phallic shape of the structure invites its designation as a shafting device .
= = = The Ratio = = =
The Ratio ( always capitalized ) refers to Georgia Tech 's traditionally high ratio of male to female students .
= = = TBS = = =
Due to the Ratio ( always capitalized , see above ) , some students have felt that certain women at Georgia Tech may be stuck up because of all the attention they get from an overwhelming number of males . These students call the behavior of the female in this scenario as " Tech Bitch Syndrome " or " TBS " for short .
Women against the term claim that they are often labeled the term without warrant . An analysis of the term was done by Georgia Tech 's Sexual Violence and Prevention Initiative .
= = = Getting Out = = =
" Getting out " refers to graduating from Georgia Tech . Graduates typically say " I got out " rather than that they graduated from Georgia Tech .
= = = Ma Tech = = =
An affectionate name used by students and alumni for their Alma Mater .
= = = The Hill = = =
A nickname given to Tech 's academic administration and historic district . Topographically , Tech 's first administrative buildings were built on an actual hill in Atlanta . As campus expanded onto surrounding lower terrain , the Hill became a much more prominent sight on campus . The term now is typically used in derision when referring to the administration . Former Tech Interim President Gary Schuster 's blog , titled , " Notes from the Hill " , refers to this nickname .
The Hill also refers to the steep incline of Bobby Dodd Way ( which most students now refer to as " Freshman Hill " ) , which residents of East Campus must trek up in order to attend class . The climb is often referred to as a hike up the Freshman Hill as many freshman dorms are located around the bottom of Freshman Hill .
= Cattle egret =
The cattle egret ( Bubulcus ibis ) is a cosmopolitan species of heron ( family Ardeidae ) found in the tropics , subtropics and warm temperate zones . It is the only member of the monotypic genus Bubulcus , although some authorities regard its two subspecies as full species , the western cattle egret and the eastern cattle egret . Despite the similarities in plumage to the egrets of the genus Egretta , it is more closely related to the herons of Ardea . Originally native to parts of Asia , Africa and Europe , it has undergone a rapid expansion in its distribution and successfully colonised much of the rest of the world in the last century .
It is a white bird adorned with buff plumes in the breeding season . It nests in colonies , usually near bodies of water and often with other wading birds . The nest is a platform of sticks in trees or shrubs . Cattle egrets exploit drier and open habitats more than other heron species . Their feeding habitats include seasonally inundated grasslands , pastures , farmlands , wetlands and rice paddies . They often accompany cattle or other large mammals , catching insect and small vertebrate prey disturbed by these animals . Some populations of the cattle egret are migratory and others show post @-@ breeding dispersal .
The adult cattle egret has few predators , but birds or mammals may raid its nests , and chicks may be lost to starvation , calcium deficiency or disturbance from other large birds . This species maintains a special relationship with cattle , which extends to other large grazing mammals ; wider human farming is believed to be a major cause of their suddenly expanded range . The cattle egret removes ticks and flies from cattle and consumes them . This benefits both species , but it has been implicated in the spread of tick @-@ borne animal diseases .
= = Taxonomy = =
The cattle egret was first described in 1758 by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae as Ardea ibis , but was moved to its current genus by Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1855 . Its genus name Bubulcus is Latin for herdsman , referring , like the English name , to this species ' association with cattle . Ibis is a Latin and Greek word which originally referred to another white wading bird , the sacred ibis , but was applied to this species in error .
The cattle egret has two geographical races which are sometimes classified as full species , the western cattle egret , B. ibis , and eastern cattle egret , B. coromandus . The two forms were split by McAllan and Bruce , but were regarded as conspecific by almost all other recent authors until the publication of the influential Birds of South Asia . The eastern subspecies B. ( i . ) coromandus , described by Pieter Boddaert in 1783 , breeds in Asia and Australasia , and the western nominate form occupies the rest of the species range , including the Americas . Some authorities recognise a third Seychelles subspecies , B. i. seychellarum , which was first described by Finn Salomonsen in 1934 .
Despite superficial similarities in appearance , the cattle egret is more closely related to the genus Ardea , which comprises the great or typical herons and the great egret ( A. alba ) , than to the majority of species termed egrets in the genus Egretta . Rare cases of hybridization with little blue herons Egretta caerulea , little egrets Egretta garzetta and snowy egrets Egretta thula have been recorded .
= = Description = =
The cattle egret is a stocky heron with an 88 – 96 cm ( 35 – 38 in ) wingspan ; it is 46 – 56 cm ( 18 – 22 in ) long and weighs 270 – 512 g ( 9 @.@ 5 – 18 @.@ 1 oz ) . It has a relatively short thick neck , a sturdy bill , and a hunched posture . The non @-@ breeding adult has mainly white plumage , a yellow bill and greyish @-@ yellow legs . During the breeding season , adults of the nominate western subspecies develop orange @-@ buff plumes on the back , breast and crown , and the bill , legs and irises become bright red for a brief period prior to pairing . The sexes are similar , but the male is marginally larger and has slightly longer breeding plumes than the female ; juvenile birds lack coloured plumes and have a black bill .
B. i. coromandus differs from the nominate subspecies in breeding plumage , when the buff colour on its head extends to the cheeks and throat , and the plumes are more golden in colour . This subspecies ' bill and tarsus are longer on average than in B. i. ibis . B. i. seychellarum is smaller and shorter @-@ winged than the other forms . It has white cheeks and throat , like B. i. ibis , but the nuptial plumes are golden , as with B. i. coromandus . Individuals with abnormally grey , melanistic plumages have been recorded .
The positioning of the egret 's eyes allows for binocular vision during feeding , and physiological studies suggest that the species may be capable of crepuscular or nocturnal activity . Adapted to foraging on land , they have lost the ability possessed by their wetland relatives to accurately correct for light refraction by water .
This species gives a quiet , throaty rick @-@ rack call at the breeding colony , but is otherwise largely silent .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The cattle egret has undergone one of the most rapid and wide reaching natural expansions of any bird species . It was originally native to parts of Southern Spain and Portugal , tropical and subtropical Africa and humid tropical and subtropical Asia . In the end of the 19th century it began expanding its range into southern Africa , first breeding in the Cape Province in 1908 . Cattle egrets were first sighted in the Americas on the boundary of Guiana and Suriname in 1877 , having apparently flown across the Atlantic Ocean . It was not until the 1930s that the species is thought to have become established in that area .
The species first arrived in North America in 1941 ( these early sightings were originally dismissed as escapees ) , bred in Florida in 1953 , and spread rapidly , breeding for the first time in Canada in 1962 . It is now commonly seen as far west as California . It was first recorded breeding in Cuba in 1957 , in Costa Rica in 1958 , and in Mexico in 1963 , although it was probably established before that . In Europe , the species had historically declined in Spain and Portugal , but in the latter part of the 20th century it expanded back through the Iberian Peninsula , and then began to colonise other parts of Europe ; southern France in 1958 , northern France in 1981 and Italy in 1985 . Breeding in the United Kingdom was recorded for the first time in 2008 only a year after an influx seen in the previous year . In 2008 , cattle egrets were also reported as having moved into Ireland for the first time .
In Australia , the colonisation began in the 1940s , with the species establishing itself in the north and east of the continent . It began to regularly visit New Zealand in the 1960s . Since 1948 the cattle egret has been permanently resident in Israel . Prior to 1948 it was only a winter visitor .
The massive and rapid expansion of the cattle egret 's range is due to its relationship with humans and their domesticated animals . Originally adapted to a commensal relationship with large grazing and browsing animals , it was easily able to switch to domesticated cattle and horses . As the keeping of livestock spread throughout the world , the cattle egret was able to occupy otherwise empty niches . Many populations of cattle egrets are highly migratory and dispersive , and this has helped the species ' range expansion . The species has been seen as a vagrant in various sub @-@ Antarctic islands , including South Georgia , Marion Island , the South Sandwich Islands and the South Orkney Islands . A small flock of eight birds was also seen in Fiji in 2008 .
In addition to the natural expansion of its range , cattle egrets have been deliberately introduced into a few areas . The species was introduced to Hawaii in 1959 , and to the Chagos Archipelago in 1955 . Successful releases were also made in the Seychelles and Rodrigues , but attempts to introduce the species to Mauritius failed . Numerous birds were also released by Whipsnade Zoo in England , but the species was never established .
Although the cattle egret sometimes feeds in shallow water , unlike most herons it is typically found in fields and dry grassy habitats , reflecting its greater dietary reliance on terrestrial insects rather than aquatic prey .
= = Migration and movements = =
Some populations of cattle egrets are migratory , others are dispersive , and distinguishing between the two can be difficult for this species . In many areas populations can be both sedentary and migratory . In the northern hemisphere , migration is from cooler climes to warmer areas , but cattle egrets nesting in Australia migrate to cooler Tasmania and New Zealand in the winter and return in the spring . Migration in western Africa is in response to rainfall , and in South America migrating birds travel south of their breeding range in the non @-@ breeding season . Populations in southern India appear to show local migrations in response to the monsoons . They move north from Kerala after September . During winter , many birds have been seen flying at night with flocks of Indian pond herons ( Ardeola grayii ) on the south @-@ eastern coast of India and a winter influx has also been noted in Sri Lanka .
Young birds are known to disperse up to 5 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 100 mi ) from their breeding area . Flocks may fly vast distances and have been seen over seas and oceans including in the middle of the Atlantic .
= = Status = =
This species has a large range , with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Its global population estimated to be 3 @.@ 8 – 6 @.@ 7 million individuals . For these reasons , the
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hit Webber on the side , causing the Australian to spin . Although the McLaren driver later dismissed the contact as " a racing accident " , he was given a drive @-@ through penalty , which he took on lap 14 , dropping him to 15th place .
By the ten @-@ lap mark , Räikkönen had opened a three @-@ second lead over Hamilton . Hamilton was the first of the leaders to pit , on lap 11 , followed by Räikkönen a lap later . Massa and Alonso pitted on lap 13 , with Heidfeld a lap after them . Heidfeld 's BMW teammate Robert Kubica pitted on lap 15 , along with Bourdais . Räikkönen maintained his lead over Hamilton after the round of pit stops , followed by Massa , Alonso and Bourdais .
Piquet retired on lap 13 , after spinning off and colliding with a wall . Following the race , the Renault driver blamed damp patches on the track for the incident , adding that " It 's a shame because I 'm sure we could have done something today . " On lap 17 , Rubens Barrichello retired with a gearbox problem , suffering from a failing sixth gear and engine over @-@ revving .
The first nine runners continued in the same order until Räikkönen and Hamilton both took their second pit stops on lap 25 , with Alonso pitting on lap 27 , Massa on lap 28 , and Heidfeld on lap 31 . Bourdais and Kubica pitted on laps 32 and 33 , respectively .
Following the second round of pit stops , Räikkönen was five seconds ahead of Hamilton , but Hamilton began to close in on Räikkönen during the last stint as a result of the tyres better suiting his McLaren Mercedes . Heavy rain began to fall on lap 41 . Hamilton closed the gap on Räikkönen to under a second , still six seconds ahead of Massa . Hamilton attempted to pass Räikkönen at the Bus Stop chicane , but he cut across the corner . Consequently , Hamilton led out of the chicane but allowed Räikkönen to re @-@ pass him halfway down the straight . Hamilton then passed him again at the La Source hairpin under braking . Räikkönen tried to double @-@ back on Hamilton to regain the position but the line was defended , resulting in Räikkönen touching his front wing on Hamilton 's rear tyre . The rain started coming down more heavily and Nico Rosberg spun at Fagnes corner , rejoining in front of the two frontrunners and causing Hamilton to run onto the grass . At the next corner , Räikkönen spun and gave the lead back to Hamilton . Räikkönen then lost control of his Ferrari through the Blanchimont corner and collided with the barrier , ending his race .
Hamilton was first to finish the race , having cautiously driven his car to the line in very wet conditions , followed by Massa and Heidfeld . Heidfeld rose from ninth position during the final laps due to the superior grip of the intermediate tyres put on during a pit stop two laps prior to the end of the race . Fernando Alonso and Timo Glock similarly benefited from intermediate tyres , Alonso finishing fourth and Glock eighth , having passed Webber on the final corner . Conversely , Toro Rosso drivers Bourdais and Vettel , who were third and fourth with one lap to go , were pushed down to seventh and fifth positions due to the lack of grip of their dry @-@ weather tyres .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Timo Glock was handed a 25 @-@ second penalty for overtaking Mark Webber under yellow flags during the final lap of the race . The penalty pushed Glock from eighth to ninth place .
Hamilton appeared on the podium and subsequent press conference in the winner 's position . When questioned on the incident at the press conference , Hamilton defended his actions :
[ Räikkönen ] pushed me to the point where I would either have been on the kerb and crashed into him or have to go on the escape route , so I went on the escape route . I understood I had to let him past , so I did . I got in his tow and he was ducking and diving left and right and I did the same and managed to get back to the inside of him . But then he hit me at the apex of the corner but I think I was pretty much gone from there .
Two hours after the race , the FIA stewards for the race issued a statement announcing that Hamilton was guilty of contravening Article 30 @.@ 3 ( a ) of the 2008 FIA Formula One Sporting Regulations and Appendix L , Chapter 4 , Article 2 ( g ) of the International Sporting Code , which both state that cutting a chicane and gaining an advantage is subject to a drive @-@ through penalty . As the race had finished , a 25 @-@ second penalty was added to Hamilton 's time instead . As a result of this penalty , Massa was promoted to winner of the Grand Prix , and Hamilton was dropped down to third position .
On 9 September , McLaren lodged an official complaint with the FIA about the incident . In the appeal hearing on 22 September , McLaren alleged that they had twice been advised by race director Charlie Whiting that Hamilton had correctly returned the position to Räikkönen . Furthermore , they presented telemetry evidence suggesting that Hamilton had not only crossed the finish line after Räikkönen , but that he was travelling 6 @.@ 7 km / h slower at the time .
As drive @-@ through penalties are not admissible for appeal , McLaren 's lawyer Mark Phillips QC attempted to convince the court that since the penalty was in the form of time added on , the case was valid . They presented the previous case of Vitantonio Liuzzi at the 2007 Japanese Grand Prix , specifically the FIA 's claim that the presiding chief steward at the race , Tony Scott Andrews , had admitted fault in awarding the penalty to Liuzzi . Andrews denied the FIA 's allegation . McLaren went on to use the case as a precedent for the Spa incident . The Court stated that this analogy was invalid , since in Liuzzi 's case the admissibility of his appeal was not contested .
On 23 September , the Court of Appeal issued its decision , ruling that the appeal was inadmissible .
= = Reaction = =
Other Formula One drivers believed that Hamilton had gained an advantage . Sébastien Bourdais of Toro Rosso said that " the penalty is really rough but in the end it 's up to you to give the position back or not . Pretty straightforward " . The view was reiterated by his fellow drivers Nico Rosberg and Jarno Trulli . Trulli believed that " Hamilton got an advantage by cutting the chicane " , saying , " Had he stayed on the road , he wouldn 't have had the speed to overtake the Ferrari . In the same way at Monza someone could cut the first chicane , catch a rival 's draft , and overtake him under braking at Roggia " .
Former world champion Niki Lauda said that he did " not understand this completely wrong decision " , adding " It 's unbelievable how the best driver in yesterday 's race makes no mistakes and only gets six points " . He called for the formation of permanent race stewards , instead of the temporary steward system currently in place . He called it " the worst judgement in the history of F1 " , saying , " It 's absolutely unacceptable when three [ stewards ] influence the championship like this " . Three @-@ time world champion Jackie Stewart said that " F1 attracts the largest capital investment in sport , but it ’ s being overseen by people who are not doing it full @-@ time and we get inconsistent decisions " .
The original penalty received mixed reactions in the world press . Byron Young in Britain 's Daily Mirror said that it was the stewards ' decision " that mars sport and turns fans away , that ruins the efforts of even the best competitors , taints the day and leaves fans wondering what exactly they are ' fans ' of " . The Finnish daily newspaper Helsingin Sanomat noted that though the Grand Prix had " crushed " Räikkönen 's championship dreams , Hamilton had adhered " with the rules of racing " in giving the position back . The newspaper put Räikkönen 's disappointment down to his crash , rather than the chicane incident . In Italy , La Gazzetta dello Sport declared that the decision was justified , stating that Hamilton " should have waited at least another turn rather than attacking so soon " .
The incident and subsequent court hearing led to a clarification by the FIA , saying that drivers must wait one further corner after cutting a chicane before attempting another overtaking manoeuvre . Formula One driver and a director of the Grand Prix Drivers ' Association Mark Webber said that the clarification had made the issue much clearer :
Lewis would probably never ever have had a crack at Kimi around the outside at the first part of the Bus Stop without knowing he had the option of going onto the asphalt part . I think we 've got to get on top of the chicanes going forward , and we 're not too far away from that at the moment , where drivers know that if you gain a position or gain an advantage , you have to give it back a bit more .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
^ Hamilton given a 25 @-@ second penalty for cutting a chicane and gaining an advantage , losing first place .
^ Glock given a 25 @-@ second penalty for overtaking Webber under yellow @-@ flags , losing eighth place .
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Bold text indicates who still has a theoretical chance of becoming World Champion .
= Howard Staunton =
Howard Staunton ( 1810 – 22 June 1874 ) was an English chess master who is generally regarded as having been the world 's strongest player from 1843 to 1851 , largely as a result of his 1843 victory over Saint @-@ Amant . He promoted a chess set of clearly distinguishable pieces of standardised shape — the Staunton pattern promulgated by Nathaniel Cook — that is still the style required for competitions . He was the principal organiser of the first international chess tournament in 1851 , which made England the world 's leading chess centre and caused Adolf Anderssen to be recognised as the world 's strongest player .
From 1840 onwards he became a leading chess commentator , and won matches against top players of the 1840s . In 1847 he entered a parallel career as a Shakespearean scholar . Ill health and his two writing careers led him to give up competitive chess after 1851 . In 1858 attempts were made to organise a match between Staunton and Morphy , but they failed . It is often alleged that Staunton deliberately misled Morphy while trying to avoid the match , but it is also possible Staunton overestimated his chances of getting physically fit and of making time available for a match .
Modern commentators consider Staunton 's understanding of positional play to have been far ahead of his contemporaries ' . Although not an all @-@ out attacking player , he attacked when his preparations were complete . His chess articles and books were widely read and encouraged the development of chess in the United Kingdom , and his Chess @-@ Player 's Handbook ( 1847 ) was a reference for decades . The chess openings the English Opening and Staunton Gambit were named for his advocacy of them . Staunton has been a controversial figure since his own time , and his chess writings could be spiteful . On the other hand , he maintained good working relationships with several strong players and influential chess enthusiasts , and demonstrated excellent management skills .
= = Life = =
Most information about Staunton 's early life is based on claims he made . Record of his birth or baptism has never been found . The chess historian H. J. R. Murray summarised the information that he " gleaned " from various sources : Staunton was born in 1810 , reputedly the natural son of Frederick Howard , fifth Earl of Carlisle ; he was neglected in youth , receiving little or no education ; although he spent some time in Oxford , he was never a member of the University ; when he came of age he inherited a few thousand pounds , which he soon squandered ; in later life Staunton often used to tell how he had once played Lorenzo in the Merchant of Venice , with the famous English actor Edmund Kean playing Shylock .
= = = 1836 – 42 , first steps in chess = = =
In 1836 Staunton came to London , where he took out a subscription for William Greenwood Walker 's Games at Chess , actually played in London , by the late Alexander McDonnell Esq . Staunton was apparently twenty @-@ six when he took a serious interest in chess . He said that at that time the strongest players he saw in London , Saint @-@ Amant and George Walker , could easily have given him rook odds . In 1838 he played many games with Captain Evans , inventor of the Evans Gambit , and also lost a match against the German chess writer Aaron Alexandre . He had improved sufficiently by 1840 to win a match against the German master H.W. Popert , a slow , cautious player with great defensive skill .
From May to December 1840 Staunton edited a chess column for the New Court Gazette . He then became chess editor of the magazine British Miscellany , and his chess column developed into a separate magazine , the Chess Player 's Chronicle , which Staunton owned and edited until the early 1850s .
= = = 1843 , competitive peak = = =
Early in 1843 Staunton prevailed in a long series of games against John Cochrane , a strong player and chess theoretician . Chessmetrics treats these games incorrectly as one match when it was in fact a series of matches , and lists it as Staunton 's best performance .
A little later that year he lost a short match ( 2 ½ – 3 ½ ) in London against the visiting French player Saint @-@ Amant , who was generally regarded as the world 's strongest active player .
Staunton challenged Saint @-@ Amant to a longer match to be played in Paris for a stake of £ 100 , equivalent to about £ 73 @,@ 000 in 2006 's money . Then he prepared new opening lines , especially those beginning 1.c4 , which became known as the English Opening after this match . He also took Thomas Worrall and Harry Wilson to Paris as his assistants ; this is the first known case where seconds were used in a match . Staunton gained a seven @-@ game lead but then struggled to keep it before winning the match 13 – 8 ( eleven wins , four draws , and six losses ) in December 1843 .
Saint @-@ Amant wanted a third match , but Staunton was initially unwilling as he had developed heart palpitations during the second match . Von der Lasa later suggested this was why Staunton faded in the second match . However , after a long , difficult negotiation , which he reported in the Chess Player 's Chronicle , Staunton went to Paris intending to start their third match in October 1844 , but he caught pneumonia while travelling and almost died ; the match was postponed and never took place .
Several modern commentators regard Staunton as de facto World Champion after his match victory over Saint @-@ Amant , although that title did not yet formally exist . After Saint @-@ Amant 's defeat , no other Frenchmen arose to continue the French supremacy in chess established by Philidor , Deschapelles , La Bourdonnais and Saint @-@ Amant . Some contemporary English commentators , mainly in Staunton 's Chess Player 's Chronicle , and some later writers hailed Staunton as the world champion . The response was less enthusiastic elsewhere in Europe . Even in England some writers suggested other players , notably Buckle or von der Lasa , were stronger .
= = = 1845 – 48 , chess writer and promoter = = =
In 1845 Staunton began a chess column for the Illustrated London News , which became the most influential chess column in the world and which he continued for the rest of his life . Although his articles mostly focused on over @-@ the @-@ board play , a significant number featured correspondence chess . Some followed with enthusiasm the progress of promising youngsters , including Paul Morphy . Staunton produced over 1 @,@ 400 weekly articles for the Illustrated London News .
The first chess match by electric telegraph took place in 1844 , between Washington and Baltimore . In April 1845 Staunton and Captain Kennedy travelled to Gosport to play two games by telegraph against a group in London . Staunton took a long @-@ term interest in this solution to the difficulties of travel , and reported telegraph games in the Illustrated London News . In 1871 his report of a telegraphic match between Sydney and Adelaide calculated that the 74 moves of the longest game had travelled a total of 220 @,@ 000 miles ( not much less than the distance between Earth and Moon ) .
In 1847 Staunton published his most famous work , The Chess @-@ Player 's Handbook , which is still in print . It contained over 300 pages of opening analysis , and almost 100 pages of endgame analysis . Staunton 's Handbook was based on Bilguer and von der Lasa 's Handbuch des Schachspiels ( first published in 1843 ) , but enhanced by many variations and analyses of Staunton 's own . His book The Chess @-@ Player 's Companion followed in 1849 .
He still found time for two matches in 1846 , comfortably beating the professionals Bernhard Horwitz ( fourteen wins , three draws , and seven losses ) and Daniel Harrwitz . The match against Harrwitz was set up in a very unusual way : seven games in which Staunton gave Harrwitz odds of pawn and two moves ( Staunton won four and lost three ) , seven games where he gave pawn and move ( Staunton lost six and won one ) , and seven at no odds ( Staunton won all seven ) .
= = = 1849 , marriage and design of a chess set = = =
On 23 July 1849 Staunton married Frances Carpenter Nethersole , who had had eight children by a previous marriage .
In 1849 Nathaniel Cook registered a chess set design , and Jaques of London obtained the manufacturing rights . Staunton advertised the new set in his Illustrated London News chess column , pointing out that the pieces were easily identifiable , very stable , and good @-@ looking . Each box was signed by Staunton , and Staunton received a royalty on each set sold . The design became popular , and has been the standard for both professional and amateur chess players ever since . Anthony Saidy and Norman Lessing wrote that , " if a vote was taken among chess @-@ players as to which pieces they most enjoyed playing with , ... the Staunton chessmen would win by an overwhelming margin . "
= = = 1851 , London International Tournament = = =
Staunton proposed and then took the lead in organising the first ever international tournament , as he thought the Great Exhibition of 1851 presented a unique opportunity , because the difficulties that obstructed international participation would be greatly reduced . He may also have been motivated by reports that a few years earlier Ludwig Bledow had proposed to organise an international tournament in Germany , whose winner was to be recognised as the world champion . Staunton and his colleagues had ambitious objectives for this tournament , including convening a " Chess Parliament " to complete the standardisation of various rules and procedures for competitive chess and for writing about chess . Staunton also proposed the production of a compendium showing what was known about chess openings , preferably as a table . Before the tournament started Captain Kennedy and the Liberty Weekly Tribune in Missouri wrote that the winner should be regarded as " the World 's Chess Champion " .
The organisers obtained financial contributions from Europe , the US and Asia , enabling the committee to set up a prize fund of £ 500 , equivalent to about £ 359 @,@ 000 in 2006 's money .
Despite the generally enthusiastic response , several major players were unable to participate , including von der Lasa , Saint @-@ Amant and Cochrane . Adolf Anderssen was at first deterred by the travel costs , but accepted his invitation when Staunton offered to pay Anderssen 's travel expenses out of his own pocket if necessary . The committee had also organised a " London Provincial Tournament " for other British players , and " promoted " some of the entrants to play in the International Tournament to obtain the right number of players for a knock @-@ out tournament .
The tournament was a success , but disappointing for Staunton personally ; in the second round he was knocked out by Anderssen , who won the tournament convincingly ; and in the play @-@ off for third place Staunton was narrowly beaten by Elijah Williams . Staunton 's defeat by Williams suggests that Staunton had over @-@ stretched himself by acting as both a competitor and the Secretary of the organising committee .
The London Chess Club , which had fallen out with Staunton and his colleagues , organised a tournament that was played a month later and had a multi @-@ national set of players ( many of whom had competed in Staunton 's tournament ) , and the result was the same – Anderssen won .
In 1852 Staunton published his book The Chess Tournament , which recounted in detail the efforts required to make the London International Tournament happen and presented all the games with his comments on the play . Unfortunately some of Staunton 's comments in the book and in the Illustrated London News were intemperate , because he was disappointed with the placing he achieved .
= = = 1852 – 60 , final stages of playing career and Shakespeare publication = = =
Immediately after the London International tournament Staunton challenged Anderssen to a match of twenty @-@ one games , for £ 100 . Anderssen accepted the challenge but the match could not be arranged : Staunton was physically unfit for an immediate contest , and Anderssen had to return to work .
Carl Jaenisch had arrived too late for the tournament ; Staunton convincingly won a match with him soon after ( seven wins , one draw , and two losses ) . Later in 1851 Staunton played a match against Elijah Williams , who had won their play @-@ off for third place in the London International tournament . Staunton won more games ( six wins , three draws , and four losses ) but lost the match because he had given Williams a three @-@ game start .
In 1853 , while trying to arrange a match against Anderssen , Staunton met von der Lasa in Brussels . The two began a match , but had to abandon it in the middle of the thirteenth game , with von der Lasa leading ( five wins , four losses , and three draws ) . Staunton was unfit to continue because of heart palpitations , which had affected him in the second match against Saint @-@ Amant in 1843 . In von der Lasa 's opinion there was no chance that Staunton 's health would be good enough for a serious contest from 1853 onwards .
In the mid @-@ 1850s Staunton obtained a contract with the publishers Routledge to edit the text of Shakespeare . This edition appeared in parts from 1857 to 1860 , and Staunton 's work was praised by experts .
While Staunton was busy with the Shakespeare edition , he received a courteous letter from the New Orleans Chess Club , inviting him to that city to play Paul Morphy , who had won the recent First American Chess Congress . Staunton replied , thanking the New Orleans Chess Club and Morphy " for the honor implied in your selection of me as the opponent of such a champion " and pointing out that he had not competed for several years and was working six days a week ( on editing Shakespeare ) , and that he could not possibly travel across the Atlantic for a match . He also wrote in the Illustrated London News that he had " been compelled , by laborious literary occupation , to abandon the practice of chess , beyond the indulgence of an occasional game ... If Mr. Morphy — for whose skill we entertain the liveliest admiration — be desirous to win his spurs among the chess chivalry of Europe , he must take advantage of his purposed visit next year ; he will then meet in this country , in France , in Germany and in Russia , many champions ... ready to test and do honor to his prowess . " Chess historian H. J. R. Murray wrote that Staunton 's letter and article should have been interpreted as a courteous refusal of the offer , but that Morphy interpreted them differently , and one of the main reasons for his visit to Europe in 1858 was the hope of playing a match with Staunton . Some other chess historians disagree with Murray 's interpretation of Staunton 's response . Staunton did offer to play Morphy by electric telegraph , a technology whose progress and uses for chess he reported enthusiastically . However this offer arrived after Morphy had left for Europe — which perhaps was fortunate , as the newly laid cable broke down after a month and was not replaced until 1866 .
Upon arriving in England in June 1858 , Morphy promptly challenged Staunton to a match . At first , Staunton declined Morphy 's offer saying that the challenge came too late . Morphy did not give up negotiations and urging Staunton to play . In early July Staunton agreed provided he was given time to get back into practice on openings and endgames , and provided that he could manage all this without breaking the publication contract for his Shakespearean work . In early August , Morphy wrote asking Staunton when the match could occur , and Staunton asked again for a delay of some weeks . Staunton competed in a tournament that started in on 22 August in Birmingham , but this was a knock @-@ out tournament and he was eliminated in the second round by Johann Löwenthal , after playing a total of four games . This was to be Staunton 's last public chess competition . H.J.R. Murray wrote that Staunton had overexerted himself and damaged his health by trying both to get ahead of schedule on the Shakespeare project and to play some competitive chess . Just before Staunton left London for Birmingham , his old enemy George Walker published an article accusing him of trying to delay the match indefinitely , and Staunton received another letter from Morphy pressing him to name a date for the match . Staunton and Morphy met socially in Birmingham and , after a tense discussion , Staunton agreed to play in early November . Just after the tournament a letter signed by " Anti @-@ book " appeared in Staunton 's column in the Illustrated London News , alleging that Morphy did not actually have the money for his share of the stakes . This letter is widely thought to have been written by Staunton himself ; if so , he must have written it immediately after reading Walker 's article and Morphy 's letter and immediately before leaving for Birmingham . Around this time Morphy wrote to friends in the US asking them to obtain the stake money for the Staunton match . Morphy 's family refused to contribute as they " should not allow him to play a money match either with his own money or anyone else 's " , but the New Orleans Chess Club sent £ 500 . Meanwhile , Morphy went to Paris to play against continental masters . In September the Illustrated London News printed both a complimentary full @-@ page article about Morphy and a complimentary mention of him in its chess column . On 6 October 1858 , while in Paris Morphy wrote Staunton an open letter which was also circulated to several publications , in which Morphy complained about Staunton 's conduct . Staunton replied on 9 October , re @-@ stating the difficulties he faced , but now giving them as reasons to cancel the match . On 23 October , Staunton published his entire reply along with a partial copy of Morphy 's open letter , omitting the reference to the " Anti @-@ book " letter . Various chess columns then printed anonymous and acrimonious letters . Morphy took no part in any of this , but wrote to Lord Lyttelton , the president of the British Chess Association , explaining his own efforts to bring about the match , accusing Staunton of avoiding the match by all means short of admitting he did not wish to play , complaining about Staunton 's representation of the facts in the Illustrated London News , and demanding " that you shall declare to the world it is through no fault of mine that this match has not taken place . " Lyttelton replied that it was reasonable for Staunton to decline the match , but that in his opinion Staunton should have done so plainly in his first letter to America , but had instead often given the impression that he would soon be ready to start the match .
= = = Later life = = =
Staunton continued writing the chess column in Illustrated London News until his death in 1874 , greeting new developments with enthusiasm . In 1860 he published Chess Praxis , a supplement to his 1847 work The Chess Player 's Handbook . The new book devoted 168 pages to presenting many of Morphy 's games and praised the American 's play . Five years later Staunton published Great Schools of England ( 1865 ) , whose main subject was the history of major English public schools but which also presented some progressive ideas : learning can only take place successfully if the active interest of the student is engaged ; corporal punishment is to be avoided and fagging should be abolished . But most of his later life was occupied in writing about Shakespeare , including : a photolithographic reproduction of the 1600 Quarto of Much Ado about Nothing in 1864 and of the First Folio of Shakespeare in 1866 ; and papers on Unsuspected Corruptions of Shakespeare 's Text , published from 1872 to his death . All these works were highly regarded at the time . When he died suddenly of heart disease , on 22 June 1874 , he was at his desk writing one of these papers . At the same time he was also working on his last chess book , Chess : Theory and Practice , which was published posthumously in 1876 .
A memorial plaque now hangs at his old residence of 117 Lansdowne Road , London W11 . In 1997 a memorial stone bearing an engraving of a chess knight was raised over his grave at Kensal Green Cemetery in London , which had previously been unmarked and neglected .
= = Assessment = =
Staunton has been a controversial figure ever since his own time . In the words of chess journalist Mark Weeks , " Staunton represents a unique challenge to chess history . Many players immediately associate his name with Paul Morphy , as in ' Staunton ducked a match with Morphy ' . ... This is extremely unfair , as it concentrates the focus on Staunton to a relatively minor , factually controversial incident , while it ignores his significant achievements . " As chess historian Edward Winter writes , " The issue of national bias does , unfortunately , require consideration in the Staunton – Morphy affair . " Chess historian Dale Brandreth makes a similar point , from an American perspective : " the fact is that the British have always had their ' thing ' about Morphy . They just can 't seem to accept that Staunton was an unmitigated bastard in his treatment of Morphy because he knew damned well he could never have made any decent showing against him in a match . " However , Frederick Edge ( 1830 – 82 ) and Philip W. Sergeant ( 1872 – 1952 ) , two of Staunton 's harshest critics , were British , while former world champion Bobby Fischer ( 1943 – 2008 ) , one of the biggest fans of both Staunton and Morphy , was American .
= = = The Staunton – Morphy controversy = = =
Chess historians trace much of the 20th @-@ century animosity against Staunton to books by Sergeant about Morphy . Sergeant in turn made use of a book by Edge , who accompanied Morphy to Europe in 1858 as his secretary and personal assistant , but returned to the US in January 1859 , a few months before Morphy . Opinions of Edge 's value as a historical source vary widely :
American chess journalist Daniel Willard Fiske , reviewing Edge 's book , commented , " Mr. Morphy expressly disclaims any connection with it in any way or manner . ... will afford the reader a half @-@ hour 's entertainment " .
Sergeant 's books and David Lawson 's Paul Morphy The Pride and Sorrow of Chess ( New York , 1976 ) make extensive use of Edge 's book , but note Edge 's strong anti @-@ Staunton bias . Lawson also suggests that Morphy had seen the manuscript of Edge 's book , disliked its treatment of the Staunton affair so much that he disavowed it , and objected to Edge 's treatment of other matters .
Chess historians H. J. R. Murray , David Hooper and Ken Whyld described Edge as unreliable and having an extreme bias against Staunton .
Edward Winter wrote " The word ' liar ' has been applied to [ Edge ] by a small number of ( English , notably ) authors , but what is the precise basis ? That he was anti @-@ Staunton is incontestable , but was being anti @-@ Staunton a sign of mendacity , prejudice or , for that matter , clear @-@ sightedness ? "
Edge 's letters to Fiske show that Edge regarded Morphy as lazy and rather helpless , and himself as the one who would make Morphy 's name immortal , and that Morphy wanted to keep the negotiations with Staunton discreet while Edge insisted on making them as public as possible .
H.J.R. Murray wrote that Staunton 's response to Morphy 's initial challenge and his article about the same in the Illustrated London News should have been interpreted as a courteous refusal of the offer , but that Morphy interpreted them differently , and one of the main reasons for his visit to Europe in 1858 was the hope of playing a match with Staunton . Murray also commented on the whole affair , " In all this there is but little in which we can reproach Staunton , beyond the fact that he kept open the possibility of a match for so long , and even here there is a good deal that could be urged in justification of the course followed by Staunton " but also noted that both sides were playing tactical games with each other in front of the public , and that comments made by both players or their respective supporters were acrimonious . In response to Morphy 's complaints Lord Lyttelton , then president of the British Chess Association , said that it was reasonable for Staunton to decline the match , but that in his opinion Staunton should have done so plainly in his first letter to America , but had instead often given the impression that he would soon be ready to start the match. von der Lasa later wrote , although not specifically about this affair , that he thought there was no chance of Staunton 's health being good enough for a serious contest from 1853 onwards . William Norwood Potter wrote in his
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obituary of Staunton in the City of London Chess Magazine , " ... nor were his innuendoes concerning Morphy otherwise than an utterly unworthy means of getting out of an engagement , which he could have either declined with a good grace at first , or afterwards have honourably asked to be released from . Nevertheless , all said and done , Staunton was , as we have often heard a distinguished enemy of his say , emphatically a MAN . There was nothing weak about him , and he had a backbone that never curved with fear of any one . "
Some 20th @-@ century commentators have been more critical of Staunton . However some well @-@ known chess writers , including Fred Reinfeld , Israel " Al " Horowitz and Reuben Fine , have been criticised by chess historians for their lack of accuracy , both in general and specifically where Staunton is concerned . Edward Winter writes , " It is unwise for the ' non @-@ playing ' historian to publish his own analysis , although he may be a useful compiler . Similarly , players who are unversed in , and indifferent to , chess history should not touch it . " William Hartston wrote of Staunton 's non @-@ match with Morphy , " Sadly , this blemish on Staunton the man also did considerable harm to the reputation among later generations of Staunton the chess player . " G.H. Diggle wrote in the British Chess Magazine , " That [ Staunton ] excused himself ... from playing a match against the greatest player of the century , then at the zenith of his youth and fame , was no tragedy for chess . The contest would have been a fiasco . But it would have been happier , both for the young champion and the old , had the latter never said he would play at all . "
= = = Playing strength and style = = =
There is a famous story that Paul Morphy described Staunton as the author of " some devilish bad games " . Chess historian Edward Winter traced this back to a book published in 1902 , whose author said he had seen a copy of Staunton 's The Chess Tournament in which Morphy had written " some devilish bad games " on the title page ; Winter was unable to trace the copy . Around the time of Staunton 's death Morphy is said to have commented that Staunton may have been the strongest player of his time , had great analytical ability and judgement of positions but lacked the imagination required to deliberately create opportunities for combinations .
Twentieth @-@ century opinions of Staunton 's play varied enormously . Fred Reinfeld , Al Horowitz and Reuben Fine all condemned it . On the other hand , Savielly Tartakower wrote , " A remarkable feature of Staunton 's play is the number of ultra @-@ modern ideas with which he was familiar , e.g. the restricted centre , the fianchetto development , bilateral work , the theory of the local engagement , etc . , and , last but not least , the English Opening ( sometimes called the Staunton Opening ) . " Garry Kasparov considered Staunton " by the early 1840s ... superior to all his rivals " . Bobby Fischer opined that " Staunton was the most profound opening analyst of all time . He was more theorist than player , but nonetheless he was the strongest player of his day ... In addition , he understood all of the positional concepts which modern players hold dear , and thus — with Steinitz — must be considered the first modern player . "
The website Chessmetrics ranks Staunton as world number one from May 1843 to August 1849 , in the top ten from July 1851 to May 1853 , and in the top five from June 1853 to January 1856 .
From the early 1840s to 1851 Staunton could successfully give odds to almost any UK @-@ based player , including eventually John Cochrane ; the exceptions were Henry Thomas Buckle , to whom Staunton gave pawn and move in 1843 and lost their match ( six losses , no draws , one win ) , and Elijah Williams in 1851 , against whom Staunton won more games but lost the match because he had given Williams a three @-@ game start . According to match records collected by Jeremy P. Spinrad , the only players who were successful against Staunton without receiving odds from 1840 to 1852 were : Saint @-@ Amant , who won their first match in London in 1843 and lost their second , longer match in Paris the same year ; Adolf Anderssen , who eliminated Staunton from the 1851 London International tournament ; and Elijah Williams , who beat Staunton in the play @-@ off for third place in the same tournament . Before 1840 Staunton was still a relative beginner , and after 1851 his health was too fragile for serious competition . In the late 1840s some UK commentators wrote that Buckle was stronger , and von der Lasa was regarded by some as the world 's best . Staunton did not play von der Lasa until 1853 , and was forced by ill @-@ health to abandon the match .
In his own time Staunton was regarded as belonging to the " closed " category of chess players ( along with for example Philidor and József Szén ) rather than to the " heroic " category ( which included La Bourdonnais , Morphy and Anderssen ) — instead of seeking immediate combat , Staunton deferred it until he was ready . The closed English Opening got its name from Staunton 's frequent use of it , especially against Saint @-@ Amant in 1843 . However he was noted for the accuracy and incisiveness of his combinations .
= = = Personality = = =
Staunton 's virtues and defects were both on a large scale . Former World Champion Kasparov commented that Staunton " founded and edited the magazine Chess Player 's Chronicle ... wrote a chess column ( 1845 – 1874 ) , studied opening theory ... published four remarkable books ... endorsed the famous ' Staunton pieces ' ... organized the first international chess tournament in history ... " However British International Master William Hartston wrote that Staunton 's many achievements were done " with the full weight of an arrogant and pompous nature which has scarcely been matched in the history of the game . " Even contemporaries sympathetic to Staunton admitted that he could be spiteful in response to unexpected defeats , and to proposals or arguments that he considered ill @-@ founded or malicious . Staunton had a highly volatile relationship with George Walker , the founder of the London Chess Club , a dedicated populariser of chess and one of Staunton 's earliest supporters .
Staunton 's enemies gave as good as they got . Chess journalism could be a bruising business in those days , even when Staunton was not involved . However it does seem that Staunton was involved in more than his fair share of chess disputes . H. J. R. Murray suggested that these frequent wars of words may have originated from leading players ' and commentators ' jealousy over Staunton 's unexpected rise to the top in the early 1840s , and from snobbish disdain about his humble and possibly illegitimate birth . Saidy and Lessing wrote that , " He can hardly be blamed if the struggles and privations of his youth warped his character so that he became a jealous , suspicious , and vitriolic man . "
On the other hand , Staunton 's often @-@ criticized description of Anderssen as Germany 's second best player , after Anderssen had won the 1851 London International tournament , may have been reasonable on the basis of what is now known about von der Lasa 's skill . Staunton was sometimes an objective chess commentator : a large percentage of his 1860 book Chess Praxis was devoted to Morphy 's games , which he praised highly ; and in The Chess @-@ Player 's Companion ( 1849 ) Staunton sometimes criticised his own play , and presented a few of his losses .
Staunton showed excellent management skills in building the team to organise the London International tournament of 1851 , and determination and resourcefulness in overcoming the difficulties of getting enough competitors . He also maintained good working relationships with important players and enthusiasts , for example : Popert and Cochrane helped him to prepare for his second match against Saint @-@ Amant ; Captain Evans agreed to be one of his seconds in that match and later helped Staunton to organise the 1845 telegraphic match ; the Calcutta Chess Club contributed £ 100 to help finance the London International Tournament in 1851 , and in addition its principal officers Cochrane and T.C. Morton made two of the four largest personal contributions ; Staunton corresponded with von der Lasa for over 30 years , although they only met once ; Staunton 's last letter to von der Lasa , November 1873 , expressed his sorrow at the deaths of various masters and enthusiasts , including Saint @-@ Amant and especially Carl Jaenisch . In conversation Staunton was charming and witty .
Despite the disappointing way in which his playing career ended , Staunton continued to write with enthusiasm about the progress of new technologies , players and developments in chess theory . At the time of his death his last book , Chess : Theory and Practice , was sufficiently complete to be published posthumously in 1876 , and it was described as up @-@ to @-@ date fourteen years after his death .
= = = Influence on chess = = =
Staunton proposed and was the principal organiser of the first international chess tournament , which proved that such events were possible , and which produced a clear consensus on who was the world 's strongest player — Adolf Anderssen . All subsequent international tournaments took place in Great Britain until Paris 1867 .
Contemporaries , including Steinitz and Morphy , regarded Staunton 's writings on chess openings as among the best of their time . His Chess @-@ Player 's Handbook ( 1847 ) immediately became the leading English @-@ language chess textbook . It went through twenty @-@ one reprints by 1935 , spawned several imitators , and remained in print ( in a revised edition ) until the 1940s . Around 1888 Staunton 's Chess : Theory and Practice , published posthumously in 1876 , was regarded as modern in most respects , but there was a growing need for more up @-@ to @-@ date analysis of openings . His obituary in The City of London Chess Magazine said , " ... his literary labours are the basis upon which English Chess Society ... stands " .
His play , however , had little influence on other players of the day . William Hartston explains that , " ... his chess understanding was so far ahead of his time . A deep strategist living in an era when shallow tactics were still the rule , Staunton 's conceptions could not be assimilated by his contemporaries . " Staunton 's style and the openings that accompanied it were eclipsed by the more directly aggressive styles of Anderssen and Morphy , which dominated chess from 1851 until Steinitz unveiled his positional approach in 1873 .
There is little evidence that Staunton had much direct influence on modern chess . Although he introduced the English Opening , it has been called " really a twentieth @-@ century invention " that only became fully respectable after future World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik began playing it in the 1930s . Similarly , although he was an early champion of the Sicilian Defense , which is today the most popular opening , and the most successful response to 1.e4 , he seems to have had little influence on how the Sicilian is played today : he regarded it as a safe defensive line , while it is now treated as a vigorous but slightly risky counter @-@ attack . On the other hand , Raymond Keene wrote that " Taimanov revived some old , forgotten ideas of Staunton ... " in the Sicilian .
Staunton introduced the Staunton Gambit against the Dutch Defense ( 1.d4 f5 2.e4 ! ? ) . Although it was once a feared attacking line , it has been out of favour since the mid @-@ 1920s , and is thought to " offer White equality at best " . Staunton also analysed a different gambit approach to the Dutch , 2.h3 followed by g4 . In 1979 Viktor Korchnoi , one of the world 's leading players , successfully introduced this line into top @-@ class competition , but later authorities concluded , as Staunton had , that Black gets a good game with 2 ... Nf6 3.g4 d5 !
Staunton also advocated the Ponziani Opening 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.c3 , which was often called " Staunton 's Opening " . It is rarely played today because it allows Black to choose between a sharp counter @-@ attack and a safe line that usually leads to a draw .
= = = His other writings = = =
Staunton 's edition of Shakespeare 's plays was respected .
= = Staunton Memorial Tournament = =
Between 2003 and 2009 , a Howard Staunton Memorial Tournament was held at Simpson 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Strand , London , a restaurant which Staunton regularly visited in the 19th century to play and discuss chess ( it was then a coffee house known as " The Divan " or " Simpson 's Divan " ) . The 2008 tournament was the strongest to be held in London since 1986 .
= = Notable games = =
" John Cochrane vs Howard Staunton , match London 1841 " . Staunton calmly focuses on his queenside attack and then shows that his opponent 's kingside attack simply exposed the white king .
" John Cochrane vs Howard Staunton , match London 1842 " . Cochrane starts an apparently threatening attack while behind in development ; Staunton sacrifices a piece for a counterattack that leads to a decisive material advantage .
" Howard Staunton vs Pierre de Saint Amant , match Paris 1843 " . Staunton develops faster , weakens his opponent 's K @-@ side , creates threats on the queenside and then launches a mating attack .
" Pierre de Saint Amant vs Howard Staunton , match Paris 1843 " . Staunton develops his pieces more effectively in a closed position . When Saint Amant mistakenly opens the position , Staunton produces a sacrificial combination that gives him an easily won endgame .
" Staunton @-@ Horwitz , match , London 1851 , game 7 – English Opening " . Staunton uses a modern @-@ looking formation in the English Opening , with both Bishops fianchettoed ; gains superior space and mobility ; weakens his opponent 's queenside and then kingside ; and wins by a brisk attack .
" Adolf Anderssen et al. vs Howard Staunton et al . , 1857 , in Manchester " . Staunton 's team adopts a Hippopotamus formation , opens the center to start a queenside attack , and uses a couple of small sacrificial combinations to halt Anderssen 's kingside attack and gain a decisive material advantage .
= = Tournament results = =
Sources :
= = Match results = =
Sources :
Notes :
In some cases it is known who won but not by what score .
Books and articles about most players often omit games at odds . But Staunton gave odds , usually successfully , in his matches against most UK @-@ based players and most of his matches were played this way .
" P + 1 " means " Pawn and move " , " P + 2 " means " Pawn and two moves " .
In the second column of scores , " + " shows games Staunton won , " – " shows his losses , " = " shows draws .
= Nebraska ( The Walking Dead ) =
" Nebraska " is the eighth episode of the second season of the post @-@ apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on February 12 , 2012 . In the episode , the survivors deal with the aftermath of the barn shooting , which causes Hershel Greene ( Scott Wilson ) to order Rick 's group to leave and then start drinking and disappear from the group , leading Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) and Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) to try to find him . Meanwhile , Dale Horvath ( Jeffrey DeMunn ) becomes more suspicious of Shane Walsh 's ( Jon Bernthal ) actions .
" Nebraska " was written by Evan Reilly and directed by Clark Johnson . Two trailers were released as part of promoting the episode ; the former aired shortly after the broadcast of its predecessor , " Pretty Much Dead Already " , while the latter premiered a month preceding the airing of " Nebraska " . Following the broadcast of the episode , The Walking Dead took a three @-@ month hiatus from television . It features guest appearances from Michael Raymond @-@ James and Aaron Munoz , as well as appearances from several recurring actors and actresses including Lauren Cohan , Scott Wilson , Emily Kinney and IronE Singleton .
The episode received general acclaim from television critics , who praised the episode 's concluding scene alongside the character development and storylines . Upon airing , it attained 8 @.@ 10 million viewers and a 4 @.@ 2 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . " Nebraska " achieved the strongest demographic ratings out of any basic cable telecast in history until the airing of the series ' second season finale . The episode became the highest @-@ rated basic cable television program of the day , as well as the most @-@ viewed cable program of the week .
= = Plot = =
After the grisly massacre of all the walkers in the barn , a grieving Hershel Greene ( Scott Wilson ) demands Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) and the rest of the survivors to leave his land . Rick confronts Shane ( Jon Bernthal ) , who accuses Rick of being just as delusional as Hershel and argues that , despite Hershel 's denials , the old man knew of Sophia 's presence in the barn the entire time ( Hershel and Maggie denied this , stating that it was Otis who put the walkers in the barn ) . Shane also confronts Dale ( Jeffrey DeMunn ) , arguing that , unlike Dale , he is keeping the group safe . The group decides to bury a few of the walkers , including Sophia ( Madison Lintz ) and Hershel 's wife and stepson , and burn the other bodies .
Carol ( Melissa McBride ) refuses to attend Sophia 's memorial service , saying that her daughter died a long time ago and the corpse at the farm was not Sophia . Carol sinks into a deep depression and tears up plants in the nearby woods ( including a Cherokee Rose ) to vent her bottled up anger . Shane later finds her emerging from the woods in a semi @-@ catatonic state and helps her wash her dirty hands , telling her he had no idea Sophia was in the barn . Lori ( Sarah Wayne Callies ) , meanwhile , is horrified when Carl ( Chandler Riggs ) coldly states that killing Sophia was the right thing to do , and he would have killed her himself .
Hershel finally throws out his wife 's belongings , before disappearing . His absence is not noted until his younger daughter Beth ( Emily Kinney ) collapses and goes into a catatonic state . The survivors discover that Hershel has begun to drink again , for the first time since Maggie 's ( Lauren Cohan ) birth . Over the objections of Shane , Lori , and Maggie , Rick and Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) , believing Hershel may be at a bar in town , go out to find him .
Dale argues with Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) and T @-@ Dog ( IronE Singleton ) when they say they agree with Shane 's actions in clearing the walkers from the barn . Dale later has a private conversation with Lori , wherein he shares his suspicions that Shane sacrificed Otis to the walkers . He warns Lori that Shane may end up killing someone else .
As Beth 's condition deteriorates , Lori asks Daryl ( Norman Reedus ) to drive into town to check on Rick . When Daryl refuses , Lori accuses him of being selfish , an accusation which Daryl furiously denies in light of what he had to go through during the search for Sophia . He ends by stating that he 's " done looking for people " . Lori then leaves the group by herself to find Rick , but along the way her car hits a walker on the road and overturns into a ditch .
Rick and Glenn find Hershel in the town bar , relapsing into his alcoholic habits and lamenting his futile hopes of a cure for his reanimated loved ones . After some time , Rick finally convinces Hershel to return to his family , just as two men enter the bar — Dave ( Michael Raymond @-@ James ) and Tony ( Aaron Munoz ) . From the two men , Rick hears that Fort Benning , the survivors ' initial target destination , may be overrun with walkers . The situation at the bar deteriorates as Dave and Tony stubbornly prod Rick 's group into revealing the location of the farm , going as far as to offer up their services if allowed to stay there . Rick , however , rejects their offer and flatly refuses the two men safe haven . Frustrated by Rick 's response , Dave reaches for his gun , but Rick is quicker on the draw and kills them both with his revolver . The episode ends with Shane , Andrea , and T @-@ Dog burning the remaining walkers .
= = Production = =
" Nebraska " was written by Evan Reilly and directed by Clark Johnson . Following the broadcast of the previous installment , " Pretty Much Dead Already " , The Walking Dead took a three @-@ month hiatus from television . Two trailers were released as part of an advertising campaign for the episode ; the first was broadcast after " Pretty Much Dead Already " aired , while the second aired in January 2012 . A promotional image was released shortly thereafter , which featured Rick Grimes holding up a gun at Sophia . The first three minutes of " Nebraska " were leaked online .
The episode introduces two new characters to the series , portrayed by Aaron Munoz ( Tony ) and Michael Raymond @-@ James ( Dave ) . Although they were killed off in the episode , writer Robert Kirkman wanted to evoke a reaction that the characters would recur throughout the series . " With the casting of those two guys and everything involving that scene we were really trying to convince the audience that they were going to be new regulars , so the end would be that much more shocking . " Kirkman felt that Tony and Dave represent new threats and anxieties for the group . " I think this was a particularly good episode coming back because the two guys in the bar represent new threats and they are really just the tip of the iceberg , " he stated . " It 's really good to come back and be off of the farm and see that there are more dangerous things out there than the zombies . Things just keep getting worse from here . " . " The Regulator " by Clutch was the song used as the closing title sequence .
Johnson devised the scene in which Rick shot and killed Dave and Tony in a bar , and presented it to Reilly . Johnson sought to authorize man 's animalistic qualities during a state of disaster . Reilly contacted showrunner Glen Mazzara via cell phone , and wanted to add the scene to the episode 's script . " That was an incredible scene , " reflected Lincoln . " We were so lucky to get such cracking actors . And we didn 't play the problem , we just played the fact that this is a reunion of human beings . The tension is inherent in the fact that they encounter this other group . "
" Nebraska " contains a stunt sequence , in which Lori Grimes slams into a walker , causing her to swerve on the side of the road and overturn her car . Kirkman said of the scene : " I had nothing to do with it . But it did turn out really well . I love the trailers for this season where it 's like , " This is happening : People shooting guns ! Cars are flipping ! ' "
= = Title reference = =
Tony shares with Rick the rumors survivor groups have circulated about safe destinations . Nebraska is one such rumored location , considered safe - Dave explains - because of
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kept briefed on the arrangements . Train tickets were sold out since the semi @-@ final round , despite the addition of services to accommodate 7 @,@ 000 extra passengers . Both clubs laid on six planes to take its supporters directly to Cardiff at £ 135 each . Although the M4 was busy on the day of the final , there was little traffic with no major delays . A spokesman for South Wales Police reported : " The motorways are clear , despite the predictions . People seem to have taken our advice and left early . "
As with last season 's event , the final was scheduled before the end of the domestic season . This was partly because the Premier League chose to end its campaign a week later , but with the World Cup starting on 31 May , the FA wanted to give players considerable time to prepare for the finals . This season 's staging of the competition offered a greater financial incentive to clubs , given the BBC and Sky Sports signed a joint @-@ deal with the FA , worth £ 400 million to broadcast matches . Finalists stood to receive £ 1 million in prize money ; the winners would pocket an extra million with additional TV revenues . The BBC spent a million promoting the FA Cup , and as part of their pre @-@ match coverage included a sketch featuring Ricky Gervais . Seat prices for the final exceeded £ 70 , with some ticket touts charging as much as £ 600 outside the stadium .
For their pre @-@ match walkabout , the Arsenal players wore Hugo Boss suits , whereas the Chelsea players were suited in Armani . Chelsea were allocated the south dressing room after a coin @-@ toss ; it was considered a " jinx " given the last nine football teams to use it had failed to win . The teams emerged from the tunnel once the traditional pre @-@ match anthem " Abide with Me " was performed and Chelsea were led by midfielder Roberto Di Matteo , who retired earlier in the season through injury . As the national anthem was sung by sextet Tenors and Divas , the Arsenal players and Wenger shuffled together and linked arms in a show of unity .
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
On the day of the final Terry woke up with a virus which affected his balance . Although he passed a fitness test in the morning , Ranieri decided to start him on the bench , to which the defender later reflected : " It was a tough decision but he did what he felt was right . It seems like somebody up there doesn 't like me . " The teamsheets showed Gallas partnering Marcel Desailly in central defence , and Hasselbaink starting up front for Chelsea . Wright was named on the bench for Arsenal and Ray Parlour was positioned alongside Vieira in central midfield . Both teams lined up in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation : a four @-@ man defence ( comprising two centre @-@ backs and left and right full @-@ backs ) , four midfielders ( two in the centre , and one on each wing ) and two centre @-@ forwards .
= = = Summary = = =
Within a minute of Chelsea kicking off the match , Le Saux was booked for a challenge on Lauren . Arsenal was awarded the first corner of the game in the eight minutes later , but nothing came out of it as Adams fouled Mario Melchiot in the penalty box . The opening half @-@ hour was mostly event @-@ free , with neither side dominating and few goalscoring opportunities fashioned . Chelsea adopted a tactic of narrowing the pitch and using little width , which sedated Arsenal 's typically fluent football . Guðjohnsen tested the Arsenal defence by making dangerous runs , but one in the 12th minute was ruled as a foul . Arsenal 's first chance came a minute later when Henry used his pace to run towards the Chelsea goal . He set up Sylvain Wiltord , whose shot was blocked by Desailly . Vieira struggled to match the energetic performance of his opponent Frank Lampard and in the 17th minute Vieira 's careless pass was intercepted by the England midfielder . Lampard decided to take a shot , forcing a save from Seaman . Four minutes later Vieira started a move which almost gave Arsenal the lead . A ball over the top found Bergkamp in the Chelsea area , but he guided his header just wide . In the 26th minute Vieira was awarded the final 's first yellow card for a foul on Guðjohnsen . A confrontation between Melchiot and Fredrik Ljungberg occurred in the 33rd minute , but referee Mike Riley decided not to brandish a card , instead choosing to have a few words with the players . Campbell 's failed clearance a minute later presented Guðjohnsen with goal @-@ scoring opportunity , but he hit his shot directly at Seaman . As the match drew nearer to half @-@ time , Arsenal started to find their rhythm and played their usual passing game . They created the best chance of the first half , when a cross from Wiltord found Lauren , who headed the ball just over the crossbar . Hasselbaink , largely ineffective as he was blighted with injury , combined with Guðjohnsen to split open the Arsenal defence , but the move was halted as Riley called offside .
Celestine Babayaro , who had been struggling with an injury , played no further part in the final and was substituted before the second half commenced . Terry came on in his place to partner Desailly , which meant Gallas moved to left @-@ back . Arsenal resumed play and a shot by Henry was kept out by Cudicini . The scare brought Chelsea to life and resulted in the team enjoying their best spell of the match . Guðjohnsen 's effort in the 57th minute forced a save from Seaman , who tipped the ball over the bar . Jesper Grønkjær then roamed forward and played the ball to Le Saux , but the defender 's shot went well over . Chelsea continued to pile pressure on Arsenal ; Grønkjær 's pass intended for Hasselbaink in the 61st minute was intercepted just in time by Adams and Melchiot 's header unsettled Seaman in goal . Wiltord then collected the ball from midfield and played a one @-@ two with Henry , but directed his shot wide from the left flank . Chelsea made their second change in the 67th minute , bringing on Zola for Hasselbaink . The substitution did not have the desired effect as Arsenal went a goal ahead . Adams cleared the Chelsea danger and Wiltord 's reverse pass found Parlour with acres of space to manoeuvre . The midfielder advanced as the Chelsea defence backed off and looked up before curling the ball from 25 yards . His effort went over a diving Cudicini , into the top right @-@ hand corner of the Chelsea goal .
Wenger made a defensive @-@ minded change almost immediately , taking Bergkamp off for Edu . A clash between Henry and Terry in the 75th minute resulted in both players receiving a yellow card for unsporting behaviour . Winger Boudewijn Zenden replaced Melchiot a minute later ; the attacking change altered Chelsea 's positioning . With 10 minutes of normal time remaining Arsenal extended their lead , when Ljungberg scored . A similarly executed goal to Parlour 's , the Swede ran forward , evaded the challenge of Terry before curling the ball past Cudicini from the edge of the penalty area . Ljungberg was serenaded by the Arsenal crowd , who chanted " We love you Freddie , ' cos you 've got red hair . " Chelsea struggled to find a response ; Guðjohnsen 's foul on Parlour late on highlighted the team 's frustrations . Riley blew for full @-@ time after normal and stoppage time and the on @-@ pitch interviews commenced . Once Arsenal received their medals , Adams was given the cup and he shared the honour of lifting it with Vieira , his stand @-@ in captain .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Wenger praised his team 's character and told reporters : " We were very frustrated last year . We have shown a lot of strength to come back here – beating Liverpool and Newcastle on the way . " He was adamant Arsenal would win the league the following Wednesday : " This team knows how to win . I said three or four months ago that we will win the championship and the FA Cup . They really want to do it . And we will do it . " The goalscorers Parlour and Ljungberg both agreed winning at any cost was most important on the day , after the misery of the 2001 final . Ranieri described the first half as tactical , but admitted once Arsenal had scored , Chelsea struggled to make a comeback . He justified his decision to include Hasselbaink , saying " He is a great striker and a danger to the opposition . " Lampard credited Arsenal 's mental strength : " They can win when they are not playing particularly well . We need to find that consistency and if we can do that , I believe we will be up there with them soon . " He was pleased with his own performance against Vieira and hoped he did enough to be included in England 's World Cup squad .
Journalists and pundits reviewing the final unanimously agreed with the outcome of the match . Matt Dickinson wrote in The Times of 6 May 2002 : " The force is with Arsenal , but it is not some ethereal presence , rather a brutish will to win derived from both triumphs and disappointments . " The Daily Telegraph football correspondent Henry Winter was strongly critical of Ranieri 's selection @-@ making and suggested Chelsea 's failure was partly down to Hasselbaink 's lack of fitness , as there was no attacking threat . In contrast he commended Wenger 's tactics – " The decision by Arsenal 's intelligent manager to deploy Parlour through the middle was a spectacular success , " and praised their players ' mental strength and resilience . The Guardian 's David Lacey also lauded Parlour 's show in midfield , ranking his goal as one of the best in Cup final history . Although he agreed with the media consensus that the final was a drab affair and Arsenal 's performance was not to their standard , he picked out several high @-@ quality moments that the losing finalists failed to match , one in particular a timed @-@ ball from Vieira . Glenn Moore of The Independent observed how Wenger turned his team of also @-@ rans into winners , noting the manager 's decision to play Adams " bore fruit " as the defence dealt with Chelsea 's increasing second @-@ half pressure . Football pundit Alan Hansen called Arsenal his team of the season and believed their win was built on the experience of Adams and Seaman ; of the former he wrote : " Adams was also able to operate with the confidence that his goalkeeper was never going to make any mistakes . "
The match was broadcast live in the United Kingdom by both the BBC and Sky Sports , with BBC One providing the free @-@ to @-@ air coverage and Sky Sports 2 being the pay @-@ TV alternative . BBC One held the majority of the viewership , with an overnight peak audience of 7 @.@ 4 million viewers – it received a final rating of 8 @.@ 3 million . The match itself was watched by 6 @.@ 3 million viewers ( 52 % viewing share ) and coverage of the final averaged at 4 @.@ 1 million ( 44 @.@ 4 % ) . By comparison ITV 's coverage of the 2002 UEFA Champions League Final averaged 6 @.@ 8 million viewers , though with a lower viewing share ( 33 @.@ 3 % ) . The cup final ratings , a record low , were defended by the FA spokesman Paul Newman : " We are very pleased because the final peaked at 7.4m which is pretty good for a hot Saturday in the middle of a bank holiday weekend . " A list compiled by the London Evening Standard showed the 2002 final came bottom in the season 's top 10 viewed football matches .
Four days later Arsenal defeated Manchester United to complete their third double in the club 's history . Arsenal paraded both trophies on an open @-@ top bus once the season drew to a close ; Dixon at Islington Town Hall addressed the crowd and personally thanked his staff , teammates and the club supporters . Chelsea 's season ended with defeat to Aston Villa in the league . They moved down a place to sixth as a result of Leeds United 's win against Middlesbrough .
= Hurricane Earl ( 1998 ) =
Hurricane Earl was an atypical , short @-@ lived Category 2 hurricane that caused moderate damage throughout the Southeast United States . It formed out of a poorly organized tropical disturbance over the southwest Gulf of Mexico late on August 31 , 1998 . Tracking towards the northeast , the storm quickly intensified into a hurricane on September 2 and made landfall early the next day near Panama City , Florida . Rapidly tracking towards Atlantic Canada , the extratropical remnants of Earl significantly intensified before passing over Newfoundland on September 6 . The remnants were absorbed by former Hurricane Danielle two days later .
Moderate beach erosion occurred along the coasts of Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , and Florida as waves reached 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . Throughout Florida , nearly 2 @,@ 000 homes were damaged and a few were destroyed . Severe flooding caused by storm surge and heavy rains was the main cause of damage in the state . Offshore , two men drowned after their boat capsized during the storm . A minor tornado outbreak took place in relation to Earl in Florida , Georgia , South Carolina , and North Carolina . A tornado in South Carolina killed one person after completely destroying the occupants home . In all , three people were killed by Earl and damages were $ 79 million ( 1998 USD ; $ 104 @.@ 4 million 2009 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Earl originated out of a strong tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on August 17 . By August 23 , a weak area of low pressure developed within the wave and well @-@ developed convective activity was present as it tracked through the Lesser Antilles . Once in the Caribbean Sea , strong wind shear produced by the outflow of Hurricane Bonnie inhibited further development of the system . As it remained well @-@ defined , satellites easily followed the low pressure into the Gulf of Mexico . By August 31 , the storm had become sufficiently organized for the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to classify it as Tropical Depression Five . At this time , the depression was located roughly halfway between Merida and Tampico , Mexico .
Operationally , the NHC immediately classified the system as Tropical Storm Earl based on a Hurricane Hunter Reconnaissance mission that found flight @-@ level winds of 49 mph ( 79 km / h ) , corresponding to surface winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Due to the existence of multiple circulation centers , the initial movement of the storm was uncertain , but forecasters anticipated a general northward movement . In post @-@ season analysis , it was determined that the system intensified into Tropical Storm Earl while located about 575 miles ( 925 km ) south @-@ southwest of New Orleans . Initial advisories on Earl relocated the center of circulation several times before focusing on the true circulation center .
By September 1 , the storm began to consolidate , with reconnaissance flights finding an elongated center and surface winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Moderate wind shear inhibited convective development in the western portion ; however , outflow in other areas of the storm improved , leading to further development . A northwest track , fully identified by this time as a mid @-@ tropospheric ridge located over Florida , strengthened . Remaining disorganized , Earl continued to intensify as the center of circulation was located close to deep convection . The NHC stated in their fifth advisory on the storm that Earl did not appear to be fully tropical due to the lack of organization . Around 1200 UTC on September 2 , Earl intensified into a hurricane despite having an atypical structure ; the wind field of the storm was asymmetric and the strongest winds were located well to the southeast of the center .
Several hours after becoming a hurricane , Earl further intensified into a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale ; this observation was based on a flight @-@ level winds of 119 mph ( 192 km / h ) , which corresponded to surface winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . The storm did not feature an eye or partial eyewall . The central barometric pressure continued to fall despite the fact that the storm was beginning to weaken . Around 0000 UTC on September 3 , the central pressure decreased to 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) ; however , winds also decreased to 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . As Earl neared landfall , cloud tops significantly warmed , indicating weakening , and the overall structure of the storm became less organized .
Around 0600 UTC ( 1 : 00 am EDT ) on September 3 , Hurricane Earl made landfall near Panama City , Florida with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Shortly after landfall , the storm weakened to a tropical storm and rapidly accelerated as it quickly underwent an extratropical transition . By this time the NHC issued their final advisory on Earl . Several hours later , Earl finished its transition and continued to rapidly track through the Southeast United States . After entering the Atlantic Ocean , the remnants of Earl began re @-@ intensify due to the effects of a baroclinic zone . Relatively cool sea surface temperatures near Atlantic Canada prevented tropical development ; however , during a 36 @-@ hour span , Earl rapidly intensified , as the central barometric pressure decreased by 40 mbar ( hPa ; 1 @.@ 18 inHg ) to 957 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) . By the time the system made landfall over eastern Newfoundland , sustained winds had intensified to 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . On September 8 , the remnants of Earl significantly weakened and were soon absorbed by a larger extratropical cyclone associated with the remnants of Hurricane Danielle .
= = Preparations = =
As Earl tracked towards the northeastern Gulf of Mexico on September 1 , a hurricane warning was issued for coastal areas between Pascagoula , Mississippi and Cameron , Louisiana . Additionally , hurricane watches extended out to Destin , Florida and High Island , Texas from the edges of the warning respectively . Early the next day , a tropical storm warning was issued for areas between Pascagoula , Mississippi and Destin , Florida . In response to the eastward movement of the hurricane , the hurricane watch and warning was discontinued for areas west of Morgan City , Louisiana . Additionally , the hurricane warning was extended eastward to Destin , Florida , a tropical storm warning was issued east of Destin to Apalachicola , Florida , and a tropical storm watch was declared for areas between Morgan City and Cameron , Louisiana . Several hours later , the hurricane warning was again extended eastward to the mouth of the Suwannee River . All watches and warnings were discontinued for areas west of Pascagoula , Mississippi and due to the asymmetrical structure of Hurricane Earl , a tropical storm warning was issued as far south as the Florida Keys . Continuing uncertainty in the track of Earl prompted the issuance of a hurricane watch and tropical storm warning for areas between Pascagoula , Mississippi and Grand Isle , Louisiana , including the city of New Orleans . After Earl made landfall in Florida , all watches and warnings were discontinued in relation to the storm .
Offshore , several oil and natural gas rigs were evacuated due to the proximity of Earl . An estimated 10 @,@ 000 workers were evacuated from both onshore and offshore rigs . The storm forced many Florida residences to evacuate , especially people living in the barrier islands along the Florida Gulf Coast . About 30 Air Force jets from Eglin Air Force Base were sent to Oklahoma to protect them from the storm . A mandatory evacuation was issued for 20 @,@ 000 residents in Leon County as well as all barrier islands along the Florida coast due to the risk of substantial flooding . Franklin County was briefly under a mandatory evacuation order on September 2 , the reasons for the lifting of the order are unknown . State parks along the Florida Panhandle were also closed and highways became congested with thousands of residents and tourists evacuating the barrier islands .
Along the Louisiana coastline , voluntary evacuation orders were given out . A state of emergency was declared for portions of southeast Louisiana as tides in relation to the storm were forecast to reach 7 to 10 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Emergency shelters were opened throughout Plaquemines Parish , schools were closed in many areas , and the floodgates around New Orleans were shut . An estimated 5 @,@ 000 people evacuated to inland areas throughout Louisiana . In Nueces County , Texas , work crews worked quickly to clear garbage along the streets and picked up trash cans to avoid possible problems with clogged drains . Throughout the Alabama and Mississippi coasts , schools were closed due to the storm .
= = Impact = =
Throughout the Southeast United States , Hurricane Earl killed three people and caused $ 79 million ( 1998 USD ; $ 104 @.@ 4 million 2009 USD ) in damages .
= = = Florida = = =
Ahead of Hurricane Earl 's landfall in Florida , several tornadoes were spawned along the outer bands of the storm . The first tornado to touch down was a brief F0 that caused no known damage . The second tornado , rated F1 , caused moderate damage to three homes and two buildings that were under @-@ construction along its 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) path . During a 15 @-@ minute span , three brief F0 tornadoes touched down in unpopulated areas , causing minor tree damage . Several hours later , a strong F1 tornado touched down in Port Canaveral . The tornado damaged 14 cars , eight condominiums , four businesses , a mobile home , and a fire station . In all , the tornado caused $ 6 million in damages and injured one person . On St. George Island , an F1 tornado damaged six homes , leaving $ 150 @,@ 000 in damages . High waves , estimated at 16 to 20 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) caused a boat to capsize off the coast of Panama City , drowning both occupants .
Upon making landfall in Florida early on September 3 , Earl produced a storm surge up to 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) in the Big Bend , inundating coastal communities . Torrential rains , peaking at 16 @.@ 36 in ( 416 mm ) around Panama City , fell throughout the Florida Panhandle . Significant beach erosion was recorded in Walton County , Carrabelle Beach and Alligator Point . The most extensive damage occurred in Bay County where 1 @,@ 112 structures damaged by flooding and three were destroyed . In Panama City , upwards of 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of water flooded homes . An estimated 7 @,@ 100 residents in Bay County lost power during the storm . Florida officials temporarily shut down numerous major roadways , including State Road 77 due to high water . Portions of two roads in coastal Liberty County were destroyed due to beach erosion . In Gulf County , 300 homes were damaged by high winds and floodwaters . An estimated 8 @,@ 700 people lost power in the county during the storm . At Port St. Joe , Earl 's storm surge inundated 14 businesses and caused a water main break in the Lighthouse Utilities facility . In Franklin County , storm surge damaged 136 homes and 15 businesses and led to a temporary closure of the St. George Causeway . A lighthouse on St. George Island was also destroyed by the storm .
At least 50 people were stranded in Alligator Point after floodwaters washed out the main access route to the town . In Wakulla County , 216 homes and businesses were damaged by high winds and flooding . Severe flooding in coastal Taylor County caused significant damage in nine communities . County officials reported that 66 structures were damaged by Earl . Five homes were destroyed and 39 others were damaged by flooding in Dixie County . In Highlands County , one person was injured after being struck by lightning . On September 3 , the strongest tornado spawned by Earl in Florida touched down in Citrus County . Rated F2 , the tornado tracked for 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) , destroying eight homes and damaging 24 others . Several trees and power lines were also downed . Two people were injured in one of the destroyed homes and damages from the tornado amounted to $ 500 @,@ 000 . In all , Hurricane Earl killed two people and caused $ 73 million ( 1998 USD ; $ 96 @.@ 5 million 2009 USD ) in Florida .
= = = Southeastern U.S. = = =
In Louisiana , moderate beach erosion occurred as tides reached 3 @.@ 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) above mean sea level . Rainfall was relatively light , peaking around 2 in ( 51 mm ) in Morgan City , as only the outer bands of Earl affected the state . The highest winds occurred along the coast , with sustained winds reaching 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) and gusts reaching 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) in Venice , Louisiana . Only minimal damage resulted from the storm in Louisiana , with monetary losses amounting to $ 32 @,@ 000 . However , losses due to the large @-@ scale evacuation of oil and natural gas rigs was estimated to be several million dollars . Earl had limited impacts in Mississippi , with only areas along the immediate coast recording tropical storm @-@ force wind gusts . In Alabama , Earl produced moderate rainfall , with areas along the Georgia state line receiving more than 5 in ( 130 mm ) . Despite the
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,@ 000 from previous PPV events . Canadian Online Explorer writer Chris Sokol felt the event was a " tremendous PPV " . Going on to conclude that it was the " best one of the year thus far " . Regrading the main event , Sokol felt it " was a given that Jarrett would retain " , however felt it was " still very exciting " . James Caldwell of the Pro Wrestling Torch stated in his review that he felt the Ultimate X Challenge match was " absolutely amazing " . He also felt it had " plenty of psychologically sound factors mixed in with the high spots " . Caldwel referred to Daniels ' blackflip from the Ultimate X structure represented " what athleticism and amazing pro wrestling is all about " . Caldwell stated in his review that he felt that Abyss ' attack on Hardy after their encounter was " amazing " . As for the match , Caldwell believed it was a " great match " . Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch rated the Ultimate X Challenge 4 and a fourth stars out of 5 , while the main event 2 and three @-@ quarter stars out of 5 . The Falls Count Anywhere match was given 3 and a fourth stars out of 5 , 1 and a half stars more than the Taped Fist First Blood match . His lowest rated match during his review was the encounter between The Disciples of Destruction and Phi Delta Slam , which he gave three @-@ quarters of a star . The event was released on DVD on November 15 , 2005 by TNA Home Video .
= = Aftermath = =
TNA 's next PPV after Destination X was Lockdown held on April 24 . All matches held at Lockdown were conducted inside a six sided steel structure known as the Six Sides of Steel .
Following Destination X , Jeff Jarrett teamed with The Outlaw and Monty Brown under the name Team Jarrett to face Team Nash ( DDP , Sean Waltman , and B.G. James ) in a Lethal Lockdown match at Lockdown . The match was announced on the March 25 episode of Impact ! by Director of Authority Dusty Rhodes by request of Kevin Nash . Nash was originally slated to be in the match but was removed due to an injury and replaced by B.G. James . Team Nash ended up winning the contest .
A.J. Styles fought Abyss at Lockdown in the main event . The match was announced on the April 1 episode of Impact ! with the stipulation being the winner got a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship . On the April 8 episode of Impact ! Rhodes announced that the winner would get their title match at TNA 's May PPV event Hard Justice . Styles was the winner of the encounter at Lockdown . Styles went on to Hard Justice to defeat then @-@ champion Jarrett to win the title .
Christopher Daniels went on to defend the TNA X Division Championship against Elix Skipper at Lockdown . Skipper won a four way elimination match to become the number one contender on the April 1 episode of Impact ! . Daniels successfully retained the title against Skipper at the event .
A Six Sides of Steel Tables match was held at Lockdown between Raven and Jeff Hardy . It was announced on the April 8 episode of Impact ! . Raven ended up on the losing end of the bout .
Destination X later became an annual event , with the second installment taking place on March 12 , 2006 in Orlando , Florida at the TNA Impact ! Zone . The main matches promoted for the event were Christian Cage defending the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against Monty Brown and Samoa Joe defending the TNA X Division Championship against Christopher Daniels and A.J. Styles in an Ultimate X match .
= = Results = =
= MS West Honaker =
MS West Honaker was a diesel @-@ powered cargo ship of the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) that was part of the " Corncob Fleet " of old ships sunk as part of the " gooseberry " breakwater off Utah Beach during the Normandy invasion . The ship was originally built as SS West Honaker , a steam @-@ powered cargo ship built for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , a predecessor of the USMC . At the time of her completion in 1920 , the ship was inspected by the United States Navy for possible use as USS West Honaker ( ID @-@ 4455 ) but was neither taken into the Navy nor ever commissioned under that name .
West Honaker was built in 1920 for the USSB , as a part of the West boats , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort , and was the 28th ship built at Los Angeles Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company in San Pedro , California . In 1926 , West Honaker was outfitted with diesel engines that replaced her original steam engines as part of a pilot program by the USSB . After her conversion , she sailed on a New York – Australia route . On her second trip to Australia , from August 1927 to March 1928 , she became the first diesel ship to circumnavigate the globe . In 1929 , she began sailing for an around @-@ the @-@ world cargo service from the Pacific coast to South Africa
By the late 1930s , she had been laid up , but was reactivated for merchant service prior to World War II . She sailed to Australia and New Zealand until after the United States ' entry into World War II , and in transatlantic service to the United Kingdom for most of the time after that . In March 1944 , she sailed from the United States for the final time , and was incorporated into the Corncob Fleet of old ships scuttled in June to make the " gooseberry " breakwater off Utah Beach during the Normandy invasion . This last voyage earned the West Honaker a battle star .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Honaker , the one of some 40 West ships built by the Los Angeles Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company of Los Angeles . West Honaker ( Los Angeles Shipbuilding yard number 28 ) was completed in December 1920 .
West Honaker was 5 @,@ 376 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 410 feet 1 inch ( 124 @.@ 99 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 2 inches ( 16 @.@ 51 m ) abeam . She had a steel hull and a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 006 DWT . Sources do not give West Honaker 's other hull characteristics , but West Grama , a sister ship also built at Los Angeles Shipbuilding had a displacement of 12 @,@ 225 t with a mean draft of 24 feet 2 inches ( 7 @.@ 37 m ) , and a hold 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) deep . West Honaker 's power plant was a single triple @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , which moved the ship at up to 11 @.@ 5 knots ( 21 @.@ 3 km / h ) .
= = Early career = =
West Honaker was inspected by the United States Navy after completion for possible use as service collier and was assigned the identification number of 4455 . Had she been commissioned , she would have been known as USS West Honaker ( ID @-@ 4455 ) , but the Navy neither took over the ship nor commissioned her .
Destinations and cargo during West Honaker 's first six years of service are largely unreported in sources . In 1926 , however , she was the first ship in a USSB pilot program to replace steam engines of seven USSB @-@ owned ships with diesel engines . West Honaker 's 3 @,@ 000 @-@ horsepower ( 2 @,@ 200 kW ) engine , reported by The Washington Post as the largest American @-@ made diesel equipment to that time , was built by McIntosh & Seymour and installed at the Fore River Shipyard near Boston . An Associated Press news item reported that the ship 's $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 conversion , which extended the ship 's cruising radius from 7 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 500 km ) to 17 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 32 @,@ 600 km ) , would lower her cost of operation by 15 % annually . After her sea trials were complete , West Honaker sailed to Savannah , Georgia , where she began carrying cotton from that port to Bremen .
In January 1927 , the USSB established the Atlantic Australian Line , an all @-@ diesel New York – Australia service , and assigned West Honaker to the company . The eight ships in the service — operated by the Roosevelt Steamship Company in conjunction with another USSB @-@ line , the American India Line — sailed east from New York via the Suez Canal through the Indian Ocean and on to Australia and back via the same route . On 15 February , West Honaker sailed on her maiden voyage for the new service for Sydney , where she arrived on 5 April .
On 26 August , she began her second voyage to Sydney , but instead of retracing her route on the return , she continued eastward around the world , becoming — according to The New York Times — the first diesel ship to circumnavigate the globe . Upon her return to New York on 2 March 1928 , a reception was held at the Tompkinsville , Staten Island , pier where she had docked . The Roosevelt Steamship Company announced plans for West Honaker to continue in around @-@ the @-@ world service , making two voyages per year .
= = South African service = =
In February 1929 , West Honaker was bareboat chartered by the USSB for the new Pacific – South Africa Line , an around @-@ the @-@ world venture under the management of J. J. Moore & Company . The Pacific – South Africa Line service — the world 's only all @-@ diesel around @-@ the @-@ world service , as described by the Los Angeles Times — sailed from Los Angeles to South Africa via the Straits of Magellan , across the Indian Ocean to Japan and China , across the Pacific to San Francisco , and back to Los Angeles . West Honaker 's first voyage in the South African service was planned for November , but upon her arrival from New York to begin the service , it was discovered that she had cracks in her engine mountings and her cylinder head . West Honaker made her way to San Francisco , where parts were fabricated for the $ 100 @,@ 000 repair . This kept her out of service until March 1930 .
West Honaker departed on her long @-@ delayed maiden voyage for the Pacific – South Africa Line in mid March , and began a second voyage for the line in late October . West Honaker 's service continued uneventfully until early 1932 . On 2 March of that year , West Honaker collided with steamer Ernest H. Meyer in a snowstorm on the lower Columbia River , near Astoria , Oregon . Both ships suffered damage , but neither needed assistance to reach Portland . West Honaker had just finished undergoing general repairs in drydock in Portland prior to the collision , which caused about $ 30 @,@ 000 in damages . The USSB filed suit against the Portland Steamship Company for the cost of repairs , which were completed by mid March .
In mid @-@ June , the bareboat charters of the three USSB vessels still sailing for Pacific – South Africa — West Honaker , West Cusseta , and Crown City — were cancelled . At the end of each ship 's voyage in progress , the ships were returned to the USSB . At the time of the announcement , West Honaker was in South African waters . The Los Angeles Times reported that preferential tariffs for British @-@ flagged ships for lumber from British Columbia — a major cargo carried by the line — were responsible for the termination . It 's not known when West Honaker completed her final trip , but in late June she was still shown in South Africa by a notice in The New York Times . After this mention , West Honaker disappears from contemporary news accounts . By 1939 , West Honaker had been laid up in a reserve fleet in the James River .
= = World War II = =
In June 1940 , the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) opened bidding for the reconditioning of ten laid up cargo ships , which included West Honaker . According to the Los Angeles Times , the USMC , a successor to the USSB , was forced to act because of a " critical shortage " of U.S. Navy auxiliary ships . The Maryland Drydock Company of Baltimore was the low bidder for West Honaker , offering to recondition her for $ 77 @,@ 777 .
On 3 November , with her reconditioning complete , West Honaker sailed from New York . After transiting the Panama Canal a week after her departure , she headed for Brisbane , Australia , where she arrived on 13 December . After then calling at Sydney , Melbourne , Port Pirie , and Adelaide through 8 January 1941 , West Honaker called at Melbourne and Sydney before departing for the United States on 18 January . Loaded with a cargo of wool intended for uniforms , blankets , and overcoats for the military , West Honaker arrived at New Bedford , Massachusetts , on 3 March .
From late March to mid August , West Honaker made another , almost identical Australian circuit , adding a stop in Fremantle to her Australian itinerary . Almost immediately after her return to Boston , she began a third trip to Australia . After she arrived in Brisbane on 29 October , she made stops in Sydney and Melbourne . From Sydney she made a round trip to Nouméa , New Caledonia , and sailed from there to Wellington , New Zealand , where she arrived on 11 December , four days after the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor that propelled the United States into World War II .
West Honaker departed Wellington on 13 December and arrived at Boston on 28 February 1942 . From Boston , she sailed to New York via Philadelphia . After sailing from New York on 29 April , West Honaker experienced some unspecified trouble , and was towed into Baltimore on 4 June . After spending almost three weeks in that port , she headed for Cape Town via Trinidad . She departed Cape Town on 24 August and sailed to Bushire , Abadan , Bandar Abbas , and Colombo over the next three months . After making a round trip to Calcutta from late November to late December , West Honaker arrived at Wellington on 26 January , sailing for New York via the Panama Canal three days later .
West Honaker took on a load of grain and then proceeded in convoy from Boston to Halifax in early May , and on to Belfast Lough . After making a circuit to Avonmouth and Milford Haven , West Honaker sailed from Belfast Lough for New York on 25 June . She made one additional transatlantic roundtrip beginning in late August , carrying a cargo of explosives on her outbound trip , and returning in late October . West Honaker sailed 28 November from New York for Nuevitas , Cuba , and returned via Key West , Florida , in late December . Sailing again for the Caribbean on 6 February , she visited Guantánamo Bay and Antilla before her 28 February 1944 return to New York . At some point within the next month , West Honaker arrived at Boston .
= = Final voyage = =
Though her crew did not know it at the time , West Honaker had been selected to be one of the blockships for the Allied invasion of France , then in the planning stages . Blockships dispatched from Boston , like West Honaker , were loaded with " tons of sand and cement " before their final U.S. departures . West Honaker sailed from Boston on 25 March 1944 as a part of Convoy BX @-@ 101 to Halifax and , from there , Convoy SC @-@ 156 to Cardiff . In his book Beyond the Palisades , Cesar Poropat , West Honaker 's chief engineer , reports that after the ship 's cargo was discharged , the ship was suddenly boarded by shipyard workers who cut holes in " strategic places " and positioned " mysterious packs " around the hull . The crew suspected , correctly , that these packs were explosives and that the ship was being prepared for sinking . Though there is no specific mention of this occurring on West Honaker , other blockships selected for the Normandy beachhead had their existing antiaircraft weapons moved higher on the ship and supplemented by additional guns .
Poropat recounts that after the shipyard workers departed , the crew were told to pack all their personal belongings — except for toiletries and one change of clothes — to be sent ashore . Each crewman was issued a backpack with K @-@ rations , a special life preserver , and survival equipment . West Honaker departed Cardiff on 24 April for Oban where she arrived on 5 May . She was now a part of the " Corncob Fleet , " the group of ships to be sunk to form the " gooseberries , " shallow @-@ water artificial harbors for landing craft . Once at Oban , Poropat reports that the ship 's crew was told of their mission , but to preserve secrecy , they were not permitted to leave the ships .
After spending five weeks at Oban — Poropat called it " the longest and most tedious five weeks " of his life — West Honaker finally moved out , sailing south through the Irish Sea to Poole . West Honaker was a part of the third " Corncob " convoy , which sailed from Poole on the night on 7 June , the day after the D @-@ Day landings , and consisted of what one author called the " dregs of the North Atlantic shipping pool . " Poropat relates that the Corncob ships crossed the English Channel under cover of darkness and , stripped of all unnecessary equipment , carried no radios , having only a signal lamp ( with a spare bulb ) for communication .
Around midnight 7 / 8 June , during the slow voyage across the Channel , a German airplane hit West Honaker with two skip bombs . Because the ship , already prepared for a fast sinking for the blockship duties , began taking on water , a large portion of the crew , including Chief Engineer Poropat , abandoned ship . After drifting in the Channel for most of the rest of the moonless night , they were picked up in the morning by a British trawler and returned to the UK . In the meantime , the master of the ship was able to keep West Honaker in the convoy headed to Utah beach .
Once at the designated location , the ships were positioned and scuttled over the next days , under heavy German artillery fire . Naval Armed Guardsmen manned the guns on all the gooseberry ships to protect against frequent German air attacks . All the while , harbor pilots — about half of the New York Bar Pilots Association , according to one source — carefully positioned the ships . West Honaker was sunk on 10 June about 400 yards ( 370 m ) off the beach , but continued to serve as an antiaircraft platform manned by Navy gun crews until 14 June , and by Army crews after that date . West Honaker 's naval gunners were awarded a battle star for participation in the Normandy Landings .
= McCarran International Airport =
McCarran International Airport ( IATA : LAS , ICAO : KLAS , FAA LID : LAS ) is the primary commercial airport serving the Las Vegas Valley , a major metropolitan area in the U.S. state of Nevada . It is located in Paradise , about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south of downtown Las Vegas . The airport is owned by Clark County and operated by the Clark County Department of Aviation . It is named after Pat McCarran , a former Nevada senator who contributed to the development of aviation both in Las Vegas and on a national scale .
The airport was built in 1942 and opened to commercial flights in 1948 . It has undergone significant expansion since then and has employed various innovative technologies , such as common @-@ use facilities . The airport consists of four runways and two passenger terminals : Terminal 1 and Terminal 3 . Terminal 1 is composed of four concourses , namely the A , B , C , and D Gates ; Terminal 3 contains the E Gates . A people mover system is in place between the pre @-@ security area of Terminal 1 and the C and D Gates , as well as between the D Gates and Terminal 3 . East of the passenger terminals is the Marnell Air Cargo Center , and on the west side of the airports are facilities for fixed @-@ base operators and helicopter companies .
McCarran received over 45 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 passengers in 2015 , a 5 @.@ 8 % increase over the previous year but still below pre @-@ recession levels . It is the 26th busiest airport in the world by passenger traffic and the 8th busiest by aircraft movements . The airport has nonstop air service to destinations in North America , Europe , and Asia . It is an operating base for Allegiant Air , as well as a crew and maintenance base for Southwest Airlines and Spirit Airlines .
= = History = =
= = = Origins ( 1920 – 48 ) = = =
Anderson Field was the first airport to serve Las Vegas , opening in November 1920 . Purchased by the Rockwell brothers in 1925 , the airfield was renamed Rockwell Field , and Western Air Express ( WAE ) introduced commercial air service in April 1926 . When the brothers sold Rockwell Field and the new owner canceled WAE 's lease , the airline had to look for another airport . Local businessman P. A. Simon had built an airfield northeast of the city , to which WAE relocated in November 1929 .
Despite rising traffic to Las Vegas , WAE reduced service to the city amid the Great Depression . Once its financial situation improved , the airline bought the airfield and established a monopoly on flights to it . When the city attempted to purchase the field and build a more modern terminal , WAE refused . With the advent of World War II , however , WAE was pressured to sell the airfield . Nevadan Senator Pat McCarran helped obtain federal funding for the city to buy the field and construct a new terminal . He also helped establish a gunnery school by the United States Army Air Corps at the field . For the senator 's contributions , the airport was named McCarran Field in 1941 .
The gunnery school was closed in 1945 after the end of World War II . However , the Army later wanted to reopen its base , provided commercial air traffic was moved to another airport . Aviator George Crockett agreed to sell his airfield , Alamo Field , to the county . The field had been established in 1942 and had grown into a major general aviation facility . Alamo Field also took Senator McCarran 's name , becoming McCarran Field on December 19 , 1948 . The opening of this new airfield broke Western Air Express ' monopoly on flights to Las Vegas , allowing other airlines to serve the market . Meanwhile , the Army reopened its base at the original McCarran Field in 1949 and named it Nellis Air Force Base in 1950 .
= = = Early expansion ( 1949 – 96 ) = = =
In its first year of operation , McCarran Field served over 35 @,@ 000 passengers . As Las Vegas ' casino industry grew and air travel became more popular during the 1950s , passenger traffic to the airfield rose significantly , with 959 @,@ 603 passengers transiting through it in 1959 . To cope with the increase , airport officials began planning a new passenger terminal . While the original terminal was located on Las Vegas Boulevard , the new terminal was built on Paradise Road . The terminal , whose design was inspired by the TWA Flight Center in New York City , opened on March 15 , 1963 .
The airport was officially renamed McCarran International Airport in September 1968 . Further expansion took place between 1970 and 1974 with the construction of the A and B gates . After the airline industry was deregulated in 1978 , the number of airlines serving McCarran doubled from seven to fourteen in only two years . In response , the county launched an expansion plan named McCarran 2000 , detailing expansion projects to be undertaken into the year 2000 . Expanded baggage claim facilities , an esplanade , and a parking garage were inaugurated in 1985 . The C Gates and the first line of the people mover system followed in 1987 .
Further expansion took place during the 1990s . The Charter / International Terminal , later renamed Terminal 2 , was opened in December 1991 to handle rising international traffic to Las Vegas . An additional , nine @-@ story parking garage and an underground tunnel linking the Las Vegas Beltway to the airport were constructed as well . In June 1998 , the southwest and southeast wings of the D Gates were opened .
During the late 1990s , the airport focused on attracting foreign airlines . In 1994 , Condor Flugdienst began charter flights from Germany , launching scheduled service from Cologne and Frankfurt in 1997 . Northwest Airlines and Japan Airlines introduced flights from Tokyo in 1998 , and Virgin Atlantic began flying from London – Gatwick in 2000 .
= = = Innovation and D Gates completion ( 1997 – 2011 ) = = =
In 1997 , the airport introduced Common Use Terminal Equipment ( CUTE ) , becoming the first airport in the country to do so . With multiple airlines serving McCarran , it became inefficient to have separate facilities for each airline . CUTE allows for shared use of ticket counters and gates ; an airline can overflow to inactive facilities during peak times .
McCarran furthered its common use strategy in 2003 with the SpeedCheck system , introducing Common @-@ Use Self @-@ Service ( CUSS ) kiosks . The kiosks allow passengers to check @-@ in and print boarding passes for any one of multiple airlines . Previously , airlines had been installing their own check @-@ in kiosks , defeating the use of CUTE and increasing congestion at the ticket counters . SpeedCheck kiosks have been installed at the Las Vegas Convention Center as well .
In January 2005 , McCarran began offering complimentary Wi @-@ Fi throughout its passenger terminals . The service initially covered 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 square feet ( 160 @,@ 000 m2 ) , making it the largest free Wi @-@ Fi zone among U.S. airports at the time . The northeast wing of the D Gates opened in April 2005 , along with a 160 feet ( 49 m ) air traffic control tower at the center of the concourse . The expansion had been postponed following the September 11 attacks but resumed amid high growth in passenger traffic . Later in the year , the airport started a baggage @-@ tracking system using radio @-@ frequency identification ( RFID ) tags . Small RFID transmitters are inserted into baggage tags to improve bag identification , thereby lowering the risk for lost or misplaced luggage . McCarran became one of the first airports worldwide to conduct RFID tagging on a large scale .
On August 19 , 2008 , US Airways closed its night @-@ flight hub at McCarran Airport , which had been established by predecessor America West Airlines in the 1990s . In order to maximize the use of its fleet , US Airways had been operating two banks of flights to and from McCarran in the middle of the night . The operation had made US Airways the second @-@ busiest carrier at McCarran , providing over 100 daily round @-@ trip flights . However , amid rising oil prices and continued demand for low fares , the airline decided to close the hub . In 2011 , US Airways reduced flights to Las Vegas by an additional 40 % .
In September 2008 , the northwest wing of the D Gates was completed . This marked the completion of the concourse , which has a total of 44 gates .
In May 2011 , construction began on a new air traffic control tower for McCarran Airport . The tower stands 352 feet ( 107 m ) high and replaces a shorter tower that opened in 1983 . However , in January 2014 , it was discovered that a chemical coating to prevent the growth of a toxic fungus was added improperly . The problem was corrected by the following June , and the tower is scheduled to open on August 28 , 2016 . The shorter tower will be closed and demolished .
= = = Terminal 3 and later developments
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( 2012 – present ) = = =
Terminal 3 opened on June 27 , 2012 . The project was announced in January 2001 as a way to accommodate rapid growth in passenger traffic , including international traffic . It came into question amid the 2008 recession and decreased tourism to Las Vegas , but the county decided to proceed with the project , anticipating eventual economic recovery and a rebound in passenger numbers . Terminal 3 cost $ 2 @.@ 4 billion to build and is one of the largest public works projects in Nevada . It replaced Terminal 2 , providing more international gates and a larger U.S. Customs and Border Protection facility . With its seven domestic gates , the terminal also eases congestion at Terminal 1 .
In August 2015 , the airport announced plans to convert seven gates in the D Gates to international gates . A fourth line of the people mover system is under construction between those gates and the international arrivals facility in Terminal 3 . The total cost of the project is $ 51 million .
= = Runways = =
McCarran Airport has four runways :
Runway 1L / 19R : 8 @,@ 988 by 150 feet ( 2 @,@ 740 m × 46 m ) , ILS equipped in the 1 direction .
Runway 1R / 19L : 9 @,@ 771 by 150 feet ( 2 @,@ 978 m × 46 m ) .
Runway 7L / 25R : 14 @,@ 512 by 150 feet ( 4 @,@ 423 m × 46 m ) , ILS equipped in the 25 direction .
Runway 7R / 25L : 10 @,@ 525 by 150 feet ( 3 @,@ 208 m × 46 m ) , ILS equipped in the 25 direction .
All runways have been resurfaced with concrete , a more durable material than the previous asphalt . In April 2016 , 7L / 25R became the last runway to be resurfaced . This runway is also the longest at McCarran and typically serves one @-@ third of the airport 's annual traffic . Parallel to it is runway 7R / 25L , which opened in 1991 . On the western side of the airport are runways 1L / 19R and 1R / 19L . 1L / 19R was originally a short runway suited for light aircraft before it was significantly widened and lengthened in 1997 . Between the two sets of parallel runways was runway 14 / 32 , which has been decommissioned .
= = Terminals = =
= = = Terminal 1 = = =
Terminal 1 has four concourses , each of which is connected to a central pre @-@ security area . Ticketing and baggage claim are located on Level 1 of this area . Level 2 houses the three security checkpoints , an esplanade with several retail outlets , and a USO lounge for military service members . West of the pre @-@ security area are the A Gates and the B Gates , two Y @-@ shaped concourses with circular ends . To the south are the C Gates , which can be accessed by the Green Line of the tram system . The satellite D Gates concourse lies to the east and contains three lounges : the Centurion lounge for American Express card holders ; the Club at LAS , which is available to all passengers at a fee ; and the United Club . The Blue Line of the tram system links the D Gates with the pre @-@ security area .
The concourses and their gates are as follows :
A Gates : A3 , A5 , A7 , A8 , A10 – 12 , A14 , A15 , A17 – 23
B Gates : B1 , B2 , B6 , B9 – 12 , B14 , B15 , B17 , B19 – 25
C Gates : C1 – 5 , C7 – 9 , C11 , C12 , C14 , C16 , C19 , C21 – 25
D Gates : D1 , D3 – 12 , D14 , D16 – 26 , D32 – 43 , D50 – 59
= = = Terminal 3 = = =
Terminal 3 handles all international and some domestic flights to McCarran Airport . Level 0 of the terminal contains customs , baggage claim , and another USO lounge . Check @-@ in , security , a second Club at LAS , and all gates are located on Level 2 . The terminal has a total of fourteen gates , seven of which are domestic ( E8 – E12 , E14 – E15 ) and the other seven international ( E1 – E7 ) . Four of the international gates have two jetways each to allow for quicker handling of widebody aircraft .
= = = Former Terminal 2 = = =
Terminal 2 opened in December 1991 as the Charter / International Terminal , serving all international flights and some domestic flights to the airport . It was located at the site of two previous terminals , one for PSA Airlines and the other for American Airlines . The PSA terminal was converted to an international terminal before both terminals were demolished to make room for a single Terminal 2 . It had two stories and eight gates ( T2 @-@ 1 through T2 @-@ 8 ) , four of which could receive international flights . Terminal 2 closed upon the opening of Terminal 3 , and it was demolished in early 2016 .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
= = = Passenger = = =
= = = Cargo = = =
The following cargo airlines serve McCarran Airport :
Aloha Air Cargo
FedEx Express
UPS Airlines
= = Statistics = =
= = = Annual passenger traffic = = =
= = = Top airlines by international passengers = = =
= = = Top domestic destinations = = =
= = Howard W. Cannon Aviation Museum = =
The main exhibits of the Howard W. Cannon Aviation Museum on Level 2 of Terminal 1 , above baggage claim . There are additional exhibits throughout the airport and at other airports in the city . Display items chronicle the early history of aviation in Southern Nevada . The museum is named after former Nevada Senator Howard Cannon , who contributed to the development of aviation in the county . Its administrator is Mark Hall @-@ Patton , who has appeared on the reality television show Pawn Stars .
= = Other facilities = =
= = = Fixed @-@ base operators = = =
Atlantic Aviation and Signature Flight Support are the two fixed @-@ base operators ( FBOs ) at the airport , providing various services to private aircraft .
= = = Helicopter terminals = = =
Maverick Helicopters , Sundance Helicopters , and Papillon Grand Canyon Helicopters each operate their own terminal at McCarran Airport . The Maverick terminal covers 6 @,@ 000 square feet ( 560 m2 ) , while the Sundance terminal occupies 13 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m2 ) . The Papillon terminal was established in 1997 . The companies provide helicopter tours over the Las Vegas Strip , Grand Canyon , and other tourist attractions .
= = = Janet terminal = = =
Janet flights depart from a private terminal located on the west side of the airport . The airline , which is owned by the U.S. Air Force and operated by AECOM , transports employees and contractors to airports within the Nevada National Security Site .
= = = Marnell Air Cargo Center = = =
The Marnell Air Cargo Center covers 200 @,@ 928 square feet ( 18 @,@ 666 @.@ 8 m2 ) and can handle 100 @,@ 000 short tons ( 91 @,@ 000 t ) of cargo . The $ 29 million facility opened in October 2010 , replacing a smaller facility that existed at the site of Terminal 3 . The center consists of two buildings , one of which is leased by FedEx and the other by multiple other companies , including UPS and Southwest Airlines .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On September 8 , 2015 , British Airways Flight 2276 aborted takeoff from McCarran due to engine failure . While preparing to takeoff from runway 7L for London Gatwick Airport , the Boeing 777 @-@ 200ER suffered failure of its left ( # 1 ) engine , and a fire erupted . 14 passengers suffered injuries during the evacuation , and the runway was closed for eight hours . The aircraft suffered major damage , but it was repaired and returned to service in March 2016 .
= = Access = =
= = = Car = = =
Road access to McCarran Airport is provided by Paradise Road to the north and by the McCarran Airport Connector to the south , which connects to the Las Vegas Beltway .
Terminal 1 and Terminal 3 have their own parking garages . Each also has its own economy lot , which provides lower parking rates , and a separate lot for oversize vehicles . Complimentary shuttle transportation is provided between the terminals and the remote Terminal 1 economy and oversize vehicle lots . In March 2016 , the airport opened a cellphone lot , which provides free parking to people waiting for passengers .
A consolidated rental car facility opened in April 2007 , located about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the airport . The facility , which sits on 68 acres ( 28 ha ) of land , houses multiple rental car companies with 5 @,@ 000 parking spaces on multiple levels . Courtesy shuttles transport passengers between the airport and the facility .
For transportation between Terminal 1 and Terminal 3 , McCarran Airport provides a free shuttle service , which leaves from Level 0 of both terminals .
= = = Bus = = =
RTC Transit provides bus transportation to and from various parts of the Las Vegas Valley . Route 108 , Route 109 , the Westcliff Airport Express and the Centennial Express provide direct access to the airport . Buses depart from Level 0 of Terminal 1 and Level 2 of Terminal 3 .
= = Future plans = =
= = = Elevated expressway = = =
In January 2016 , the county announced plans to build a four @-@ lane , largely elevated expressway to McCarran Airport , passing over Paradise Road , Koval Lane , and Tropicana Avenue . The estimated $ 200 million project is expected to reduce travel time between the Strip and the Las Vegas Convention Center . However , critics have called the plan a " 20th @-@ century solution to 21st @-@ century traffic issues . " They propose the construction of a light rail system , which the county disapproves of given its higher cost and longer completion time .
Previously , there had been plans to extend the monorail system to the airport . In December 2006 , Clark County approved plans for the extension , although funding was not specified . In its presentation to the Southern Nevada Tourism Infrastructure Committee in early 2016 , Las Vegas Monorail expressed its continued interest in the extension . However , the project is largely no longer under consideration due to its high cost .
= = = Ivanpah Valley Airport = = =
In the late 1990s , the county decided to build a second airport for Las Vegas , to be located 30 miles ( 48 km ) from the city in the Ivanpah Valley . Passenger traffic at McCarran had been rising steadily , and the county predicted that the airport would reach its capacity of 55 millions passengers per year by 2008 . The county began the process of acquiring federal land for the airport , and it started funding an EIS . However , the advent of an economic recession in 2007 and the resulting decline in passenger numbers called the Ivanpah Valley Airport project into question . In June 2010 , the project was indefinitely suspended . However , the county continues to monitor the site of the planned airport , and it will reconsider the project once McCarran Airport reaches its capacity .
= Corpse Bride =
Corpse Bride , often referred to as Tim Burton 's Corpse Bride , is a 2005 British @-@ American stop @-@ motion @-@ animated musical fantasy film directed by Mike Johnson and Tim Burton with a screenplay by John August , Caroline Thompson and Pamela Pettler based on characters created by Burton and Carlos Grangel . The plot is set in a fictional Victorian era village in Europe . Johnny Depp led a cast as the voice of Victor , while Helena Bonham Carter voiced Emily , the title character . Corpse Bride is the third stop @-@ motion feature film produced by Burton and the first directed by him ( the previous two films , The Nightmare Before Christmas and James and the Giant Peach , were directed by Henry Selick ) . This is also the first stop @-@ motion feature from Burton that was distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures . It was dedicated to executive producer Joe Ranft , who died during production .
The film , a critical and commercial success , was nominated for the 78th Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature , but lost to Wallace & Gromit : The Curse of the Were @-@ Rabbit , which also starred Bonham Carter . It was shot with Canon EOS @-@ 1D Mark II digital SLRs , rather than the 35mm film cameras used for Burton 's previous stop @-@ motion film The Nightmare Before Christmas .
= = Plot = =
In an unspecified Victorian @-@ era village somewhere in Europe , Victor Van Dort ( Johnny Depp ) , the son of nouveau riche fish merchants , and Victoria Everglot ( Emily Watson ) , the neglected daughter of hateful aristocrats , are preparing for their arranged marriage , which will simultaneously raise the social class of Victor 's parents and restore the wealth of Victoria 's penniless family . Both have concerns about marrying someone they do not know , but upon meeting for the first time , they fall for each other . After the shy Victor ruins the wedding rehearsal by forgetting his vows and is scolded by Pastor Galswells ( Christopher Lee ) , he flees and practices his wedding vows in the nearby forest , placing the wedding ring on a nearby upturned tree root .
The root turns out to be the finger of a murdered woman in a tattered bridal gown , who rises from the grave claiming that she is now Victor 's wife . After fainting , Victor wakes up and finds out he was spirited away to the surprisingly festive Land of the Dead . The bewildered Victor learns the story of how Emily ( Helena Bonham Carter ) , his new bride , was murdered years ago by an unknown criminal on the night of her secret elopement . Emily , as a wedding gift , reunites Victor with his long @-@ dead dog , Scraps . Meanwhile , Victoria 's parents hear that Victor has been seen in another woman 's arms , and become suspicious .
Wanting to reunite with Victoria , Victor tricks Emily into taking him back to the Land of the Living by pretending he wants her to meet his parents . She agrees to this and takes him to see Elder Gutknecht ( Michael Gough ) , the kindly ruler of the underworld , to send him and Emily temporarily to the Land of the Living . Once back home , Victor asks Emily to wait in the forest while he rushes off to see Victoria and confess his wish to marry her as soon as possible , to which she gladly returns his feelings . Just as they are about to share a kiss , Emily arrives and sees the two of them together and , feeling betrayed and hurt , angrily drags Victor back to the Land of the Dead . Victoria tells her parents that Victor has been forcibly wed to a dead woman , but they believe she has lost her mind and lock her up in her bedroom . She escapes her room by window and rushes to Galswells to find a way to help Victor , but fails . With Victor gone , Victoria 's parents decide to marry her off to a presumably wealthy newcomer in town named Lord Barkis Bittern ( Richard E. Grant ) , who appeared at the wedding rehearsal , against her will .
Emily is heartbroken by Victor 's deception . Victor , however , apologizes for lying to her , and the two reconcile while playing the piano together . Shortly after , Victor 's recently deceased family coachman appears in the afterlife and informs Victor of Victoria 's impending marriage to Barkis . In order for their marriage to become valid , Victor must repeat his vows in the Land of the Living and willingly drink the Wine of Ages , a poison - thus joining her in death . Overhearing this , and fretting about having lost Victoria to another man , Victor agrees to die for Emily . All of the dead go " upstairs " to the Land of the Living to perform the wedding ceremony for Victor and Emily . Upon their arrival , the town erupts into a temporary panic until every living person recognizes each other 's loved ones from the dead and they have a joyous reunion under the bizarre circumstances .
After a quarrel with Barkis ( and realizing he was only after her supposed money ) , Victoria follows the procession of dead to the church . Emily notices Victoria and realizes that she is denying Victoria her chance at happiness the same way it was stolen from her . As Victor prepares to drink the cup of poison to kill himself , Emily stops him and reunites him with Victoria . Barkis interrupts them , and Emily recognizes him as her former fiance - who is revealed to be the one who murdered her for her dowry . Barkis tries to kidnap Victoria at sword point , but Victor stops him and the two men duel . The dead townspeople are unable to interfere with the affairs of the living . Emily intercedes to save Victor and Barkis mockingly proposes a toast to Emily , claiming she was " always the bridesmaid , never the bride . " He unknowingly drinks the cup of poison . The dead , now able to intercede , happily drag the " new arrival " back to the Land of the Dead for retribution for his crimes . Victoria , now a widow , is once again able to marry Victor .
Emily sets Victor free of his vow to marry her , giving the wedding ring back to Victor and her wedding bouquet to Victoria before exiting the church . As she steps into the moonlight , she transforms into hundreds of butterflies , presumably finding peace , as Victor and Victoria look on wrapped in each other 's embrace .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The film is based on a 19th @-@ century Russian folktale , which Joe Ranft introduced to Burton while they were finishing The Nightmare Before Christmas . The film began production in November 2003 , while Burton was completing Big Fish . He continued with production on his next live @-@ action feature , Charlie and the Chocolate Factory , which was produced simultaneously with the film . Co @-@ director Mike Johnson spoke about how they took a more organic approach to directing the film , saying : " In a co @-@ directing situation , one director usually handles one sequence while the other handles another . Our approach was more organic . Tim knew where he wanted the film to go as far as the emotional tone and story points to hit . My job was to work with the crew on a daily basis and get the footage as close as possible to how I thought he wanted it . "
= = = Filming = = =
The film was originally supposed to have been shot on film , though a last @-@ minute change by the studio helped introduce a different technology . In 1997 , during pre @-@ production on Henry Selick 's feature , Monkeybone , the film 's cinematographer Pete Kozachik was looking for a type of filming that would streamline the process of integrating stop @-@ motion characters with pre @-@ filmed live actors . After finishing Monkeybone , Kozachik continued to test cameras for a practical means of shooting feature animation digitally . In early 2003 , the production unit was not interested in digital capture for stop motion ; the team was instead prepping the movie for a film shoot . Two weeks before filming was to begin , Kozachik and visual effects consultant Chris Watts came up with a solution using digital still cameras that was deemed viable by Warner Bros. senior vice president of physical production and visual effects Chris DeFaria . The production then became digital . After testing a dozen different models , Kozachik opted for a basic digital still camera , the Canon EOS @-@ 1D Mark II , an off @-@ the @-@ shelf model that was outfitted with adapters to allow the use of Nikon prime lenses ( 14mm @-@ 105mm ) . Kozachik spoke about why he chose the camera , saying : " One reason I went with this particular camera is that its image chip is just about the same size as Super 35 film negative , so we could use Nikon lenses and treat them like regular 35mm cine lenses and get the same effect — the same depth of field and angle of coverage . I knew that we were going to be fighting to make this look like a ' real ' movie because we weren 't shooting on film , so I wanted to at least have the optics look like movie optics . "
Animation took place at 3 Mills Studios in East London . A dozen animators / puppeteers were put to work when production began , but that number had tripled by the end of production . The initial group spent time developing each puppet 's unique characteristics . The puppets themselves , built by Mackinnon and Saunders , were typically about 17 inches tall and animated on sets built three to four feet off the ground with trap doors that allowed animators access to the sets ' surfaces to manipulate the puppets . The three primary characters — Victor , Victoria and Corpse Bride — were fitted with heads the size of golf balls that contained special gearing to allow the animators to manipulate individual parts of the puppets ' faces . The animators ' work was spread over 25 to 35 individual setups / stages , each having its own Canon digital camera . A total of 32 cameras were used on the film . Each camera was outfitted with a " grabber " system that enabled the animators to capture frames and download them into a computer to assemble a short " reel " of the shot being produced to check their work .
The film 's images were stored on a 1GB image card that was capable of holding approximately 100 frames of animation . Eight roving camera teams — each team including a lighting cameraman , an assistant , a lighting electrician and a set dresser to deal with any art department issues — worked with the animators to set up shots . Each camera team had a " lighting station " workstation — comprising an Apple G4 computer and a monitor to assist in checking lighting and framing — to view TIFF file versions of the camera 's images . Once a shot was approved , the computer was removed and the animators were left to shoot the scene using their still camera and " grabber " computer / camera system to check their work . The film 's story department head Jeffrey Lynch explained that the scenes were developed initially from storyboards created by a team , saying : " We shot as close to a 1 : 1 film ratio [ one take per shot ] as we could because there was no time for reshoots . We did most of our experimentation in the storyboard process — as many ways as needed — to get the scene how we wanted it . There was no coverage , as there would be for a live @-@ action film . "
Co @-@ director Johnson would go over each scene with the animators , sometimes acting out the scene , if necessary . The animators would create a " dope sheet " — in which a shot was broken down , frame by frame — to account for key " hits " . The animators would then shoot tests of the scene , often shooting on " 2s " or " 4s " ( meaning shooting just every second or fourth frame of what would appear in the final animation ) . Johnson explained : " The next day , when they 'd finish their test / rehearsal , we 'd cut it in and see how it played in the reel and fine @-@ tune from there . We might do some lighting tweaks , performance tweaks or have the art department get in and touch anything that needed it . Then we 'd close the curtain and let the animator animate the shot . " The animators would sometimes make use of the voice and / or video recordings of the actors , a practice also common in cel animation . Once photographed , the frames were manipulated by a team of " data wranglers . " Using a workflow developed by Chris Watts , the frames were downloaded from the camera image cards as RAW files , converted to Cineon files and processed through a " color cube . " Cinematographer Pete Kozachik explained : " The color cube is a 3D lookup table created by FilmLight Ltd. that forces the image data into behaving like a particular Eastman Kodak film stock — in this case , 5248 , one of my favorites . With this film emulation , we could actually rate our cameras at ASA 100 , then take our light meters and spot meters and , with great confidence , shoot as if we were using 5248 . Sure enough , the footage would come back and look just like it . " The frames could be processed further to generate a TIFF file for viewing on the lighting station computer monitors so lighting , composition and color could be previewed .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Visual effects were delivered by London 's Moving Picture Company ( MPC ) , and were applied to the 1 @,@ 000 or so shots in the film , though most of the effects simply painted out puppet supports and similar set equipment . Some visual effects elements — groups of birds and butterflies , were created completely in CG , though others were composited as visual effects from real @-@ life elements . Pete Kozachik explained that the trick for shooting the characters by themselves was obtaining visually interesting shots that would dependably support the director 's storytelling , saying : " The challenge is keeping the action clear and simple with lighting and composition . There 's a discipline to clear storytelling with these puppets . You want to be abstract , but one can easily go overboard with these critters because they aren 't as familiar to the audience as real humans . The characters don 't necessarily translate the same as if you 're shooting a real person . You have to consciously balance arty atmosphere and graphic clarity so as to not confuse the audience about what it is they 're looking at . "
In a 2005 , interview with About.com , Burton spoke about the differences between directing Corpse Bride and The Nightmare Before Christmas , saying : " The difference on that was that one I had designed completely . It was a very completed package in my mind . I felt like it was there . I felt more comfortable with it . With this , it was a bit more organic . It was based on an old folk tale . We kept kind of changing it but , you know , I had a great co @-@ director with Mike Johnson . I feel like we complemented each other quite well . It was just a different movie , a different process . " He also spoke about casting Johnny Depp as Victor , saying : " It was weird because we were doing both at the same time . He was Willy Wonka by day and Victor by night so it might have been a little schizophrenic for him . But he ’ s great . It 's the first animated movie he 's done and he 's always into a challenge . We just treat it like fun and a creative process . Again , that ’ s the joy of working with him . He 's kind of up for anything . He just always adds something to it . The amazing thing is all the actors never worked [ together ] . They were never in a room together , so they were all doing their voices , except for Albert [ Finney ] and Joanna [ Lumley ] did a few scenes together , everybody else was separate . They were all kind of working in a vacuum , which was interesting . That ’ s the thing that I felt ended up so beautifully , that their performances really meshed together . So he was very canny , as they all were , about trying to find the right tone and making it work while not being in the same room with each other . "
= = Music = =
The soundtrack was produced by Danny Elfman with the help of John August and released on September 20 , 2005 . It contains all of the music from the film including score music and four songs with lyrics sung by voice actors .
All songs written and composed by Danny Elfman and John August . All scores written by Elfman .
= = Release = =
Corpse Bride premiered on September 7 , 2005 at the Venice International Film Festival . The film was released on September 23 , 2005 in United States and on October 13 , 2005 in the United Kingdom .
= = = Box office = = =
Corpse Bride grossed $ 53 @,@ 359 @,@ 111 in North America , and $ 63 @,@ 835 @,@ 950 in other territories , for a worldwide total of $ 117 @,@ 195 @,@ 061 .
In North America , the film opened to number two in its first weekend , with $ 19 @,@ 145 @,@ 480 , behind Flightplan . In its second weekend , the film dropped to number three , grossing an additional $ 10 @,@ 033 @,@ 257 . In its third weekend , the film dropped to number six , grossing $ 6 @,@ 511 @,@ 336 . In its fourth weekend , the film dropped to number nine , grossing $ 3 @,@ 577 @,@ 465 .
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can be used as a power divider as shown in figure 18 . This circuit can also be implemented as a delta circuit by applying the Y @-@ Δ transform . The delta form uses resistors that are equal to the system impedance . This can be advantageous because precision resistors of the value of the system impedance are always available for most system nominal impedances . The tee circuit has the benefits of simplicity , low cost , and intrinsically wide bandwidth . It has two major drawbacks ; first , the circuit will dissipate power since it is resistive : an equal split will result in 6 dB insertion loss instead of 3 dB . The second problem is that there is 0 dB directivity leading to very poor isolation between the output ports .
The insertion loss is not such a problem for an unequal split of power : for instance -40 dB at port 3 has an insertion loss less than 0 @.@ 2 dB at port 2 . Isolation can be improved at the expense of insertion loss at both output ports by replacing the output resistors with T pads . The isolation improvement is greater than the insertion loss added .
= = = 6 dB resistive bridge hybrid = = =
A true hybrid divider / coupler with , theoretically , infinite isolation and directivity can be made from a resistive bridge circuit . Like the tee circuit , the bridge has 6 dB insertion loss . It has the disadvantage that it cannot be used with unbalanced circuits without the addition of transformers ; however , it is ideal for 600 Ω balanced telecommunication lines if the insertion loss is not an issue . The resistors in the bridge which represent ports are not usually part of the device ( with the exception of port 4 which may well be left permanently terminatied internally ) these being provided by the line terminations . The device thus consists essentially of two resistors ( plus the port 4 termination ) .
= = Applications = =
= = = Monitoring = = =
The coupled output from the directional coupler can be used to monitor frequency and power level on the signal without interrupting the main power flow in the system ( except for a power reduction – see figure 3 ) .
= = = Making use of isolation = = =
If isolation is high , directional couplers are good for combining signals to feed a single line to a receiver for two @-@ tone receiver tests . In figure 20 , one signal enters port P3 and one enters port P2 , while both exit port P1 . The signal from port P3 to port P1 will experience 10 dB of loss , and the signal from port P2 to port P1 will have 0 @.@ 5 dB loss . The internal load on the isolated port will dissipate the signal losses from port P3 and port P2 . If the isolators in figure 20 are neglected , the isolation measurement ( port P2 to port P3 ) determines the amount of power from the signal generator F2 that will be injected into the signal generator F1 . As the injection level increases , it may cause modulation of signal generator F1 , or even injection phase locking . Because of the symmetry of the directional coupler , the reverse injection will happen with the same possible modulation problems of signal generator F2 by F1 . Therefore , the isolators are used in figure 20 to effectively increase the isolation ( or directivity ) of the directional coupler . Consequently , the injection loss will be the isolation of the directional coupler plus the reverse isolation of the isolator .
= = = Hybrids = = =
Applications of the hybrid include monopulse comparators , mixers , power combiners , dividers , modulators , and phased array radar antenna systems . Both in @-@ phase devices ( such as the Wilkinson divider ) and quadrature ( 90 ° ) hybrid couplers may be used for coherent power divider applications . An example of quadrature hybrids being used in a coherent power combiner application is given in the next section .
An inexpensive version of the power divider is used in the home to divide cable TV or over @-@ the @-@ air TV signals to multiple TV sets and other devices . Multiport splitters with more than two output ports usually consist internally of a number of cascaded couplers . Domestic broadband internet service can be provided by cable TV companies ( cable internet ) . The domestic user 's internet cable modem is connected to one port of the splitter .
= = = Power combiners = = =
Since hybrid circuits are bi @-@ directional , they can be used to coherently combine power as well as splitting it . In figure 21 , an example is shown of a signal split up to feed multiple low power amplifiers , then recombined to feed a single antenna with high power .
The phases of the inputs to each power combiner are arranged such that the two inputs are 90 ° out of phase with each other . Since the coupled port of a hybrid combiner is 90 ° out of phase with the transmitted port , this causes the powers to add at the output of the combiner and to cancel at the isolated port : a representative example from figure 21 is shown in figure 22 . Note that there is an additional fixed 90 ° phase shift to both ports at each combiner / divider which is not shown in the diagrams for simplicity . Applying in @-@ phase power to both input ports would not get the desired result : the quadrature sum of the two inputs would appear at both output ports – that is half the total power out of each . This approach allows the use of numerous less expensive and lower @-@ power amplifiers in the circuitry instead of a single high @-@ power TWT . Yet another approach is to have each solid state amplifier ( SSA ) feed an antenna and let the power be combined in space or be used to feed a lens attached to an antenna .
= = = Phase difference = = =
The phase properties of a 90 ° hybrid coupler can be used to great advantage in microwave circuits . For example , in a balanced microwave amplifier the two input stages are fed through a hybrid coupler . The FET device normally has a very poor match and reflects much of the incident energy . However , since the devices are essentially identical the reflection coefficients from each device are equal . The reflected voltage from the FETs are in phase at the isolated port and are 180 ° different at the input port . Therefore , all of the reflected power from the FETs goes to the load at the isolated port and no power goes to the input port . This results in a good input match ( low VSWR ) .
If phase @-@ matched lines are used for an antenna input to a 180 ° hybrid coupler as shown in figure 23 , a null will occur directly between the antennas . To receive a signal in that position , one would have to either change the hybrid type or line length . To reject a signal from a given direction , or create the difference pattern for a monopulse radar , this is a good approach .
Phase @-@ difference couplers can be used to create beam tilt in a VHF FM radio station , by delaying the phase to the lower elements of an antenna array . More generally , phase @-@ difference couplers , together with fixed phase delays and antenna arrays , are used in beam @-@ forming networks such as the Butler matrix , to create a radio beam in any prescribed direction .
= Operation Stinger =
Operation Stinger ( Croatian : Operacija Žalac ; Serbian : Operacija Žaoka ) was an offensive undertaken by the forces of the SAO Krajina , an unrecognized Croatian Serb region opposing the Republic of Croatia , against positions held by the Croatian police in the region of Banovina on 26 – 27 July 1991 , during the Croatian War of Independence . It was primarily aimed at police stations in Glina and Kozibrod , as well as police @-@ held positions in a string of villages between the town of Dvor and Kozibrod . In addition to Glina and Kozibrod , heavy fighting took place in the village of Struga , north of Dvor , where Croatian Serb forces employed a human shield consisting of Croat civilians taken from their homes in Struga and the nearby village of Zamlača .
The Croatian Serb rebels captured the police station in Glina , but were stopped in Struga before the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) arrived there to create a buffer zone and , according to the JNA , assist the Croatian police to evacuate . On 29 July , as the non @-@ Serb civilian population left Kozibrod and the villages to the south of it , the police station in Kozibrod was evacuated as well . The fighting resulted the bulk of the region being transferred to Croatian Serb and JNA control .
In the aftermath of the fighting , a number of Croatian Serb troops threatened the regional commander in Dvor , blaming him for the deaths of members of their unit in the fighting . Afterwards , they killed several Croat civilians who were undergoing treatment at the Dvor medical centre . Croatian authorities filed war crime charges against Dragan Vasiljković , specifically for leading the attack in Glina which resulted in civilian deaths , as well as injuring and killing prisoners of war . Vasiljković was arrested in Australia in 2006 , and as of January 2015 he is awaiting extradition to Croatia .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , ethnic tensions between Serbs and Croats worsened after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( Croatian : Hrvatska demokratska zajednica – HDZ ) . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Serbian Latin : Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Croatian : Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin ( approximately 60 kilometres ( 37 miles ) north @-@ east of Split ) , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . In January 1991 , Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , unsuccessfully tried to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces . The request was denied and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March prompted the JNA itself to ask the Federal Presidency to give it wartime authority and declare a state of emergency . Even though the request was backed by Serbia and its allies , the JNA request was refused on 15 March . Serbian President Slobodan Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia with Croatia as a federal unit , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal Presidency . The threat caused the JNA to abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of expansion of Serbia as the JNA came under Milošević 's control . By the end of March , the conflict had escalated with the first fatalities . In early April , leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to amalgamate the areas under their control with Serbia . These were viewed by the Government of Croatia as breakaway regions .
At the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . To bolster its defence , Croatia doubled its police numbers to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the Croatian police force was 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police comprising twelve battalions organised along military lines . There were also 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons . In response to the deteriorating situation , the Croatian government established the Croatian National Guard ( Croatian : Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) in May by expanding the special police battalions into four all @-@ professional guards brigades . Under Ministry of Defence control and commanded by retired JNA General Martin Špegelj , the four guards brigades comprised approximately 8 @,@ 000 troops . The reserve police , also expanded to 40 @,@ 000 , was attached to the ZNG and reorganised into 19 brigades and 14 independent battalions . The guards brigades were the only units of the ZNG that were fully equipped with small arms ; throughout the ZNG there was a lack of heavier weapons and there was poor command and control structure above the brigade level . The shortage of heavy weapons was so severe that the ZNG resorted to using World War II weapons taken from museums and film studios . At the time , the Croatian weapon stockpile consisted of 30 @,@ 000 small arms purchased abroad and 15 @,@ 000 previously owned by the police . To replace the personnel lost to the guards brigades , a new 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police was established .
= = Prelude = =
In June , the conflict escalated in the region of Banovina , which had been declared a part of the Serbian Autonomous Oblast Krajina ( SAO Krajina ) by that time . Three municipalities in the region — Dvor , Glina and Hrvatska Kostajnica — had predominantly Serb populations , although all of them were inhabited by a substantial number of non @-@ Serbs as well . On 24 June , the Sisak police administration set up a new police station in the village of Kozibrod in the Una River valley , along the Dvor – Hrvatska Kostajnica road . It was manned by two platoons of police and ZNG troops drawn from the Sisak company of the 2nd Guards Brigade . The new station drew a strong reaction from the SAO Krajina authorities , who issued an ultimatum on the same day the police station was set up , demanded its removal and threatened to remove it by force unless Croatia complied with their ultimatum .
On the night of 25 / 26 June , SAO Krajina forces took control of the police station in Dvor and attacked the police station in Glina . The rebels managed to capture the police station in Glina for less than an hour before they were pushed back by the Lučko Anti @-@ Terrorist Unit and police reinforcements deployed from Sisak . Croatian police casualties amounted to one killed and six wounded . Even though the attack in Glina did not leave SAO Krajina in control of the police station in Glina , 16 Croatian policemen were captured and held hostage . The prisoners were taken to the Knin camp and a detention facility in Golubić . In response to the fighting , the JNA deployed its troops to the two towns . New fighting erupted the same day near Hrvatska Kostajnica . In the final days of June , many Serb civilians , especially from Dvor , fled to the area of Bosanski Novi for safety . By 28 June , only a few women , children and the elderly remained in Glina . The town 's shops were closed and its streets were patrolled by JNA armoured vehicles . After the fighting , the JNA positioned its troops around the police station , while the Croatian Serb rebels controlled the rest of the town .
In mid @-@ July , Dragan Vasiljković was deployed from the Croatian Serb capital Knin to Banovina to coordinate rebel forces there . By 21 July , his work was commended by local commanders , and two days later , a regional command of Croatian Serb forces was announced at a meeting in Dvor attended by Milan Martić , one of the most prominent SAO Krajina leaders . On 24 July , one day after the regional command was established , the Serb rebels adopted a military plan , presented by Vasiljković , aimed at removing Croatian forces from Banovina . On 25 July , 14 mortar rounds were fired at the Kozibrod police station . Nobody was injured in the attack , and in its aftermath , SAO Krajina authorities requested a ceasefire until 10 August because of the harvest .
= = Timeline = =
The offensive , codenamed Operation Stinger ( Serbian Latin : Operacija Žaoka ) was primarily aimed at the Croat @-@ populated villages between Dvor and Hrvatska Kostajnica , and the police station in the town of Glina . The forces earmarked for the offensive were elements of the 7th Banija Division of the SAO Krajina TO , spearheaded by special police deployed from Knin and commanded by Vasiljković . The operation commenced on 26 July at 10 : 00 with an hour @-@ long mortar bombardment of Glina , Kostajnica and Topusko . Vasiljković set up his headquarters in the Šamarica area of Zrinska Gora , situated between Glina , Dvor , Hrvatska Kostajnica and Petrinja .
= = = Glina = = =
The ground offensive in Glina commenced with a single SAO Krajina soldier tasked with firing on a JNA armoured vehicle from an area close to the police station . This attempted false flag attack was designed to make the vehicle crew believe that they were being fired on by the Croatian police , inducing them to fire at the police station . The original shooter was observed by the police and shot at from the station , which was in turn fired upon by the JNA . A JNA colonel at the scene then threatened to use force against the Serb rebels unless they left the scene . Following consultations with Vasiljković , the SAO Krajina forces moved on towards Viduševac , where they shot at a number of civilian buildings including a school and a church , before turning to approach the police station from a different direction . The assault , supported by mortar fire , continued until the following day . The police station was captured on 27 July at 11 : 08 . According to SAO Krajina military reports , 27 Croatian military and police personnel were killed in the fighting . Croatian sources reported the deaths of two policemen and the wounding of two others , as well as the deaths of two civilians , including a German journalist killed by sniper fire . The killed journalist , Egon Scotland , a reporter of the Süddeutsche Zeitung , was leaving Glina with a fellow reporter in a clearly marked car , when he was fatally wounded . The same source indicates that the remaining Croatian police officers managed to pull out of Glina to Viduševac .
= = = Una River valley = = =
The advance against Croat @-@ held villages along the Una was also preceded by an hour @-@ long mortar bombardment of the area . More than 250 rounds were fired , commencing on 26 July at 10 : 00 , after which the infantry was ordered to advance . The attacking force consisted of 50 SAO Krajina special forces troops drawn from Knin , 50 policemen and 700 conscripts . The JNA estimated that there were about 240 – 280 Croatian police and ZNG personnel deployed in the area from Struga to Kozibrod . The SAO Krajina plan saw a battalion led by Braco Orlović advancing north from Dvor through the village of Zamlača to approach the village of Struga . Once there , it was to maintain its position and advance gradually if possible . Additional forces were meant to outflank and pin down the Croatian defending force : a platoon of special forces led by Nikola Sundać , reinforced by a platoon of conscripts , was tasked with bypassing Struga and interdicting traffic along the road between the village of Unčani and Struga , preventing any access from the direction of Kozibrod . Another special forces platoon led by Željko Sanader was tasked with seizing the villages of Volinja and Kuljani before advancing towards Kozibrod , while the second battalion attached to the attacking force — led by Mićo Popović — engaged Croatian troops near Divuša , Golubovac Divuški and Kozibrod .
After Orlović 's battalion entered the undefended village of Zamlača , the Serb rebels moved from one house to the next , ransacking homes and forcing any civilians they
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found to move to the main road . Approximately 50 civilians were captured in the village , they were then forced to walk in front of an armed vehicle towards Struga , forming a human shield . By 13 : 00 , all the units earmarked for the advance between Dvor and Kozibrod had achieved their initial objectives , except for the platoon commanded by Sundać . By 14 : 30 , Struga was under attack . The defending force in Struga was first engaged by the outflanking force and had no knowledge of what had happened in Zamlača . As the human shield and the SAO Krajina force reached Struga , the defending troops were reluctant to fire against them . As a consequence , three Croatian policemen deployed in one house were surrounded and subsequently surrendered . Their captors stripped them , ordered them to run and then killed them . Unsure how to deal with the situation , the Croatian forces withdrew from the southern part of the village . The unit protected by the human shield moved very slowly and took six hours to move from Zamlača to the centre of Struga .
The armed vehicle and the soldiers following the human shield were ambushed in the centre of Struga by a single policeman and a civilian who threw a hand grenade and ran towards the vehicle , carrying three more hand grenades strapped to his waist . As the hand grenades exploded , gunfire erupted allowing the civilians held as human shields to run away . The policeman and civilian who carried out the ambush were both killed ; sources identify the two as reserve policeman Mile Blažević and traffic policeman Željko Filipović . Shortly before 16 : 00 , the Croatian forces counterattacked , causing the bulk of Popović 's troops to flee . Popović and his remaining five or six soldiers retreated . At least five SAO Krajina troops were killed and twenty wounded in fighting in Struga . By 18 : 00 , the battalion led by Orlović had lost 80 percent of its personnel to desertion . Prompted by the desertions and heavy shooting in Struga at 19 : 00 , Bogdan Vajagić , the commanding officer of the SAO Krajina units subordinated to the Dvor headquarters , requested that the JNA intervene . The JNA informed Vajagić that a unit was dispatched from Petrinja , allowing him to break off further fighting with the Croatian police and send two platoons as reinforcements to Glina as reinforcements at Vasiljković 's request . JNA tanks reached Struga at 19 : 50 to establish a buffer zone . Croatian forces there offered to leave the village if the JNA provided them with one armoured personnel carrier and escorted them to Hrvatska Kostajnica . The JNA complied with the request . During the fighting , 12 Croatian policemen were killed , along with 20 civilians .
= = Aftermath = =
Fighting continued around Topusko , which was besieged by the Serb rebels on 28 July . The same day , heavy fighting also erupted near Hrvatska Kostajnica and Hrvatska Dubica . In Dvor , Sundać and several soldiers from his platoon arrived at the regional SAO Krajina military headquarters threatening the commanding officer , holding him responsible for losses the platoon had suffered in the fighting . The group also demanded that the authorities turn any prisoners over to them , but the demand was refused . Finally , they went to the medical centre in Dvor , where they forced eight wounded Croat civilians and two policemen , out of the building and beat them in front of 100 onlookers . There are conflicting reports that all ten were killed , or that only an unspecified number of female patients were killed . On 29 July , the remaining Croatian civilian population in Struga , Unčani , Divuša and Golubovac Divuški accepted an offer made by the JNA to evacuate them to Hrvatska Kostajnica . When the column of evacuating civilians reached Kozibrod , the population of that village also joined them , followed by the police and ZNG troops stationed in Kozibrod . The move left the SAO Krajina and the JNA in control of the bulk of Banovina .
= = = Further combat = = =
Fighting in the region flared once more on 7 August , with new clashes around Hrvatska Kostajnica and an artillery bombardment of Topusko . On 14 August , the policemen captured in the first attack against the police station in Glina in June were released in a prisoner exchange . Croatian troops and positions held in Hrvatska Kostajnica , as well as in Petrinja and Sisak , were inspected by Croatian President Franjo Tuđman on 25 August . The Croatian position in the region deteriorated further on 9 September when Hrvatska Kostajnica was besieged . Three days later , SAO Krajina forces captured the hill that commanded the town , and the Croatian forces started a breakout from Hrvatska Kostajnica . On 13 September , Hrvatska Kostajnica was captured by SAO Krajina forces , after heavy attacks supported by JNA artillery and tanks forced approximately 300 Croatian troops to retreat or surrender . The capture of the town was followed by killings , looting and torching of buildings in the town and the surrounding villages . A total of 67 Croatian troops were captured in the town and shipped to the jail in Glina , but none arrived . The SAO Krajina forces captured Hrvatska Dubica the same day , and of Topusko on 14 September . On 21 September , Petrinja was captured by SAO Krajina forces and the JNA , denying Croatia an important bridgehead on the south ( right ) bank of the Kupa River . The town 's capture came approximately one month after Martić announced SAO Krajina 's plans to control it .
By the end of the month , the Serb rebels and the JNA controlled nearly all of the southern bank of the river , and the lines of control in the region largely stabilised . Before the ceasefire of 3 January 1992 , which implemented the Vance plan , the Serb rebels and the JNA made two more unsuccessful attempts to push back the Croatian forces in the region . These attacks comprised the autumn campaign undertaken by the JNA — in the area of Slana and Novi Farkašić on 17 – 18 October and in the area of Sunja on 2 November . In the same period , the ZNG launched an unsuccessful offensive codenamed Operation Whirlwind to recapture Glina on 11 – 13 December . The 120 Croats who remained in the area of Dubica faced persecution , culminating in the Baćin massacre of more than 50 Croats on 21 October , and the rounding up and expulsion of the remainder on 20 November .
= = = Charges of war crimes = = =
According to Australian court documents , on 10 January 2006 , the Šibenik County Court ordered that a warrant be issued for Vasiljković 's arrest . The offences listed were two alleged war crimes against prisoners of war , and one alleged war crime against the civilian population . The latter are related to his role in the attack on Glina which caused civilian deaths and injuries . He was arrested in Australia in 2006 , but as an Australian national , he appealed against extradition to Croatia claiming that he would not get a fair trial there . The appeal was granted by the Federal Court in 2009 , and Vasiljković was released . However , the High Court of Australia overturned the decision and Vasiljković was arrested after a 43 @-@ day search for him by the police . Subsequently , Vasiljković appealed against his extradition citing other grounds . His extradition was approved by the Minister for Home Affairs Jason Clare in November 2012 , however Vasiljković appealed that decision as well . In December 2014 , the Federal Court upheld Clare 's decision .
In 1994 , Croatian authorities tried Đuro Đurić , a former SAO Krajina policeman , in absentia on charges of war crimes committed in Struga , Zamlača and Kozibrod . He was convicted and sentenced to twenty years in prison . Đurić surrendered to the Croatian police at the border crossing in Dvor in 2001 . After two months in custody , he was released and left the country . Đurić returned to Croatia in February 2009 , when he was arrested once again on identical charges . One month later , he was released after witnesses were questioned and failed to link him to the war crimes of which he was accused .
= = = War reporting legacy = = =
Scotland travelled to the region to investigate the disappearance of a fellow journalist who was thought to have been detained by Croatian Serb forces and assist her . His death in the line of duty , while seeking to help a fellow reporter , had a significant impact on the German media and German public opinion . Scotland 's death reinforced the image of the conflict as a real war where no rules were obeyed . Spurred on by his death , Munich @-@ based journalists established the " Journalists help Journalists " ( German : Journalisten helfen Journalisten ) association in 1993 to help reporters the way Scotland had intended when he was killed . Scotland 's death also provided the impetus to establish German section of Reporters Without Borders in 1994 .
= Mitsubishi i =
The Mitsubishi i ( 三菱 ・ i , Mitsubishi i ) is a kei car from automaker Mitsubishi Motors , first released in January 2006 , twenty eight months after its debut at the 2003 Frankfurt Motor Show . It is the first four @-@ door automobile since the 1960s to employ a " rear midship " setup with the engine behind the passengers , in an attempt to improve safety and interior space without enlarging the overall exterior .
The innovative layout and styling of the i proved an immediate critical and commercial success , exceeding Mitsubishi 's initial sales targets by 20 percent and winning thirteen awards in its first year . Although designed with the Japanese keijidōsha light automobile class in mind , the attention it generated led to its subsequent introduction in right hand drive markets in Asia , Oceania and Europe . It is also used as a basis of the 2009 i @-@ MiEV battery electric vehicle .
= = Concepts : i , Se @-@ Ro = =
Two prototypes were exhibited during the car 's development . The first was the " i " Concept , which debuted at the 60th Frankfurt Motor Show in 2003 , and previewed the car 's striking exterior . Motoring journalists were quick to seize on the distinctive silhouette , calling it " a very good egg " , and a " crystal ball " with which to see the future of Mitsubishi . One reviewer even speculated it to be an allusion by the vehicle 's French @-@ born designer Olivier Boulay to the Renault 4CV , France 's popular post @-@ war " people 's car " with which the i shared its four @-@ seat , rear @-@ engined layout . Its styling was formally lauded when the i won the Grand Prize at the 50th anniversary Good Design Awards from the Japanese Ministry of Economy , Trade and Industry in October 2006 , the first kei car to win the award .
Explaining the choice of name , the company claimed that " i " could represent the owner ( I , the nominative personal pronoun ) as an encouragement to personal expression , or innovation , intelligence and imagination , keywords in the car 's development . It was also a play on the Japanese word for love , 愛 ( pronounced [ ai ] ) .
The " i " Concept was powered by a 999 cc powerplant with the company 's Mitsubishi Smart Idling ( MSI ) system , which turns off the engine automatically when the vehicle is stationary , and can restart it within 0 @.@ 2 seconds . So equipped , Mitsubishi claimed the car was capable of fuel consumption of no more than 3 @.@ 8 litres per 100 kilometres ( 74 @.@ 3 mpg @-@ imp ; 61 @.@ 9 mpg @-@ US ) .
The second prototype , called the Se @-@ Ro and exhibited at the 2003 Tokyo Motor Show , previewed the production model 's more conventional mechanical underpinnings , despite having a more radical appearance which bore little resemblance to the final design . Instead , its polished aluminium body was styled to resemble a zeppelin or airship , which Se @-@ Ro design head Shuji Yamada described as a realization of his fantasies of the future from childhood . The aviation theme continued with the name ; Se @-@ Ro , short for " secret room " , was a veiled reference to the Mitsubishi Zero fighter aircraft of World War II .
= = Technical details = =
= = = Body and dimensions = = =
A lightweight steel ( not aluminium ) structure and a rear @-@ engined layout allowed Mitsubishi to incorporate a larger front crumple zone , in order to meet current safety legislation requirements without compromising interior space . With no powertrain in front of the driver , the designers were able to shorten the front overhang and lengthen the wheelbase to 2 @,@ 550 millimetres ( 100 @.@ 4 in ) , giving greater legroom for passengers than many comparable kei cars whose wheelbase is typically 130 – 190 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) less . The downside of this design was a reduction in cargo @-@ carrying capacity , which was necessarily compromised by the engine 's location in the rear .
= = = Drivetrain = = =
The i has a " rear @-@ midship " engine mounted just ahead of the rear axle , a highly unusual configuration in a small car where front @-@ engine design has dominated since the 1970s . The 3B20 three @-@ cylinder powerplant has an aluminium cylinder block , a displacement of 659 cubic centimetres , and incorporates double overhead camshafts with MIVEC variable valve timing in the cylinder head . Initially only an intercooled and turbocharged engine was offered , until a naturally aspirated version was introduced for 2007 . A four @-@ speed automatic gearbox transmits power to the rear or all four wheels , depending on specification .
= = = Suspension , brakes and tires = = =
MacPherson struts are used in the front suspension , and an unusual three @-@ link De Dion tube / Watt 's linkage is used in the rear . Front discs with anti @-@ lock braking ( ABS ) and electronic brakeforce distribution ( EBD ) are standard across the range . In common with many other mid- or rear @-@ engined vehicles its fifteen @-@ inch wheels have uneven @-@ sized tires , 145 / 65 on the fronts and wider 175 / 55 on the rears , in an effort to minimise the chances of oversteer caused by the rear @-@ biased weight distribution .
= = = Specifications = = =
Three individual models , or grades , were available on the car 's release in 2006 ; S , M , and G , in ascending order of price . They all shared the same five @-@ door hatchback body style and turbocharged engine , but offered differing levels of options and standard equipment . In 2007 the base S model was given the new naturally aspirated powerplant , and was positioned below the two new grades , L and LX , whose engine it shared .
= = Domestic and international markets = =
Mass production began at the company 's Mizushima plant in Kurashiki , Okayama , in December 2005 , before it was released for sale on January 24 , 2006 . Priced from ¥ 1 @,@ 281 @,@ 000 to ¥ 1 @,@ 617 @,@ 000 , Mitsubishi initially aimed for 5 @,@ 000 cars per month within the domestic market , and managed to exceed its target in its first month by over 1 @,@ 000 . By the end of 2006 , approximately 37 @,@ 000 had been sold . The company has already exported the i to Singapore , Brunei , Hong Kong , and New Zealand , where like Japan they drive on the left , and introduced it to the United Kingdom on July 1 , 2007 , with a price of UK £ 9 @,@ 000 and a target of 300 sales per year .
= = = Annual production and sales = = =
= = Special editions = =
From July 25 to 31 , 2006 the company displayed a unique Mitsubishi i Hello Kitty edition at the Mitsukoshi department store in Tokyo 's Nihonbashi district . Based on the two @-@ wheel drive G model , it had a pink paint scheme with co @-@ ordinated interior , " Princess Kitty " decals on the doors and windows , a ribbon decal on the roof , and themed headrests with small , feline ears . The car , which was described as " the most quintessentially Japanese car ... ever " for fusing two of the country 's cultural icons — Hello Kitty and keijidōsha — was eventually sold in a charity auction on behalf of UNICEF .
Other limited production models include the i Play edition , a run of 3 @,@ 000 cars only available in white or black , and featuring a dashboard @-@ mounted slot for an iPod nano ,
Also 100 of the i Kurashiki edition with faux denim upholstery , to be sold at a single Mitsubishi dealership in Kurashiki , Okayama , the prefecture where the bulk of Japan 's domestic blue jeans manufacturers are located .
1st Anniversary special editions based on the L and M grades were also introduced in early 2007 to commemorate the car 's first year on sale .
= = Electric car version = =
Mitsubishi has given the i a prominent role in the company 's alternative propulsion research projects , developing a version using their MiEV ( Mitsubishi innovative Electric Vehicle ) technology in 2006 and exhibited at the 22nd International Battery , Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium & Exposition in Yokohama . MMC provided three power companies with vehicles in 2006 and 2007 in order to evaluate how a " fast @-@ charge " infrastructure might be developed for electric vehicles . Fleet testing by five power companies was conducted later in 2007 , with a view to future public sales between 2008 and 2010 .
The Mitsubishi i MiEV electric car was launched in Japan for fleet customers in July 2009 and for the general public in April 2010 . Sales to the public in Hong Kong began in May 2010 , and a trial began in Australia in September 2010 . Sales in several European countries began in late 2010 and between December 2011 and March 2012 for the United States west and east coasts , respectively .
= = Awards = =
The i won the 2007 Car of the Year award from the Japanese Automotive Researchers and Journalists Conference ( RJC ) , and two other " Car of the Year " awards , from the Carview Corporation website and the Consumer 's Choice . It also won the " Most Advanced Technology " Special Achievement Award at the 2006 – 07 Japan Car of the Year awards , where it was nominated unsuccessfully in the overall Car of the Year category , and ranked first in the Japan Mini @-@ Car APEAL Study published by J.D. Power Asia Pacific in October 2006 , with a higher score than any previous winner .
Aside from the 2006 Good Design Grand Prix , its style won Design Awards from the Japan Automotive Hall of Fame ( JAHFA ) , and the magazines Popeye and Car Styling .
= What Have You Done for Me Lately =
" What Have You Done for Me Lately " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Janet Jackson for her third studio album , Control ( 1986 ) . Jackson co @-@ wrote the song with its producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , who produced the track . It was released on January 13 , 1986 as the album 's lead single by A & M Records . After two unsuccessful albums and a management change , the singer began developing a new album . " What Have You Done for Me Lately " was originally penned for one of Jam and Lewis 's own records , but the lyrics were rewritten to convey Jackson 's feelings about her recent divorce from James DeBarge in January 1985 . It revolves around a woman 's frustration with her partner in a relationship .
Critical reviews for " What Have You Done for Me Lately " were positive , with music critics believing it erased the former " pop @-@ ingénue image " of Jackson 's first two albums , reestablishing her as an " independent woman " figure . The song has been featured in critic lists as one of the greatest songs of all times and received one nomination for Best Rhythm & Blues Song on the 29th annual Grammy Awards of 1987 . The song peaked at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . It also peaked at number two on the US Dance Club Songs and topped the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts . Outside of the US , it topped the singles chart in the Netherlands and peaked within the top ten in Germany , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom .
The accompanying music video for " What Have You Done for Me Lately " was directed by Brian Jones and Piers Ashworth and choreographed by singer Paula Abdul . In it , Jackson goes to a diner with her friends to talk about her relationship problems . The video won a Soul Train Music Award for Best R & B / Soul or Rap Music Video in 1987 . The song was first performed live by Jackson at the 29th annual Grammy Awards in 1987 . She has also performed it live in each of her concert tours , beginning with the Rhythm Nation World Tour 1990 through the Unbreakable World Tour ( 2015 @-@ 2016 ) . It has been included in each of Jackson 's greatest hits albums Design of a Decade : 1986 – 1996 ( 1995 ) , Number Ones ( 2009 ) and Icon : Number Ones ( 2010 ) . " What Have You Done for Me Lately " has been sampled and covered by various artists , and is also regarded as one of Jackson 's signature songs which helped establish her as a known artist .
= = Background = =
After arranging a recording contract with A & M Records in 1982 for a then sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Janet , her father Joseph Jackson oversaw the entire production of her debut album , Janet Jackson , and its follow @-@ up , Dream Street ( 1984 ) ; the latter of which was written and produced by Jesse Johnson and Janet 's brothers Marlon and Michael . Jackson was initially reluctant to begin a recording career , commenting " I was coming off of a TV show that I absolutely hated doing , Fame . I didn 't want to do [ the first record , Janet Jackson ] . I wanted to go to college . But I did it for my father ... " and elaborated that she was often in conflict with her producers . Amidst her professional struggles , she rebelled against her family 's wishes by marrying James DeBarge of the family recording group DeBarge in 1984 . The Jacksons disapproved of the relationship , citing DeBarge 's immaturity and substance abuse . Jackson left her husband in January 1985 and was granted an annulment later that year .
Jackson subsequently fired her father as her manager and hired John McClain , then A & M Records ' senior vice president of artists and repertoire and general manager . Commenting on the decision , she stated , " I just wanted to get out of the house , get out from under my father , which was one of the most difficult things that I had to do , telling him that I didn 't want to work with him again . " Joseph Jackson resented John McClain for what he saw as an underhanded attempt to steal his daughter 's career out from under him . McClain responded by saying " I 'm not trying to pimp Janet Jackson or steal her away from her father . " He subsequently introduced her to the songwriting and production duo James " Jimmy Jam " Harris III and Terry Lewis
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, former Prince associates and ex @-@ members of The Time .
= = Development and theme = =
Although Joseph Jackson initially demanded that his daughter 's new album be recorded in Los Angeles so that he could keep an eye on her , Jam and Lewis refused . They required the entire production of the album to be done at their own studio in Minneapolis , Minnesota , " far from the glitter and distractions of Hollywood and the interference of manager @-@ fathers . " Control was recorded at Flyte Tyme Studios , the site for Flyte Tyme Records , founded by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis in Minneapolis . Jackson recorded the whole album , but A & M label executive and manager John McClain wanted one more uptempo song to compose the album . She then went back to Minneapolis to record one more track , titled " What Have You Done for Me Lately " , which was originally penned for one of Jam and Lewis 's own records . Jam remembered , " She was sitting outside in the lounge and said , ' Man , that 's a funky track . Who 's that for ? ' And we said , ' It 's for you ' , and she said , ' Oh , cool ' . I think she was very pleased when she heard the track " .
The lyrics were rewritten to convey Jackson 's feelings about her recent annulment from James DeBarge . It was the last song to be recorded for Control , and was ultimately chosen as the lead single for the album , as Jam and Lewis felt it best represented Jackson 's outlook on life : " I think it was very representative of the sparseness and the funkiness that the rest of the album had and the attitude Janet had about being in control , being mature to the point where she had definite opinions about what she wanted to say " . The song was inspired by one of her experiences in Minneapolis when a group of men made sexual advances towards her outside the hotel she resided at during the recording of Control . She recalled , " They were emotionally abusive . Sexually threatening . Instead of running to Jimmy or Terry for protection , I took a stand . I backed them down . That 's how songs like ' Nasty ' and ' What Have You Done for Me Lately ' were born , out of a sense of self @-@ defense . "
= = Composition = =
Musically , " What Have You Done for Me Lately " is described as an uptempo dance song . It begins with a conversation with one of her friends , who asks Jackson the title question . Lyrically , it involves the singer asking why her lover was not as attentive as he once was . He was not treating her as well as he used to , and she calls him a " loser " in response . " I never ask for more than I deserve , you know it 's the truth . You seem to think you 're God 's gift to this earth . I 'm telling you no way " , Jackson sings . Veda A. McCoy in the book Lifepower : Six Winning Strategies to a Life of Purpose , Passion & Power expressed that the song reminded that " life is about more than just what you say . Life is also about what you do " . Vibe noted that with " What Have You Done for Me Lately " , Jackson stands up for men . New York magazine 's Chris Smith called the song 's chorus " fully belligerent " . In a Billboard publication , Nelson George noted its " tauting , tigerish " beat . Ed Gonzalez from Slant Magazine commented , " Nothing sends me into a trembling , corner @-@ cowering stupor than a giggly , under @-@ enunciated Janet Jackson jam . "
= = Critical reception = =
Critical reviews for " What Have You Done for Me Lately " were positive . Rolling Stone 's Rob Hoerburger expressed that " What Have You Done for Me Lately " erased the former " pop @-@ ingénue image " of Jackson 's first two albums . According to William Ruhlmann of AllMusic , Jackson was an " aggressive , independent woman " on the song . Connie Johnson from Los Angeles Times gave the song a positive review , emphasizing her " spunky authority " . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine praised the song , calling it " female @-@ empowering " and wrote , " ' What Have You Done for Me Lately ' predates TLC 's ' No Scrubs ' by over a decade " .
For Spin magazine 's J.C. Stevenson , most of the album 's power is in its dance floor authority , with songs such as " What Have You Done for Me Lately " . Blues & Soul considered it " supreme in its execution " . Nelson George in his book Post @-@ Soul Nation : The Explosive , Contradictory , Triumphant , and Tragic 1980s called it an " instant dance anthem " . For the 29th annual Grammy Awards of 1987 , " What Have You Done for Me Lately " received one nomination for Best Rhythm & Blues Song but lost to Anita Baker 's " Sweet Love " .
= = Chart performance = =
" What Have You Done for Me Lately " was released on January 13 , 1986 . It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 95 and climbed moderately and peaked at number four on the Billboard issue dated May 17 , 1986 . It spent 21 weeks on the chart and became the first top ten single for Jackson . The song charted well in Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs where it reached number one and number two respectively . It was placed at position 43 for the Billboard Year @-@ End chart for 1986 . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for the shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada , the single entered the RPM Singles Chart on March 29 , 1986 at number 92 . It peaked at number six on June 14 and became Jackson 's first top ten hit and spent 24 weeks on the chart . It placed at position 53 on the RPM Year @-@ end chart for 1986 .
In United Kingdom , " What Have You Done for Me Lately " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 67 and peaked at number three on May 3 , 1986 . It spent fourteen weeks on the chart and was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for the shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the song entered and peaked at number 27 on the New Zealand Singles Chart and spent nine weeks on the chart . In Australia , the song debuted at number 99 and peaked at number six on the Kent Music Report , the song spent a total of 17 weeks on the top 100 chart . In the Netherlands , the song became her first number @-@ one single , topping the Dutch Top 40 for three weeks . Across Europe , the song reached the top ten in Belgium , Germany , Ireland and Switzerland .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " What Have You Done for Me Lately " was directed by Brian Jones and Piers Ashworth and filmed in December 1985 . The video 's choreographer was Paula Abdul , who appears in the video as Jackson 's friend . According to a Jet magazine publication in 1990 , in the video Abdul " combined sexual energy with classy , alluring moves . The combination propelled Janet into the classification of sexy superstar . Any who saw the videos witnessed the fact that Janet was , indeed , a full @-@ grown woman . " The video also featured Tina Landon who would later become Jackson 's choreographer . Jackson shared in her book True You in 2011 that her recording company thought it was important that she appeared thinner in the video :
" I 'd been told that my whole life , but at this critical juncture , with my career taking off , I didn 't have the wherewithal to argue . [ ... ] We [ she and Paula Abdul ] shared a house and spent weeks exercising [ in Canyon Ranch ] . [ ... ] I was as motivated as ever to come out on top . [ ... ] I felt good when it was over . I enjoed the compliments about my " new " shape . I shot the video and did in fact reshape my image . "
It premiered on BET on February 17 , 1986 . In the video , Jackson goes to a diner with her friends to talk about her relationship problems . Her boyfriend ( played by Rudy Huston ) shows up with his friends , and Jackson decides to share her feelings about their relationship . In the video , Jackson 's reality is a dark world with faded colors . In a more dreamscape world , the colors are vibrant and everything is 2D .
The " What Have You Done for Me Lately " video won a Soul Train Music Award for Best R & B / Soul or Rap Music Video in 1987 . While reviewing the video , Vanity Fair magazine said in 1986 that Jackson " might be Michael 's androgynous twin in the sweep of her arm , the accusatory glare in her eyes , the collapsing diagonals of her dancing " .
= = Live performances = =
Jackson performed " What Have You Done for Me Lately " on Soul Train on March 29 , 1986 . She also sang the song live at the Grammy Awards of 1987 , wearing an all @-@ black outfit , along with Jam and Lewis and dancers . She has also performed the song on all of her concert tours . On the 1990 Rhythm Nation 1814 Tour , it was the third song on the setlist . She performed the song with fellow dancers Tina Landon and Karen Owens , and was followed by a performance of " Let 's Wait Awhile " . On the Janet World Tour which happened in 1993 and continued throughout the two following years , the song was the second to be performed along with " Nasty " , with the singer wearing gold jewelry . For Jon Pareles from The New York Times , Jackson was a stronger vocalist than she was when she was on the last tour . In " What Have You Done for Me Lately " , she had new and syncopated vocals , which were different from the original song .
The song was performed during a " frenzied " medley of " Control " , " The Pleasure Principle " , and " Nasty " on The Velvet Rope Tour in 1998 . The medley at the October 11 , 1998 show in New York City , at the Madison Square Garden , was broadcast during a special titled The Velvet Rope : Live in Madison Square Garden by HBO . It was also added to the setlist at its DVD release , The Velvet Rope Tour – Live in Concert in 1999 . During the All for You Tour in 2001 and 2002 , " What Have You Done for Me Lately " was performed in a re @-@ worked version , during a medley with " Control " and " Nasty " . According to Denise Sheppard from Rolling Stone , it was " another crowd favorite ; perhaps best dubbed as the ' bitter ' portion of the night " , also adding that " this performer - who has been performing onstage for twenty @-@ eight years - knows what the crowd comes for and gives it to them in spades " . The February 16 , 2002 final date of the tour at the Aloha Stadium in Hawaii , was broadcast by HBO , and included a performance of it . This rendition was also added to the setlist at its DVD release , Janet : Live in Hawaii , in 2002 .
For her first tour in seven years Rock Witchu Tour in 2008 , she chose to open the show a medley with " The Pleasure Principle " , " Control " and " What Have You Done for Me Lately " . After an interlude , Jackson made her entrance amid fireworks and theatrical smoke to perform the medley , while donning a Mohawk hairstyle . While promoting her second greatest hits album Number Ones , the singer performed an eight @-@ minute medley of six hits during the American Music Awards of 2009 . It included " Control " , " Miss You Much " , " What Have You Done for Me Lately " , " If " , " Make Me " , and finished with " Together Again " . At the end of the performance , she received applauses and standing ovation from the audience . On the 2010 Essence Music Festival , held in New Orleans , Louisiana , Jackson included " What Have You Done for Me Lately " on the setlist , and performed wearing a one @-@ piece outfit with leotards underneath . On the Number Ones : Up Close and Personal tour in 2011 , the song was the third on the setlist . She performed it wearing a metallic catsuit . In August 30 , the song was dedicated to Portland as a part of the tour which Jackson dedicated a song for the city she was performing . It is included on her current 2015 @-@ 2016 Unbreakable World Tour .
= = Usage in media and legacy = =
" What Have You Done for Me Lately " , in particular its title , was referenced in the 1987 film Eddie Murphy Raw , as a common question that women ask their partners prior to breaking up . It is featured in the 1989 made @-@ for @-@ television Disney film The Parent Trap III , when Jessie ( Monica Creel ) embarrasses herself during a karaoke dance skit called " The Jackson Three " , a parody of the Jackson Five , singing the song . American musician Prince started performing the track during his 1986 Parade tour stopping
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that he left owing to health issues , although others suggest that Rosenberg departed the island because he was concerned about political unrest . He left three weeks before the king signed the June Constitution . Rosenberg returned to San Francisco , but was hospitalized within a month of his return , and died on July 10 , 1887 . He spoke of King Kalākaua on his deathbed , whispering the king 's name with his dying breath . He was buried at the cemetery of Congregation Sherith Israel in the San Francisco Peninsula ; brief death notices were published in Hawaii- and San Francisco @-@ based newspapers .
Rosenberg left a will in which he requested that his body be cremated using quicklime . Most of his estate was left to his children ; the will stated that his Torah and yad were to be given to his son Adolph , but this was not done as they remained in Hawaii .
= = Legacy = =
In 1888 , the Torah and yad Rosenberg left with King Kalākaua were included in an exhibition of royal possessions at a bazaar held by King Kalākaua 's wife , Queen Kapiolani . After King Kalākaua 's death in 1891 , his stepson David Kawānanakoa inherited the items . When Kawānanakoa 's wife , Abigail Campbell Kawānanakoa , inherited them after David 's death , she loaned them to members of the Hawaiian Jewish community on religious holidays . Her granddaughter , Abigail Kinoiki Kekaulike Kawānanakoa , later acquired the items . The yad was bequeathed to Temple Emanu @-@ El in 1959 , and formally dedicated for use in Torah readings the next year . The Torah was lost in the 1940s , but was recovered in 1972 when a Honolulu attorney found the scroll in the possessions of a recently deceased client and donated it to the temple . The Torah had been damaged and could not be used in services , but the temple later installed a plaque describing Rosenberg below a glass display case housing the Torah and yad .
Although Rosenberg 's Torah was a prized possession of the royal family , there were no recorded Jewish religious services in Hawaii until years after his death . The first Jewish temple in Hawaii was not built until 70 years after Rosenberg presented the Torah to King Kalākaua . Although Rosenberg styled himself as " Rabbi Rosenberg " — and the king promised him a plot of land for a synagogue — there is no evidence that he was a rabbi .
William DeWitt Alexander advanced a negative view of Rosenberg in a late 19th @-@ century history of Hawaii , characterizing him as an accomplice to what he saw as the king 's " efforts to revive heathenism " . A 2008 article in Honolulu magazine also advanced an unfavorable characterization of Rosenberg : a writer for the publication described him as a " smooth talker " and compared him to the 19th @-@ century industrialist Claus Spreckels , arguing that each was a " huckster basking in the rays of Kalākaua 's power " . A more positive description was offered in the Canadian Jewish Chronicle in 1938 by Harry Rubenstein , who compared Rosenberg to the Baal Shem Jewish mystics of the 1700s .
= Finale ( Smallville ) =
" Finale " is the title of the two @-@ episode series finale of the superhero television series Smallville . The episodes are the 21st and 22nd of the 10th season , and the 216th and 217th episodes overall . The finale originally aired on The CW in the United States on May 13 , 2011 . The first half was written by Al Septien and Turi Meyer , and directed by Kevin G. Fair , and the second half was written by Kelly Souders and Brian Peterson , and directed by Greg Beeman .
The series follows the adventures of the young Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) in the fictional town of Smallville , Kansas , before he becomes Superman . In the series finale , Tess Mercer ( Cassidy Freeman ) learns that the planet Apokolips is coming to destroy humanity , and that Oliver Queen ( Justin Hartley ) is under the possession of Darkseid . Meanwhile , a parallel universe version of Lionel Luthor ( John Glover ) attempts to bring a clone of his son Lex ( Michael Rosenbaum ) to life . Clark finally realizes his true destiny , just in time to stop Darkseid 's arrival on Earth . The finale episodes feature a flashforward seven years into the future , revealing Clark 's new superhero persona , " Superman " .
The episodes , written in advance during the fall of 2010 , were conceived to successfully bring an end to the series . Showrunners Brian Peterson and Kelly Souders attempted to preserve the intended ending envisioned by original series developers Alfred Gough and Miles Millar several years earlier . The episodes featured the return of several former actors , including John Schneider , Aaron Ashmore , Annette O 'Toole , Michael McKean ( voice only ) , and Michael Rosenbaum . The episodes also contained several overt references , homages , and connections to previous Superman franchises , such as the 1978 film Superman and the 2006 film Superman Returns .
Upon its premiere , the two @-@ episode finale was watched by 3 @.@ 35 million viewers . The episodes received generally positive reviews from commentators , many of whom felt that the series was successfully able to wrap up its story arcs . Rosenbaum 's return was met with critical applause ; however , the artistic decision to render Superman using computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) was met with negativity .
= = Plot = =
Seven years in the future , Chloe Sullivan ( Allison Mack ) reads a comic book entitled " Smallville " , detailing the rise of Superman , to her son . Flashing back seven years , Lois Lane ( Erica Durance ) and Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) argue about their upcoming wedding . Lois wants to call off the wedding , believing that she is hindering Clark ’ s destiny . Chloe gives Lois a copy of Clark ’ s vows to help convince her to go through with the wedding . Meanwhile , Clark has a discussion with his mother , Martha ( Annette O 'Toole ) about letting go of the past . Clark visits Lois at their apartment , where she tells him that the wedding is on , admitting that she read his vows , and gives him hers in exchange . Clark reads her vows and tells her that he will meet her at the chapel .
At the Luthor Mansion , Tess Mercer ( Cassidy Freeman ) is confronted by Granny Goodness , who offers her one final chance to join Darkseid 's forces to spare her life during the coming destruction . Tess refuses , declaring that , just because she was born a Luthor , her fate is not sealed . At Watchtower , discovering that Oliver Queen ( Justin Hartley ) disabled the organization 's satellites , Tess brings up previous satellite footage revealing the planet Apokolips descending toward Earth . Before Tess can warn the team , she is ambushed by a group of armed men and taken captive . Granny , Desaad , and Gordon Godfrey meet in their lair . Oliver — possessed by the power of Darkseid — arrives and is instructed to remove Clark 's powers with a gold kryptonite wedding ring . At the wedding , Chloe realizes the ring is kryptonite and stops Oliver . Clark helps Oliver overcome Darkseid 's control just as Apokolips enters Earth 's atmosphere .
Tess , awakening on a table inside a laboratory , is greeted by the parallel universe version of Lionel Luthor ( John Glover ) , who reveals that Lex took his imperfect clones ' best pieces and assembled them to create a perfect clone of himself . Lionel attempts to use Tess 's heart to bring Lex back to life , but she breaks free and shoots Lionel during her escape . Lionel makes a deal with Darkseid to bring his son to life in exchange for Lionel 's soul . Clark tracks Tess to the Luthor Mansion , where he is confronted by Lex . Clark apologizes for not being able to save Lex , but declares that he will always be there to stop him in the future . Oliver confronts Granny Goodness , Desaad , and Gordon Godfrey , dispatching them with three arrows . At LuthorCorp , Tess confronts Lex , who reveals that he always knew that she was his sister and that he used her . Lex embraces Tess , and stabs her in the stomach as he tells her he loves her , claiming to be saving her from becoming like him . As she lays dying , she infects Lex with a neurotoxin that erases all of his memories within 30 seconds .
After overhearing a government radio broadcast with disguised references to nuclear weapons , Lois sneaks on board Air Force One . She manipulates her way into the room with the Secretary of State , where she tells him that the supposed meteor is really a planet , and that the heroes they tried to destroy can save them . They agree to give the heroes a chance , but give them only five minutes . In the Kent barn , Clark is attacked by Darkseid possessing Lionel 's body . Jor @-@ El taps into Clark 's thoughts , showing him images of his trials over the past 10 years , revealing that his entire life has been one big trial leading to this moment . Harnessing the ability to fly , Clark smashes through Lionel 's body , destroying it , and makes his way to the Fortress of Solitude . There , the spirit of his father , Jonathan Kent ( John Schneider ) , presents him with the suit Martha made for him , and Clark takes to the sky , saving a crashing Air Force One , and vanquishing Darkseid by pushing Apokolips back into space .
Flashing forward seven years , a TV broadcast announces that Lex Luthor has just been elected the President of the United States . At the Daily Planet , Clark runs into Lois , and they finally discuss getting married after seven years . News arrives of a bomb found in an elevator uptown . Clark runs to the rooftop and rips open his shirt , revealing his new suit as " Superman " .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and writing = = =
Following the conclusion of the seventh season finale " Arctic " , showrunners and original series developers Alfred Gough and Miles Millar left the series . This meant that they were unable to write the series finale , although Millar later noted that , in their minds , " the last moment of the show would [ have been ] him putting on the suit and flying off into his future and his destiny . " According to executive producer and showrunner Kelly Souders , she and fellow executive producer and showrunner Brian Peterson kept Gough and Millar 's original ending in mind when they began working on the finale , because the scenes that Gough and Millar had envisioned represented " real wish fulfillments for fans " . However , the resultant script changed along the way , with Souders eventually calling it " a smorgasbord of what everybody wanted . "
The first part of the episode was written by Al Septien and Turi Meyer , whereas the second half was written by Peterson and Souders . Due to the important nature of the episode , Septien , Meyer , Peterson , and Souders began working on the script before Christmas , in the fall of 2010 after the writers had a general idea for the first part of the 10th season episodes . Souders later explained that the script had been finalized when Rosenbaum agreed to return to the series . As such , this forced the writers to redo parts of the episode to make room for his character . The work was so stressful , Souders said , that she experienced heart palpitations due to exhaustion , excitement , and the emotion of the experience .
The episode finally features Clark flying . Peterson and Souders had toyed with the idea of showing Clark flying in either the 200th episode , " Homecoming , " or during a different mid @-@ season episode , but they decided against it ; they argued that Clark flying was a metaphor for him finally embracing his destiny , and that adding it to another episode other than the finale would be jarring . The writers listened to both network executive and fans in order to formulate the best idea as to how to handle the situation . Peterson noted that people wanted " one big transformation " . According to Souders , the writers initially wished to include more members of the Justice League but , because of budgetary constraints , these ideas did not come to pass . Peterson , however , noted that the episode contained " 80 to 90 percent of what everyone [ wanted ] " . After the scripts were finished , they were heat @-@ marked to ensure secrecy . According to Welling , scripts could not be photocopied and , in order to read them , the actors had to sign them in and out .
= = = Casting = = =
The finale episodes featured several returning characters . John Schneider reprised his role as Jonathan Kent , both appearing to Clark in various visions , as well as presenting Clark with his suit near the end of the episode . Schneider 's appearance was meant to bookend the season , with his role in the episodes mirroring his appearance to Clark in the season premiere , " Lazarus " . Aaron Ashmore returned after his original character , " Henry " James Olson , was written out of the series during the eighth season episode " Doomsday " . In the finale , Ashmore portrays " Jimmy Olsen " , the younger brother of Henry James Olsen , in a sequence set seven years into the future . Michael McKean also reprised his role as Perry White , and former series regulars Annette O 'Toole and Allison Mack also were featured in the episode .
The airing of the finale was preceded by months of speculation as to whether actor Michael Rosenbaum would return to reprise his role as Lex Luthor . Welling stated that he was doing " everything [ he could ] to get Michael Rosenbaum back " , because Rosenbaum was the only person Welling could have seen portraying Lex Luthor on the series . Before the airing of season 10 commenced , Welling argued that , for him , Luthor 's return would have to be the inspiration for Clark to finally become Superman , because the idea of one character without the other was unthinkable .
At the 2010 Comic @-@ Con , Welling stated that Rosenbaum acknowledged the importance of Lex in the series and wanted to return in some degree for the show 's final season , but that he needed to finalize the details . According to Welling , the series would tease early on that Lex would return with the introduction of bodies into which Lex could tap in order to heal himself later in life . After months of speculation , the actor finally agreed to appear in the finale . Rosenbaum explained that his return was for the fans , stating , " I appreciate all of their passion , their relentlessness , and even their threats . " Had Rosenbaum not elected to return , Souders explained that Lex still would have played a part , but would have been more of " a puppeteer behind the scenes " and the fact that he was still living would have " been a reveal at the end of the show " , sans the dialogue .
Speculation also surrounded whether former series star Kristin Kreuk would reprise her role as Lana Lang . Prior to the episode 's broadcast , Kreuk ignited a minor controversy by noting that she would not be watching the episode when it aired , giving some fans the impression that she was avoiding the show . Kruek released a statement on her Facebook page , clarifying that , even when she was a star on Smallville , she did not watch the episodes when they aired . Kreuk stated that Peterson and Souders never approached her about being in the finale , and that she was glad that they had not , because she was fond of how Lana 's story arc ended in season eight .
= = = Filming = = =
Because the finale encompassed two separate episodes , each was filmed by a different director . Part one was directed by Kevin G. Fair , and the second part was directed by Greg Beeman . Beeman had been a regular director for the series during its first five years , but he had left after helping direct the fifth season episode " Reckoning " . A fan of the series himself , he was particularly pleased with the way in which the various story arcs were wrapped up , highlighting the scenes in the Fortress of Solitude , the flash forward seven years , and the reappearance of Schneider . Production for the finale started in March 2011 . The producers for the series were initially concerned that they had not filmed enough material to fill the finale 's allotted air time , so additional scenes were filmed between Granny Goodness and Godfrey concerning the Darkseid mythology . However , a rough cut of the finished episodes ended up going over time , and the scenes were cut . There was talk that these scenes would appear on the 10th season DVD , although this did not come to pass .
The suit that Clark dons in the series finale was originally used in the 2006 film Superman Returns , worn by Brandon Routh . The producers of Smallville had been offered the suit worn by Christopher Reeve in the original Superman films ; however , they turned the offer down . Peterson reasoned that this was because it " didn 't quite fit with our world " . The final scene was shot to be reminiscent of the similar scene in the original 1978 Superman film , where Reeve rips open his shirt to reveal the Superman suit . Beeman and the rest of the production staff reviewed the scene to make sure that they filmed the homage correctly , but Beeman later noted that the iconic scene was " clunkier " and more " out of focus " than they wanted , and that people 's memories make it seem more impressive . However , he was pleased that the recreated shot was the sequence to wrap up Smallville , noting that he " always thought that was going to be the final moment " .
Special effects for the finale episodes — and series as a whole — were completed by Entity FX . The company produced nearly 80 different visual effects shots for the episode , which were created in the Entity FX facilities in Vancouver , Canada , and Santa Monica , California , with addition supervision in Vancouver . Mat Beck , owner of the company , later explained that the company was in charge of " work [ ing ] this magic " on several minutes of screen time , during which hardly any photography had been filmed . The episode also made use of practical effects , such as how Lex Luthor 's bald head was created . Unlike Rosenbaum 's previous appearances , the actor decided to opt for a bald cap to cover his hair , arriving at this decision both because it had taken four months for his hair to grow back and because he was working on other projects that required him to have hair .
The final five minutes of the second of the finale episodes featured the musical score for the Krypton sequence in the opening credits of Superman , orchestrated by John Williams . Former series composer Mark Snow , who served from seasons one to six , had previously reworked the score in season two 's " Rosetta " — which featured a guest appearance by Christopher Reeve — as well as various moments in the season two finale , " Exodus " .
= = Broadcast = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The double @-@ episode finale earned a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 8 , with a 3 share in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States . These ratings mean that the two @-@ episode finale was seen by 1 @.@ 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 3 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . It was viewed by an estimated 3 @.@ 35 million viewers , and ranked second in its timeslot . For the first one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours , the episode averaged around 2 @.@ 9 million viewers ; however , during the final 30 minutes , viewership rose to 3 @.@ 39 million . The ratings for the final episode marked a 63 percent increase when compared with the previous episode , " Prophecy " .
= = = Reception = = =
Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly 's PopWatch complimented the episode , writing that " the series finale of Smallville did what it needed to do : It completed the circuit on an epic coil of story that began 10 years ago . " Jensen was critical of the first half of the episode , noting that the pre @-@ marital tension between Clark and Lois did not bode well for the story . However , he felt that the last 10 minutes made up for the slow parts in the episode . He ultimately concluded that the finale was " radically cornball and goosebumpingly geektastic , and the fanboy in me was satisfied " . Chris Carabott of IGN awarded the episode a 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 , citing an " amazing " episode . He argued that it " succeeded in delivering the moments we wanted to see " and that " this finale delivered some of the most memorable moments of the series and successfully transformed Clark Kent into Superman " . Nick McHatton of TV Fanatic awarded the episode five stars out of five , calling its resolution " breath taking " . McHatton praised the ending , noting that , " I couldn ’ t have asked for a better ending than those seven years in the future " and that the final shot was the scene he " always imagined Smallville could end with " .
Mike Moody of AOLTV felt that the season finale alternated between " exciting and disappointing " , with the final 15 minutes being particularly good due to the celebration of " what we love most about Clark Kent / Superman – his power to delight and inspire us " . However , Moody was critical that the substantial scenes in the episode were surrounded by " countless minutes of poorly paced padding , filler , and manufactured conflict " , and that " the bulk of this two @-@ hour finale was just painful to watch " . Phil Dyess @-@ Nugent of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C + " and called it " a sodden mess that mostly points up how off @-@ balance the show became " . He heavily criticized the show for focusing so much of the romance between Clark and Lois , and wrote that it detracted from the " better " plot concerning Darkseid and his minions .
Likewise , several reviewers expressed frustration with the lack of a full @-@ body shot of Clark in the Superman suit , as well as the way in which Superman was presented as flying through the use of CGI . TV Line ranked the fact that Clark Kent " barely suits up " in the finale as one of " TV 's 20 Biggest Disappointments of 2011 " , writing that " we never quite were treated to seeing the series star clad in the full costume , in flying mode " , although they wrote that it was " a super @-@ nitpick " . Carabott called the CGI effects " a little shoddy " , but that they made up " one of the most important moments of the series " . Peterson and Souders , however , were reportedly " thrilled " by the " great debate " , noting that " what [ the producers ] wanted to do all along was show hints at where he was going , because [ Clark 's destiny as Superman ] is a whole different story that is yet to be told . "
Rosenbaum 's return as Lex Luthor was met with positive critical reception . Jensen felt that Rosenbaum 's cameo was too short , but that it was worth it to see him play Lex one last time . Carabott felt that the scene between Lex and Clark was " worth the wait " . Dyess @-@ Nugent praised Rosenbaum 's acting , arguing that it shook " the show awake , sending the needle hurtling rudely into the red zone " . He ultimately stated that Rosenbaum 's acting — in both the finale and the series as a whole — was " one of the great TV series performances of the past 10 years and proof once again that talent will blossom in the least expected places " .
= Grey Matters ( Fringe ) =
" Grey Matters " is the 10th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode was written by Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz , and directed by Jeannot Szwarc . It centered on three mental patients who mysteriously became sane again after shapeshifters from the parallel universe removed a piece of foreign tissue from each of their brains ; this tissue is later revealed to have been taken from the brain of Walter Bishop years before . The fringe team of Olivia Dunham , Peter Bishop , and Walter investigate and face a new enemy , Thomas Jerome Newton ( guest actor Sebastian Roché ) , whose purpose is to decipher the missing parts of Walter 's brain and find out how to move between universes .
The episode features the first scene between Walter and his old colleague William Bell ( played by guest actor Leonard Nimoy ) . At the time , it fulfilled Nimoy 's commitment to the show , though he later returned for the season finale . " Grey Matters " first aired in the United States on December 10 , 2009 on Fox to mostly positive reviews . An estimated 6 @.@ 33 million viewers watched the episode , and it received a 2 @.@ 3 ratings share among those 18 – 49 .
= = Plot = =
In a Boston mental institution , Thomas Jerome Newton ( Sebastian Roché ) performs brain surgery on a patient , Mr Slater , who keeps repeating " Heather " " flowers in her hair " , and a " girl in a red dress " . Newton successfully removes part of his brain , but he and his team are forced to leave before they can seal the man 's head back up . The Fringe team of Olivia ( Anna Torv ) , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , and Walter ( John Noble ) arrive at the institution and learn that Slater 's paranoid schizophrenia was apparently cured by the operation , and that his brain is still structurally intact .
While viewing security footage , Olivia recognizes Newton , the leader of the shapeshifters who was reanimated from a cryogenically frozen head at the end of " Momentum Deferred " . Astrid and Walter research the patient 's physician , Dr. Paris , and learn he set up an indefinite prescription fourteen years ago for Slater as well as two other patients in the same week . Peter and Olivia interview one of these other patients , who constantly thought about the number 28 , but was recently cured of her obsessive compulsive disorder by Newton . She tells them she was originally sent to the hospital by Dr Paris for mild postpartum depression , and that her obsessive compulsive disorder started soon after . Peter and Olivia also hear of a third patient who was mysteriously cured two days ago . Walter realizes that all the patients were given constant doses of organ transplant medication , and that foreign brain tissue was stored in each of their brains .
Walter undergoes a CT scan , and the team learn Walter had three pieces of his brain tissue removed from his Hippocampus which is the primary repository for long term memory . The pieces were then apparently stored inside the brains of the cured patients fourteen years ago . Knowing only Walter could comprehend the memories concerning how to open a portal to another reality , the shapeshifters kidnap him . By the time the others find Walter , Newton has already learned what he needs to know and escapes . Olivia manages to stop them , but is forced to choose between seizing Newton and saving Walter , as he has been given a lethal dose of a neurotoxin that will kill him unless Newton gives them the correct directions . Olivia chooses to save Walter 's life , and Newton replies " Now I know how weak you are " .
Broyles eases Olivia 's concerns that she made an emotional choice by assuring her that her decision to save Walter was a logical one as Walter is highly valuable to the team .
As Walter undergoes a follow @-@ up MRI , he flashes back to a past surgery , where he is being operated on by William Bell ( AKA Dr Paris , played by Leonard Nimoy ) , who removed Walter 's brain fragments and hid them in the patients ' brains to prevent anyone else from gaining the information .
= = Production = =
" Grey Matters " was written by screenwriters Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz , and was directed by Jeannot Szwarc . In an interview the following year , Miller noted that " Your characters will often assert themselves , and remind you who they really are . In ' Grey Matters ' there 's a moment where pre @-@ madness Walter wakes up in the chair — that beat emerged on the page . We had no idea it was going to be in the script until we were writing the scene . As a writer , you live for that . "
" Grey Matters " marked the first episode that featured a shared scene between actors Leonard Nimoy and John Noble , whose characters are old colleagues of each other . At the time , it was Nimoy 's third episode and consequently last commitment as a guest actor on Fringe , and he had expressed his reluctance in interviews to return for further episodes . Nimoy however later agreed to a reappearance in the two @-@ part season finale " Over There " . The visual effect of making Walter and Bell appear younger was produced by Zoic Studios . Fringe 's visual effects supervisor , Jay Worth , explained " The guys at Zoic had to walk a fine line between too plasticky , stretched , morph effects and something that naturalistically looks younger " . During filming for " Brown Betty " , Noble described the episode in an interview , " ' Grey Matters ' was a very important episode for Walter because it helped to explain to some degree his apparent behavior . His eccentricity . His obsessiveness . His forgetfulness . Because we found out that he had certain memory parts of his brain removed . "
In a deleted scene set after the end of the episode , Walter talks with the first patient Joseph Slater , who wonders why he was chosen to have a piece of Walter 's brain . Walter responds it was a matter of circumstance , as Slater shared his blood type and had a young resilient brain . Walter also says he himself cannot be cured , as his madness had nothing to do with the missing parts of his brain .
= = Cultural references = =
William Bell 's secret alias was a reference to Leonard Nimoy 's character in the television series Mission : Impossible , whose character was also named Dr. Simon Paris . Thomas Jerome Newton is named after David Bowie 's character in The Man Who Fell to Earth . Dunwich Mental Hospital , where they meet the second mysteriously cured patient is a reference to the fictional town of Dunwich , Massachusetts , created by H.P. Lovecraft .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on December 10 , 2009 , " Grey Matters " was watched by an estimated 6 @.@ 33 million viewers according to Nielsen Media Research . The episode earned a 2 @.@ 3 ratings among people 18 – 49 , slightly above the season average of 2 @.@ 2 ; it was down 0 @.@ 2 ratings points from the previous week .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode premiered to near universal critical acclaim . Ramsey Isler of IGN gave it 9 @.@ 6 / 10 , and thought it was " one of the most balanced and well @-@ executed episodes of the series , Fringe fans get action , suspense , emotion , and best of all , some revelations ! ... This episode is nearly everything a Fringe fan could have asked for ... Besides the awesomeness with the Bishops , Olivia finally returns to taking an active role in an episode ... But the most important thing is that the overarching Fringe plot finally progressed , and it 's going in a pretty damn good direction " . Jane Boursaw from TV Squad enjoyed the episode because it had a " few reveals and a nice cliffhanger . " She liked the interactions between Walter and Peter , and also praised the scene between Olivia and Newton . Josh Wigler of MTV was pleased that the " mystery of the week " also tied into the ongoing plot , and that answers were provided to certain mysteries , such as why Walter 's behavior and personality is " a little ... off . Pretty interesting stuff . It 's nice to finally have a reason to point at for Walter 's craziness " .
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly thought it " was one of the best Fringes yet for the way it wove its sci @-@ fi with its emotional subplots with such tight , artful braiding " . Television Without Pity rated it an A , while A.V. Club 's Noel Murray gave the episode an A- , explaining " This was , I think , the best Fringe of the season , and I ’ m only docking it a notch because it was less about themes and character than it was about plot . But man , what a plot " . Various critics lauded Noble 's performance . Website blogger io9 listed " Grey Matters " as one of the few " crucial " episodes new viewers must watch to get into the show . In January 2013 , IGN ranked the episode the sixth best of the entire series , explaining that the " story is brilliant , with twists and turns and remarkable acting by both John Noble and Joshua Jackson as they portray a bond that 's closer than anything else up to that point ... This fantastic episode was an early Christmas present for Fringe fans . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Director Jeannot Szwarc submitted " Grey Matters " for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series category at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards .
= Banksia lemanniana =
Banksia lemanniana , commonly known as the yellow lantern banksia or Lemann 's banksia , is a species of woody shrub of the family Proteaceae native to Western Australia . It generally grows as an open shrub or small tree to five metres ( 15 ft ) high with stiff serrated leaves , and unusual hanging inflorescences . Flowering occurs over summer , the greenish buds developing into oval flower spikes before turning grey and developing the characteristic large woody follicles . It occurs within and just east of the Fitzgerald River National Park on the southern coast of the state . Banksia lemanniana is killed by bushfire and regenerates from seed .
First described by Swiss botanist Carl Meissner in 1856 , it was named in honour of English botanist Charles Morgan Lemann . It is one of three or four related species all with pendent inflorescences , which is an unusual feature within the genus . No subspecies are recognised . Banksia lemanniana is classified as Not Threatened under the Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia . Unlike many Western Australian banksias , it appears to have some resistance to dieback from the soil @-@ borne water mould Phytophthora cinnamomi , and is one of the easier Western Australian species to grow in cultivation .
= = Description = =
Banksia lemanniana grows as an open shrub or , less commonly , a small tree to
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and 1989 , and was extensively renovated after each .
Stanford Memorial Church was the earliest and has been " among the most prominent " non @-@ denominational churches on the West Coast of the United States . Since its dedication in 1903 , the church 's goal has been to serve the spiritual needs of the university in a non @-@ sectarian way . The church 's first chaplain , David Charles Gardner , began a tradition of leadership which has guided the development of Stanford University 's spiritual , ethical , and academic relation to religion . The church 's chaplains were instrumental in the founding of Stanford 's religious studies department , moving Stanford from a " secular university " at the middle of the century to " the renaissance of faith and learning at Stanford " in the late 1960s , when the study of religion at the university focused on social and ethical issues like race and the Vietnam War .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Stanford Memorial Church is located at the end of the mile @-@ long axis of Stanford University , visible from a distance ; the main vista begins at the main entrance , continues to Palm Drive , traverses " the Oval " ( a large oval lawn ) , enters the Main Quad ( the core of the university ) , and finally crosses Memorial Court and the Inner Quad courtyard . The church was commissioned by Jane Stanford ( 1828 – 1905 ) as a memorial to her husband , Leland Stanford ( 1824 – 93 ) . The Stanfords had intended that a church should become " the centerpiece of the university complex " . They were deeply religious , and for their day and social standing , " open @-@ minded ecumenicalists " , so they included in the university 's original charter that a church built on campus should be a " nondenominational — if essentially Protestant — house of worship " . They had traveled Europe for many years , visiting churches , museums , and notable buildings and finding inspiration for the architecture of both the university and church . They received their greatest inspiration from the Piazza San Marco in Venice .
During one of the Stanfords ' European trips they befriended Maurizio Camerino , an artist with a reputation for producing high @-@ quality mosaics , who was managing the Antonio Salviati studios in Venice . After Leland Stanford 's death in 1893 , legal disputes tied up the Stanford estate and prevented the completion of the university for several years . When the disputes were settled in Jane Stanford 's favor , she was finally able to put into motion her wish for a church . In 1898 , she and the university trustees requested design submissions for the church . Once Stanford Memorial Church was ready for decoration , Jane Stanford visited Camerino , who had taken over the ownership of Salvati and Company in 1890 , and commissioned him to produce mosaics for the church . Stanford spent two months in Venice , working closely with Camerino and selecting the watercolors he created that were eventually developed into the mosaics . The process of finalizing the designs took several months after Stanford returned home to California , as new paintings and modifications were shipped to her by boat . The art contained in the church " greatly occupied " Stanford ; as former chaplain Robert C. Gregg put it , " The structure was to be without flaw " . Stanford was determined that the quality of the church 's workmanship would equal the medieval churches she had admired in Europe .
Groundbreaking for the church was held in 1899 . After a delay of almost a year , Stanford Memorial Church was dedicated on January 25 , 1903 , with " impressive ceremonies " . Demonstrating Jane Stanford 's goal of ecumenicism , Rabbi Jacob Voorsanger of San Francisco 's Congregation Emanu @-@ El read the first Bible lesson . The church 's pastor , Heber Newton , gave the sermon . A second service was held later that day , and D. Charles Gardner , the chaplain , gave the sermon . Stanford Memorial Church 's first christening was held between the two services .
Jane Stanford once remarked : " While my whole heart is in the university , my soul is in that church " . She died in 1905 , and so did not live to see the damage caused by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake . Her funeral took place in the church , which was called one of her most important accomplishments and " the truest reflection of her visionary leadership " , in March 1905 . Demonstrating her belief in ecumenicism , clergy from several religious traditions , including a Rabbi , a Presbyterian minister , a Methodist minister , an Episcopal bishop , and a Baptist minister , officiated at the service .
= = = Earthquakes = = =
Stanford Memorial Church has suffered two major earthquakes , in 1906 and in 1989 . Although extensively damaged , the church was restored after each . The 1906 quake wrecked much of the church , felled the spire , cracked the walls , and " injured beyond repair " the mosaics and Carrara marble statuary in the chancel . The main cause of the severity of the damage was that the church 's original construction failed to attach the crossing structure to the surrounding masonry and roof structures . The result was that when the church swayed in the earthquake , the crossing structure moved independently from the rest of the building , gouging gaping holes in the roofs over the east and west transepts , the nave , and chancel . The church 's original 12 @-@ sided , 80 @-@ foot spire and its adjoining clock tower above the crossing structure , fell on top of the chancel roof below , destroying the tower dome 's " frescoed Victorian interpretation of God 's eye — complete with tear — surrounded by cherubs and shooting star " . As the roof came down , many of the marble sculptures of the twelve apostles that decorated the altar were also destroyed . The statues , which stood in front of the niches surrounding the altar , were never replaced .
The spire was never repaired and the tower was removed and replaced by a simpler structure ; however , the clock was saved and eventually placed in another building on campus , the Stanford Clock Tower . University trustees considered re @-@ building the tower , and even looked at possible designs , but eventually chose not to rebuild it because they could not agree on its design . The crossing structure , the only part of the building to remain relatively stable after the quake , also pushed the roof of the nave forward , causing the church 's front facade to fall into the Inner Quad courtyard as it broke free , which resulted in the destruction of the entire north face of the building ; as Gregg put it , " its wondrous mosaic was blown out and totally destroyed " . The only mosaics not destroyed in the quake were the four angels that decorated the crossing dome 's pendentives . The back of the church , with several hundred feet of arcades , was also completely leveled because it too was not joined to the rest of the building .
Repairs of the earthquake damage began in 1908 , despite misgivings from some university administration regarding its cost . The church and the Old Chemistry building were the only two buildings in the university 's Inner Quad that were repaired . The extent of the damage was such that the church had to be completely rebuilt . The entire church , except for its surviving crossing structure and offices , was dismantled stone by stone , which , along with the windows , were labelled and stored . " To assure permanence " in case of further earthquakes , the masonry was anchored to its thick , concrete @-@ reinforced walls . The stones were securely bolted to each other , " making the whole structure practically one massive hollow rock on a great steel foundation skeleton " . The tile floor was replaced with cork . The building 's crossing received a tiled hipped roof and an oculus , which lit the interior of the church , and was added above the renovated dome , which had a frescoed ceiling decorated with bronze designs as opposed to the gold leaf present before the earthquake . The original rose window above the front facade was replaced with one with a simpler arch shape because it was more similar to the style of the rest of the buildings in the Inner Quad .
The dedication , which was engraved in large letters below the facade mosaic , was replaced by a smaller dedication plaque placed at the lower left of the facade , a choice the university alumni magazine called " a tremendous improvement " . Camerino 's design of the mosaics that were to fill in the empty space created by the removal of the original dedication , which he offered free of charge , were rejected in favor of a simple version created by John K. Branner ( son of university president John Casper Branner ) in 1914 . Camerino , who did not appraise the damage until 1913 , restored the interior mosaics . He had saved the original drawings in Venice , so he removed and re @-@ fabricated the chancel mosaic , and redesigned the entire exterior mosaic . The Stanford alumni magazine , in early 1917 , after the completion of the interior mosaics , declared the renovation complete , stating that " the church , for almost the first time since it was begun , is finished " .
In 1989 the church was damaged again , in the Loma Prieta earthquake . The integrity of the structure remained , but the crossing structure , the only major part of the building that was not damaged in the 1906 earthquake , buckled and caused several stones in the north and west arches to slip as much as 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) . The four mosaic angels in the pendentives , which decorated its high rounded walls directly below the church 's dome and served as the setting beds for hundreds of thousands of tesserae , were severely damaged . The angels ' damage caused large chunks of mortar and glass to fall to the floor eighty feet below 80 feet ( 24 m ) , while other sections " were left hanging by the sheer geometry of their arched shape " . An eight @-@ foot mosaic section of an angel 's left wing in the church 's northeast corner fell 70 feet ( 21 m ) to the floor . Several stones from the east arch wall fell onto pews in the balcony , and the organ @-@ loft railing collapsed inward . Although the damage was minor , the church remained closed until 1992 while restoration , as well as protecting the building from future earthquakes , was carried out . A $ 10 million fundraising drive was conducted to pay for repairs .
In this restoration the entire crossing was strengthened by bracing it behind the dome and securing it to the superstructure of the building . The roofs , which had not been replaced since 1913 , were rebuilt with plywood diaphragms , 30 @,@ 000 new red clay tiles were installed , and the stones from the decorative arches were reinserted . The wing of the damaged angel was restored ; Stanford University hired William Kreysler and Associates to create a new backing system to secure this angel and three other mosaic angels to the base of the dome . The renovators found a piece of the original mosaic from the vestibule wall , which had a Chi Rho design , in the foundation , and inserted it into the Communion Table in the chancel , linking the current building with the pre @-@ 1906 church . The Victorian chandeliers were repaired and rewired , and the transept balconies , which had been closed for twenty years because they were declared unsafe , were reopened , after the false doors on the south side of each balcony were replaced by emergency exits and connected to existing staircases on the other side of the wall . Stanford Memorial Church was rededicated by chaplain Robert C. Gregg on November 1 , 1992 .
= = = Influence = = =
According to Stanford professor Van Harvey , Stanford " had the reputation of being a completely secular university " before the 1950s , calling the period a " background of aggressive secularism and the almost complete neglect of the academic study of religion " . In 1946 , Merrimon Cuninggim , a visiting chaplain at Stanford Memorial Church , criticized the serious lack of religious and spiritual resources available at Stanford for its students and criticized the university 's lack of academic courses offered in the study of religions . Cuninggim insisted that the university 's administration and trustees were responsible because they had interpreted the non @-@ sectarian clause in Stanford 's charter in " a negative and restrictive fashion rather than as enabling the tolerance and the flourishing of many religious faiths on campus " .
Cuninggim also charged that Stanford 's religious policies were inadequate compared to other prominent U.S. universities . Two attempts were made to found a seminary to train pastors and religious leaders at Stanford , in 1921 and in 1940 , but both failed . Harvey speculated that if Stanford had established a seminary like other prestigious universities , its religious studies department and the " ethos " of the entire institution would be different . In 1966 , however , the university 's Board of Trustees got a court order that allowed them to change the non @-@ sectarian clause in Stanford 's charter so that they could expand the university 's religious program , which included permitting sectarian worship services at Stanford Memorial Church .
Stanford did not employ a full @-@ time professor in religion until 1951 and did not establish a religious studies department until 1973 , later than most other universities in the U.S. Earlier courses in religion were largely offered by the chaplains of Stanford Memorial Church . David Charles Gardner offered a course in Biblical history and literature beginning in 1907 , and by 1910 , he was teaching New Testament Greek and Bible classes . Gardner 's successor , D. Elton Trueblood , taught classes about the philosophy of religion . In 1941 Trueblood 's efforts to expand the study of religion resulted in the creation of a minor in religion , as well as twenty @-@ one courses offered by him and four faculty members . By 1960 , the chaplains of Stanford Memorial Church no longer had to run the program , which had expanded to allow students the option of majoring in the study of religion . By the mid @-@ 1960s , the religious studies program at
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of every service " . Fox said Climbié 's case amounted to " a shocking tale of individual professional failure and systemic incompetence " . Burstow said , " there is a terrible sense of déjà vu in the Laming Report . The same weaknesses have led to the same mistakes , with the same missed opportunities to save a tortured child 's life " . Labour Party Member of Parliament Karen Buck said , " the Bayswater families unit told me that there must be hundreds of other Climbié cases waiting to happen " , and " the Victoria Climbié inquiry highlighted how easy it is for vulnerable families to fall through the net , especially if they do not have English as a first language and are highly mobile " . The 1999 Department of Health document , Working Together to Sequestrate Children ( now superseded ) , set out child protection guidance to doctors , nurses , and midwives . The Royal College of Nursing , however , said that there was evidence that many nurses did not receive proper training in these areas . Denise Platt , chief inspector of the social services inspectorate ( SSI ) , said doctors , police officers and teachers often thought their only responsibility was to help social services , forgetting that they had a distinct role to play . Mike Leadbetter , president of the Association of Directors of Social Services , said that many health professionals were " not engaged in child protection " . After the inquiry , there was a feeling that senior managers had managed to escape responsibility and that only junior staff members were punished . Burstow said , " the majority of children who die from abuse or neglect in this country know the perpetrator ; it is within the family and by ' friends ' that most abuse occurs . As a society we are still in denial about that hard truth " .
= = = Criticism of the report = = =
The Laming report was criticised by Caroline Abrahams and Deborah Lightfoot of NCH as too narrow , focusing too much on the particular case of Victoria Climbié and not on general child protection . According to Harry Ferguson , a professor of social work at the University of the West of England , " Laming 's report focuses too heavily on the implementation of new structures and fails to understand the keen intuition that child protection work demands " . He criticised the approach to child protection of focusing too much on the worst cases and trying too much to prevent them , rather than having an approach that also celebrates success ; and said that focusing too much on any individual case and basing reforms on that was " deeply problematic " . Laming responded to criticism by the Association of Directors of Social Services that his recommendations would require much more funding by saying that these arguments lacked " intellectual rigour " , and he dismissed claims that his reforms would be too bureaucratic . The Guardian said that the report does not address the issues of frontline staff . Deryk Mead of NCH said , " I do believe that inquiry reports have made a positive difference to the child protection system , and I have every confidence that Lord Laming 's report will do so too " .
= = = Other = = =
The Guardian discussed the media attention surrounding the case , noticing how sensational events received widespread coverage , yet important but less exciting events received less . It states that only it and The Independent of the national newspapers gave significant coverage to the evidence in the hearings . A possible explanation is given as , " much of the evidence has been concerned with social services , which many other papers view as a politically correct waste of money for the undeserving " .
In August 2002 , Baptiste was fined £ 500 after being found guilty of deliberately failing to attend the inquiry . Climbié 's parents , speaking through a family friend , said , " we , the family , expected her to be dealt with more severely " . This was the first time a person had been prosecuted for not attending a public inquiry . In September 2002 , Arthurworrey and Mairs were sacked following disciplinary procedures . The education secretary , Charles Clarke , also added them to the Protection of Children Act 1999 List , banning them from working with children . In October 2004 , Arthurworrey appealed against her dismissal , saying that she was duped by Kouao and Manning , misled by medical reports , badly advised by her managers , and that she was a scapegoat for other people 's failures , but the appeal was rejected . In 2005 , she appealed the ban preventing her from working with children and won the case . In 2004 , Mairs appealed her ban preventing her from working from children and won ; this decision was challenged in the High Court but she prevailed . In 2004 , six police officers involved in the case faced misconduct charges . All six kept their jobs , and some received reprimands and cautions . In 2004 , the General Medical Council dropped misconduct charges against Dr. Schwartz .
Haringey council held a debate in the council chambers to discuss the Laming report . The parents of Victoria Climbié were invited to speak at the council by Councillor Ron Aitken , but the Council leader George Meehan denied them permission . Only pressure from the opposition and local press got the decision reversed . As George Meehan only reversed his decision just before the meeting , a driver was rushed to Acton to escort Francis and Berthe Climbié and Mor Dioum , their interpreter , to the council . At the meeting , the Climbiés attacked the council , through their interpreter , for its handling of the case , especially in its dealing with the Laming Inquiry . ( Mor Dioum later went on to be the Director of the Victoria Climbié Foundation . )
The government placed Haringey social services department under special measures , requiring close supervision by the social services inspectorate . Allegations emerged that in 2004 and 2005 , senior managers at Haringey council ignored child abuse cases and " became hostile " against a social worker who sought to expose the abuse .
Climbié 's parents created the Victoria Climbié Foundation UK , a charity that seeks to improve child protection policies , and the Victoria Climbié Charitable Trust , an organisation to build a school in the Ivory Coast . They are also involved in championing many child protection reforms . A playwright , Lance Nielsen , wrote a play based on the events , staged at the Hackney Empire throughout 2002 .
After Climbié 's death , commentators discussed the history of child protection and the various abuse and death cases , noting that there have been 70 public inquiries into child abuse since 1945 , and comparing Climbié 's case with that of many others , especially that of Maria Colwell in 1973 . They pointed to the many children abused and killed by their guardians over the years and how the agencies involved in their care let them down . They noted similarly that their deaths also led to inquiries and reform policies — reforms that have not saved the many children killed following them . They pointed out that , " an average of 78 children are killed by parents or minders every year ; a figure unaltered in the 30 years since Maria Colwell 's death provoked the first criticism of ' communications failure ' " . They expressed cynicism towards the possibility that these reforms would be different . Dr. Chris Harvey , director of operations at Barnardo 's , for example , said , " Victoria 's tragic case is the latest in a sad roll @-@ call of child deaths , each leading to fresh inquiries and a new but recurring set of recommendations " . Ian Willmore , former deputy leader of Haringey council , said , " the ' script ' for this kind of Iinquiry is now almost traditional . The Minister goes on TV to insist that : ' this must never happen again ' . Responsibility is pinned on a few expendable front @-@ line staff , all conveniently sacked in advance . Criticisms are made about poor communication , with earnest recommendations about better co @-@ ordination and possible restructuring . Council officers — all new appointments — go on TV to say that everything has changed since the case began . Everyone looks very earnest . Voices crack with compassion . Nothing essential changes . "
In the United Kingdom , the Audit Commission regulate social services ; John Seddon pointed out in The Times that " Haringey Council was rated 4 @-@ star at the time of Victoria Climbié and Baby P 's deaths " .
= = = Child protection changes = = =
Climbié 's death was largely responsible for various changes in child protection in England , including the formation of the Every Child Matters programme , an initiative designed to improve the lives of children ; the introduction of the Children Act 2004 , an Act of Parliament that provides the legislative base for many of the reforms ; the creation of ContactPoint , a database designed to hold information on all children in England and Wales ( now no longer in operation ) ; and the creation of the post of children 's commissioner , who heads the Office of the Children 's Commissioner , a national agency serving children and families .
= Nuova Cronica =
The Nuova Cronica or New Chronicles is a 14th @-@ century history of Florence created in a year @-@ by @-@ year linear format and written by the Florentine banker and official Giovanni Villani ( c . 1276 or 1280 – 1348 ) . The idea came to him after attending the first Jubilee in the city of Rome , in 1300 , where he realized that Rome 's many historical achievements were well @-@ known , and he desired to lay out a history of the origins of his own city of Florence . In his Cronica , Villani described in detail the many building projects of the city , statistical information on population , ordinances , commerce and trade , education , and religious facilities . He also described several disasters such as famines , floods , fires , and the pandemic of the Black Death in 1348 , which would take his own life . Villani 's work on the Cronica was continued by his brother and nephew after his death . It has been described as the first introduction of statistics as a positive element in history .
The oldest manuscript is Vatican Library BAV Chigiano L VIII 296 , dating to the time of composition .
= = Organization = =
Giovanni Villani 's Cronica is divided into twelve books ; the first six deal with the largely legendary history of Florence , starting at conventionally Biblical times to 1264 . The second phase , in six books , covers the history from 1264 until his own time , all the way up to 1346 . Villani outlines the events in his Cronica , not by theme , but through year @-@ to @-@ year accounts ; for this , he has gained criticism over the years for writing in an episodic manner lacking a unifying theme or point of view . Villani 's chronicles are intercut with historical episodes reported just as he heard them , with little interpretation ; this often led to historical inaccuracies in his work , making most of his mistakes in the biographies of historical or contemporary people living outside of Florence ( even with well @-@ known monarchs ) . However , his description of such events as the Battle of Crécy in 1346 was fairly accurate according to historian Kelly De Vries . Both Bartlett and Green state that Villani 's Cronica represented a departure from medieval chronicles in that a more modernistic approach was taken in describing events and statistics , yet still medieval in that Villani relied on divine providence to explain the outcome of events .
= = Notable passages = =
= = = Battle of Montaperti , 1260 = = =
In his Cronica , Villani writes that the Guelph defeat by the Ghibellines at Montaperti in 1260 was a major setback to the historical progress of the Republic of Florence . In this civil war , the Guelphs were a faction united with the papacy in Rome , while the Ghibellines were allied with the descendants of Emperor Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire and supported by Siena . According to Villani , the Florentine Guelphs ' last stand was in defending the Carroccio , a chariot which symbolized the independence of the Commune of Florence . Villani estimated that 2 @,@ 500 Florentine troops were killed and 1 @,@ 500 captured during the battle , which Roberta J.M. Olson states are conservative numbers in regards to subsequent historians writing of the battle 's casualties .
= = = Florence Cathedral , 1296 = = =
Villani describes the rebuilding of Florence after the 1293 rebellion of one Giano della Bella ; he notes that by 1296 conditions were once again in a " tranquil state " . He states that the citizens of Florence were discontented with the small stature of their cathedral , one that did not fit the greatness of their city , and so agreed in 1296 to expand and renew the building . A new foundation was laid in September of that year , adding new marble and sculptural figures . Villani mentions the cardinal legate sent by the Pope in Rome who laid the first stone of the foundation , a significant event since it was the first papal legate to visit Florence . Villani relates that for the construction of the church , it was required of the Commune of Florence that a subsidy of four denari on each libra be paid out of the city treasury in addition to a head @-@ tax of two soldi for each adult male . On July 18 , 1334 , work began on the new campanile ( bell tower ) of the cathedral , the first stone placed by the bishop of Florence in front of an audience of clergy , priors , and other magistrates . Villani notes that the commune chose " our fellow @-@ citizen Giotto " as the designer of the tower , a man who was " the most sovereign master of painting in his time " .
= = = Palazzo Vecchio , 1299 = = =
According to Villani , in 1299 , the commune and people of Florence laid the foundation for the Palazzo Vecchio , to replace the town hall that was located in a house behind the church of San Brocolo . The new Palazzo Vecchio was to serve as a protective municipal palace for the priors and magistrates , shielding them from the factional strife of the Guelphs and Ghibellines as well as the brawls between the people and magnates over the renewal of the priors every two months . The Uberti family houses had formerly stood at the location of the new piazza , but the Uberti were " rebels of Florence and Ghibellines " and thus the plaza was intentionally laid upon the former location of their homes so they could never be rebuilt . According to Villani , the Uberti family was not even allowed to return to Florence . In planning for the large expanse of the plaza , the commune of Florence purchased the homes of citizens such as the Foraboschi family , so that they could be demolished to make room for construction . In fact , the main tower of the Palazzo was built upon a previously existing tower of the Foraboschi family known as " La Vacca " or " The Cow " .
= = = Trend of building country homes , early 14th century = = =
Villani boasts of Florence 's pristine architecture in its monasteries and churches , as well as its ornate houses and beautiful palaces . His opinion is clear even in the title of the chapter he devotes to this topic , " More on the greatness and status and magnificence of the city of Florence " . However , Villani is quick to add that those who spent too much on the lavish excesses of continuous remodelling and refurnishing of homes were sinners and could be " considered crazy because of their extravagant spending " . Villani also describes the growing trend in the early 14th century of affluent Florentine citizens building large country homes far outside the walls of Florence , in the hills of Tuscany .
= = = Works sponsored by Robert of Naples , 1316 = = =
While holding the signoria of Florence , Robert of Naples ( 1277 – 1343 ) had the eastern part of the Bargello in Florence constructed , where he had his vicar the Count of Battifolle reside . Villani writes in 1316 that Robert 's vicar oversaw the construction of a large part of the new palace , which would suggest Robert 's vicar had a great amount of influence in the construction of the eastern addition of the Palazzo del Podestà , including its Magdalen Chapel .
= = = Famine of 1328 = = =
There was a famine in 1328 which not only devastated Florence , but caused the people of Perugia , Siena , Lucca , and Pistoia to turn away any beggars who approached their towns because they could not provide them with food . Villani reports that Florence did not turn away beggars , but cared for anyone who approached the city and was in need of immediate subsistence . According to Villani , the Florentines sought grain from Sicily , having it brought into port at Talamone and transporting all the way to Florence at great expense . Florence also sought aid and food supplies from Romagna and Arezzo . Villani writes of the bread riots of the poor who could not afford a whole staio of wheat with their meager salaries :
... as long as the scarcity lasted , disregarding the heavy charge upon the public purse , it kept the price of the staio at half a gold florin [ which would be two and a half times the normal figure ] although to affect this reduction it permitted the wheat to be mixed to one @-@ fourth its volume with coarser grain . In spite of all the government did , the agitation of the people at the market of Or San Michele was so great that it was necessary to protect the officials by means of guards fitted out with ax and block to punish rioters on the spot with the loss of hands or feet .
Villani states that the commune of Florence spent more than 60 @,@ 000 gold florins to mitigate this effects of this disaster . In order to save their own funds and calm the rage of the riotous poor , all the baker 's ovens in the city were requisitioned by the commune and a loaf of bread weighing 170 g ( 6 oz ) was then sold at a meager four pennies . This price was fixed in consideration that poor workers who made only eight to twelve pennies a day could now buy enough bread to survive .
Villani also describes in vivid detail the effects of another widespread famine in Tuscany during the year 1347 , which killed an estimated 4 @,@ 000 people in Florence a year before the Bubonic Plague .
= = = Fires of 1331 and 1332 = = =
On June 23 , 1331 , a fire broke out toward the left bank of the Ponte Vecchio bridge , destroying all twenty shops located on the bridge . Villani notes that this was a heavy loss to local craftsmen of Florence , while two craftsman apprentices died in the fire . On September 12 of that same year a fire broke out at the household of the Soldanieri , killing six people in a house of carpenters and a blacksmith that was located near the church of Santa Trinità .
On February 28 , 1332 , a fire broke out in the palace of the podestà , the leading magistrate of the city . This fire destroyed the roof of the palace and destroyed two @-@ thirds of the entire structure from the ground floor up , prompting the government to rebuild the palatial residence totally out of stone , all the way up to the roof . On July 16 of that year the palace of the wool guild caught fire and everything from the ground floor up was destroyed , prompting the wool guild to reconstruct a new palatial residence on a larger scale and with stone vaults leading up to the roof .
= = = Flood of 1333 = = =
Villani states that by noon on Thursday , November 4 , 1333 , a flood along the Arno River spread across the entire plain of San Salvi . He wrote that by nightfall the eastern wall of the city that was damming the water became damaged and then washed away in the flood , allowing the flood waters to breach and fill the city streets . He claims that the water rose above the altar in the Florence Baptistry , reaching over half the height of the porphyry columns . Bartlett notes that these columns , presented to Florence by the Pisans more than two hundred years before , have scratched lines to this day indicating the water level reached by the flood in 1333 . Villani further claims that the height of the flood water in the courtyard of the commune 's palace ( residence of the podestà ) reached 3 m ( 10 ft ) . The Carraia bridge collapsed with the exception of two of its arches , while the Trinità bridge collapsed except for one pier and one arch located towards the church of the Santa Trinità . The Ponte Vecchio — save the two central piers — was swept away when huge logs in the rushing water became clogged around the it , allowing the water to build and leap over the arches , states Villani . There was an old statue of Mars that stood on a pedestal near the Ponte Vecchio , but this too was taken by the flood along the Arno .
= = = Black Death of 1348 = = =
Villani describes how the plague of Black Death in 1348 was much more widespread amongst the inhabitants of Pistoia , Prato , Bologna , Romagna , Avignon and the whole of France than it was in Florence and Tuscany . He notes that the Black Death also killed many more in Greece , Turkey ( Anatolia ) , in countries amongst the Tartars and in places " beyond the sea " , across the whole Levant and Mesopotamia in the areas of Syria and " Chaldea " , as well as the islands of Cyprus , Crete , Rhodes , Sicily , Sardinia , Corsica , Elba , and " from there soon reached all the shores of the mainland " . Relating the course of events and the sailors from Genoa who brought the plague to mainland Europe , Villani writes :
And of eight Genoese galleys which had gone to the Black Sea only four returned , full of infected sailors , who were smitten one after the other on the return journey . And all who arrived at Genoa died , and they corrupted the air to such an extent that whoever came near the bodies died shortly after . And it was a disease in which there appeared certain swellings in the groin and under the armpit , and the victims spat blood , and in three days they were dead . And the priest who confessed the sick and those who nursed them so generally caught the infection that the victims were abandoned and deprived of confession , sacrament , medicine , and nursing . . .And many lands and cities were made desolate . And this plague lasted till . . .
Villani was unable to complete this last sentence , since he himself died of the plague while writing the Cronica .
= = Municipal statistics = =
Giovanni Villani recorded many statistics associated with the city of Florence . This included — but certainly wasn 't limited to — figures such as 80 banks located in the city , 146 bakeries , 80 members in an association of city judges with 600 notaries , 60 some physicians and surgical doctors , and 100 some shops and dealers of spices . Each week the city consumed 13 @,@ 200 bushels of grain while the city annually consumed 4 @,@ 000 oxen and calves , 60 @,@ 000 mutton and sheep , 20 @,@ 000 goats , and 30 @,@ 000 pigs . He wrote that annually , in the month of July , some 4 @,@ 000 melons were imported through Porta San Friano .
= = = Population = = =
Villani states that the whole population of Florence — men , women , and children — in reference to the years 1336 to 1338 , was estimated to be 90 @,@ 000 due to the amount of bread needed daily . Villani recorded an exact figure of 94 @,@ 000 residents ( which he says was very reliable data that included even the poor ) in April 1347 , a year before the Black Death . A black bean was deposited for every male child baptized and a white bean deposited for every female child baptized in the Florence Baptistry — from these baptisms the average annual birth rate was figured at 5 @,@ 500 to 6 @,@ 000 . Villani pointed out that the newborn males often outnumbered the newborn females by 300 to 500 on each count . He noted that in his day the adult , male citizen
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first proposed in February 2005 by Manchester United fanzine Red Issue .
Public meetings for fans were held on 19 May 2005 at the Central Methodist Hall in Manchester 's Northern Quarter and on 30 May at the Apollo Theatre . Subsequently , a steering group was created to set up the new club . After the name " F.C. United " was rejected by The Football Association for being too generic , all those who had pledged money to the club were asked to vote on a name . On 14 June 2005 , it was announced that " F.C. United of Manchester " had been chosen , beating " A.F.C. Manchester 1878 " , " Manchester Central " and " Newton Heath United " , and F.C. United were officially registered with the Manchester County Football Association on the same day .
Karl Marginson was appointed as the club 's manager on 22 June , and the club held trials for players four days later . Around 900 players applied to take part in the trials , of whom 200 were chosen to take part and 17 selected to play for F.C. United . Jonathan Mitten , great @-@ nephew of Manchester United forward Charlie Mitten , was the club 's first signing .
F.C. United 's inaugural members ' meeting was held on 5 July 2005 at the Methodist Central Hall ; members voted on the club 's constitution , badge , core principles and elected the 11 @-@ member board . By 6 July , over 4 @,@ 000 people had pledged money to F.C. United and the club had over £ 100 @,@ 000 in the bank . During F.C. United 's formation , the owners of Leigh RMI offered to merge the two clubs , but the parties decided against the idea . F.C. United later arranged to play their first ever game against Leigh RMI on 16 July 2005 ; the match ended 0 – 0 .
= = = North West Counties years ( 2005 – 07 ) = = =
For the 2005 – 06 season , F.C. United were admitted to the second division of the North West Counties Football League ( NWCFL ) — level ten of the English football league system , nine levels below the Premier League . The club arranged to play its home matches at Bury 's Gigg Lane . F.C. United were ineligible to play in the FA Vase for their first season as the club was formed after the deadline to enter the competition ; they were , however , able to play in the North West Counties League Challenge Cup .
F.C. United 's first competitive match was a 5 – 2 away victory over Leek CSOB on 13 August 2005 , and the club made their home debut at Gigg Lane on 20 August against Padiham ; they won 3 – 2 with two goals from Rory Patterson . During their first season , F.C. United consistently broke NWCFL attendance records ; a crowd of 6 @,@ 032 watched the team during their final home league match of the season , against Great Harwood Town , which remains an NWCFL record as of 2016 . Although losing that game 0 – 1 , the team were promoted to Division One .
After a successful season in the NWCFL Division One F.C. United were promoted to the Northern Premier League Division One North after beating Ramsbottom United . They secured their second successive league title with a 7 – 1 win over Atherton Laburnum Rovers on 18 April 2007 , and later completed the NWCFL league and cup double when they beat Curzon Ashton 2 – 1 in the NWCFL 's Challenge Cup final . They were eliminated from their first season in an FA competition ( the FA Vase ) after losing 2 – 3 in the last minute of extra @-@ time to Quorn in third round .
= = = Northern Premier League years ( 2007 – 15 ) = = =
In 2007 – 08 , F.C. United played in the inaugural season of the Northern Premier League ( NPL ) Division One North . They made their debut in the FA Cup that season , but lost 1 – 2 to Fleetwood Town in the first qualifying round . They advanced to the final of the 2007 – 08 NPL President 's Cup , in which they beat Radcliffe Borough 2 – 0 to pick up their fourth trophy in the three years following the club 's formation . The club finished the season second in the league , trailing champions Bradford Park Avenue by one point , and entered the play @-@ offs for the other promotion place . After beating Bamber Bridge 3 – 2 in the semi @-@ finals , F.C. United faced Skelmersdale United in the promotion play @-@ off final , coming back from a goal down to win 4 – 1 and earn their third successive promotion to play in the Northern Premier League Premier Division .
In 2008 – 09 , F.C. United made their debut in the FA Trophy , reaching the third qualifying round , and missed out on a play @-@ off place on the last day of the regular season . In the 2009 – 10 season , they finished 13th in the league , their lowest league position in the first five seasons , before progressing to the play @-@ offs in 2010 – 11 . They beat Bradford Park Avenue 2 – 0 in the semi @-@ finals but lost the final 0 – 1 to Colwyn Bay . Earlier that season , F.C. United reached the first round of the FA Cup for the first time , recording victories over Radcliffe Borough , Gainsborough Trinity , Norton & Stockton Ancients and Barrow to play League One side Rochdale . They defeated Rochdale 3 – 2 after a late winner from Mike Norton , and played eventual 2010 – 11 League One champions Brighton & Hove Albion in the second round . After a 1 – 1 away draw at Withdean Stadium , F.C. United lost the replay at Gigg Lane 0 – 4 , in front of their highest home attendance of 6 @,@ 731 .
In the 2011 – 12 season , F.C. United reached the first round of the FA Trophy for the first time after knocking out Frickley Athletic , Durham City and Altrincham . In the league , they qualified for the end of season play @-@ offs , despite finishing 6th , due to the demotion of Northwich Victoria for breaching of financial rules . They beat Chorley 2 – 0 in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final to qualify for consecutive play @-@ off finals but lost 0 – 1 to Bradford Park Avenue in the penultimate minute of extra time .
F.C. United finished third in the 2012 – 13 season to book a place in the play @-@ offs . They won 3 – 1 against Witton Albion in the semi @-@ final , but lost the final for the third consecutive time with a 1 – 2 defeat to Hednesford Town . The following season , the club finished second in the league but lost in the play @-@ offs in the semi @-@ finals . During the 2014 – 15 campaign , F.C. United reached the fourth round of the FA Trophy and recorded a streak of 21 league games without a loss from December to April , including 16 victories . They secured their promotion to the National League North following a 1 – 0 win against Stourbridge on 21 April 2015 ; after seven years of trying . The club 's top scorer for this championship winning season was Tom Greaves , the same player who scored the winning goal for Bradford Park Avenue against F.C. United in the 2012 play @-@ off final .
= = = National League years ( 2015 – present ) = = =
F.C. United recorded their first victory in the National League North in a 3 – 2 home win over Brackley Town on 22 August 2015 , which was the club 's first competitive win at Broadhurst Park . In October , for the second time in the club 's history , they secured a place in the first round of the FA Cup with a 3 – 1 away win over Sporting Khalsa , but were eliminated from the competition after a 1 – 4 home loss against Chesterfield . In November , the club ended their cup run for the 2015 – 16 season after two successive home defeats to Stalybridge Celtic 3 – 4 in the Manchester Premier Cup and to A.F.C. Telford United 1 – 2 in the FA Trophy . Between September and November 2015 , F.C. United lost seven consecutive league matches ; their worst run ever as of April 2016 . They eventually finished the season in 13th place .
= = Colours and badge = =
F.C. United 's club colours are red , white and black — the same colours worn by Manchester United . The shirt bears no sponsorship logo , as it was written into the club 's constitution that the club should not have a shirt sponsor . The club 's first kit was a plain red shirt , white shorts and plain black socks . The club introduced a new home shirt for the 2007 – 08 season with a striped collar and striped ends on the sleeves which lasted until 2009 . This was changed for the 2009 – 11 seasons to a red shirt with a black and white stripe down the left side , manufactured by Admiral Sportswear . For seasons 2011 – 13 the club reverted to a plain red shirt , manufactured by O 'Neills . The club 's second kit , worn when playing away against a team with a predominantly red kit , is a white shirt with a horizontal red and black wave , white shorts and socks . The club has an alternative plain blue kit for playing against a team with a red and white kit . In past seasons white shirts with diagonal black or red stripes and a white shirt with a red trim , black shorts and white socks have all been used as the second kits .
The club 's badge is red , white , black and yellow , and incorporates elements from the coat of arms of Manchester City Council ; a ship representing Manchester 's industry and three stripes representing the three rivers that flow through Manchester : the Irk , the Irwell and the Medlock .
= = Stadium = =
F.C. United play at the 4 @,@ 400 capacity Broadhurst Park , which opened in May 2015 . The ground was built at a cost of £ 6 @.@ 3 million , using £ 2 million from a Community Share Scheme and the remainder from a variety of governmental and charity grants . The ground is surrounded on all sides by covered stands : the St. Mary 's Road End ( east ) , the North Stand , the Lightbowne Road End ( west ) and the Main Stand ( south ) , the latter of which has seating sections . Within the Main Stand is a clubhouse with a bar and catering facilities , club offices , changing rooms , a medical suite and a classroom . The stadium is shared with a local junior team , Moston Juniors F.C.
From their foundation in 2005 until 2014 , F.C. United were based at Bury F.C. ' s Gigg Lane stadium . F.C. United 's first proposed stadium was announced in 2010 for Newton Heath , the original home of Manchester United . The development was planned to be located on the site of the Ten Acres Lane sports centre and would have cost £ 3 @.@ 5 million , to be financed by public donations , a Community Shares
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issue and grant funding . However a year later , in March 2011 , Manchester City Council backed out from funding the stadium . The Broadhurst Park site in Moston , north @-@ east Manchester , was announced in April 2011 . Detailed information about the new facility was released in June 2011 and Manchester City Council approved the planning permission for the site on 27 October 2011 . F.C. United had to overcome some obstacles including funding agreements , contractor and lease negotiations and a legal challenge from local residents which caused a further two @-@ year delay before building commenced in November 2013 .
During their time at Bury , fixture clashes meant that F.C. United used a further six stadia for home fixtures : Altrincham 's Moss Lane ; Radcliffe Borough 's Stainton Park ; Hyde United 's Ewen Fields ; Stalybridge Celtic 's Bower Fold ; and Curzon Ashton 's Tameside Stadium .
For the 2014 – 15 season , F.C. United ended their groundsharing agreement with Bury after nine seasons in preparation for their move to Broadhurst Park . As the ground was not ready at the start of the season , they used Bower Fold as a temporary home . Delays with Broadhurst Park meant that F.C. United were unable to move in until May 2015 , and following fixture clashes with Stalybridge Celtic the club moved in December 2014 to the Tameside Stadium for the remainder of the season . F.C. United hosted a test event at Broadhurst Park on 16 May 2015 , staging a short match between their first team and an Invitational XI made up of past players . The official opening game was a friendly against Benfica B on 29 May , the anniversary of Manchester United 's victory over Benfica in the 1968 European Cup Final . Benfica won the opening game 1 – 0 in front of a crowd of 4 @,@ 232 .
= = Supporters = =
F.C. United are owned by 5 @,@ 000 of their members and are the largest supporter @-@ owned football club in the United Kingdom . Each member can vote on how the club is run , including voting for board members , kit designs and season ticket prices . Most F.C. United supporters still support Manchester United and many were previously season ticket holders at Old Trafford . F.C. United fans are known for the large range of songs that they sing at matches , and the atmosphere created by fans has been praised in the media .
During their first season ( 2005 – 06 ) , F.C. United had the second @-@ highest average attendance in English non @-@ League football with an average gate of 3 @,@ 059 and were the 87th best supported club across all divisions . Attendances fell in the next two seasons and they were the 92nd best supported club in 2006 – 07 and 100th best supported club by 2007 – 08 . Their average league attendance then levelled out at approximately 2 @,@ 000 per game , before rising to an average of 2 @,@ 155 in 2014 – 15 , the then @-@ seventh highest attendance in non @-@ League football . After moving to Broadhurst Park in May 2015 , the club averaged a gate of 3 @,@ 394 in 2015 – 16 , a season @-@ on @-@ season increase of over 57 % and the fourth highest attendance in non @-@ League football .
= = Organisation = =
F.C. United operate as a community benefit society . Membership is obtained by paying an annual fee of £ 12 to the club ( £ 3 for children ) but each member receives only one share in the club and is entitled to a single vote at meetings , regardless of the amount donated . The board consists of up to 11 members who are elected by the members of the club . Day @-@ to @-@ day operations of the club are overseen by a general manager ; Andy Walsh , a founding member of F.C. United , was appointed to the position in 2005 . He stepped down from the role at the end of June 2016 .
The club 's manifesto includes the following core principles :
The Board will be democratically elected by its members ;
Decisions taken by the membership will be decided on a one @-@ member , one vote basis ;
The club will develop strong links with the local community and strive to be accessible to all , discriminating against none ;
The club will endeavour to make admission prices as affordable as possible , to as wide a constituency as possible ;
The club will encourage young , local participation — playing and supporting — whenever possible ;
The Board will strive wherever possible to avoid outright commercialism ;
The club will remain a non @-@ profit organisation .
The club accepts sponsorship but does not allow sponsors ' logos to be displayed on the team 's shirts . The club 's main sponsor in its inaugural 2005 – 06 season was the Bhopal Medical Appeal and in the 2006 – 07 season it was the Williams BMW Group . From the 2011 – 12 season onwards , F.C. United have been sponsored by mxData , a Manchester @-@ based mobile app development company . In October 2014 , F.C. United became the first football club in the United Kingdom to be accredited as a living wage employer by the Living Wage Foundation .
= = Criticism = =
F.C. United and their founders have been criticised and supported by fans of Manchester United and the media ; some fans view those who chose to leave to follow F.C. United as " traitors " . Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson questioned the loyalty of fans who decided to form the club and the motivation behind the forming of F.C. United in a 2006 book :
I 'm sorry about that . It is a bit sad , that part , but I wonder just how big a United supporter they are . They seem to me to be promoting or projecting themselves a wee bit rather than saying , " at the end of the day the club have made a decision , we 'll stick by them . " It 's more about them than us .
Former Manchester United forward Eric Cantona has supported the club , describing them as " having a great idea " and expressing hope that F.C. United will " become a great club and win the European Cup in 50 years ' time " . In 2010 , aged 43 , he said that he would be prepared to play for the club . Steve Coppell , Manchester United winger between 1975 and 1983 , joined the club as a co @-@ owner in April 2016 .
F.C. United have been criticised by their own members for abandoning their principles , including agreeing to a photo op with a Conservative Party government minister in October 2015 , despite a club policy not to be used for political promotion , and a day after some club members took part in a march against government cuts in Manchester . F.C. United defended the visit as " an essential part " of the development of financial vehicles for football fans , arguing that it will help government representatives to better understand the benefits and challenges of social investment .
The club 's programme editor Tony Howard resigned from his position in June 2015 over a one @-@ off price rise of the programme for Broadhurst Park 's opening game against Benfica the previous month ; a Board decision that was described as breaching the club 's founding principle of avoiding outright commercialism . F.C. United have also been criticised for a deficit in democracy , transparency and accountability between their officials and the membership .
= = Statistics and records = =
The record for the most appearances for F.C. United is held by Jerome Wright , with 352 as of May 2016 . Rory Patterson is the club 's all @-@ time record goal @-@ scorer with 99 goals in all competitions , which includes 86 in the league and 13 in cup matches . Six other players , Mike Norton , Tom Greaves , Matthew Wolfenden , Jerome Wright , Simon Carden and Stuard Rudd have also scored more than 50 goals for the club . Rudd holds the record for most goals scored in a single season , having scored 45 goals in the 2006 – 07 season .
The largest number of points the team accrued is 112 in the 2006 – 07 season , and the highest number of goals scored in a season is 157 , achieved in 42 matches in 2006 – 07 . The club 's best performance in the FA Cup was a second round appearance during the 2010 – 11 season . After a 3 – 2 first round win over Rochdale , F.C. United recorded a 1 – 1 away draw with Brighton & Hove Albion , forcing a home replay which they lost 0 – 4 . The team advanced to the first round of the FA Cup again in 2015 – 16 but lost 1 – 4 at Broadhurst Park to Chesterfield .
In the 2006 – 07 season , F.C. United reached the third round of the FA Vase , beating Padiham and Salford City in the first two rounds but lost 2 – 3 at home to Quorn after extra time . In the 2014 – 15 season , they progressed to the fourth round of the FA Trophy , defeating Harrogate Town , Chorley and A.F.C. Fylde in the first three rounds before losing 0 – 1 away to Torquay United .
The club 's record league victory was a 10 – 2 win over Castleton Gabriels on 10 December 2005 in the North West Counties Football League Division Two ; Simon Carden scored five of the goals , which is the club record for the highest number of goals scored by a player in a single game . F.C. United achieved eight @-@ goal victory margins on three further occasions , in 8 – 0 wins over Squires Gate , Glossop North End and Nelson , all during the 2006 – 07 season . The club 's heaviest league defeat was 0 – 5 to Harrogate Town on 20 February 2016 in the National League North .
F.C. United 's highest home attendances are 6 @,@ 731 against Brighton in the second round of the 2010 – 11 FA Cup on 8 December 2010 and 6 @,@ 023 against Great Harwood Town in the North West Counties Football League Division Two on 22 April 2006 , both at Gigg Lane .
= = Players = =
= = = First team squad = = =
As of 13 May 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Former players = = =
See Category : F.C. United of Manchester players to see a list of notable F.C. United players , past and present .
= = = International representation = = =
F.C. United have assisted in providing several players for the international football scene ; the club 's all @-@ time record goal @-@ scorer Rory Patterson went on to play and score for Northern Ireland at senior level and forward Matthew Walwyn debuted for Saint Kitts and Nevis in a friendly against Andorra in November 2015 . F.C. United 's youth team were represented in the England Schoolboys squad by Scott Cheetham in 2011 and in 2013 , the club signed Pakistan international defender Amjad Iqbal from Bradford Park Avenue .
= = Coaching staff = =
= = Honours = =
F.C. United have won three league titles and two league cups in their history .
Northern Premier League Premier Division
Champions 2014 – 15
Play @-@ off runners @-@ up 2010 – 11 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13
Northern Premier League Division One North
Runners @-@ up 2007 – 08
Play @-@ off winners 2007 – 08
Northern Premier League President 's Cup
Winners 2007 – 08
North West Counties League Division One
Champions 2006 – 07
North West Counties League Challenge Cup
Winners 2006 – 07
North West Counties League Division Two
Champions 2005 – 06
= = Women 's team = =
F.C. United 's women 's team competed for the first time in the 2012 – 13 season . They finished second in the Greater Manchester Women 's Football League behind Manchester City Ladies . They also reached the GMWFL League Cup final but lost 0 – 1 to Manchester City Ladies . After finishing runners @-@ up again in 2013 – 14 , the team won a league and cup double in 2015 , gaining promotion to the North West Women 's Regional Football League Division One South . They finished the 2015 – 16 season runners @-@ up , behind MSB Woolton Ladies .
# Shared with Middleton Athletic
= Judy ( dog ) =
Judy ( 1936 – 17 February 1950 ) was a ship 's dog on board HMS Gnat and HMS Grasshopper stationed on the Yangtze before and during World War II . She proved able to hear incoming aircraft , providing the crew with an early warning . After part of the crew transferred from the Gnat to the Grasshopper in June 1939 the ship was sent to Singapore after the British declaration of war on Germany . There she was on board the ship during the Battle of Singapore , which saw Grasshopper evacuate for the Dutch East Indies . It was sunk en route , and Judy was nearly killed having been trapped by a falling row of lockers . She was rescued when a crewman returned to the stricken vessel looking for supplies .
On the deserted island with the surviving crew , Judy managed to find a fresh water source saving them all . They made their way to Singkep in the Dutch East Indies and afterwards to Sumatra aiming to link up with the evacuating British forces . After trekking across 200 miles of jungle for five weeks , during which Judy survived an attack from a crocodile , the crew arrived a day after the final vessel had left and subsequently became prisoners of war of the Japanese . She was eventually smuggled into the Medan camp , where she met Leading Aircraftsman Frank Williams for the first time , who she would go on to spend the rest of her life with . Williams convinced the camp Commandant to register her as an official prisoner of war , with the number ' 81A Gloergoer , Medan ' . She was the only dog to be registered as a prisoner of war during the Second World War .
She moved around several more camps , and survived the sinking of the transport ship SS Van Warwyck where in the aftermath she saved several passengers from drowning . Les Searle from the Grasshopper smuggled her once again into the next camp , where she was reunited with Frank Williams . After the end of the war , Judy 's life was put in danger once again . She was about to be put to death by the Japanese guards following a lice outbreak amongst the prisoners . However , Williams hid the dog until the Allied forces arrived . Searle , Williams and others smuggled Judy back to the UK aboard a troopship and she spent the next six months in quarantine after arriving . She was awarded the Dickin Medal by the PDSA , considered to be the animals ' Victoria Cross . Judy died in 1950 in Tanzania from a tumour , after travelling with Williams there to work on a groundnut food scheme . Her Dickin Medal and collar were subsequently put on display at the Imperial War Museum in London as part of ' The Animal 's War ' exhibition .
= = Early life = =
Judy was a pure @
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Aras 's bride is Bala . Padayatchi spots Nalla and asks him what he is doing there , to which Nalla replies that he was invited by Aras to the wedding . Nalla then persuades Padayatchi to sign the papers which will help the workers obtain a raise . To prevent disruption at the wedding and avoid damaging his reputation , Padayatchi yields to Nalla 's demands . After signing the papers , Padayatchi instructs his assistant ( Santhana Bharathi ) to eliminate Nalla . Padayatchi 's assistant , however , has a change of heart as he is about to kill Nalla . Padayatchi 's assistant believes that the wrongful deeds he committed for Padayatchi resulted in the death of the assistant 's daughter . Padayatchi 's assistant requests Nalla to leave the city and stay as far away from Padayatchi as possible ; Nalla assents and walks away .
= = Cast = =
Kamal Haasan as Nallasivam alias Nalla
R. Madhavan as Anbarasu alias A. Aras
Kiran Rathod as Balasaraswathi
Nassar as Kandasamy Padayatchi
Santhana Bharathi as Kandasamy 's assistant
Seema as Balasaraswathi 's mother
Yugi Sethu as Uthaman
Uma Riyaz Khan as Mehrunissa
Sujatha Narayanan as a tea shop owner who helps Nallasivam .
Balu Anand as the train ticket checker for the Coromandel Express
R. S. Sivaji as a railway guard
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After completing a draft of the film 's script in early 2002 , Kamal Haasan approached the Malayalam filmmaker Priyadarshan to direct the film . The two men were keen to work together since the late 1990s , and upon reading the script , Priyadarshan believed that it had the potential to be an " emotional love story " . The film 's title was derived from the Shaivite saint Tirumular 's poem Tirumantiram .
In June 2002 , Priyadarshan opted out of the project . Regarding the director 's exit , Haasan said Priyadarshan wanted to collaborate with the director on a bigger project than Anbe Sivam . He was replaced by Sundar C. , who agreed to produce the film as well . Anbe Sivam was co @-@ produced and distributed by Swaminathan , K. Muralitharan and G. Venugopal under the production banner of Lakshmi Movie Makers . In a 2008 interview with The Times of India , Sundar C. stated that Anbe Sivam " changed [ him ] personally and professionally " , making him a more confident person and changing his outlook towards life .
= = = Cast and crew = = =
R. Madhavan was selected to play the film 's second lead in January 2002 . According to Kiran Rathod , she received a phone call from Haasan 's office informing her that she was offered the role of Balasaraswathi , which she accepted . Rathod 's voice in the film was dubbed by the singer Anuradha Sriram . Uma Riyaz Khan played the role of Haasan 's friend and professional colleague , Mehrunissa . In an interview with Deccan Chronicle in 2013 , Uma Riyaz Khan described her role in the film as " her magnum opus " .
[ Haasan ] came over to me and said , ' Madhavan , I have seen some of your work and they were good . ' [ ... ] Then he continued , ' I have something for you . We should catch up ! ' [ ... ] that was how Anbe Sivam happened .
The actors Nassar and Santhana Bharathi played the roles of Kandasamy Padaiyatchi and his assistant , respectively , while cartoonist Madhan featured in a cameo appearance as himself in addition to writing the film 's dialogues . In an interview with S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu in 2006 , Bharathi considered both Anbe Sivam and Michael Madana Kama Rajan ( 1990 ) to be the most favourite roles of his career . Arthur A. Wilson , M. Prabhaharan and P. Sai Suresh handled the film 's cinematography , art direction and editing , respectively . Brinda , Chinni Prakash and Dinesh Kumar were in charge of the choreography while the stunt sequences were co @-@ ordinated by Vikram Dharma . Muthulakshmi Varadhan , Bharathi 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , worked as an assistant editor in the film .
The make @-@ up for Haasan 's scars was designed by Michael Westmore and Anil Premkarikar . The make @-@ up process was completed in Los Angeles in April 2002 after Haasan filmed the song sequences for Panchathantiram ( 2002 ) . When Haasan was en @-@ route to Los Angeles from Toronto , he was detained by the authorities at the Toronto Pearson International Airport , who suspected him of being a terrorist because of his surname , which he described as sounding " very Islamic " . Haasan was left stranded at the airport until the authorities from the American Embassy at Toronto intervened and resolved the issue .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for Anbe Sivam commenced in July 2002 . The first scene featuring the lead actors was shot at Pollachi Junction railway station . Haasan and Madhavan interacted closely during the initial stages of the shoot to ensure that the on @-@ screen chemistry between the pair was apparent .
Anbe Sivam was shot on a restricted budget of ₹ 120 million , with the train and bus disaster sequences involving the use of settings and CGI . According to R. Madhavan , the team also shot in relatively empty locations . The flood scenes set in Odisha were re @-@ created with outdoor sets consisting of city roads submerged under water erected in the Odisha @-@ Andhra Pradesh border . Filming also took place in Chennai , Visakhapatnam and on the Tamil Nadu @-@ Karnataka border . Post @-@ filming , Haasan revealed to film critic and journalist Subhash K. Jha that he was impressed with Madhavan 's enthusiasm and performance during the making of the film , subsequently signing him to appear in his production venture , Nala Damayanthi ( 2003 ) .
= = Themes and influences = =
Anbe Sivam follows the events of a journey from Bhubaneswar to Chennai undertaken by two men of contrasting personalities , Nallasivam ( Haasan ) , a physically challenged and witty socialist , and Anbarasu ( Madhavan ) , an arrogant advertising filmmaker who supports capitalism and globalisation . Due to unforeseen circumstances , the two are forced to undertake the journey together . During the journey , a series of themes pertaining to communism , compassion , globalisation , atheism , and altruism are addressed ; the film also shows Haasan 's views as a humanist . According to Kalyanaraman M of The Times of India , Anbe Sivam proposes that when faced with death , a man may make a morally superior choice . By making that choice in the form of humanism against capitalism and globalisation , Haasan indicates that man 's transformation into God occurs through the belief that " Siva is love " .
According to Haasan , the characterisation of Nallasivam was inspired by the life of Communist playwright , actor , director , lyricist and theorist Safdar Hashmi , who was chiefly associated with his work with street theatre in India . Hashmi died on 2 January 1989 after being attacked by members of the Indian National Congress while staging a play , Halla Bol . S. Anand of Outlook magazine notes that Haasan 's views on humanism in the film were also inspired by those of Charlie Chaplin . M. Kalyanaraman and Abdullah Nurullah of The Times of India opined that Nallasivam was " akin to " street theatre artist Pralayan .
The film critic Baradwaj Rangan , in his review of another Haasan film , Vishwaroopam ( 2013 ) , found the ethnicity of the characters in the film to be a continuation of Haasan 's inclusion of non @-@ Tamil characters in his films . Rangan considered this to be Haasan 's acknowledgement of the " interconnectedness of the nation " and " the world beyond India " . He pointed out in his article that Haasan had experimented with the concept before by including the usage of Bengali language and meeting Bengalis in Mahanadi ( 1994 ) , a Telugu @-@ speaking love interest in Nammavar ( 1994 ) , marrying a Bengali woman in Hey Ram ( 2000 ) , conducting investigations with an American associate in Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu ( 2006 ) , and marriage to a Frenchwoman in Manmadan Ambu ( 2010 ) . Rangan notes that in Anbe Sivam , the inclusion of and interaction with the Odia people was another example of including non @-@ Tamil characters in his films . Rangan also compared Haasan 's fight sequence with the use of an umbrella to the way he used a book and stool in Thoongadhey Thambi Thoongadhey ( 1983 ) .
The basic plot of Anbe Sivam bears resemblance to the 1987 road film , Planes , Trains and Automobiles directed by John Hughes , which starred Steve Martin and John Candy in the lead roles . Haasan and Madhavan reprise the roles played by Candy and Martin in that film , respectively . The portrait painted by Nallasivam on the walls of Kandasamy Padayatchi 's house is inspired by the Mexican painter Diego Rivera 's fresco , Man at the Crossroads . The painting shows Nallasivam posing as Padayatchi 's deity Lord Shiva , the number 910 indicating the salary Padayatchi pays to his factory 's workers , and the communism symbol . Srinivasa Ramanujam , writing for The Times of India in 2008 , noted that the religious undertone in the film was similar to that of Rajinikanth 's Baba ( 2002 ) .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack album and background score for Anbe Sivam were composed by Vidyasagar , and the lyrics for the songs were written by Vairamuthu and P. Vijay . After composing the tune for the title song , Vidyasagar explained the situation of the song to Haasan , who wanted the song to be sung in such a way that the protagonist is singing according to the situation he finds himself in . Vidyasagar suggested that Haasan should sing the song himself to achieve the desired result , which Haasan accepted . The song " Mouname Paarvayai " was not included in the film . The song " Poovaasam " is based on the Shuddh Sarang raga . The male portions for the reprise of " Poovaasam " were sung by Sriram Parthasarathy , while the original version was sung by Vijay Prakash . Sadhana Sargam sang her portion of both versions of the song .
Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu wrote , " Vidyasagar is scaling great heights as a composer . The theme song and the melodious " Pon Vaasam " [ sic ] are pointers . Vairamuthu 's lyrics deserve special mention here . " Singer Charulatha Mani , in her column for The Hindu , " A Raga 's Journey " , noted , " Poovaasam " possessed " a charm that is born out of classicism incorporated in a populist piece " . Arkay of Rediff.com found the songs to be " at best , okay " . M. Suganth of The Times of India , in his review for the music album , " Lovers Special – Vol . 2 @-@ 4 " , included " Poovaasam " among the " Hot Picks " of the album .
= = Release = =
According to S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu , the producers were so confident that Anbe Sivam would be a strong competitor at the 50th National Film Awards that they had the film reviewed by the Central Board of Film Certification , which cleared it with a " U " certificate , before the end of 2002 so that they could enter the film into the 2002 awards list . The film 's release coincided with the Thai Pongal festival and opened alongside five other films , including Vikram 's Dhool , Vijaykanth 's Chokka Thangam , and the Vijay starrer Vaseegara .
Anbe Sivam was screened as a part of the Indian Panorama section of the International Film Festival of India in 2003 . As a tribute to Safdar Hashmi , a special preview of the film was organised by Haasan in association with Safdar Hashmi Memorial Trust ( SAHMAT ) on 9 January 2003 at Siri Fort Auditorium . The film was dubbed into Telugu as Sathyame Sivam and released on 28 February 2003 . It was dubbed into Hindi as Shivam two years later in 2005 . After the release of the original Tamil version , the dubbing rights for the Hindi version were sold at a low price , much to the irritation of the lead actors as they were not able to dub for themselves in Hindi .
= = = Critical response = = =
A reviewer for the Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan expressed appreciation for the film , mentioning that it deserved respect for the subject it had chosen and that the film was " like an oxygen cylinder to Tamil cinema " . Baradwaj Rangan described the film as " Kamal 's latest solo attempt to bend , twist , shape @-@ shift Tamil cinema into forms never @-@ before seen . " Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu believed that " well @-@ defined characters , a strong storyline and intelligent screenplay " were the film 's " vital ingredients " . She further noted Haasan 's treatment of the story , and that his " diligence that has gone into the chiselling of the story and screenplay is only too evident " , while calling the film " a laudable effort " .
P. Devarajan of Business Line praised Haasan 's performance and facial expressions and concluded his review by stating , " This man has intrigued me and will always . " In his review of the film 's DVD , M. Suganth , writing for The Times of India , called it " one of the finest movies of the decade " and praised the story , screenplay and dialogues before concluding his review by terming the film as " a
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lla for the United States Championship . Following this loss , Swagger went on a three @-@ month losing streak against the likes of Tyson Kidd , Sheamus , Brodus Clay , and Ryback . After again losing to Sheamus on the September 3 episode of Raw , Swagger told Raw General Manager AJ Lee he would take " time off " .
= = = = The Real Americans ( 2013 – 2014 ) = = = =
On the February 1 , 2013 episode of SmackDown , Swagger returned , and demanded that SmackDown General Manager Booker T put him in the Elimination Chamber match at Elimination Chamber . Later on that night , Swagger made his in @-@ ring return by defeating Kofi Kingston . On the February 11 episode of Raw , Swagger debuted a new manager , Zeb Colter , a self @-@ proclaimed great American hero who strongly advocated anti @-@ immigration beliefs ; Swagger 's character was influenced by Colter to display similar traits . That same episode , Swagger defeated Zack Ryder to qualify for the Elimination Chamber match that would determine the number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship which he also won after last eliminating Randy Orton .
On February 19 , Fox News and various right @-@ wing commentators including Glenn Beck claimed that Swagger and Colter 's characters were a mockery of the Tea Party movement meant to " demonize " the Tea Party . WWE responded to the criticism by stating that they were incorporating " current events into [ their ] storylines " to " create compelling and relevant content for [ their ] audience " and that " this storyline in no way represents WWE ’ s political point of view " . WWE followed by having Swagger and Colter break character during a video to invite Beck to appear on Raw while justifying that the storyline was designed to elicit a crowd response for the protagonist , Alberto Del Rio , and the antagonists , Swagger and Colter , while remaining within a PG rating , unlike several high @-@ rated scripted dramas that use murder and rape in their storylines . Beck rejected the invitation . On the March 18 episode of Raw , Swagger broke the ankle of Del Rio 's ring announcer Ricardo Rodriguez after Rodriguez tried to save Del Rio from Swagger 's vicious assault .
On April 7 at WrestleMania 29 , Swagger unsuccessfully challenged Del Rio for the World Heavyweight Championship . The following night on Raw , Swagger and Zeb Colter were defeated by Del Rio in a Two @-@ on @-@ one handicap match after forcing Swagger to submit to the Cross Armbreaker . Immediately following , Dolph Ziggler cashed in his Money in the Bank briefcase on Del Rio to become the new World Heavyweight Champion . Swagger would then feud with both Del Rio and Ziggler over the World Heavyweight Championship , with Swagger defeating Ziggler in a non @-@ title match the following week and Del Rio attacking him afterwards . Swagger was originally booked to face Ziggler and Del Rio in three @-@ way ladder match for the World Heavyweight Championship at Extreme Rules , however , Ziggler would suffer a legitimate concussion at a SmackDown taping due to a kick from Swagger , thus removing their match from the card . As a result of Ziggler 's injury , Swagger instead would be booked to face Del Rio in a number one contender I Quit match at the pay @-@ per @-@ view on May 19 , which Del Rio won . In June , Swagger took a leave absence to undergo surgery on his hand , which sidelined him for the remainder of the month .
Swagger returned on the July 1 episode of Raw , accompanying Zeb Colter 's new client Antonio Cesaro to his match with Cody Rhodes . At the Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view , Swagger and Cesaro competed in the World Heavyweight Championship Money in the Bank ladder match , but were both unsuccessful as the match was won by Damien Sandow . The following night on Raw , Swagger and Cesaro , now billed as The Real Americans , teamed together for the first time , but ended up being defeated by The Usos . During the Night of Champions pre @-@ show , the Real Americans competed in a number one contender Tag Team Turmoil match for the WWE Tag Team Championship , in which they were the last team eliminated by The Prime Time Players ( Darren Young and Titus O 'Neil ) . Simultaneously , the Real Americans began a feud with the returning Santino Marella after he defeated both of them in singles competition . On October 6 at Battleground , the Real Americans defeated Marella and The Great Khali in a tag team match . The Real Americans moved onto feuding with Los Matadores , culminating in a tag team match on October 27 at Hell in a Cell , which Los Matadores won . The following night on Raw , The Real Americans defeated WWE Tag Team Champions Cody Rhodes and Goldust in a non @-@ title match . At Survivor Series , Swagger teamed with Cesaro , Roman Reigns , Dean Ambrose and Seth Rollins in a 5 on 5 traditional Survivor Series tag team match in which their team was victorious over Rey Mysterio , Cody Rhodes , Goldust and The Usos ' team . At TLC they also challenged for the WWE Tag Team Championship again in a losing effort in a fatal four way match also involving RybAxel and the team of Big Show and Rey Mysterio . Swagger would enter the 2014 Royal Rumble match at entrant # 7 but was eliminated by Kevin Nash . On the February 14 episode of SmackDown , Swagger became the # 1 Contender for the Intercontinental Championship after winning a Fatal 4 @-@ Way match , defeating Kofi Kingston , Rey Mysterio and Mark Henry . However , Swagger would advance to Elimination Chamber , where he would face the current Intercontinental Champion , Big E , and would lose the match .
During the pre @-@ show of WrestleMania XXX , the Real Americans were the final team eliminated during a fatal @-@ four @-@ way match for the WWE Tag Team Championship . Swagger blamed Cesaro for the loss and put Cesaro in the Patriot Lock before Colter demanded that the duo shake hands . Cesaro instead retaliated with a Cesaro Swing on Swagger . Later during the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Cesaro was a surprise entrant in the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal , which he won by last eliminating Big Show by body slamming him out of the ring , which mirrored Hulk Hogan 's momentous body slam of André . Swagger retaliated by attacking Cesaro on the following Raw and then destroying the trophy , thus ending the stable .
= = = = Various feuds ( 2014 – present ) = = = =
Following the dissolution of their team , Swagger would feud with Cesaro , with Rob Van Dam also being drawn into the feud , with the three competing in a triple threat elimination match at Extreme Rules , which Cesaro won . On the May 5 episode of Raw , Swagger and Zeb Colter would begin to rant about the foreign superstars in WWE , before being interrupted by the debuting Adam Rose . Over the next month , Swagger would lose matches due to Rose causing a distraction by appearing at ringside with his " Rosebuds " . This would lead to a match on the June 2 episode of Raw , where Swagger would be defeated by Rose . At the Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view , Swagger would compete in the Money in the Bank ladder match , which was won by Seth Rollins .
On the June 30 episode of Raw , Swagger turned face for the first time in WWE , after he and Colter would confront Rusev and Lana about them disrespecting America . This would lead to a number of matches between the two , with Swagger being defeated by Rusev at both Battleground and SummerSlam . On the December 1 episode of Raw , Swagger would find Colter beaten up in a corridor , with Rusev later admitting to the attack . At TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , Swagger would challenge Rusev for the WWE United States Championship , in a losing effort and ending their feud .
Nearing the end of 2014 and beginning of 2015 , Swagger would spend most of his time competing on Main Event and Superstars . On January 25 , 2015 at Royal Rumble , Swagger competed in the Royal Rumble match , but was eliminated by Big Show . At WrestleMania 31 , Swagger participated in the 2nd Annual André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal , in which he was unsuccessful . Swagger then appeared on Main Event and Superstars , defeating the likes of Stardust , The Miz , Adam Rose and Heath Slater . After being constricted to Main Event and Superstars throughout all of 2015 , On the November 2 episode of Raw , Swagger encountered his former manager Zeb Colter , only to be interrupted by the returning Alberto Del Rio . This started a feud between the two , which culminated at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs with Swagger challenging Del Rio for the WWE United States Championship in a Chairs match , which Del Rio won . At 2015 Tribute to the Troops , Swagger defeated Rusev by submission in a " Boot Camp " match .
On January 24 , 2016 at Royal Rumble , during the kick @-@ off show , Swagger teamed with Mark Henry in a winning effort against the teams of Darren Young and Damien Sandow , The Dudley Boyz and The Ascension . As a result of the win , Swagger qualified for the Royal Rumble match itself during the main show ; entering as the 24th entrant , only to be quickly eliminated by Brock Lesnar lasting only 29 seconds . At Roadblock , Swagger would be defeated by Chris Jericho . At WrestleMania 32 , Swagger would compete in the Andre The Giant Memorial Battle Royal , which was won by Baron Corbin . On the June 6 episode of Raw , Swagger faced long @-@ time rival Rusev in Swagger 's home state of Oklahoma in a losing effort via count @-@ out after he was shoved into Titus O 'Neil , who was on commentary , at the count of nine . After the match , Swagger attacked Rusev before leading the crowd in a " We the People " chant . On the July 4 episode of Raw , Swagger was part of the main @-@ event , where he teamed with " Team USA " , which consisted of himself , Big Show , Kane , Apollo Crews , Mark Henry , Zack Ryder and The Dudley Boyz ( Bubba Ray Dudley and D @-@ Von Dudley ) , in a 16 @-@ man elimination tag team match , in which their team was victorious over " The Multinational Alliance " , which consisted of Kevin Owens , Chris Jericho , Sami Zayn , Cesaro , Sheamus , Alberto Del Rio and The Lucha Dragons ( Kalisto and Sin Cara ) . On July 19 , at the 2016 WWE Draft , Swagger was drafted to Raw .
= = Personal life = =
Hager married Catalina White in December 2010 . The couple had their first child , son Knox Sterling , on October 17 , 2011 . On May 18 , 2015 , the couple had their second child , daughter Presley Pearl .
On February 19 , 2013 , Hager was arrested in Gulfport , Mississippi after a SmackDown taping . He was charged with driving under the influence and drug possession . Hager was released after the arrest and was ordered to appear in court on March 12 , 2013 . He was then scheduled to stand trial on June 25 , 2013 in Mississippi . The marijuana charge was dismissed after he was fined $ 500 , and sentenced to six months probation with his two @-@ day jail sentence being suspended .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Gutwrench falling powerbomb – 2008 – 2013 ; used rarely thereafter
Patriot Lock ( Ankle lock ) – 2010 – present
Red , White and Blue Thunder Bomb ( Spin @-@ out sit out powerbomb ) – early 2008
Swagger Bomb ( Running corner slingshot splash ) – used mostly as signature
Signature moves
Abdominal stretch
Double chickenwing
Biel throw
Big boot
Chop block
Double leg takedown
Football tackle to the opponent 's knees
Leg drop
Multiple suplex variations
German
Gutwrench
Northern Lights
Side belly to belly , sometimes from the second rope
Vertical
Wheelbarrow
Oklahoma Stampede
Running knee lift to a cornered opponent
Shoulderbreaker
Managers
The Swagger Soaring Eagle
Vickie Guerrero
Zeb Colter
Nicknames
" The All @-@ American American "
" Mr. Money in the Bank "
" A Real American "
Entrance themes
" Get Down on Your Knees " by Age Against the Machine ( November 4 , 2008 – February 15 , 2013 )
" Patriot " by CFO $ ( February 17 , 2013 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
= = = Amateur wrestling = = =
National Collegiate Athletic Association
University of Oklahoma single @-@ season record for most pins in the 285 pounds ( 129 kg ) weight class ( 30 )
= = = Professional wrestling = = =
Florida Championship Wrestling
FCW Florida Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time , inaugural )
FCW Southern Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time , final )
FCW Florida Heavyweight Championship Inaugural Battle Royale
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 18 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2009
World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE
ECW Championship ( 1 time )
World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWE United States Championship ( 1 time )
Money in the Bank ( 2010 )
Bragging Rights Trophy ( 2010 ) – as a member of Team SmackDown ( with Big Show , Rey Mysterio , Alberto Del Rio , Edge , Tyler Reks , and Kofi Kingston )
= Jackie Robinson =
Jack Roosevelt " Jackie " Robinson ( January 31 , 1919 – October 24 , 1972 ) was an American Major League Baseball ( MLB ) second baseman who became the first African American to play in the major leagues in the modern era . Robinson broke the baseball color line when the Brooklyn Dodgers started him at first base on April 15 , 1947 . The Dodgers , by playing Robinson , heralded the end of racial segregation that had relegated black players to the Negro leagues since the 1880s . Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962 .
Robinson had an exceptional 10 @-@ year baseball career . He was the recipient of the inaugural MLB Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 , was an All @-@ Star for six consecutive seasons from 1949 through 1954 , and won the National League Most Valuable Player Award in 1949 — the first black player so honored . Robinson played in six World Series and contributed to the Dodgers ' 1955 World Series championship . In 1997 , MLB " universally " retired his uniform number , 42 , across all major league teams ; he was the first pro athlete in any sport to be so honored . MLB also adopted a new annual tradition , " Jackie Robinson Day " , for the first time on April 15 , 2004 , on which every player on every team wears No. 42 .
Robinson 's character , his use of nonviolence , and his unquestionable talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation which then marked many other aspects of American life . He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to the Civil Rights Movement . Robinson also was the first black television analyst in MLB , and the first black vice president of a major American corporation , Chock full o 'Nuts .
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Sarmiento claimed that this book helped explain Argentine struggles to European readers , and was cited in European publications . Written with extensive assistance from others , Sarmiento adds to his own memory the quotes , accounts , and dossiers from other historians and companions of Facundo Quiroga . Facundo maintains its relevance in modern @-@ day as well , bringing attention to the contrast of lifestyles in Latin America , the conflict and struggle for progress while maintaining tradition , as well as the moral and ethical treatment of the public by government officials and regimes .
Recuerdos de Provincia ( Recollections of a Provincial Past ) , 1850 . In this second autobiography , Sarmiento displays a stronger effort to include familial links and ties to his past , in contrast to Mi defensa , choosing to relate himself to San Juan and his Argentine heritage . Sarmiento discusses growing up in rural Argentina with basic ideologies and simple livings . Recuerdos discusses his Similar to Facundo , Sarmiento uses previous dossiers filed against himself by enemies to assist in writing Recuerdos and therefore fabricating an autobiography based on these files and from his own memory . Sarmiento 's persuasion in this book is substantial . The accounts , whether all true or false against him , are a source of information to write Recuerdos as he is then able to object and rectify into what he creates as a ' true account ' of autobiography .
= = = Other works = = =
Sarmiento was a prolific author . The following is a selection of his other works :
Mi defensa , 1843 . This was Sarmiento 's first autobiography in a pamphlet form , which omits any substantial information or recognition of his illegitimate daughter Ana . This would have discredited Sarmiento as a respected father of Argentina , as Sarmiento portrays himself as a sole individual , disregarding or denouncing important ties to other people and groups in his life .
Viajes por Europa , África , y América 1849 . A description and observations while travelling as a representative of the Peruvian government to learn more about educational systems around the world .
Argirópolis 1850 . A description of a future utopian city in the River Plate States .
Commentarios sobre la constitución 1852 . This is Sarmiento 's official account of his ideologies promoting civilization and the " Europeanization " and " Americanization " of Argentina . This account includes dossiers , articles , speeches and information regarding the pending constitution .
Informes sobre educación , 1856 . This report was the first official statistic report on education in Latin America includes information on gender and location distribution of pupils , salaries and wages , and comparative achievement . Informes sobre educación proposes new theories , plans , and methods of education as well as quality controls on schools and learning systems .
Las Escuelas , base de la prosperidad y de la republica en los Estados Unidos 1864 . This work , along with the previous two , were intended to persuade Latin America and Argentines of the benefits of the educational , economic and political systems of the United States , which Sarmiento supported .
Conflicto y armonías de las razas en América 1883 , deals with race issues in Latin America in the late 1800s . While situations in the book remain particular to the time period and location , race issues and conflicts of races are still prevalent and enable the book to be relevant in the present day .
Vida de Dominguito , 1886 . A memoir of Dominguito , Sarmiento 's adopted son who was the only child Sarmiento had always accepted . Many of the notes used to compile Vida de Dominguito had been written 20 years prior during one of Sarmiento 's stays in Washington .
Educar al soberano , a compilation of letters written from 1870 to 1886 on the topic of improved education , promoting and suggesting new reforms such as secondary schools , parks , sporting fields and specialty schools . This compilation was met with far greater success than Ortografía , Instrucción Publica and received greater public support .
El camino de Lacio , which impacted Argentina by influencing many Italians to immigrate by relating Argentinas history to that of Latium of the Roman empire .
Inmigración y colonización , a publication which led to mass immigration of Europeans to mostly urban Argentina , which Sarmiento believed would assist in ' civilizing ' the country over the more barbaric gauchos and rural provinces . This had a large impact on Argentine politics , especially as much of the civil tension in the country was divided between the rural provinces and the cities . In addition to increased urban population , these European immigrants had a cultural effect upon Argentina , providing what Sarmiento believed to be more civilized culture similar to North America 's .
On the Condition of Foreigners , which helped to assist political changes for immigrants in 1860 .
Ortografía , Instrucción Publica , an example of Sarmiento 's passion for improved education . Sarmiento focused on illiteracy of the youth , and suggested simplifying reading and spelling for the public education system , a method which was never implemented .
Práctica Constitucional , a three volume work , describing current political methods as well as propositions for new methodologies .
Presidential Papers , a history of his presidency , formed of many personal and external documents .
Travels in the United States in 1847 , ( Edited and translated into English by Michael Aaron Rockland . )
= = Legacy = =
The impact of Domingo Faustino Sarmiento is most obviously seen in the establishment of September 11 as Panamerican Teacher 's Day which was done in his honor at the 1943 Interamerican Conference on Education , held in Panama . Today , he is still considered to be Latin America 's teacher . In his time , he opened countless schools , created free public libraries , opened immigration , and worked towards a Union of Plate States .
His impact was not only on the world of education , but also on Argentine political and social structure . His ideas are now revered as innovative , though at the time they were not widely accepted . He was a self @-@ made man and believed in sociological and economic growth for Latin America , something that the Argentine people could not recognize at the time with the soaring standard of living which came with high prices , high wages , and an increased national debt .
Today , there is a statue in honor of Sarmiento in Boston on the Commonwealth Avenue Mall , between Gloucester and Hereford streets , erected in 1973 . There is a square , Plaza Sarmiento in Rosario , Argentina . One of Rodin 's last sculptures was that of Sarmiento which is now in Buenos Aires .
= Malvern , Worcestershire =
Malvern is a spa town and civil parish in Worcestershire , England . At the 2011 census it had a population of 29 @,@ 626 . It includes the historic settlement and commercial centre of Great Malvern on the steep eastern flank of the Malvern Hills , as well as the former independent urban district of Malvern Link . Many of the major suburbs and settlements that comprise the town are separated by large tracts of open common land and fields , and together with smaller civil parishes adjoining the town 's boundaries and the hills , the built up area is often referred to collectively as The Malverns .
Archaeological evidence suggests that Bronze Age people had settled in the area around 1000 BC , although it is not known whether these settlements were permanent or temporary . The town itself was founded in the 11th century when Benedictine monks established a priory at the foot of the highest peak of Malvern Hills . During the 19th century Malvern developed rapidly from a village to a sprawling conurbation owing to its popularity as a hydrotherapy spa based on its spring waters . Immediately following the decline of spa tourism towards the end of the 19th century , the town 's focus shifted to education with the establishment of several private boarding schools in former hotels and large villas . A further major expansion was the result of the relocation of the Telecommunications Research Establishment ( TRE ) to Malvern in 1942 . QinetiQ , TRE 's successor company , remains the town 's largest local employer .
Malvern is the largest place in the parliamentary constituency of West Worcestershire and the district of Malvern Hills , being also the district 's administrative seat . It lies adjacent to the Malvern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . The populous civil parish has a town council , Malvern Town Council , based in Great Malvern .
= = Toponymy = =
The name Malvern is derived from the ancient British or old Welsh moel @-@ bryn , meaning " Bare or Bald Hill " , the modern equivalent being the Welsh moelfryn ( bald hill ) . It has been known as Malferna ( 11th century ) , Malverne ( 12th century ) , and Much Malvern ( 16 – 17th century ) .
= = History = =
= = = Bronze Age to monastic times = = =
Flint axes , arrowheads , and flakes found in the area are attributed to early Bronze Age settlers , and the " Shire Ditch " , a late Bronze Age boundary earthwork possibly dating from around 1000 BC , was constructed along part of the crest of the hills near the site of later settlements . The Wyche Cutting , a pass through the hills , was in use in prehistoric times as part of the salt route from Droitwich to South Wales . A 19th @-@ century discovery of over two hundred metal money bars suggests that the area had been inhabited by the La Tène people around 250 BC . Ancient folklore has it that the British chieftain Caractacus made his last stand against the Romans at the British Camp , a site of extensive Iron Age earthworks on a summit of the Malvern Hills close to where Malvern was to be later established . The story remains disputed , however , as Roman historian Tacitus implies a site closer to the river Severn . There is therefore no evidence that Roman presence ended the prehistoric settlement at British Camp . However , excavations at nearby Midsummer Hill fort , Bredon Hill , and Croft Ambrey all show evidence of violent destruction around the year 48 AD . This may suggest that the British Camp was abandoned or destroyed around the same time .
A study made by Royal Commission in 2005 that includes aerial photographs of the Hills " amply demonstrates the archaeological potential of this largely neglected landscape , and provides food for thought for a number of research projects " . A pottery industry based on the Malverns left remains dating from the Late Bronze Age to the Norman Conquest , shown by methods of archaeological petrology . Products were traded as far as South Wales , via the River Severn . The Longdon and other marshes at the foot of Malvern Chase were grazed by cattle . " Woodland management was considerable " , providing fuel for the kilns .
= = = Monastic Malvern = = =
Little is known about Malvern over the next thousand years until it is described as " an hermitage , or some kind of religious house , for seculars , before the conquest , endowed by the gift of Edward the Confessor " . The additions to William Dugdale 's Monasticon include an extract from the Pleas taken before the King at York in 1387 , stating that there was a congregation of hermits at Malvern " some time before the conquest " . Although a Malvern priory existed before the Norman Conquest , it is the settlement of nearby Little Malvern , the site of another , smaller priory , that is mentioned in the Domesday Book . A motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle built on the top tier of the earthworks of the British Camp just before the Norman Conquest was probably founded by the Saxon Earl Harold Godwinson of Hereford . It was destroyed by King Henry II in 1155 .
The town developed around its 11th @-@ century priory , a Benedictine monastery , the remains of which make up some of the early parts of Great Malvern Priory , now a large parish church . Several slightly different histories explain the actual founding of the religious community . Legend tells that the settlement began following the murder of St. Werstan , a monk of Deerhurst , who fled from the Danes and took refuge in the woods of Malvern , where the above @-@ mentioned hermitage had been established . St Werstan 's oratory is thought to have been located on the site of St Michael 's Chapel which is believed to have stood on the site of Bello Sguardo , a Victorian Villa . Bello Sguardo was built on the site of Hermitage Cottage . The cottage was demolished in 1825 and ecclesiastical carvings were found within it . A Mediaeval undercroft , human bones and parts of a coffin were also uncovered . Although the legend may be monastic mythology , historians have however concluded that St. Werstan was the original martyr .
The first prior was Aldwyn , who founded the monastery on his bishop 's advice , and by 1135 the monastery included thirty monks . Aldwyn was succeeded by Walcher of Malvern , an astronomer and philosopher from Lorraine , whose gravestone inside the priory church records details that the priory arose in 1085 from a hermitage endowed by Edward the Confessor . An ancient stained glass window in the Priory church depicts the legend of St. Werstan , with details of his vision , the consecration of his chapel , Edward the Confessor granting the charter for the site , and Werstan 's martyrdom .
An 18th @-@ century document states that in the 18th year of William 's kingship ( probably 1083 ) , a priory was dedicated to St Mary the Virgin . Victoria County History describes how a hermit Aldwyn , who lived in the reign of Edward the Confessor , had petitioned the Earl of Gloucester for the original site ( of the Priory ) in the wood , and cites his source as " Gervase of Canterbury , Mappa Mundi ( Rolls ser . ) " .
Large estates in Malvern were part of crown lands given to Gilbert " the Red " , the seventh Earl of Gloucester and sixth Earl of Hertford , on his marriage to Joan of Acre the daughter of Edward I , in 1290 . Disputed hunting rights on these led to several armed conflicts with Humphrey de Bohun , 3rd Earl of Hereford that Edward resolved . Nott states that Gilbert made gifts to the Priory , and describes his " great conflict " with Thomas de Cantilupe , Bishop of Hereford , also about hunting rights and a ditch that Gilbert dug , that was settled by costly litigation . Gilbert had a similar conflict with Godfrey Giffard , Bishop and Administrator of Worcester Cathedral ( and formerly Chancellor of England ) . Godfrey , who had granted land to the Priory , had jurisdictional disputes about Malvern Priory , resolved by Robert Burnell , the current Chancellor .
A discussion in 2005 about the stained glass windows of the Priory Church in terms of the relationship between Church and Laity stresses the importance of Malvern in the development of stained glass . It refers to " the vast and strategically important estates of which Malvern was a part " in the 15th and 16th centuries , to a widespread awareness of Malvern Priory , to the likelihood of a pilgrimage route through the town . The discussion also mentions Thomas Walsingham 's view that Malvern was a hiding place of the Lollard knight Sir John Oldcastle in 1414 . Chambers wrote , in relation to the stained glass , " the situation of Malvern was so much admired by Henry VII , his Queen ( Elizabeth of York ) and their two Sons , Prince Arthur , and Prince Henry " that they made substantial endowments .
The area and the surrounding chase were subject to forest law , as a Royal forest . In the early period , this would have meant harsh punishments for residents that poached livestock or encroached on other Royal entitlements . By Tudor times , royal lands had become used as commons and forest law had fallen into disuse .
= = = Post dissolution = = =
During the Dissolution of the Monasteries the local commissioners were instructed to ensure that , where abbey churches were also used for parish worship , they should continue or could be purchased by parishioners . Accordingly , Malvern Priory survived by being acquired by a William Pinnocke and with it , much of the 15th century stained glass windows . The monastic buildings were taken apart and anything usable was sold off . With the exception of the church building ( of which the south transept adjoining the monastery 's cloisters was destroyed ) , all that remains of Malvern 's monastery is the Abbey Gateway ( also known as the Priory Gatehouse ) that houses today 's Malvern Museum .
An Elizabethan land grant of 1558 mentions Holy Well . A Crown grant of tithes in 1589 mentions lambs , pigs , calves , eggs , hemp and flax . Elizabeth made her Chancellor , Sir Thomas Bromley , the Lord of the Manor . The contemporary antiquary John Leland described the Malvern Hills and Hanley Castle .
King Charles I attempted to enclose and sell two thirds of the Chase , as part of a wider attempt to raise revenue for the Crown from the sale of Royal forests . The attempts to enclose the lands , used as commons , resulted in riots , part of a pattern of disturbances that ran across the disafforested royal lands . In 1633 , the Court of Exchequer Chamber of Charles I decreed the rights of the public to two thirds of the lands on the Malvern Hills , and rights of Sir Cornelius Vermuyden and his descendants , and the Crown , to one third ( quoted in the preamble to the Malvern Hills Act of 1884 ) . By that time , Malvern had become an established community and the major settlement in the Malvern Chase .
= = = Development as a spa ( 17th – 19th centuries ) = = =
The health @-@ giving properties of Malvern water and the natural beauty of the surroundings led to the development of Malvern as a spa , with resources for invalids and for tourists , seeking cures , rest and entertainment . Local legend has it that the curative benefit of the spring water was known in mediaeval times . The medicinal value and the bottling of Malvern water are mentioned " in a poem attributed to the Reverend Edmund Rea , who became Vicar of Great Malvern in 1612 " . Richard Banister , the pioneering oculist , wrote about the Eye Well , close to the Holy Well , in a short poem in his Breviary of the Eyes ( see Malvern water ) , in 1622 . In 1756 , Dr. John Wall published a 14 @-@ page pamphlet on the benefits of Malvern water , that reached a 158 @-@ page 3rd edition in 1763 . Further praise came from the botanist Benjamin Stillingfleet in 1757 , the poet Thomas Warton in 1790 , and William Addison , the physician of the Duchess of Kent ( mother of Queen Victoria ) in 1828 , all quoted in a review by the medical historian W.H. McMenemy . In his lecture about Malvern at the Royal Institution , Addison spoke of " its pure and invigorating air , the excellence of its water , and the romantic beauty of its scenery " . Similar views appeared in the press , Nicholas Vansittart brought his wife Catherine to Malvern for a rest cure in 1809 . Chambers , in his book about Malvern , praised Elizabeth , Countess Harcourt ( daughter @-@ in @-@ law of the 1st Earl Harcourt ) , whose patronage contributed to the development of hillside walks .
Bottling and shipping of the Malvern water grew in volume . In 1842 , Dr. James Wilson and Dr. James Manby Gully , leading exponents of hydrotherapy , set up clinics in Malvern ( Holyrood House for women and Tudor House for men ) . Malvern expanded rapidly as a residential spa . Several large hotels and many of the large villas in Malvern date from its heyday . Many smaller hotels and guest houses were built between about 1842 and 1875 . By 1855 there were already 95 hotels and boarding houses and by 1865 over a quarter of the town 's 800 houses were boarding and lodging houses . Most were in Great Malvern , the town centre , while others were in the surrounding settlements of Malvern Wells , Malvern Link , North Malvern and West Malvern .
Queen Adelaide visited St. Ann 's Well in September 1842 . " Throughout the 1840s and 1850s Malvern attracted a stream of celebrated visitors , including royalty . " Patients included Charles Darwin , Catherine , wife of Charles Dickens , Thomas Carlyle , Florence Nightingale , Lord Lytton , who was an outspoken advocate of the waters , Lord Tennyson and Samuel Wilberforce . The hydrotherapists came under heavy criticism from Sir Charles Hastings ( a founder of the British Medical Association ) and other physicians .
The extension of the railway from Worcester to Malvern Link was completed on 25 May 1859 . The following year , " Besides middle class visitors ... the railway also brought working class excursionists from the Black Country with dramatic effect ... At Whitsuntide ... 10 @,@ 000 came from the Black Country to the newly opened stations at Great Malvern and Malvern Wells . Throughout June to September , day trips were frequent , causing the " town to be crowded with ' the most curious specimens of the British shopkeeper and artisan on an outing ' " . Following Malvern 's new @-@ found fame as a spa and area of natural beauty , and fully exploiting its new rail connections , factories from as far as Manchester were organising day trips for their employees , often attracting as many as 5 @,@ 000 visitors a day . In 1865 , a public meeting of residents denounced the rising rail fares – by then twice that of other lines – that were exploiting the tourism industry , and demanded a limitation to the number of excursion trains . The arrival of the railway also enabled the delivery of coal in large quantities , which accelerated the area 's popularity as a winter resort .
The 1887 Baedeker 's includes Malvern in a London – Worcester – Hereford itinerary and described as " an inland health resort , famous for its bracing air and pleasant situation " and " a great educational centre " , with five hotels that are " well spoken of " , a commercial hotel , the Assembly Rooms and Gardens , and many excursions on foot , pony and by carriage . Other descriptions of the diversions mention bands , quadrilles , cricket ( residents vs visitors ) and billiard rooms . The Duchess of Teck stayed , with her daughter Mary ( later queen consort of George V ) , in Malvern in the Autumn of 1891 , joined by Lady Eva Greville. and the Duke of Teck . The Duchess was " perfectly enchanted with Malvern and its surroundings " and , with the Duke , visited Malvern College . The Duchess returned to open the new waterworks at Camp Hill in 1895 . In 1897 , the painter Edward Burne @-@ Jones came to Malvern for the " bracing air " , on the recommendation of his doctor , but stayed in his hotel for a week . The 7 @-@ year old Franklin D. Roosevelt visited in 1889 , during a trip to Europe with his parents .
By 1875 encroachment on Malvern 's wastelands by landowners had reached new heights and action was taken by the people of Malvern and the Commons Society to preserve the hills and common land and to prevent encroachment . Local lords of the manor indicated that they would like to give their rights to the wastes to the public . After preventing the enclosure of a common in 1882 , negotiations were initiated with the owners of the northern hills and the first Malvern Hills Act was secured in parliament in 1884 . Later Acts empowered the Malvern Hills Conservators to acquire land to prevent further encroachment on common land and by 1925 they had bought much of the manorial wastelands .
Towards the end of the 19th century , the popularity of the hydrotherapy had declined to the extent that many hotels were already being converted into private boarding schools and rest homes , and education became the basis of Malvern 's economy . By 1865 , the town already had 17 single @-@ gender private schools , increasing to 25 by 1885 . The area was well suited for schools due to its established attractive environment and access by rail . Children could travel unaccompanied with their trunks by rail to their boarding schools near the stations in Great Malvern , Malvern Wells , and Malvern Link . The Girls College , in a former hotel directly opposite Great Malvern railway station , has a dedicated ( now derelict ) tunnel to the basement of the building , which is clearly visible from both platforms of the station .
= = = 20th century = = =
Malvern began to develop into a modern town in the early 1900s , with a continuing strong agricultural presence . Modernisation continued , and the World War II years transformed the population and its activities , establishing the town as a centre of scientific research .
= = Governance = =
Malvern is a town and civil parish governed at the lowest tier of local government by Malvern Town Council , part of the Malvern Hills District of the County of Worcestershire ( a district comprising 68 civil parishes and 22 electoral wards ) . The ward boundaries were redefined from the wards of the former Malvern Urban District Council ( 1900 – 1974 ) . Through the many changes in local government infrastructure since the beginning of the 20th century , the importance and distinction by local boundaries of the historical areas of Great Malvern , Malvern Link , North Malvern , Cowleigh , and other neighbourhoods , have been lost .
The original parish of Great Malvern included the hamlet of Guarlford and the chapelry of Newland , and stretched from the River Severn on the east to the Malvern Hills on the west . Guarlford became a separate civil parish in 1894 when , under the Local Government Act of 1894 , urban district councils were created for Malvern and Malvern Link . The Guarlford parish covered much of eastern Malvern , including parts of Great Malvern , Pickersleigh , Poolbrook , Barnards Green , Hall Green and Sherrard 's Green . By 1900 however , the urban districts of Malvern and Malvern Link amalgamated , absorbing parts of neighbouring parishes to create a town of six wards under the Malvern Urban District Council . In 1934 the boundaries changed again , and those areas came under the control of the Malvern council .
Residents of Malvern Town in the six Malvern Town Council electoral wards are represented by 20 elected members . The council is supported by a team of senior executives that includes a Town Clerk , a Deputy Town Clerk , a PA to the Town Clerk and Chairman , an Operations and Events Officer , a Finance Officer , two Operations Managers , an Operations Supervisor , and eight Grounds Maintenance Operatives . The wards are based on the distribution of the population and generally ignore the names of the neighbourhoods and suburbs they contain , and use loaned names :
Chase — named after Malvern Chase — covering much of Barnards Green , the extensive Ministry of Defence property occupied by QinetiQ , the campus of The Chase School , the village of Poolbrook , and the largely rural south @-@ eastern area of the adjoining Poolbrook and Malvern commons .
Dyson Perrins , the northern part of Malvern adjacent to Link with the campus of Dyson Perrins School and the former MoD DERA North Site , and the former hamlets of Interfield , Halfkey , and Upper Howsell ; this ward includes a new neighbourhood of the town — Malvern Vale .
Link , that covers most of the area north of the Link Common between Link Top and Newland , and Upper and Lower Howsell .
North Malvern , an area between Link Top and West Malvern civil parish that includes the former village of Cowleigh .
Pickersleigh , that includes the part of the former Great Malvern boundaries east of the railway between Barnards Green and Malvern Link to Madresfield , the former hamlets of Hall Green and Sherrards Green , and part of Barnards Green .
Priory , covering much of Great Malvern , including all the town centre , and otherwise areas west of the railway between North Malvern and Malvern Wells civil parish .
= = Geography = =
= = = Town centre = = =
The town centre comprises two main streets at right angles to each other : the steep Church Street and Bellevue Terrace , a relatively flat north – south extension of the A449 which forms Malvern 's western extremity along the flank of the hills . In the heart of the town is a statue of the composer Edward Elgar , while other statuary is dedicated to Malvern water . Among the many shops are two large modern supermarkets , both in Edith Walk , formerly a steep and unmade lane that served the rear entrances of the shops in Church Street . Most of the traditional high street shops such as butchers , bakers , grocers etc . , are now health food shops , art and craft shops , charity shops , law firms , and estate agents . On the Worcester to Hereford railway line is the Victorian Great Malvern station , a listed example of classical Victorian railway architecture close to the nearby former Imperial Hotel by the same architect , E. W. Elmslie .
= = = Suburbs and neighbourhoods = = =
Malvern 's rapid urbanisation during the latter half of the 19th century spread eastwards and northwards from Great Malvern , the traditional town centre on the steep flank of the Worcestershire Beacon , and engulfed the manors and farms in the immediate area . It was often the farms , such as Pickersleigh ( now known as Pickersleigh Court and previously known as Pickersleigh House ) , near Great Malvern , and the Howsells in Malvern Link which merged with Great Malvern in 1900 that gave their names to many of the new neighbourhoods . The urban agglomeration continued to spread , and by the middle of the 20th century had reached the suburban parishes of West Malvern , Malvern Wells , Newland , Madresfield , and Guarlford .
= = = Climate = = =
Malvern lies in the Lower Severn / Avon plain affording it a degree of shelter caused by virtue of its nestling in between the Cotswold hills to the east , the Welsh Hills and Mountains to the west , and Birmingham plateau to the north . Although as with all the British Isles it has a maritime climate , the local topography means summer warmth can become emphasised by a slight foehn effect off the surrounding hills . The record maximum stands at 35.8c ( 96.4f ) set in August 1990 . Typically 17 @.@ 3 days of the year will reach 25.1c ( 77.2f ) or higher and the annual warmest day should reach 29.8c ( 85.6f ) according to the 1971 @-@ 00 observing period .
Winter temperature inversions can also occur given the correct conditions allowing very low minima to occur . Nonetheless , on average the region is one of the warmest non @-@ coastal areas in the UK , with overall night time minima in particular rivalling more urban areas . Indeed , despite the notable low absolute minima ( several weather @-@ observing sites nearby having fallen below − 20 ° C in the past ) the annual average frost ratio is a mere 33 days per year ( 1971 @-@ 00 ) , actually lower than more urbanised weather station locations such as London 's Heathrow Airport . A new absolute minimum of − 19 @.@ 5 ° C ( − 3 @.@ 1 ° F ) was recently set during the record cold month December 2010 . Prior to this the coldest nights were recorded in the winter of 1981 / 82 ; -18.1 ° C ( − 0 @.@ 6 ° F ) in December 1981 , − 18 @.@ 0 ° C ( − 0 @.@ 4 ° F ) in January 1982 .
The sunniest year was 2003 , when 1776 hours of sunshine were recorded . Rainfall averages around 740mm per year with over 1mm being recorded on 123 days of the year . Snowfall is highly variable . When winter low pressure systems move from south west to north east the Malvern area is often on the northern flank , meaning heavy snowfall while areas further south and east receive rain or no precipitation at all . However , when snowfall arrives by means of convective showers driven by northerly , north westerly or north easterly winds the area tends to be one of the least snowy parts of the UK , owing to its sheltered positioning .
= = Demography = =
At the 2011 UK census , the civil parish of Malvern had a population of 29 @,@ 626 . Together with the neighbouring parishes of West Malvern , Malvern Wells , Little Malvern and Newland ( the settlements of which largely unite with that of Malvern ) the population of the wider " Malverns " urban area is 34 @,@ 517 ( as of 2011 ) .
For the purposes of statistical reporting the Office for National Statistics groups the population of the North Malvern ward of the Malvern civil parish with that of the West Malvern civil parish . For every 100 females , there were 91 @.@ 7 males . The average household size was 2 @.@ 4 . Of those aged 16 – 74 in Malvern , 48 @.@ 1 % had no academic qualifications or one General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) , above the figures for all of the Malvern Hills local government district ( 39 @.@ 7 % ) and England ( 45 @.@ 5 % ) . According to the census , 2 @.@ 3 % were unemployed and 35 @.@ 0 % were economically inactive . 19 @.@ 7 % of the population were under the age of 16 and 11 @.@ 5 % were aged 75 and over ; the mean age of the people of the civil parish was 41 @.@ 5 . 66 @.@ 8 % of residents described their health as " good " , similar to the average of 69 @.@ 1 % for the wider district .
= = = Ethnicity = = =
The 2011 census found the White British ethnic group to be by far the largest in Malvern with 93 @.@ 2 % identifying as such . The next largest ethnic group was White Other , which accounted for 3 @.@ 2 % of the population , followed by the Asian and Mixed Race categories , which made up 1 @.@ 9 % and 1 @.@ 2 % respectively . Black ethnic groups made up 0 @.@ 3 % and the Other group constituted 0 @.@ 2 % of the population .
= = = Population development = = =
The area remained a village and cluster of manors and farms until " taking of the water " in Malvern became popularised by Dr. Wall in 1756 . By the 1820s the Baths and the Pump Room were opened ; in 1842 Drs. James Wilson and James Manby Gully opened up water cure establishments in the town centre . By the middle of the 19th century , with the arrival of the railway , bath houses and other establishments catering for the health tourists flourished . By the early 20th century Malvern had
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and to establish a liberal state . The reforms of 1812 did not last after King Ferdinand VII dissolved the Constitution and ended a short @-@ lived liberal government with French royalist military assistance . Twelve successful coups were carried out between 1814 and 1874 . There were several attempts to realign the political system to match social reality . Until the 1850s , the economy of Spain was primarily based on agriculture . There was little development of a bourgeois industrial or commercial class . The land @-@ based oligarchy remained powerful ; a small number of people held large estates ( called latifundia ) as well as all the important government positions . The landowners ' power was challenged by the industrial and merchant sectors , largely unsuccessfully .
In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon . Two distinct factors led to the uprisings : a series of urban riots , and a liberal movement within the middle classes and the military ( led by General Joan Prim ) , who were concerned about the ultra @-@ conservatism of the monarchy . In 1873 Isabella 's replacement , King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy , abdicated due to increasing political pressure , and the First Spanish Republic was proclaimed . However , the intellectuals behind the Republic were powerless to prevent a descent into chaos . Uprisings were crushed by the military . The old monarchy returned with the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874 , as reform was deemed less important than peace and stability . Despite the introduction of universal male suffrage in 1890 , elections were controlled by local political bosses ( caciques ) .
The most traditionalist sectors of the political sphere systematically tried to prevent liberal reforms and to sustain the patrilineal monarchy . The Carlists – supporters of Infante Carlos and his descendants – fought to promote Spanish tradition and Catholicism against the liberalism of successive Spanish governments . The Carlists attempted to restore the historic liberties and broad regional autonomy granted to the Basque Country and Catalonia by their fueros ( regional charters ) . At times they allied with nationalists ( separate from the National Faction during the civil war itself ) , including during the Carlist Wars .
Periodically , anarchism became popular among the working class , and was far stronger in Spain than anywhere else in Europe at the time . Anarchists were easily defeated in clashes with government forces .
= = = 20th century = = =
In 1897 an Italian anarchist assassinated Prime Minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo , motivated by a growing number of arrests and the use of torture by the government . The loss of Cuba , Spain 's last valuable colony , in the Spanish – American War of 1898 hit exports from Catalonia hardest ; there were acts of terrorism and actions by agents provocateurs in Barcelona . In the first two decades of the 20th century , the industrial working class grew in number . There was a growing discontent in the Basque country and Catalonia , where much of Spain 's industry was based . They believed that the government favoured agrarianism and therefore failed to represent their interests . The average illiteracy rate was 64 % , with considerable regional variation . Poverty in some areas was great and mass emigration to the New World occurred in the first decade of the century .
Spain 's socialist party , the Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party ( Spanish : Partido Socialista Obrero Español , PSOE ) and its associated trade union , the Unión General de Trabajadores ( UGT ) , gained support . The UGT grew from 8 @,@ 000 members in 1908 to 200 @,@ 000 in 1920 . Branch offices ( Casas del pueblo ) of the unions were established in major cities . The UGT was constantly fearful of losing ground to the anarchists . It was respected for its discipline during strikes . However , it was centrist and anti @-@ Catalan , with only 10 @,@ 000 members in Barcelona as late as 1936 . The PSOE and the UGT were based on a simple form of Marxism , one that assumed an inevitable revolution , and were isolationist in character . When the UGT moved their headquarters from Barcelona to Madrid in 1899 , many industrial workers in Catalonia were no longer able to access it . Some elements of the PSOE recognised the need for cooperation with republican parties .
In 1912 the Reformist Party was founded , which attracted intellectuals . Figures like its leader , Alejandro Lerroux , helped attract wide support from the working class . His advocacy of anti @-@ clericalism made him a successful demagogue in Barcelona . He argued that the Catholic Church was inseparable from the system of oppression the people were under . It was around this time that republicanism came to the fore .
The military was keen to avoid the break @-@ up of the state and was increasingly inward @-@ looking following the loss of Cuba . Regional nationalism , perceived as separatism , was frowned upon . In 1905 the army attacked the headquarters of two satirical magazines in Catalonia believed to be undermining the government . To appease the military , the government outlawed negative comments about the military or Spain itself in the Spanish press . Resentment of the military and of conscription grew with the disastrous Rif War of 1909 in Spanish Morocco . Lerroux 's support of the army 's aims lost him support . Events culminated in the Tragic Week ( Spanish : Semana Trágica ) in Barcelona in 1909 , when working class groups rioted against the call @-@ up of reservists . 48 churches and similar institutions were burned in anti @-@ clerical attacks . The riot was finally ended by the military ; 1 @,@ 725 members of such groups were put on trial , with five people sentenced to death . These events led to the establishment of the National Confederation of Labour ( Spanish : Confederación Nacional del Trabajo , CNT ) , an anarchist @-@ controlled trade union committed to anarcho @-@ syndicalism . It had over a million members by 1923 .
Increasing exports during the First World War led to a boom in industry and declining living standards in the industrial areas , particularly Catalonia and the Basque country . There was high inflation . The industrial sector resented its subjugation by the agrarian central government . Along with concerns about antiquated promotion systems and political corruption , the war in Morocco had caused divisions in the military . Regenerationism became popular , and the working class , industrial class , and the military were united in their hope of removing the corrupt central government . However , these hopes were defeated in 1917 and 1918 when the various political parties representing these groups were either appeased or suppressed by the central government , one by one . The industrialists eventually backed the government as a way to restore order . After the formation of the Communist International in 1919 , there was a growing fear of communism within Spain and growing repression on the part of the government through military means . The PSOE split , with the more left @-@ wing members founding the Communist Party in 1921 . The Restoration government failed to cope with an increasing number of strikes amongst the industrial workers in the north and the agricultural workers in the south .
Miguel Primo de Rivera came to power in a military coup in 1923 and ran Spain as a military dictatorship . He handed monopolistic control of trade union power to the UGT , and introduced a sweeping programme of public works . These public works were extremely wasteful , including hydroelectric dams and highways causing the deficit to double between 1925 and 1929 . Spain 's financial situation was made far worse by the pegging of the peseta to the gold standard and by 1931 the peseta had lost nearly half its value . The UGT was brought into the government to set up industrial arbitration boards , though this move was opposed by some in the group and was seen as opportunism by anarchist leaders . He also attempted to defend the agrarian – industrial monarchist coalition formed during the war . No significant reform to the political system ( and in particular the monarchy ) was instituted . This made forming a new government difficult , as existing problems had not been rectified . Gradually , his support faded because his personal approach to political life ensured he was personally held accountable for the government 's failings , and due to an increasing frustration over his interference in economic matters he didn 't understand . José Calvo Sotelo , his finance minister , was one person to withdraw support , and de Rivera resigned in January 1930 . There was little support for a return to the pre @-@ 1923 system , and the monarchy had lost credibility by backing the military government . Dámaso Berenguer was ordered by the king to form a replacement government , but his dictablanda dictatorship failed to provide a viable alternative . The choice of Berenguer annoyed another important general , José Sanjurjo , who believed himself to be a better choice . In the municipal elections of 12 April 1931 , little support was shown for pro @-@ monarchy parties in the major cities , and large numbers of people gathered in the streets of Madrid . King Alfonso XIII abdicated to prevent a " fratricidal civil war " . The Second Spanish Republic was formed .
= = Second Republic = =
The Second Republic was a source of hope to the poorest in Spanish society and a threat to the richest , but had broad support from all segments of society . Niceto Alcalá @-@ Zamora was the first prime minister of the Republic . The wealthier landowners and the middle class accepted the Republic because of the lack of any suitable alternative . Elections to a constituent Cortes in June 1931 returned a large majority of Republicans and Socialists , with the PSOE gaining 116 seats and Lerroux 's Radical Party 94 . Lerroux became foreign minister . The government was controlled by a Republican – Socialist coalition , whose members had differing objectives . Some more conservative members believed that the removal of the monarchy was enough by itself , but the Socialists and leftist Republicans demanded much wider reforms .
The state 's financial position was poor . Supporters of the dictatorship attempted to block progress on reforming the economy . The redistribution of wealth supported by the new government seemed a threat to the richest , in light of the recent Wall Street Crash and the onset of the Great Depression . The government attempted to tackle the dire poverty in rural areas by instituting an eight @-@ hour day and giving the security of tenure to farm workers . Landlords complained . The effectiveness of the reforms was dependent on the skill of the local governance , which was often badly lacking . Changes to the military were needed and education reform was another problem facing the Republic . The relationship between central government and the Basque and Catalan regions also needed to be decided .
Effective opposition was led by three groups . The first group included Catholic movements such as the Asociación Católica de Propagandistas , who had influence over the judiciary and the press . Rural landowners were told to think of the Republic as godless and communist . The second group consisted of organisations that had supported the monarchy , such as the Renovación Española and Carlists , who wished to see the new republic overthrown in a violent uprising . The third group were Fascist organisations , among them supporters of the dictator 's son , José Antonio Primo de Rivera . Primo de Rivera was the most significant leader of fascism in Spain . The press often editorialised about a foreign Jewish – Masonic – Bolshevik plot . Members of the CNT willing to cooperate with the Republic were forced out , and it continued to oppose the government . The deeply unpopular Civil Guard ( Spanish : Guardia Civil ) , founded in 1844 , was charged with putting down revolts and was perceived as ruthless . Violence , including at Castilblanco in December 1931 , was usual .
Parties in opposition to Alcalá @-@ Zamora 's government gained the support of the church and the military . The head of the church in Spain , Cardinal Pedro Segura , was particularly vocal in his disapproval . Until the 20th century , the Catholic Church had proved an essential part of Spain 's character , although it had internal problems . Segura was expelled from Spain in June 1931 . This prompted an outcry from the Catholic right , who cited oppression . A series of church @-@ burning incidents occurred in major Spanish cities throughout May 1931 . When the government refused to call out the Guardia Civil , Minister for War Manuel Azaña came under heavy criticism from the rightist press . The military were opposed to reorganisation , including an increase in regional autonomy granted by the central government , and reforms to improve efficiency were seen as a direct attack . Officers were retired and a thousand had their promotions reviewed , including Francisco Franco , who served as director of the General Military Academy in Zaragoza , which was closed by Manuel Azaña .
= = = Constitution of 1931 = = =
A new constitution was approved on 9 December 1931 . The first draft , prepared by Ángel Ossorio y Gallardo and others , was rejected , and a much more daring text creating a " democratic republic of workers of every class " was promulgated . It contained much in the way of emotive language and included many controversial articles , some of which were aimed at curbing the Catholic Church . The constitution was reformist , liberal , and democratic in nature , and was welcomed by the Republican – Socialist coalition . It appalled landowners , industrialists , the organised church , and army officers .
As the government believed it was necessary to break the control the church had over Spanish affairs , the new constitution removed any special rights held by the Catholic Church . The constitution proclaimed religious freedom and a complete separation of Church and State . Catholic schools continued to operate , but outside the state system ; in 1933 further legislation banned all monks and nuns from teaching . The Republic regulated church use of property and investments , provided for recovery and controls on the use of property the church had obtained during past dictatorships , and banned the Vatican @-@ controlled Society of Jesus . The controversial articles 26 and 27 of the constitution strictly controlled Church property and prohibited religious orders from engaging in education . Supporters of the church and even Jose Ortega y Gasset , a liberal advocate of the separation of church and state , considered the articles overreaching . Other articles legalising divorce and initiating agrarian reforms were equally controversial , and on 13 October 1931 , Gil Robles , the leading spokesman of the parliamentary right , called for a Catholic Spain to make its stand against the Republic . Commentator Stanley Payne has argued that " the Republic as a democratic constitutional regime was doomed from the outset " , because the far left considered any moderation of the anticlerical aspects of the constitution as totally unacceptable .
In October 1931 Alcalá Zamora and his interior minister , Miguel Maura , resigned . Manuel Azaña became Prime Minister . Desiring the job for himself , Lerroux became alienated , and his Radical Party switched to the opposition , leaving Azaña dependent on the Socialists for support . The Socialists , who favoured reform , objected to the lack of progress . The reforms that were made alienated the land @-@ holding right . Conditions for labourers remained dreadful ; the reforms had not been enforced . Rural landowners declared war on the government by refusing to plant crops . Meanwhile , several agricultural strikes were harshly put down by the authorities . Reforms , including the unsuccessful attempt to break up large holdings , failed to significantly improve the situation for rural workers . By the end of 1931 , King Alfonso , in exile , stopped attempting to prevent an armed insurrection of monarchists in Spain , and was tried and condemned to life imprisonment in absentia .
Azaña declared that Spain had " ceased to be Catholic " ; although to an extent his statement was accurate , it was a politically unwise thing to say . An assault of a taxi driver supposedly due to his left @-@ wing views sparked a wave of anti @-@ clerical violence throughout south west urban Spain beginning on 11 May 1931 ; the government 's reluctance to declare martial law in response and a comment attributed to Azaña that he would " rather all the churches in Spain be burnt than a single Republican harmed " prompted many Catholics to believe that the Republic was trying to prosecute Christianity . Restrictions on Christian iconography in schools and hospitals and the ringing of bells came into force in January 1932 . State control of cemeteries was also imposed . Many ordinary Catholics began to see the government as an enemy because of the educational and religious reforms . Government actions were denounced as barbaric , unjust , and corrupt by the press .
In August 1932 there was an unsuccessful uprising by General José Sanjurjo , who had been particularly appalled by events in Castilblanco . The aims of the insurrection were vague , and it quickly turned into a fiasco . Among the generals tried and sent to Spanish colonies were four men who would go on to distinguish themselves fighting against the Republic in the civil war : the Duke of Seville , Martin Alonso , Ricardo Serrador Santés , and Heli Rolando de Tella y Cantos .
The political left became fractured , whilst the right united . The Socialist Party continued to support Azaña but headed further to the political left . Gil Robles set up a new party , the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right ( Spanish : Confederatión Espanola de Derechas Autónomas , CEDA ) to contest the 1933 election , and tacitly embraced Fascism . The right won an overwhelming victory , with the CEDA and the Radicals together winning 219 seats . They had spent far more on their election campaign than the Socialists , who campaigned alone . The roughly 3 @,@ 000 members of the Communist Party were at this point not significant .
= = = The " two black years " = = =
Following the elections of November 1933 , Spain entered a period called the " two black years " ( Spanish : bienio negro ) . Radicals became more aggressive and conservatives turned to paramilitary and vigilante actions . Official statistics state that 330 people were assassinated in addition to 213 failed attempts , and 1 @,@ 511 people wounded in political violence . Those figures also indicate a total of 113 general strikes were called and 160 religious buildings were destroyed , typically by arson . Immediately after the election , the Socialists alleged electoral fraud ; they had , according to the PSOE , needed twice as many votes as their opponents to win each seat . They identified the lack of unity in the left as another reason for their defeat . The Socialist opposition began to propagate a revolutionary ideal . The CEDA had won a plurality of seats , but not enough to form a majority . President Niceto Alcalá @-@ Zamora declined to invite the leader of the CEDA , Gil Robles , to form a government , and instead invited the Radical Republican Party 's Alejandro Lerroux to do so . The RRP , with the backing of CEDA , set about removing price controls , selling state favours and monopolies , and removing the land reforms — to the landowners ' considerable advantage . This created growing malnourishment in the south of Spain . The agrarian reforms , still in force , went tacitly unenforced .
The first anarchist protest came on 8 December 1933 , and was easily crushed by force in most of Spain ; Zaragoza held out for four days before the Spanish Republican Army , employing tanks , stopped the uprising . The Socialists stepped up their rhetoric , hoping to force Zamora to call new elections . Carlists and Alfonsist monarchists continued to prepare , with Carlists undergoing military drills in Navarre ; they received the backing of Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini . Gil Robles struggled to control the RRP 's youth wing , which copied Germany and Italy 's youth movements . Monarchists turned to the Fascist Falange Española , under the leadership of José Antonio Primo de Rivera , as a way to achieve their aims . Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities .
Lerroux resigned in April 1934 , after President Zamora hesitated to sign an Amnesty Bill which let off the arrested members of the 1932 plot . He was replaced by Ricardo Samper . The Socialist Party ruptured over the question of whether or not to move towards Bolshevism . The youth wing , the Federation of Young Socialists ( Spanish : Federación de Juventudes Socialistas ) , were particularly militant . The anarchists called a four @-@ week strike in Zaragoza . Gil Robles ' CEDA continued to mimic the German Nazi Party , staging a rally in March 1934 , to shouts of " Jefe " ( " Chief " , after the Italian " Duce " used in support of Mussolini ) . Gil Robles used an anti @-@ strike law to successfully provoke and break up unions one at a time , and attempted to undermine the republican government of the Esquerra in Catalonia , who were attempting to continue the republic 's reforms . Efforts to remove local councils from socialist control prompted a general strike , which was brutally put down by Interior Minister Salazar Alonso , with the arrest of four deputies and other significant breaches of articles 55 and 56 of the constitution . The Socialist Landworkers ' Federation ( Spanish : Federación Nacional da Trabajadores de la Tierra , FNTT ) , a trade union founded in 1930 , was effectively prevented from operating until 1936 .
On 26 September , the CEDA announced it would no longer support the RRP 's minority government . It was replaced by an RRP cabinet , again led by Lerroux , that included three members of the CEDA . A UGT general strike was unsuccessful in most of Spain . Lluís Companys ( leader of the Republican Left of Catalonia and the President of the Generalitat of Catalonia ) saw an opportunity in the general strike and declared Catalonia an independent state inside the federal republic of Spain ; the Esquerra , however , refused to arm the populace , and the head of the military in Catalonia , Domingo Batet , charged with putting down the revolt , showed similar restraint . In response , Lluís Companys was arrested and Catalan autonomy was suspended . This aggrieved Franco , who was directing the military from Madrid . Franco was put in informal command of the military effort against the revolt in Asturias , the only place where it had succeeded . Around 30 @,@ 000 workers were called to arms in ten days . Atrocities were carried out by both sides . Franco 's men , some brought in from Spain 's Army of Africa , killed men , women and children and carried out summary executions after the main cities of Asturias were retaken . About 1 @,@ 000 workers were killed , with about 250 government soldiers left dead . The failed rising in Asturias marked the effective end of the Republic . Months of retaliation and repression followed ; torture was used on political prisoners . Even moderate reformists within the CEDA became sidelined . The two generals in charge of the campaign , Franco and Manuel Goded Llopis , were seen as heroes . Azaña was unsuccessfully made out to be a revolutionary criminal by his right @-@ wing opponents . Gil Robles once again prompted a cabinet collapse , and five positions in Lerroux 's new government were conceded to CEDA , including one awarded to Gil Robles himself . Farm workers ' wages were halved , and the military was purged of republican members and reformed . Those loyal to Robles were promoted , and Franco was made Chief of Staff .
In 1935 Azaña and Indalecio Prieto started to unify the left and to combat its extreme elements . They staged large , popular rallies of what would become the Popular Front . Lerroux 's Radical government collapsed after two major scandals , including the Straperlo affair . However , Zamora did not allow the CEDA to form a government , instead calling elections . The elections of 1936 were won by the Popular Front , with vastly smaller resources than the political right who followed Nazi propaganda techniques . The right began to plan how to best overthrow the Republic , rather than taking control of it .
The government was weak , and the influence of the revolutionary Largo Caballero prevented socialists from being part of the cabinet . The republicans were left to govern alone ; Azaña led a minority government . Pacification and reconciliation would have been a huge task . Largo Caballero accepted support from the Communist Party ( with a membership of around 10 @,@ 000 ) . Acts of violence and reprisals increased . By early 1936 , Azaña found that the left was using its influence to circumvent the Republic and the constitution ; they were adamant about increasingly radical changes . Parliament replaced Zamora with Azaña in April . Zamora 's removal was made on specious grounds , using a constitutional technicality . Azaña and Prieto hoped that by holding the positions of Prime Minister and President , they could push through enough reforms to pacify the left and deal with right @-@ wing militancy . However , Azaña was increasingly isolated from everyday politics ; his replacement , Casares Quiroga , was weak . Although the right also voted for Zamora 's removal , this was a watershed event which inspired conservatives to give up on parliamentary politics . Leon Trotsky wrote that Zamora had been Spain 's " stable pole " , and his removal was another step towards revolution . Largo Caballero held out for a collapse of the republican government , to be replaced with a socialist one as in France .
CEDA turned its campaign chest over to army plotter Emilio Mola . Monarchist José Calvo Sotelo replaced CEDA 's Gil Robles as the right 's leading spokesman in parliament . The Falange expanded rapidly , and many members of the Juventudes de Acción Popular joined . They successfully created a sense of militancy on the streets to try to justify an authoritarian regime . Prieto did his best to avoid revolution by promoting a series of public works and civil order reforms , including of parts of the military and civil guard . Largo Caballero took a different attitude , continuing to preach of an inevitable overthrow of society by the workers . Largo Caballero also disagreed with Prieto 's idea of a new Republican – Socialist coalition . With Largo Caballero 's acquiescence , communists alarmed the middle classes by quickly taking over the ranks of socialist organisations . This alarmed the middle classes . The division of the Popular Front prevented the government from using its power to prevent right @-@ wing militancy . The CEDA came under attack from the Falange , and Prieto 's attempts at moderate reform were attacked by the Socialist Youth . Sotelo continued to do his best to make conciliation impossible .
Casares failed to heed Prieto 's warnings of a military conspiracy involving several generals who disliked professional politicians and wanted to replace the government to prevent the dissolution of Spain . The military coup of July that started the Spanish Civil War was devised with Mola as director and Sanjurjo as a figurehead leader .
= Carmarthenshire =
Carmarthenshire ( Welsh : Sir Gaerfyrddin or Sir Gâr ) is a unitary authority in the south west of Wales and the largest of the thirteen historic counties . The three largest towns are Llanelli , Carmarthen and Ammanford . Carmarthen is the county town and administrative centre of Carmarthenshire but the most populous settlement is Llanelli .
Carmarthenshire has been inhabited since prehistoric times . The town of Carmarthen was founded by the Romans and the region was part of the Principality of Deheubarth during the High Middle Ages . It saw turbulent times during the invasion by the Normans in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries before it was subjugated , along with other parts of Wales , by Edward I of England . Further unrest occurred in the early fifteenth century when the Welsh rebelled under Owain Glyndŵr , and more strife occurred during the English Civil War in the seventeenth century .
Carmarthenshire is mainly an agricultural county , apart from the southeastern part which at one time was heavily @-@ industrialised with coal mining , steel @-@ making and tin @-@ plating . In the north of the county the woollen industry was very important in the eighteenth century . Nowadays the economy of the county depends on agriculture , forestry , fishing and tourism . With the decline in its industrial base and the low profitability of the livestock sector , Carmarthenshire is economically one of the worst @-@ performing regions in the United Kingdom .
As a tourist destination , Carmarthenshire is not as well known as some other parts of Wales , but does offer a wide range of outdoor activities . Much of the coast is fairly flat ; it includes the Millennium Coastal Park , which extends for ten miles to the west of Llanelli and the National Wetlands Centre , a championship golf course and the harbours of Burry Port and Pembrey . Further west are the sandy beaches at Llansteffan and Pendine , and Dylan Thomas ' boathouse at Laugharne . Further inland there are a number of medieval castles located in strategic positions , as well as hillforts and standing stones .
= = History = =
Humans have been living in Carmarthenshire since at least 40 @,@ 000 years ago as evidenced by stone tools found in Coygan Cave , near Laugharne . Before the Romans arrived in Britain , the land now forming the county of Carmarthenshire was part of the kingdom of the Demetae who gave their name to the county of Dyfed ; it contained one of their chief cities called Moridunum , and is now known as Carmarthen . The Romans established two forts in South Wales , one at Caerwent to control the southeast of the country , and one at Carmarthen to control the southwest . The fort at Carmarthen dates from around 75 AD , and there is a Roman amphitheatre nearby , so this probably makes Carmarthen the oldest , continually @-@ occupied town in Wales .
Carmarthenshire has its early roots in the region formerly known as Ystrad Tywi ( Vale of [ the river ] Tywi ) and part of the Principality of Deheubarth during the High Middle Ages , with the court at Dinefwr . After the Normans had subjugated England they tried to subdue Wales . Carmarthenshire was disputed between the Normans and the Welsh lords and many of the castles built around this time , first from wood and then stone , changed hands several times during the conflicts that followed . Following the Conquest of Wales by Edward I , the region was reorganized by the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 into Carmarthenshire . Edward I made Carmarthen the capital of the new county of Carmarthenshire , establishing his courts of chancery and his exchequer there , and holding the Court of Great Sessions in Wales in the town .
The Normans transformed Carmarthen into an international trading port , the only staple port in Wales . Merchants imported food and French wines and exported wool , pelts , leather , lead and tin . In the late medieval period the county 's fortunes varied as good and bad harvests occurred , increased taxes were levied from England , episodes of plague occurred and recruitment for wars removed the young men . Carmarthen was particularly susceptible to plague because the disease was brought in by flea @-@ infested rats on board ships from southern France .
In 1405 , Owain Glyndŵr captured Carmarthen Castle and several other strongholds in the neighbourhood . However , when his support dwindled , the principal men of the county returned their allegiance to King Henry V. During the English Civil War , Parliamentary forces under Colonel Roland Laugharne besieged and captured Carmarthen Castle but later abandoned the cause , and joined the Royalists . In 1648 , Carmarthen Castle was recaptured by the Parliamentarians , and Oliver Cromwell ordered it to be dismantled .
The first industrial canal in Wales was built in 1768 to convey coal from the Gwendraeth Valley to the coast , and the following year , the earliest tramroad bridge was on the tramroad built alongside the canal . During the Napoleonic Wars ( 1799 – 1815 ) there was increased demand for coal , iron and agricultural goods , and the county prospered . The landscape changed as much woodland was cleared to make way for more food production , and mills , power stations , mines and factories sprang up between Llanelli and Pembrey . Carmarthenshire was at the centre of the Rebecca Riots which took place around 1840 , when local farmers and agricultural workers dressed as women and rebelled against the imposition of higher taxes and tolls .
On 1 April 1974 , under the terms of the Local Government Act 1972 , Carmarthenshire alongside Cardiganshire and Pembrokeshire , was absorbed into the new county of Dyfed ; Carmarthenshire was divided into three districts , District of Carmarthen , District of Llanelli and Dinefwr Borough Council . Twenty @-@ two years later this procedure was reversed when the Local Government ( Wales ) Act 1994 was enacted and the original county boundaries were replaced .
= = Geography = =
The county is bounded to the north by Ceredigion , to the east by Powys , Neath Port Talbot and Swansea , to the south by the Atlantic Ocean and to the west by Pembrokeshire . The surface generally is upland and mountainous . Fforest Fawr and Black Mountain extend into the east of the county and the Cambrian Mountains into the north . The south coast contains many fishing villages and sandy beaches . The highest point is Fan Brycheiniog , 2 @,@ 631 feet ( 802 m ) ( although the main summit is in Powys ) . Carmarthenshire is the largest historic county by area in Wales .
The county is drained by several important rivers which flow southwards into the Bristol Channel , especially the River Towy , and its several tributaries , such as the River Cothi . The Towy is the longest river flowing entirely within Wales . Other rivers include the Loughor ( which forms the eastern boundary with Glamorgan ) , the River Gwendraeth and the River Taf . The River Teifi forms much of the border between Carmarthenshire and Ceredigion , and there are a number of towns in the Teifi Valley which have communities living on either side of the river and hence in different counties . Carmarthenshire has a long coastline which is deeply cut by the estuaries of the Loughor in the east and the Gwendraeth , Tywi and Taf , which enter the sea on the east side of Carmarthen Bay . The coastline includes notable beaches such as Pendine Sands and Cefn Sidan sands , and large areas of foreshore are uncovered at low tide along the Loughor and Towy estuaries .
The principal towns in the county are Ammanford , Burry Port , Carmarthen , Kidwelly , Llanelli , Llandeilo , Newcastle Emlyn , Llandovery , St Clears , and Whitland . The principal industries are agriculture , forestry , fishing and tourism . Although Llanelli is by far the largest town in the county , the county town remains Carmarthen , mainly due to its central location .
Carmarthenshire is predominantly an agricultural county , with only the southeastern area having any significant amount
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of industry . The best agricultural land is in the broad Tywi Valley , especially its lower reaches . With its fertile land and agricultural produce , Carmarthenshire is known as the " Garden of Wales " . The lowest bridge over the river is at Carmarthen , and the Towi Estuary cuts the southwesterly part of the county , including Llansteffan and Laugharne , off from the more urban southeastern region . This area is also bypassed by the main communication routes into Pembrokeshire . A passenger ferry service used to connect Ferryside with Llansteffan until the early part of the twentieth century .
= = Economy = =
Agriculture , and to a lesser extent forestry , are the main sources of income over most of the county of Carmarthenshire . On improved pastures , dairying is important and in the past , the presence of the railway enabled milk to be transported to the urban areas of England . The creamery at Whitland is now closed but milk processing still takes place at Newcastle Emlyn where mozzarella cheese is made . On upland pastures and marginal land , livestock rearing of cattle and sheep is the main agricultural activity . The estuaries of the Loughor and Towy provide pickings for the cockle industry .
Llanelli , Ammanford and the upper parts of the Gwendraeth Valley are situated on the South Wales Coalfield . The opencast mining activities in this region have now ceased but the old mining settlements with terraced housing remain , often centred on their nonconformist chapels . Kidwelly had a tin @-@ plating industry in the eighteenth century , with Llanelli following not long after , so that by the end of the nineteenth century , Llanelli was the world @-@ centre of the industry . There is little trace of these industrial activities today . Llanelli and Burry Port served at one time for the export of coal , but trade declined , as it did from the ports of Kidwelly and Carmarthen as their estuaries silted up . Country towns in the more agricultural part of the county still hold regular markets where livestock is traded .
In the north of the county , in and around the Teifi Valley , there was a thriving woollen industry in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries . Here water @-@ power provided the energy to drive the looms and other machinery at the mills . The village of Dre @-@ fach Felindre at one time contained twenty @-@ four mills and was known as the " Huddersfield of Wales " . The demand for woollen cloth declined in the twentieth century and so did the industry .
In 2014 , West Wales was identified as the worst @-@ performing region in the United Kingdom along with the South Wales Valleys . The gross value added economic indicator showed a figure of £ 14 @,@ 763 per head in these regions , as compared with a GVA of £ 22 @,@ 986 for Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan . The Welsh Assembly Government is aware of this , and helped by government initiatives and local actions , opportunities for farmers to diversify have emerged . These include farm tourism , rural crafts , specialist food shops , farmers ' markets and added @-@ value food products .
In 2015 , in an attempt to boost the local economy , Carmarthenshire County Council produced a fifteen @-@ year plan that highlighted six projects which it hoped would create five thousand new jobs . The sectors involved would be in the " creative industries , tourism , agri @-@ food , advanced manufacturing , energy and environment , and financial and professional services " .
= = Local government = =
Carmarthenshire became an administrative county with a county council taking over functions from the Quarter Sessions under the Local Government Act 1888 . Under the Local Government Act 1972 , the administrative county of Carmarthenshire was abolished on 1 April 1974 and the area of Carmarthenshire became three districts within the new county of Dyfed : Carmarthen , Dinefwr and Llanelli . Under the Local Government ( Wales ) Act 1994 , Dyfed was abolished on 1 April 1996 and Carmarthenshire was re @-@ established as a county . The three districts united to form a unitary authority which had the same boundaries as the traditional county of Carmarthenshire . In 2003 , the Clynderwen community council area was transferred to the administrative county of Pembrokeshire .
= = Demography and the Welsh language = =
Before the Industrial Revolution , Carmarthen used to be the most populous town in Wales . In 1931 , the county 's population was 171 @,@ 445 and in 1951 , 164 @,@ 800 . At the census in 2011 , Carmarthenshire had a population of 183 @,@ 777 . Population levels have thus dipped and then increased again over the course of eighty years . The population density in Carmarthenshire is 0 @.@ 8 persons per hectare , as compared to 1 @.@ 5 persons for Wales and 3 @.@ 7 for England and Wales as a whole .
In terms of language however , the county has undergone a language shift in these decades from Welsh to English , Carmarthenshire having been the most populous of the five historic counties of Wales to remain majority Welsh speaking throughout the twentieth century . According to the 1911 Census , 84 @.@ 9 % of the county 's population were Welsh speaking with 20 @.@ 5 % of the overall population being monoglot Welsh Speakers . Meanwhile , only 43 @.@ 5 % of the population of Wales as a whole could speak Welsh In 1931 , 82 @.@ 3 % could speak Welsh and in 1951 , 75 @.@ 2 % . By the time of the 2001 census , only 50 @.@ 3 % of people living in Carmarthenshire could speak Welsh , with 39 % being able to read and write the language as well . The 2011 census showed only further decline , with only 43 @.@ 9 % speaking Welsh , making it a minority language in the county for the first time .
= = Landmarks = =
With its strategic location and history , the county is rich in archaeological remains such as forts , earthworks and standing stones . Carn Goch is one of the most impressive Iron Age forts and stands on a hilltop near Llandeilo . The Bronze Age is represented by chambered cairns and standing stones on Mynydd Llangyndeyrn , near Llangyndeyrn . Castles that can be easily accessed include Carreg Cennen , Dinefwr , Kidwelly , Laugharne , Llansteffan and Newcastle Emlyn Castle . There are the ruinous remains of Talley Abbey , and the coastal village of Laugharne is for ever associated with Dylan Thomas . Stately homes in the county include Aberglasney House and Gardens , Golden Grove and Newton House .
There are plenty of opportunities in the county for hiking , observing wildlife and admiring the scenery . These include Brechfa Forest , the Pembrey Country Park , the Millennium Coastal Park at Llanelli , the WWT Llanelli Wetlands Centre and the Carmel National Nature Reserve . There are large stretches of golden sands and the Wales Coast Path now provides a continuous walking route around the whole of Wales .
The National Botanic Garden of Wales displays plants from Wales and from all around the world , and the Carmarthenshire County Museum , the Kidwelly Industrial Museum , the National Wool Museum , the Parc Howard Museum , the Pendine Museum of Speed and the West Wales Museum of Childhood all provide opportunities to delve into the past . Dylan Thomas Boathouse where the author wrote many of his works can be visited , as can the Roman @-@ worked Dolaucothi Gold Mines .
There are two heritage railways , the Gwili Railway and the Teifi Valley Railway , both using the track of the Carmarthen and Cardigan Railway that at one time ran from Carmarthen to Newcastle Emlyn , but never reached Cardigan .
= = Sports and leisure = =
Activities available in the county include rambling , cycling , fishing , kayaking , canoeing , sailing , horse riding , caving , abseiling and coasteering . Carmarthen Town A.F.C. plays in the Welsh Premier League . They won the Welsh Football League Cup in the 1995 – 96 season , and since then have won the Welsh Cup once and the Welsh League Cup twice . Llanelli Town A.F.C. play in the Welsh Football League Division Two . The club won the Welsh premier league and Loosemores challenge cup in 2008 and won the Welsh Cup in 2011 , but after experiencing financial difficulties , were wound up and reformed under the present title in 2013 . Scarlets is the regional professional rugby union team that plays in the Pro12 , they play their home matches at their ground , Parc y Scarlets . Honours include winning the 2003 / 04 Pro12 . Llanelli RFC is a semi @-@ professional rugby union team that play in the Welsh Premier Division , also playing home matches at Parc y Scarlets . Among many honours , they have been WRU Challenge Cup winners on fourteen occasions and frequently taken part in the Heineken Cup .
Some sporting venues utilise disused industrial sites . Ffos Las racecourse was built on the site of an open cast coal mine after mining operations ceased . Opened in 2009 , it was the first racecourse built in the United Kingdom for eighty years and has regular race @-@ days . Machynys is a championship golf course opened in 2005 and built as part of the Llanelli Waterside regeneration plan . Pembrey Circuit is a motor racing circuit near Pembrey village , considered the home of Welsh motorsport , providing racing for cars , motorcycles , karts and trucks . It was opened in 1989 on a former airfield , is popular for testing and has hosted many events including the British Touring Car Championship twice .
= = Transport = =
Carmarthenshire is served by a main line railway service operated by Arriva Trains Wales which links London Paddington , Cardiff Central and Swansea to the county . The main hub is Carmarthen railway station where some services from the east terminate . The line continues westwards with several branches which serve Pembroke Dock , Milford Haven and Fishguard Harbour . The Heart of Wales Line takes a scenic route through mid @-@ Wales and links Llanelli with Craven Arms , from where passengers can travel on the Welsh Marches Line to Shrewsbury .
The only motorway in the county is the M4 motorway from London and South Wales , which extends as far west as the Pont Abraham services before continuing northwest as the A48 to Carmarthen . Llanelli is linked to the motorway by the A4138 . The A40 links Carmarthen to Llandeilo , Llandovery and Brecon to the east , and with St Clears , Whitland and Haverfordwest to the west . The A484 links Llanelli with Carmarthen by a coastal route and continues northwards to Cardigan , and via the A486 and A487 to Aberystwyth , and the A485 links Carmarthen to Lampeter . There are local bus services between the main centres of population , and long distance services between Cardiff , Swansea , Carmarthen and beyond . A bus service known as " Bwcabus " operates in the north of the county , offering customised transport to rural dwellers .
= Tom Kinslow =
Thomas F. Kinslow ( January 12 , 1866 – February 22 , 1901 ) was a professional baseball player who played catcher in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) from 1886 until 1898 . He played for eight teams in his ten @-@ season career . Four of those seasons were with Brooklyn Bridegrooms of the National League ( NL ) . During his playing days , his height was listed at 5 @-@ foot @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) , his weight as 160 @-@ pound ( 73 kg ) , he batted and threw right @-@ handed , and had blonde hair .
He was a member of the Washington Light Infantry , a local Washington , D.C. militia , and played in many of their amateur baseball games throughout his life . When not playing , he tended to his bar . Noted for being a genial , friendly individual , he was quick to make friends , and was a fan @-@ favorite in his hometown of Washington , D.C. Kinslow was a heavy drinker however , which caused him to miss games and team movements on occasion . Late into his career , these alcohol issues were much less tolerated , eventually hastening his exit from the game . He died at the age of 35 , after a year @-@ long battle with tuberculosis .
= = Early life = =
Thomas Kinslow was born on January 12 , 1866 in Washington , D.C. ; his father Michael worked as a laborer and an ice dealer , later working in the oyster business . He began playing amateur baseball in the city 's first ward on a team known as the " Quicks " , as well as a team named the Falcons . He later became a member of the Washington Light Infantry , Company C , a local militia , and played as their catcher against the 5th Maryland Regiment on June 29 , 1885 ; a game won by Washington 11 – 7 .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Kinslow made his MLB debut with the Washington Nationals of the NL on June 4 , 1886 as their starting catcher . He injured his finger in the third inning trying to catch a bad pitch thrown by Bob Barr , and had to leave the game . On June 15 , he was again injured by a Barr pitch , and forced to leave the game with a dislocated finger . He played in three games for the Nationals in 1886 , collecting two hits in eight at bats .
In 1887 , he was signed by the Peanut Eaters of the Pennsylvania State Association , and played in 36 games before being sold to the Detroit Wolverines of the NL , along with Ed Beatin for $ 1 @,@ 000 on July 27 . Soon , the deal was put on hold by the NL , as the Cincinnati Red Stockings of the American Association ( AA ) also claimed they had a deal in place for these players . On September 6 , an arbitration board for the NL and AA leagues convened to render their findings . They found that Detroit 's contract with the players was dated on July 20 , which superseded Cincinnati 's contract that was signed on July 27 , and awarded Detroit the players . Detroit then sold their contracts with the players to the London Tecumsehs of the International Association . Though he did not play for London in 1887 , he did play in two games for the New York Metropolitans of the AA , going hitless in eight at bats .
= = = Brooklyn = = =
Kinslow played the next two seasons for the Tecumsehs , and had a batting average of .200 in 1888 , but improved it to .343 in 1889 . In 1890 , a new league was created , the Players ' League ( PL ) , and he signed with Ward 's Wonders of Brooklyn . During the season , he had a batting average of .264 , and caught 64 games . On June 28 , he hit the first home run of his career in a game against Henry Gruber and the Cleveland Infants . Later , on July 11 , he hit two home runs in the same game off of George Keefe of the Buffalo Bisons , the only time Kinslow would achieve this feat .
The PL folded following the 1890 season , and Kinslow stayed in Brooklyn by signing with the Brooklyn Bridegrooms of the NL . He followed John Montgomery Ward , who was hired as team 's new manager . Shortly afterwards , Kinslow 's services were kept exclusive as the team listed him among those players covered under the reserve clause . During the game on July 8 , Kinslow was benched by Ward for what was described as insubordination . Kinslow played in 61 games for Brooklyn in 1891 , being platooned primarily at catcher with Con Daily , and had a .237 batting average .
In 1892 , he continued to platoon with Daily and played in 66 games . He improved his batting average to .305 , and hit two home runs . With a third catcher , Tom Daly , no longer with the team in 1893 , Kinslow 's playing time increased slightly to 78 games . His batting average dropped to .244 , but he tied his career @-@ high with four home runs . Although he was popular player during his time in Brooklyn , Kinslow had caused trouble with the team at some point in the season , and had been restricted from playing in home games by owner Charles Byrne . Upon signing his contract with Brooklyn in 1894 , Kinslow wrote a letter to the owner apologizing for his conduct during the previous season , and vowed to improve significantly going forward . His batting average improved to .305 during the 1894 season while playing in 62 games , sharing time with Daily once again .
= = = Late career = = =
On January 26 , 1895 , Kinslow was traded by Brooklyn to the Pittsburgh Pirates for Ad Gumbert . The Red Stockings quickly disputed the deal however , claiming that they had an earlier agreement with Pittsburgh 's manager Connie Mack that would have brought them Gumbert and Buck Weaver in exchange for Billy Merritt . Despite the dispute , the Brooklyn deal went forward , and Kinslow joined the Pirates . With the catching duties being split between Merritt and Joe Sugden , there was little playing time allotted for Kinslow ; Kinslow 's behavior had become a problem for Mack and the Pirates . Once , he was fined for missing a game due to drinking , and in late May , he was suspended for failing to show up for a game in Washington , D.C. On June 22 , he failed to be ready for a road series , and was released from the team for disorderly conduct . Kinslow expressed sorrow and shock over getting released , claiming that while he drank too much , Brooklyn would issue fines for his behavior instead . In 19 games played for Pittsburgh , he had a .226 batting average , Though he had received interest from Cincinnati and the Washington Senators , he claimed that he wanted to take the remainder the year off to be ready for the next season .
During the off @-@ season , Kinslow tended to the bar he owned in Washington , D.C. , mainly passing time opening oysters and clams , and playing games for the Washington Light Infantry . On May 21 , it was reported that he had agreed to play for the Louisville Colonels of the NL . In eight games for the Colonels , Kinslow collected seven hits in 25 at bats for a .280 batting average . After playing very little in 1896 , and not at all in 1897 , he signed with the Senators for the 1898 season . He admitted that his weight had increased to 225 lbs during the time off from the game , but would quickly drop his weight to 160 once he began playing . He appeared in three games for Washington until he was sold to the St. Louis Browns on August 18 . He played in an additional 14 games for St. Louis , and was released from the team at the conclusion of the season . In his 380 career games played , he had a .266 batting average , 12 home runs , and 222 runs batted in .
= = Personal life = =
Kinslow was known to have a genial , sunny disposition , and was quick to make friends . In the 1900 United States Census , he living with his father and working as an oyster dealer . He is listed as being married for ten years , but his wife was not living in the same home . He died in his hometown of Washington , D.C. after a year @-@ long battle with consumption ( tuberculosis ) , and is interred at Congressional Cemetery .
= Operation Mascot =
Operation Mascot was an unsuccessful British carrier air raid conducted against the German battleship Tirpitz at her anchorage in Kaafjord , Norway , on 17 July 1944 . The attack was one of a series of strikes against the battleship launched from aircraft carriers between April and August 1944 , and was initiated after Allied intelligence determined that the damage inflicted during the Operation Tungsten raid on 3 April had been repaired .
A force of 44 British dive bombers and 40 fighters took off from three aircraft carriers in the early hours of 17 July . German radar stations detected these aircraft while they were en route to Kaafjord , and Tirpitz was protected by a smoke screen by the time the strike force arrived . Few of the British airmen were able to spot the battleship , and their attacks did not inflict any significant damage . German losses were limited to a patrol craft , and three British aircraft were destroyed or damaged beyond repair by Kaafjord 's defenders . A group of German submarines attempted to intercept the carrier force as it returned to base , without success . Two U @-@ boats were sunk near the carriers by British patrol aircraft and several others were damaged .
Despite the failure of Operation Mascot , the Royal Navy attempted four further carrier raids against Tirpitz during August 1944 . These attacks were also unsuccessful , and the task of sinking the battleship was transferred to the Royal Air Force .
= = Background = =
From early 1942 Tirpitz posed a significant threat to the Allied convoys transporting supplies through the Norwegian Sea to the Soviet Union . Operating from fjords on the Norwegian coast , the battleship was capable of overwhelming the close @-@ escort forces assigned to the Arctic convoys or breaking out into the North Atlantic . To counter this threat , the Allies were forced to keep a powerful force of warships with the British Home Fleet , and capital ships accompanied most convoys part of the way to the Soviet Union .
Several air and naval attacks were launched against Tirpitz in 1942 and 1943 . On 6 March 1942 , torpedo bombers flying from the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious attacked the battleship while she was attempting to intercept Convoy PQ 12 but did not achieve any hits . Land @-@ based bombers from the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and Soviet Air Forces also attempted to strike Tirpitz in her anchorages on several occasions in 1942 and 1943 , but did not inflict any damage . On 23 September 1943 , two British X @-@ class midget submarines penetrated defences around the battleship at her main anchorage at Kaafjord in northern Norway during Operation Source , and placed explosive charges in the water beneath her . This attack caused extensive damage to Tirpitz , putting her out of service for six months .
As Tirpitz was still considered a major threat to Allied shipping , the British military sought to damage or destroy the battleship before she could re @-@ enter service . Another midget submarine attack was considered impractical due to improvements to Kaafjord 's defences , and the commander of the RAF 's Bomber Command refused to attempt heavy bomber raids against the battleship as he believed that such operations were unlikely to be successful and would result in heavy casualties . As a result , the Home Fleet 's aircraft carriers were considered the best means of attacking Kaafjord , and the Admiralty directed the fleet to begin planning such a raid in late 1943 . Following several months of preparations the Home Fleet 's first attack on Kaafjord , which was designated Operation Tungsten , was conducted on 3 April 1944 and involved five aircraft carriers . The two strike forces of 20 Fairey Barracuda dive bombers escorted by 40 fighters were not detected during their flights to Kaafjord , and the battleship was hit by 15 bombs . Tirpitz 's crew suffered heavy casualties , but the ship was not badly damaged . Nevertheless , the damage inflicted on Tirpitz 's superstructure , armament and engines was sufficient to put her out of service for several months while repairs were completed . The commander of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine , Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz , placed a priority on returning the battleship to service so that she could continue to tie down Allied naval resources . He and other senior German officers recognised at this time that the threat of further air attacks meant that Tirpitz could no longer operate against Allied convoys .
British intelligence assessed that Tirpitz could be repaired within six months , and the Admiralty ordered further carrier @-@ borne strikes against the battleship . First Sea Lord Andrew Cunningham did not believe that Barracudas could carry weapons capable of sinking Tirpitz , but he hoped that further attacks would increase the period the battleship was out of service and harm her crew 's morale . The commander of the Home Fleet , Vice Admiral Bruce Fraser , initially resisted this order on the grounds that further carrier raids on Kaafjord were unlikely to be successful as Tirpitz 's defences would have been reinforced and weather conditions were likely to be worse than those encountered during Operation Tungsten . Following an argument with Cunningham , Fraser eventually agreed to attack Kaafjord again . Despite the decision to make further attacks on Kaafjord , many of the Home Fleet 's airmen were posted to other units following Operation Tungsten . This hindered subsequent operations against German forces in Norway as the new aircrew were less experienced than the men they replaced .
Three raids against Tirpitz were cancelled after launch due to unfavourable weather during April and May 1944 . The first of these attacks , Operation Planet , began when the Home Fleet sailed from its base at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands on 21 April . This operation involved the same aircraft carriers as had taken part in Operation Tungsten , aside from the substitution of the escort carrier HMS Fencer with her sister ship Striker . The fleet reached the position where its aircraft were to be flown off three days later , but the raid was cancelled when Allied agents near Kaafjord reported bad weather over the target area . The fleet then sailed south , and attacked a German convoy near Bodø , sinking three merchant ships for the loss of six aircraft . The Home Fleet put to sea to attack Tirpitz again in mid @-@ May in what was designated Operation Brawn . A strike force of 27 Barracudas escorted by Vought F4U Corsair and Supermarine Seafire fighters took off from the carriers HMS Furious and Victorious on the afternoon of 15 May , but encountered heavy cloud over Kaafjord and returned without attacking . The next raid , Operation Tiger Claw , was launched in late May . The planned attack on Kaafjord — which would have also involved aircraft flying from Furious and Victorious — had to be cancelled due to bad weather on 28 May . Instead , the carriers sailed south in search of German convoys . In a raid conducted on 1 June , the carriers ' aircraft sank four merchant vessels near Ålesund . No further attacks were attempted during June as the ships of the Home Fleet were needed to support the Normandy landings that month .
= = Preparations = =
Despite the lack of success , the Admiralty and Admiral Sir Henry Moore , who had assumed command of the Home Fleet on 14 June 1944 , remained committed to attempting further carrier raids against Tirpitz . During June , the Admiralty received a series of intelligence reports indicating that repairs to Tirpitz were generally progressing well and the battleship would soon be ready to put to sea . Late that month Allied spies spotted Tirpitz conducting steaming trials in Kaafjord , and reported that she was capable of sailing at up to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ) and could rotate her main gun turrets . As a result , in late June the Admiralty directed that another aircraft carrier raid be conducted against Kaafjord during mid @-@ July . It was intended that this attack would take place before the resumption of the Arctic convoys , which had been suspended since April 1944 to free up ships for the invasion of France .
As detected by the British , repairs to Tirpitz following Operation Tungsten progressed quickly . Work on repairing the battleship began in late April , and 157 shipyard workers and special equipment were transported from Kiel in Germany to Kaafjord to accelerate the project . Assisted by the long hours of daylight at Kaafjord 's latitude during summer , three shifts of personnel worked on Tirpitz each day . The battleship was capable of moving under her own power by 2 June , and ready to begin gunnery exercises at the end of that month . The repair works concluded in mid @-@ July , though the battleship 's starboard propeller shaft could only be used to drive her forwards . Captain Wolf Junge assumed command of the battleship in May 1944 , replacing Captain Hans Meyer who had been wounded during Operation Tungsten .
= = Opposing forces = =
As Victorious had been redeployed to the Indian Ocean in June , the carriers selected for Operation Mascot were the recently commissioned HMS Indefatigable as well as the veterans Formidable and Furious . The carriers were escorted by the battleship HMS Duke of York , four cruisers and twelve destroyers . Admiral Moore commanded the force from Duke of York , and the carrier group was led by Rear Admiral Rhoderick McGrigor on board Indefatigable .
The composition of the striking force was broadly similar to that used in the earlier operations targeting Tirpitz . Formidable embarked No. 8 Torpedo Bomber Reconnaissance Wing , whose 827 and 830 Naval Air Squadrons each operated 12 Barracudas , as well as 1841 Naval Air Squadron , which was equipped with 18 Corsairs . Indefatigable carried No. 9 Torpedo Bomber Reconnaissance Wing , which was also equipped with 24 Barracudas split between 820 and 826 Naval Air Squadrons , as well as the Seafire @-@ equipped 894 Naval Air Squadron and 1770 Naval Air Squadron 's 12 Fairey Firefly fighters . In a change from her role in the previous attacks , Furious did not embark any Barracudas during Operation Mascot , and instead operated 20 Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters from 1840 Naval Air Squadron , three Seafires assigned to 880 Naval Air Squadron and three 842 Flight Fairey Swordfish anti @-@ submarine aircraft .
The defences of Kaafjord were improved following Operation Tungsten . Prior to this raid they had comprised eleven batteries of anti @-@ aircraft guns , several anti @-@ aircraft warships and a system of smoke generators capable of hiding Tirpitz from aircraft . After the attack , additional radar stations and observation posts were established and the number of smoke generators located around the battleship was increased . The improved defences in place by the time of Operation Mascot included a cliff @-@ top observation post near Kaafjord , which was capable of directing the battleship 's anti @-@ aircraft guns if necessary . Tirpitz 's air defences were also strengthened during the period she was under repair by fitting additional 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) cannons , modifying the 150 mm guns so they could be used to attack aircraft , and supplying anti @-@ aircraft shells for her 380 @-@ millimetre ( 15 in ) main guns .
As well as the German forces located near Kaafjord , a patrol line of twelve submarines designated Group Trutz was also established around the island of Jan Mayen and assigned the task of intercepting any British carrier forces that ventured into the Norwegian Sea . The submarines assigned to this force at the time of Operation Mascot were U @-@ 347 , U @-@ 361 , U @-@ 365 , U @-@ 387 , U @-@ 636 , U @-@ 716 , U @-@ 742 , U @-@ 921 , U @-@ 956 , U @-@ 965 , U @-@ 992 , and U @-@ 995 . The German Luftwaffe ( air force ) had few fighters stationed at bases near Kaafjord , and their operations were constrained by a lack of fuel .
= = Attack = =
Rear Admiral McGrigor issued an operational memo to the air units selected for Operation Mascot on 4 July , outlining how the attack would be conducted and providing further orders for the raid eight days later . In accordance with these instructions , the flying squadrons assigned to the three carriers undertook training exercises from their ships and shore bases from 4 July onwards . Intelligence gained from decrypting German radio messages during early July , and photos taken by a RAF aircraft on 12 July , provided further evidence that the battleship was once again fully operational and possibly preparing to put to sea . The airmen were informed on 13 July that they would attack Kaafjord in four days time .
The British fleet left Scapa Flow as a single group on 14 July . During the voyage north , the airmen received detailed briefings on the attack plans and terrain around Kaafjord and were also issued with escape kits to use if they were shot down over Norway . Maintenance personnel also worked to ensure that as many aircraft as possible would be ready . The twelve German submarines in the Norwegian Sea did not make contact with the British force as it sailed north . The weather for much of the voyage was foggy , but the skies were clear when the fleet reached its flying off position to the north of Kaafjord in the evening
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given to flying fast and long @-@ ranged de Havilland Mosquito bombers off the carriers in an attempt to achieve surprise , but none of these land @-@ based aircraft could be spared from supporting the Allied bombing of Germany .
The next attack on Kaafjord took place in late August . During Operation Goodwood , aircraft flying from three fleet carriers and two escort carriers conducted four raids between 22 and 29 August . The attackers found Tirpitz covered in smoke on each occasion , and only managed to inflict light damage on the battleship . These unsuccessful attacks cost the British 17 aircraft and 40 airmen killed . The frigate HMS Bickerton was torpedoed and sunk by the submarine U @-@ 354 during the operation ; the same submarine also inflicted heavy damage on the escort carrier Nabob before being destroyed by a British aircraft .
The Admiralty accepted that Barracudas were too slow to be effective against the Kaafjord area following the failure of Operation Goodwood . As a result , the task of attacking the battleship was transferred to RAF Bomber Command . The first heavy bomber raid against Kaafjord ( Operation Paravane ) was conducted on 15 September 1944 , with the bombers flying from staging bases in northern Russia . This attack inflicted irreparable damage on Tirpitz , and she was transferred south to the Tromsø area to be used as an immobile coastal defence battery . The battleship was sunk there with heavy loss of life by another Bomber Command raid on 12 November .
= Kendrick Moxon =
Kendrick Lichty Moxon is an American Scientology official and an attorney with the law firm Moxon & Kobrin . He practices in Los Angeles , California , and is a lead counsel for the Church of Scientology . Moxon received a B.A. from American University in 1972 , and a J.D. degree from George Mason University in 1981 . He was admitted to the Washington , D.C. bar association in 1984 , and the State Bar of California in 1987 . Moxon 's early work for the Church of Scientology involved legal affairs , and he also held the title of " reverend " . He worked out of the Scientology intelligence agency known as the Guardian 's Office ( GO ) , and was named as an unindicted co @-@ conspirator after the Federal Bureau of Investigation 's investigation into criminal activities by Scientology operatives called " Operation Snow White " . An evidence stipulation in the case signed by both parties stated he had provided false handwriting samples to the FBI ; Moxon has since said that he did not " knowingly supply " false handwriting samples .
The bulk of Moxon 's legal work is Scientology @-@ related . He has served as Commissioner of the Scientology @-@ affiliated organization Citizens Commission on Human Rights ( CCHR ) . He represented the Church of Scientology in 1988 in a billion @-@ dollar class action lawsuit against the organization by former Scientologists which was dismissed in Los Angeles Superior Court . In 1990 Moxon represented the organization in a suit against the Internal Revenue Service in an attempt to gain access to information about Scientology held by the IRS . He assisted 50 Scientologists in filing separate lawsuits against the organization Cult Awareness Network ( CAN ) , which led to the bankruptcy of the organization . He represented the plaintiff in the Jason Scott case against CAN and cult deprogrammer Rick Ross .
A Scientology publication said Moxon had used church doctrine in bringing down CAN . Its assets were bought in bankruptcy court by a Scientologist and legal associate of Moxon 's . Moxon said he was proud of what he had done , referring to the old CAN organization as a " hate group " . Moxon represented the manager of the Scientology facility Golden Era Productions in a filing against Keith Henson , a critic of Scientology . Moxon filed an affidavit in 2000 in the case involving the criminal prosecution of the Church of Scientology in the death of Scientologist Lisa McPherson , and defended her treatment by Scientology staffers as part of a religious practice .
= = Early life and family = =
Moxon was born in Pennsylvania . He graduated from American University in 1972 with a B.A. degree in Anthropology . He received his J.D. degree from George Mason University in 1981 . He was admitted to the bar of Washington , D.C. on September 6 , 1984 , and the State Bar of California on June 17 , 1987 .
In 1979 , Moxon and Carla Smith had a daughter , Stacy Grove Meyer . Meyer died on June 25 , 2000 after she fell off a ladder and was electrocuted after touching a 7 @,@ 200 @-@ volt wire while working at Golden Era Productions . Golden Era Productions was cited by the California Division of Occupational Safety and Health for improper wiring precautions near a vault where Grove Meyer had been working . The California Occupational Safety and Health Administration investigated the incident , and determined that her death was not related to the safety violations at the facility . Grove Meyer had worked for two years at Golden Era Productions in landscaping and maintenance .
= = Guardian 's Office = =
In 1977 , Moxon served as an official of the Church of Scientology , and held the title of " reverend " . His role within the organization in 1977 was called " Director of the Ministry of Legal Affairs of the Founding Church of Scientology " . Along with Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard and nineteen other Scientologists , Moxon was named as an unindicted co @-@ conspirator after the Federal Bureau of Investigation 's investigation into criminal activities by Scientology operatives called " Operation Snow White " . At the time of the indictments and investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the Operation Snow White case , Moxon was working in the church intelligence agency then known as the Guardian 's Office ( GO ) . Operation Snow White was the name coined by Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard for a mission by the organization 's intelligence division to illegally obtain documents from the United States government . As part of Operation Snow White , members of the Guardian 's Office broke into U.S. government offices including those of the Internal Revenue Service , in order to steal documents relating to Scientology .
A 1979 stipulation of evidence signed by officials for Scientology states that Moxon provided false handwriting samples of GO operative Michael Meisner to the FBI . Both parties to the case were in agreement that Moxon responded to an October 14 , 1976 subpoena titled " Grand Jury subpoena for all original known handwriting exemplars of Michael Meisner and the employment application and personnel records of Mr. Meisner in the possession of the Church of Scientology " by providing " fake handwriting samples in lieu of Mr. Meisner 's true handwriting exemplars " to the United States government . The stipulation stated Moxon was " directed to supply the government with fake handwriting samples " . Nine Scientologists signed the stipulation as part of a plea bargain . According to a 1976 letter from the " District of Columbia Security Office " of the Guardian 's Office , " Rick Moxon " and four other individuals had either " full data or almost all of it " , about covert operations against the United States government . According to the Guardian 's Office letter , Moxon was prevented under penalty of a US $ 50 @,@ 000 fine from disclosing his knowledge of the church cover operations . The non @-@ disclosure agreement was titled " Covenant of Non @-@ Disclosure ; ' Doomsday Agreement ' " . The letter told an official for the Church of Scientology to instruct Moxon " if they do talk , then they will be expelled forever , hounded by the GO [ Guardian Office ] until doomsday , and left to rot in the Physical Universe " .
Moxon stated to the Phoenix New Times that the stipulation of evidence was written by FBI agents and signed by church officials . He asserted that he did not " knowingly supply " samples of false handwriting to the FBI , and said that he was investigated by bar associations for California and Washington , D.C. before being admitted to the respective bar associations . According to the Phoenix New Times , Moxon is " in good standing " with both bar associations . Former church intelligence operative Frank Oliver told the Phoenix New Times that in his work for the replacement to the Guardian 's Office , the Office of Special Affairs , his last assignment for the organization was to assist Moxon in setting up a special unit focused on the Cult Awareness Network . Oliver stated that the goal of his work with Moxon was to recruit individuals who would become plaintiffs in lawsuits against the Cult Awareness Network .
= = Church of Scientology attorney = =
= = = Early work = = =
Moxon acted as attorney for the Church of Scientology in 1988 when former Scientologists sued the organization in a billion @-@ dollar class action lawsuit . According to Moxon the former Scientologists included some members who were subject to excommunication , and they requested the return of donations they had made to the organization , as well as payment for time working on its behalf . The case was dismissed by a Los Angeles Superior Court judge , and Moxon characterized the plaintiffs as " a few former members who apparently banded together for the purpose of making a monetary killing " .
In 1990 Moxon represented the Church of Scientology in a lawsuit against the Internal Revenue Service in an attempt to gain access to government documents on the organization . " The actions taken by the IRS in this case are typical of the agency 's harassive treatment of religious groups , " said Moxon in a statement in The Fresno Bee . During the Church of Scientology 's battle with the IRS , Moxon 's law firm hired private investigators to investigate the government agency . Private investigator Michael L. Shomers said he set up a dummy operation called " Washington News Bureau " , posed as a reporter , and attempted to collection material on Scientology critics . Shomers also said he infiltrated IRS conferences in attempts to collect data on IRS employees that may have been skipping appointments , drinking or having affairs . Shomers said he was either paid in cash or by checks from Moxon 's firm Bowles & Moxon . According to The New York Times , Moxon said Shomers ' activities were legal , and that he and other Scientology attorneys used private investigators to counter falsehoods from " rogue government agents " .
= = = Cult Awareness Network litigation = = =
Moxon assisted Scientologists in filing 50 lawsuits against the Cult Awareness Network ( CAN ) , which eventually led to the bankruptcy of the organization . Moxon confirmed to the St. Petersburg Times that his firm assisted the Scientologists with their litigation against CAN for mostly no charge , and that Scientology churches " helped a little bit , but very little " with the case . Moxon asserted that his legal services were requested by individual Scientologists because of his religious discrimination litigation experience . " These were filed by [ individual ] Scientologists who were victimized by CAN . That ’ s the long and short of it , " said Moxon . Moxon stated to 60 Minutes " They didn 't--they didn 't spring up serendipitously . A number of Scientologists came to our firm and said , ' I 'm being discriminated against by CAN . ' "
Jason Scott of the Life Tabernacle Church in Bellevue , Washington was taken from his home in 1991 and subjected to " deprogramming " . Deprogrammer Rick Ross had been referred to Scott 's mother by a local volunteer for CAN , and Moxon represented Scott in a lawsuit against Ross and CAN . Moxon took on Jason Scott 's case pro bono . According to a 60 Minutes report on Scientology 's actions against the Cult Awareness Network , two affidavits used by Moxon in the case were false . Scott won a jury judgment of US $ 5 million including $ 1 @.@ 8 million against CAN , and CAN later declared bankruptcy . After the CAN organization was purchased in bankruptcy court by a Scientology attorney , Scott fired Moxon and hired Graham Berry , a Los Angeles lawyer who had previously represented clients in suits against the Church of Scientology . Scott and Ross settled in 1996 for $ 5 @,@ 000 and 200 hours of time from Ross for his intervention services .
Scott stated that he felt he had been manipulated as part of the Church of Scientology 's plan to destroy CAN . According to the Chicago Tribune , Scott and his relatives felt Moxon was not paying enough attention to Scott 's financial judgment , and was instead focused on a " personal vendetta " against CAN . " Basically , Jason said he was tired of being the poster boy for the Scientologists . My son has never been a member of the Church of Scientology . When he was approached by Moxon , he was lured by his promises of a $ 1 million settlement , so he went for it , " said Scott 's mother Katherine Tonkin in a statement to the Chicago Tribune .
After Scott fired Moxon , Moxon filed emergency motions in two states and alleged Scott had been influenced by supporters of CAN to hire Berry as his lawyer . " He 's really been abused by CAN and disgustingly abused by this guy Berry , " said Moxon in a statement in The Washington Post . Moxon , who had argued in the case that Ross and associates had hindered a competent adult 's freedom to make his own religious decisions , immediately filed court papers seeking to rescind the settlement and appoint a guardian for Scott , whom he called " incapacitated . " That effort failed . Jason Scott stated he felt he had been a " pawn " in Scientology 's " whole game " .
Moxon was involved in the sale of CAN 's confidential files when the organization was in bankruptcy proceedings . Individuals that had confided in the prior version of the CAN organization expressed anxiety about their confidential files being sold to other groups , but Moxon stated : " People who have committed crimes don 't want them to be revealed . " Moxon 's former legal associate , Scientologist Steven Hayes , purchased the assets of the Cult Awareness Network in bankruptcy court . In 2000 , Moxon co @-@ authored a paper on the Cult Awareness Network with Anson D. Shupe and Susan E. Darnell . The paper , titled " CAN , We Hardly Knew Ye : Sex , Drugs , Deprogrammers ' Kickbacks , and Corporate Crime in the ( Old ) Cult Awareness Network " , was presented at the 2000 meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion in Houston , Texas . The old " CAN no longer exists because it was a hate group that destroyed families . I ’ m very proud of what I ’ ve done , " said Moxon in a statement in The American Lawyer .
According to a Scientology publication , Moxon utilized Scientology doctrine to bring about the demise of the Cult Awareness Network . The publication , authored by Scientology official Kurt Weiland , stated : " A civil case was filed by the victim against [ Rick ] Ross and the Cult Awareness Network . This time he had an attorney who knew what he was doing and understood PTS / SP tech ! The attorney was a Scientologist and OT [ Operating Thetan ] Rick Moxon . " " PTS / SP tech " is Scientology terminology referring to the organization 's founder L. Ron Hubbard 's prescribed tactics of handling enemies called " suppressive persons " ( SPs ) and their associates , called " potential trouble sources " ( PTSs ) . The Cult Awareness Network was seen by Scientology as a " SP " organization .
= = = Subsequent legal efforts = = =
Moxon represented manager Ken Hoden of the Church of Scientology 's Golden Era Productions in February 1998 when he filed a restraining order against Keith Henson after Henson protested against Scientology in May 1997 and January 1998 outside the Golden Era film studios in Gilman Hot Springs , California . Moxon had argued that Henson was dangerous based on comments critical of Scientologists he had posted on the Internet , and his knowledge in the fields of cryonics and explosives . Hoden received a temporary restraining order against Henson , but the Riverside Superior Court judge refused to make the restraining order permanent .
In 1999 , Moxon represented members of the Seventh @-@ day Adventists and Unification Church in a lawsuit against a Maryland state task force which was investigating the effects of religious cults on college campuses . The Unification Church and Seventh @-@ day Adventists members claimed that their constitutional rights were violated and described the " Task Force to Study the Effects of Cult Activities on Public Senior Higher Education Institutions " as a " religious inquisition " .
With fellow Scientology attorney Helena Kobrin , Moxon filed an affidavit in Pinellas @-@ Pasco Circuit Court in March 2000 , complaining to the judge about the criminal prosecution of the Church of Scientology related to the death of Lisa McPherson . They claimed that the prosecution held an " extreme religious bias " and a " narrow @-@ minded concept of a church " . They defended the practice of the Scientology staffers that had kept Lisa McPherson at the Fort Harrison Hotel in Clearwater , Florida , asserting they had been involved in the " Introspection Rundown " , which they called an " entirely religious " practice developed by Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard . They wrote that " Forcing a Scientologist to receive psychiatric services would be like forcing an Orthodox Jew to eat pork or forcing a devoted Catholic to have an abortion . It is simply unacceptable and unthinkable to our religious faith and conscience . " Moxon said that the wrongful death lawsuit filed by members of McPherson 's family against the Church of Scientology was " nothing more than a vehicle to say bad things about the church " . The criminal prosecution in the Lisa McPherson case was dropped due to issues with record @-@ keeping by the medical examiner ; a wrongful death civil suit was settled in 2004 .
According to Scientology general counsel Elliot Abelson , the bulk of Moxon 's legal work is Scientology @-@ related . In addition to his office with his law firm , as of 1997 Moxon also kept a legal office in the Church of Scientology 's headquarters at Hollywood , Los Angeles , California . Moxon has also served as legal advisor to the Scientology @-@ affiliated organization Citizens Commission on Human Rights ( CCHR ) . According to a CCHR press release from 2001 , Moxon represented CCHR International as its Commissioner .
In 2014 , Moxon sought arbitration through the National Arbitration Forum to have the Internet domain name , KendrickMoxon.com , transferred from Donald Myers to Moxon 's ownership . Moxon successfully demonstrated to the Forum arbitrator that Myers " registered and used the domain name in bad faith " , and Moxon 's petition was granted .
= = Works = =
Papers
Shupe , Anson , Kendrick Moxon , and Susan E. Darnell . 2000 . " CAN , We Hardly Knew Ye : Sex , Drugs , Deprogrammers ' Kickbacks , and Corporate Crime in the ( Old ) Cult Awareness Network . " Paper presented at the 2000 meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion . Houston , Texas .
= Hard Boiled =
Hard Boiled ( Chinese : 辣手神探 ) is a 1992 Hong Kong action film written and directed by John Woo , and starring Chow Yun @-@ fat as Inspector " Tequila " Yuen , Tony Leung Chiu @-@ Wai as Alan an undercover cop , and Anthony Wong as Johnny Wong , a leader of the criminal triads . The film features Tequila , whose partner ( Bowie Lam ) is killed in a tea house gunfight with a small army of gangsters . One of the mob 's high @-@ ranking assassins is the undercover cop Alan , who must team up with Tequila for their common pursuit of taking down Wong 's crime syndicate . The film leads up to a climax in a hospital , where the two must rescue innocent civilians and new born babies from the maternity ward while fighting off dozens of mob hitmen .
Hard Boiled was John Woo 's last Hong Kong film before his transition to Hollywood . After making films that glamorized gangsters ( and receiving criticism for doing so ) , Woo wanted to make a Dirty Harry styled film to glamorize the police . After the death of screenwriter Barry Wong , the film 's screenplay underwent constant changes during filming . New characters such as Mad Dog and Mr. Woo were introduced , while the original plotline of a baby poisoning psychopath was cut .
The film was released in Hong Kong in 1992 to generally positive audience reception , but it was not as commercially successful as Woo 's previous action films , such as A Better Tomorrow and The Killer . Reception from western critics was much more positive ; many critics and film scholars have come to proclaim its action scenes as among the best ever filmed . In 2007 , a video game sequel titled Stranglehold was released , which is in the process of being made into a film .
= = Plot = =
In a tea house in Hong Kong , Officer " Tequila " Yuen ( Chow Yun @-@ fat ) and his partner Benny ( Bowie Lam ) , attempt to arrest a group of gun smugglers while they are making a deal . After an ambush from another gang member , a fierce gun battle breaks out . The gangsters are defeated but with several police officers badly wounded , and Benny is killed . Tequila , seeking revenge , decides to kill the gangster who ambushed them , rather than arrest him . This angers his boss , Officer Superintendent Pang ( Philip Chan ) , who wanted the gangster alive to testify . Tequila is ordered off the case .
Elsewhere , a high @-@ ranking assassin , Alan ( Tony Leung Chiu @-@ wai ) , works for Triad boss " Uncle " Hoi ( Kwan Hoi @-@ Shan ) . Alan murders a fellow member of Hoi 's gang , who had been working for Johnny Wong 's ( Anthony Wong ) rival syndicate . Wong is impressed by Alan 's skill and attempts to recruit him . Alan reluctantly turns against Hoi when Wong conducts a raid on Hoi 's arsenal at a warehouse . At the warehouse , Wong 's men kill Hoi 's workers and destroy his stock . When Hoi arrives , Wong demands Alan kill Hoi , which he does , along with the rest of Hoi 's men . Just then , smoke grenades explode and Tequila attacks . Alan covers Wong 's escape as Tequila battles and kills most of the gangsters . In the end , Tequila finds himself confronting Alan face to face in the smoke , with guns to each other 's heads . Tequila tries to shoot Alan , but his .357 Ruger GP100 revolver is out of ammo . Although he is free to kill Tequila , Alan slowly lowers his gun and walks away , after which Tequila opens his revolver , and dumps all the shells , revealing them to apparently be blanks , although it is unclear if this is intentional or a mistake .
At the police station , Pang confirms that Alan is actually an undercover cop . Tequila tracks Alan down to his sailboat to try to make sense of the situation , but the two are ambushed by the remnants of Hoi 's gang . Tequila and Alan manage to kill their attackers just before Wong arrives , which allows Alan to keep his cover . Wong realizes that one of his gangsters named Foxy ( Tung Wei ) , is an informant for the police . Foxy is beaten at the docks by Wong 's henchman Mad Dog ( Philip Kwok ) in front of Alan and Wong . In front of Wong and Mad Dog , Alan then shoots Foxy in the chest , although he has secretly placed a cigarette lighter in Foxy 's breast pocket earlier to prevent the shot from being fatal . Foxy finds Tequila at a jazz bar and informs him that Wong 's armory is in the nearby Maple Group Hospital . As Tequila takes Foxy to the hospital , Wong finds out Foxy is alive and sends Alan to kill Foxy , as well as sending Mad Dog separately to cover Alan . At the hospital , Alan confronts Tequila , demanding to know the whereabouts of Wong 's arsenal . While Alan and Tequila are distracted , Foxy is killed by Mad Dog .
Alan and Tequila discover a hidden passage in the hospital leading to Wong 's arsenal . They are confronted by Mad Dog , who engages them . Wong arrives at the hospital and has all the patients , police officers and staff taken hostage . After fighting their way to the main lobby , Alan and Tequila liberate the kidnapped patients and police officers . Pang evacuates the lobby while police detective Teresa Chang ( Teresa Mo ) goes to the maternity ward to organize evacuating the babies . Alan and Tequila continue fighting gangsters until finding Mad Dog . While Tequila goes to assist Chang with the babies , Alan and Mad Dog find themselves in a standoff with a group of patients caught in the middle . They slowly put their guns down and offer the patients safe passage , until Wong appears and shoots them all . An enraged Mad Dog shoots Wong in the torso , but then runs out of ammo . Wong shoots and kills Mad Dog while Alan escapes .
Tequila finds the last baby in the maternity unit , and carries it to safety while fighting off the last of the gangsters . Alan and Tequila meet up again and are confronted by Wong , who has programmed bombs to blow up the building . Alan pursues Wong as Tequila escapes the hospital with the last baby , the hospital exploding around him . Outside , Wong suddenly appears holding Alan at gunpoint . After watching Wong humiliate Tequila , Alan grabs Wong 's 9mm Heckler & Koch P7 pistol . In a struggle , Alan shoots himself through the stomach giving Tequila enough time to shoot Wong dead with a .38 Taurus Model 85 revolver . Later at the police station , Pang and Tequila burn Alan 's police file . Alan sails away from Hong Kong in his boat .
= = Cast = =
Chow Yun @-@ fat as Inspector " Tequila " Yuen : A clarinet @-@ playing police officer whose partner is killed in a restaurant gunfight with a small army of gangsters . Chow had previously worked with director John Woo on several of his films , including A Better Tomorrow , The Killer and Once a Thief .
Tony Leung Chiu @-@ Wai as Alan : An undercover cop posing as a high @-@ ranking Triad assassin . He makes an origami crane every time he kills someone , a trait which was influenced by Woo 's daughter when he saw her making them . Tony 's character is shown as living alone and detached from others . Woo stated that this was influenced by Alain Delon 's character in the French crime film Le Samouraï . Leung had previously worked with Woo on his film Bullet in the Head .
Teresa Mo as Teresa Chang : A fellow police officer who is the girlfriend of Inspector " Tequila " Yuen . Chang helps decode the secret code songs that are sent to the police office by Alan .
Philip Chan as Supt. Pang : Prior to the film , Philip Chan was a police officer for about fifteen years . Philip Chan felt that certain scenes in the film were very familiar as they were similar to things had to do with real police work .
Philip Kwok as Mad Dog : A skilled gunfighter working for Johnny Wong .
Anthony Wong as Johnny Wong : Wong is the head of a Triad who encourages Alan to kill Uncle Hoi . Wong 's triad has a large amount of guns hidden in the basement of a hospital .
Bowie Lam as Benny : An undercover officer who is killed in the tea house shoot @-@ out .
Anjo Leung as Benny 's son .
Bobby Au @-@ Yeung as Lionheart : An assistant to Inspector " Tequila " Yuen .
Kwan Hoi @-@ Shan as Mr. Hoi : A triad boss who is the head of the gang Tony is investigating . Mr. Hoi is killed in a warehouse shoot @-@ out .
Tung Wei as Foxy : An undercover cop beaten up by Mad Dog . Foxy is spared by Alan , and lives to deliver information to Tequila from Alan . Foxy is later killed by Mad Dog at the hospital in which the final shoot @-@ out takes place .
John Woo as a Bartender : A bartender at the Jazz club who gives advice to Inspector " Tequila " Yuen .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The film was originally developed in 1990 . After creating films which focused on the lives of gangsters , director John Woo wanted to make a film that glorified the police instead . Woo admired Clint Eastwood 's and Steve McQueen 's characters from their films Dirty Harry and Bullitt respectively , and wanted to make his own Hong Kong @-@ style Dirty Harry police detective film . While creating this character , Woo was inspired by a police officer who was a strong @-@ willed and tough member of the police force , as well as being an avid drummer . This led to Woo having Tequila 's character be a musician as well as a cop .
Before production started , Woo told his actors that he was not going to make the film as stylish as his previous films , but to have it be more of an " edgy thriller " . The role of Teresa Chang was originally made for actress Michelle Yeoh who had a long relationship with producer Terence Chang . After casting Teresa Mo , the character of Teresa Chang was greatly re @-@ written . The film 's initial story was about Tony Leung 's character being a psychopath who would poison baby food . When Terence Chang was making connections to have Woo make films in the United States , Chang found people uninterested and disgusted with the theme of babies being poisoned . This halted production for a month to develop a new story . Screenwriter Barry Wong was brought in to write a new story about Tony Leung 's character being an undercover police officer . After writing the first part of the script , Wong went on a vacation outside Hong Kong , where he died leaving the script unfinished .
= = = Filming = = =
Hard Boiled took 123 days to shoot . Although Woo told his cast that the film would be more gritty and not as stylish as his previous films , Hard Boiled became more stylish as the filming began . The tea house sequence in the film was shot before the script was written . The crew found that the tea house was going to be torn down and decided to film a scene there . Woo saw the staircase in the tea house , and thought about a scene where a character would come shooting down gun smugglers while sliding down the banister . The tea house sequence was shot in around a week 's time and was choreographed by Woo and Philip Kwok . It was shot with interruptions from many local triads in the area asking for protection money , and residents complaining about the noise .
The script of the film went through several changes during filming . Due to the length of the film , scenes from a side @-@ story involving the relationship between the character Tequila and Teresa Chang were cut . Another cut scene included Tequila playing clarinet over Benny 's grave . With these cuts , Chow Yun @-@ Fat felt his character was not very deep in comparison to Leung 's character of Alan . To develop his character more , Chow asked John Woo to insert a mentor character in the film , which Woo himself would play . Chow felt that having Woo in this role would make Woo not cut out these scenes . Philip Kwok 's role of Mad Dog was not in the script and was created on the set . Kwok first worked with Woo on his film Once a Thief and was asked to return to work on Hard Boiled . After reading the script , Woo felt that the character of Johnny Wong was not a strong enough physical threat . After seeing Kwok do several of the stunts while filming , Woo created the character of Mad Dog for him .
The scenes shot at the Hospital maternity ward and the warehouse were shot at a new studio called " The Coca @-@ Cola Factory " which was formerly a Coke bottling plant . The hospital scenes took 40 days to shoot . The hospital segment 's location was chosen since they wanted to have an atypical location where gangs would hide their weapons . While filming in the hospital , the windows were covered with blast shields to give the appearance of night time , which allowed the crew to film at any time during the day . Members of the cast and crew stayed in the hospital for days often losing track of the time of day . After long hours of filming in the hospital , the crew became exhausted . This led to having the last scene be one long five @-@ minute scene of action to shorten the time needed to film . To complete this , during the scene when two characters go into an elevator to talk for twenty seconds , the crew changes the scene entirely and sets up the explosions for the scene to continue seamlessly . An accident occurred while filming the hospital sequence . Real glass was used and pieces of it flew toward Tony Leung and got into his eyes . Leung was sent to the hospital and after a week 's rest , he returned to the set . Woo changed the ending of Hard Boiled after many members of the crew of the film felt that Leung 's character should survive at the film 's end .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Woo is a fan of jazz music and wanted this style for the soundtrack of Hard Boiled . Woo had also previously wanted a singer to perform a jazz song and have Chow Yun Fat 's character play saxophone in his previous film The Killer . The producer for The Killer , Tsui Hark , rejected this idea for The Killer , feeling that Hong Kong audiences didn 't enjoy and understand jazz music . The score heard in Hard Boiled was created by jazz musician Michael Gibbs . During promotional screenings , the score for the film was different and was described as " very haunting music " by film scholar Bey Logan . This score could not be used as the production crew could not get the rights to the music . Other songs featured in the film , include " Hello " by Lionel Richie and the traditional song " Mona Lisa " . Woo chose these songs specifically for their lyrics to suggest that Tony was a sort of pen pal to Teresa . All the characters in Hard Boiled had their voices dubbed by their own actors in order to save money . Woo stated this was convenient as he did not have to worry about setting up boom mics and other sound elements .
= = Release = =
= = = Theatrical run = = =
Hard Boiled 's was released on 16 April 1992 in Hong Kong . The film grossed HK $ 19 @,@ 711 @,@ 048 which was not as strong of a box office reception as Woo 's previous action films A Better Tomorrow or The Killer . On the film 's initial release in Hong Kong it debuted at number 3 in the box office where it was beaten by Tsui Hark 's Once Upon a Time in China 2 and the Stephen Chow film Fight Back to School II .
The North American premiere of Hard Boiled was in September 1992 at the Toronto International Film Festival . At the premiere the audience response was very positive with people stomping their feet and yelling at the screen . This reception surprised producer Terence Chang who did not expect such a positive reaction . Hard Boiled received wide release in the United Kingdom on 8 October 1993 .
= = = Home media = = =
A Region Free DVD of Hard Boiled was released by The Criterion Collection on 10 July 1998 . A second Region 1 DVD of the film was released by Fox Lorber . Fox Lorber released the film as a stand @-@ alone release and as a double feature with The Killer on 3 October 2000 . The most recent Region 1 release of Hard Boiled was from Dragon Dynasty , who released a two disc DVD of the film on 24 July 2007 . A Blu @-@ Ray version of the film was included as part of the Stranglehold Limited Edition for the Playstation 3 , and was later released as a standalone title by Dragon Dynasty .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Hard Boiled was received well by English @-@ language critics on its original release . The film ranking website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 94 % of critics had given the film positive reviews , based upon a sample of 31 . Initial reception was positive . Vincent Canby of The New York Times found it difficult to follow both the action scenes and the subtitles at the same time , but stated that " Mr. Woo does , in fact , seem to be a very brisk , talented director with a gift for the flashy effect and the bizarre confrontation . " A review in The Los Angeles Times stated that " With Hard Boiled , John Woo shows himself to be the best director of contemporary action films anywhere . " The Philadelphia Inquirer spoke positively about the action scenes , noting the " epic shootouts that bookend Hard @-@ Boiled , John Woo 's blood @-@ soaked Hong Kong gangster extravaganza , are wondrously staged , brilliantly photographed tableaux . " The Boston Herald proclaimed the film as " arguably Woo 's masterpiece , it is an action film to end all action films , an experience so deliriously cinematic it makes " True Romance , " a film that clearly aspires to it , look like a cheap copy " A review in Newsday gave the film three and a half stars , stating that " Mayhem has never looked better than in John Woo 's latest high @-@ caliber cops @-@ and @-@ robbers thriller , even if the plot is a bit slippery " and that John Woo " has blasted the action genre onto a whole new level . His shootouts are a ballet ; his firebombings are poetry . And while he lets the body count get away from him , he constantly fascinates , through a combination of chaos and an excruciating
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care of the venues . Accommodating the influx of people into St. Moritz was a difficult task for the organizing committee . It was complicated by the mountainous region in which the community was situated . A massive project to improve the village 's transportation infrastructure had to be completed prior to the Games . This included building and widening roads for vehicular traffic . Several train stations were built to accommodate the increased demands for public transit . They also had to increase the capacity of the city 's sewers . All of the projects had to be approved by the Swiss government , and justified by its impact on the success of the Games . To aid the organizing committee the IOC demanded that all participating nations provide lists of their athletes several months prior to the Games . Consequently , the Swiss knew exactly how many athletes and officials to plan for .
= = Politics = =
Since these Games were the first since World War II they were given the name " The Games of Renewal . " Japan and Germany were not invited to these Games because they were still ostracized by the international community for their role in World War II . Their absence was short @-@ lived though , as they returned to Olympic competition in 1952 . The Soviet Union did not send athletes to the St. Moritz Games of 1948 , but they did send ten delegates as observers of the Games to determine how successful the Soviet athletes would have been had they competed .
= = = Impact of World War II = = =
Sapporo , Japan had been the choice for the 1940 Winter Games . In 1938 the Japanese decided to decline the invitation to host the Games claiming that preparations for the Olympic Games were draining the country 's resources . The IOC turned to the host of the 1936 Games , Garmisch @-@ Partenkirchen , which would make it the only city to host consecutive Games . This became impractical when Germany invaded Poland on September 1 , 1939 ; subsequently Germany withdrew its bid to host the Games . Finland believed it could host the Games and extended an invitation to the IOC , but the Soviet Union 's invasion of Finland ended all hope of an Olympic Games in 1940 . The 1944 Winter Olympics had been awarded to Cortina d 'Ampezzo , Italy in 1939 . As the war continued , this proved to be impractical and the second consecutive olympiad passed without a celebration of the Games . The IOC was presented with two possible host cities for the first post @-@ war Games : Lake Placid , United States and St. Moritz , Switzerland . The IOC decided to award the Games to Switzerland , a neutral country , immediately following World War II , in order to avoid political posturing on the part of former combatants .
The impact of World War II was still being felt in 1948 . The lack of financial resources and human energy made the organization of the Games challenging . Athletes were also affected by a lack of resources . Many competitors arrived with little or no equipment . In one notable case , Norwegian skiers had to borrow skis from the American team in order to compete . There was also a lack of spectators due to travel restrictions and a shortage of finances in a European economy that was still recovering under the Marshall Plan .
= = Events = =
Medals were awarded in 22 events contested in 4 sports ( 9 disciplines ) .
Bobsleigh
Bobsleigh ( 2 ) ( )
Skeleton ( 1 ) ( )
Ice hockey ( 1 ) ( )
Skating
Figure skating ( 3 ) ( )
Speed skating ( 4 ) ( )
Skiing
Alpine skiing ( 6 ) ( )
Nordic skiing ( )
Cross @-@ country skiing ( 3 ) ( )
Nordic combined ( 1 ) ( )
Ski jumping ( 1 ) ( )
There were also two demonstration sports , military patrol and the winter pentathlon .
= = = Bobsled = = =
Two sliding sports were contested at the 1948 Winter Games , the first was bobsled . A controversy erupted when it was alleged that the sleds of the United States team had been sabotaged . It was discovered that the steering wheels had been damaged . After news broke of the apparent improprieties a truck driver stepped forward and admitted to having accidentally backed into the shed housing the bobsleds . The accident however did not hinder the United States teams who won a bronze in the two @-@ man event and a gold and a bronze in the four @-@ man event . The Swiss two @-@ man teams placed first and second , which is the best possible results for the event since only two teams were allowed to enter . The driver of the first place team , Felix Endrich , beat his coach , the driver of the second place team , Fritz Feierabend .
= = = Ice Hockey = = =
The ice hockey tournament was won by Canada , with Czechoslovakia second and Switzerland third . This was the fifth Olympic gold medal for Canada in hockey . The only team to beat Canada since hockey was introduced at the 1920 Summer Olympics was Great Britain at the 1936 Winter Olympics . The tournament was almost cancelled when rival teams representing the United States arrived . An Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) team was supported by the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) , and an Amateur Hockey Association ( AHA ) team was supported by the Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace ( LIHG ) . The International Olympic Committee ruled that neither team could compete , but the Swiss organizing committee allowed the AAU team to march in the opening ceremony , and the AHA team to play unofficially , without being eligible for medals .
= = = Figure skating = = =
Barbara Ann Scott became the first and only Canadian woman to win an Olympic gold medal in figure skating , when she won the competition at St. Moritz . Despite the distraction caused by a low @-@ flying airplane during her compulsory routine , she was able to muster the focus to place first entering the free skate . The ice had been shredded the night before the free skate by two ice hockey games ( the ice resurfacer had not yet been invented ) ; nonetheless she was able to adjust her routine to avoid the potholes and emerge victorious .
Eighteen @-@ year @-@ old American Dick Button completed the unprecedented North American sweep of the figure skating gold medals . He led the field after the compulsory skate and then won the gold medal by becoming the first person to ever complete a double axel in competition . Later in the 1952 Olympics , Dick Button would win gold a second time . His victory came at the expense of Swiss world champion Hans Gerschwiler who fell during the free skate . Despite the mishap Gershwiler would win the silver medal .
= = = Speed skating = = =
The speed skating competition was held on the same rink that had hosted the events in 1928 . At 1 @,@ 856 metres ( 6 @,@ 089 ft ) above sea level , the speed skating competition was held at the second highest altitude in Olympic history , only Squaw Valley in 1960 was higher . The competition was dominated by the Scandinavian countries of Norway and Sweden who won nine out of the twelve possible medals . Scandinavians had done poor in speed skating events up until the 1948 Games . The reason for their success was that speed skating in Europe had come to a stand still during World War II . Only countries that were ancillary to the conflict had the resources to keep their speed skating programs intact . The 500 meter race was won by Finn Helgesen of Norway . There was a three @-@ way tie for second place between Norwegian Thomas Byberg and Americans Robert Fitzgerald and Kenneth Bartholomew . All three had finished in exactly 43 @.@ 2 seconds . Swede Åke Seyffarth won a gold medal in the 10 @,@ 000 meter race and a silver medal in the 1 @,@ 500 meter race . The 5 @,@ 000 meter event was affected by weather . The twenty racers encountered both wind , sun , and snow in the course of the day 's competition . Finally long @-@ distance specialist Reidar Liaklev from Norway prevailed .
= = = Alpine skiing = = =
Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut at these Games . A few events had been held at the 1936 Games but the St. Moritz Games featured a full slate of three men 's and three women 's alpine events . Frenchman Henri Oreiller won a medal in all three Alpine events ; gold in the downhill and combined , and bronze in the slalom . He was one of only two athletes to win two gold medals at the 1948 Games , and he was also the only athlete to win three or more medals .
Austria dominated the women 's alpine events , winning five out of a possible nine medals . Trude Beiser was a double @-@ medal winner , earning gold in the combined event and silver in the downhill . She was not the only female skier to win two medals though , United States skier Gretchen Fraser won gold in the slalom and took silver behind Beiser in the combined . Austrian Erika Mahringer earned two medals by winning bronze medals in both the slalom and the combined .
= = = Cross @-@ country skiing = = =
In cross @-@ country skiing a total of 106 skiers from 15 nations competed in three events . The events were the 50 kilometer race , the 18 kilometer race and the 4 x 10 kilometer relay . There were no women 's events at the 1948 Games . Martin Lundström of Sweden was the other athlete to win two gold medals when he won the 18 kilometer race and participated on the winning cross @-@ country relay team . Overall Sweden won seven out of a possible fifteen medals in the Nordic events , including all three gold medals and a sweep of the 18 kilometer race . All fifteen medals were won by either Sweden , Norway , or Finland .
= = = Skeleton = = =
Skeleton made its second appearance at the Olympics during these Games . It debuted at the 1928 Winter Olympics also held in St. Moritz . Skeleton was a form of luge , which had originally appeared in the St. Moritz region at the end of the 19th century . American John Heaton won his second Olympic medal in the skeleton , he won his first 20 years earlier when he was 19 years old . Italian slider Nino Bibbia won the gold medal . It was the first of his 231 career wins on the Cresta Boblsed track . One of the curves at Cesana Pariol , where the bobsled , luge , and skeleton events took place at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin , was named after Bibbia .
= = = Nordic combined = = =
The Nordic combined event had been contested at each Winter Olympics since 1
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rebuilt about the year 300 . It appears to have been preceded by an Iron Age fort , followed by a Roman camp before the permanent fort was constructed .
Epiacum is in some ways a typical Roman fort : inside the wall are straight roads which cross , a headquarters building ( the Praetorium ) , the commandant 's house , a set of barrack blocks for the cohort of auxiliary soldiers , and granaries to store food . Also as usual , there is a bath house and a temple ( dedicated by the auxiliaries to the Emperor Caracalla ) outside the wall . There is an altar to Mithras and another , as already mentioned , to Hercules .
Epiacum , however , has two unique features . Firstly , the fort 's military engineers modified the usual rectangular plan to suit the available site : it is distorted into a lozenge or parallelogram ; the internal features of the fort are similarly distorted . Six barracks were however fitted in behind the headquarters building ( Principia ) , and four in front of it , in a limited area of 1 @.@ 25 hectares ( 3 @.@ 1 acres ) . Secondly , the wall is surrounded by four steep defensive ditches and banks around the hill spur , and seven such ramparts across the uphill side of the spur . These constitute the most complex defensive earthworks of any known Roman fort , with multiple banks and ditches outside the usual stone ramparts .
Inscriptions on some of the altars found at Epiacum provide evidence of the Roman army units garrisoning the fort . One of these is inscribed " DEO HERCVLI C VITELLIVS ATTICIANVS > LEG VI V P F " ( " To the god Hercules , Gaius Vitellius Atticianus , Centurion of the Legio VI Victrix , Loyal and Faithful , [ erected this ] . " ) This was a regular army legion based at York .
Another altar is inscribed " DEO APOLLINI G ... IVS ... ... COH II NER ... " ( " To the god Apollo , Gaius Julius Marcius , [ commander ] of the 2nd Cohort of Nervians , [ fulfilled his vow ] . " ) . This and two other inscriptions also naming the 2nd Nervians , auxiliaries from the lower Rhine , date to 213 @-@ 221 AD . The altar was in a socket of a big stone slab supported by four columns , each topped by a coin ; one of these was dated to 141 @-@ 161 AD .
= = Archaeology = =
Little archaeological research has taken place at Whitley Castle . In 1810 , the Revd . John Hodgson excavated the bath house , in the north @-@ east corner of Epiacum . In 1825 several leather shoes were recovered from a Roman rubbish tip when a Mr Henderson was cutting a drainage ditch . The geologist Thomas Sopwith surveyed the fort , describing it , its baths and the midden ( waste heap ) in 1833 as follows :
Still further north [ of the multiple ditches ] are the remains of the Hypocausta or baths — the supposed cemetery of the station — and , what is rather a variety in antiquarian researches , the perfect remains of a Roman middenstead , which , strange as it may appear , has furnished many loads of excellent manure to the neighbouring fields , and been hitherto the productive mine of several interesting curiosities .
The fort was surveyed and described by R.G. Collingwood in his Archaeology of Roman Britain , 1930 , where he noted the fort 's uniquely skewed shape and extraordinary set of defensive ramparts on the northern , uphill side . Pottery excavated in the 1950s suggested that the fort was constructed in 122 AD , at the same time as Hadrian 's Wall . A survey in 2007 – 8 by English Heritage showed a large Roman civilian settlement or vicus to the north and west of the fort . Artefacts found include coins , pottery , glass , objects made of jet , and inscribed stones . In 2012 , the University of Durham carried out a geophysics survey as part of an English Heritage project . In the absence of a full excavation , archaeologists have exploited the diggings of moles to uncover Roman artefacts by sifting earth thrown up by the animals in their molehills . Finds include fragments of terra sigillata ( Samian ware , Roman table pottery ) ; rim fragments of serving bowls and earthenware pots ; a bead made of jet ; some iron nails ; and a bronze dolphin from the bath house , most likely the handle of an instrument like a strigil or razor .
= = Name = =
The Roman name for the fort , Epiacum , is given in Ptolemy 's Geography as the first town in the area of the Brigantes tribe of northeastern England . The name probably means " the property , or estate of Eppius . ' Eppius ' is a Romanised Celtic or British name , and he may have been a local leader of the tribe of Brigantes . "
= = Protection = =
The site is on the privately owned Castle Nook Farm , and is a Scheduled Ancient Monument . In 2012 the not @-@ for @-@ profit company Epiacum Heritage Ltd. secured a £ 49 @,@ 200 Heritage Lottery Fund grant to develop a programme of events for the fort to include a website , guided tours for the public , archaeology survey days for volunteers and educational events for schools .
= Halo 3 Original Soundtrack =
The Halo 3 Original Soundtrack is the official soundtrack to Bungie 's first @-@ person shooter video game Halo 3 . Most of the original music was composed by Martin O 'Donnell and Michael Salvatori , but also includes a bonus track , " LvUrFR3NZ " , which was the winning entry in a contest held before the soundtrack 's release . The 2 @-@ CD set was released on November 20 , 2007 .
For the next game in the Halo trilogy , O 'Donnell added new themes as well as bringing back and expanding old ones , some of which had never been recorded with a full orchestra before . The score made extensive use of the piano , an instrument which O 'Donnell used frequently for composition but that had not been featured in previous Halo music . In addition to scoring the game , the music was used for promotional advertisements and trailers preceding Halo 3 's release . The game 's score and its soundtrack were generally well received . The soundtrack reached the Billboard 200 chart , and also broke the top twenty best @-@ selling soundtracks and independent albums listings . The score was nominated for X @-@ Play 's " Best of 2007 " awards , under best original soundtrack .
= = Background = =
The score for Halo 3 gave O 'Donnell and Salvatori a chance to rework and revise existing themes heard in the games , as well as create new ones . Halo : Combat Evolved featured more strings , while the soundtrack to Halo 2 featured conventional video game music staples such as guitars by Steve Vai ; in an interview , O 'Donnell noted that " to be honest , when I got to the end of Halo 2 I thought to myself : ' that was probably enough guitar . ' " He intentionally made the score to the final game a shift back to the orchestral roots of the series , stating " I took an orthodox , almost formal approach to the trilogy . " O 'Donnell acknowledged that some games and movies used entirely different music with each sequel , but such an approach wasn 't an option with Halo 3 , the third installment of a trilogy : " The Master Chief is still green , Cortana is still blue , and so you 're going to hear the monks and the cellos . "
O 'Donnell began by writing out the reworked themes and music he wanted to hear in the game , without knowing where he would eventually use the sounds . He approaches composition from the piano , and described his process as looking for something that " makes me go ' oh , that 's a good feeling ' " . O 'Donnell 's approach to writing music for games is to put in the audio at the last minute of development , so that his music meshes with the game play in the best possible way ; he still had not added the score when Halo 3 was demoed at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2007 , less than three months away from the game 's debut .
Unlike previous soundtracks , where much of the music had been synthesized on computer , the soundtrack for Halo 3 was recorded using a 60 @-@ piece orchestra , along with a 24 voice chorus . The music was recorded by the Northwest Sinfonia at Studio X in Seattle , Washington . Interviewed by some of Bungie 's staff for the Bungie Podcast , O 'Donnell noted that there was more " techno " and " tribal " sounds than on previous soundtracks . O 'Donnell also tried to avoid outside musical influences , as he believes that " Bungie should be creating culture , not being influenced by it . "
Scoring for a video game , O 'Donnell noted , is different from a film in that a good score sounds like it is narrating what the player does on screen ; Halo 3 uses an audio engine which allows music cues to naturally start , stop , and transition in response to game triggers . Working from his office at Bungie , dubbed the " Ivory Tower " , O 'Donnell worked with mission designers to set points in the game that trigger segments of music . Instead of pieces with a set duration , songs in the game have multiple variations that can be looped and arranged to fill the time it takes the player to travel from point A to point B. Since the interactive mixing of sounds in Halo 3 depends of what occurs in the game , O 'Donnell instead " froze " the music into set suites and transitions for the CD , so that a listener playing the soundtrack through would hear a musical representation of the game . The tracks are presented , similarly to the previous soundtrack for Halo 2 , in a suite form . The suites are named after the nine Campaign missions and unlike Volume Two , are broken into separate tracks .
= = Promotion = =
Martin O 'Donnell confirmed Halo 3 's soundtrack would see a commercial release in a Bungie podcast . O 'Donnell also stressed that the soundtrack would not be released at or near
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Kelly Asbury and Lorna Cook led a team of fourteen storyboard artists and writers as they sketched out the entire film — sequence by sequence . Once the storyboards were approved , they were put into the Avid Media Composer digital editing system by editor Nick Fletcher to create a " story reel " or animatic . The story reel allowed the filmmakers to view and edit the entire film in continuity before production began , and also helped the layout and animation departments understand what is happening in each sequence of the film . After casting of the voice talent concluded , dialogue recording sessions began . For the film , the actors record individually in a studio under guidance by one of the three directors . The voice tracks were to become the primary aspect as to which the animators built their performances . Because DreamWorks was concerned about theological accuracy , Jeffrey Katzenberg decided to call in Biblical scholars , Christian , Jewish and Muslim theologians , and Arab American leaders to help his film be more accurate and faithful to the original story . After previewing the developing film , all these leaders noted that the studio executives listened and responded to their ideas , and praised the studio for reaching out for comment from outside sources .
= = = Design and animation = = =
Art directors Kathy Altieri and Richard Chavez and Production Designer Darek Gogol led a team of nine visual development artists in setting a visual style for the film that was representative of the time , the scale and the architectural style of Ancient Egypt . Part of the process also included the research and collection of artwork from various artists , as well as taking part in trips such as a two @-@ week travel across Egypt by the filmmakers before the film 's production began .
Character Designers Carter Goodrich , Carlos Grangel and Nicolas Marlet worked on setting the design and overall look of the characters . Drawing on various inspirations for the widely known characters , the team of character designers worked on designs that had a more realistic feel than the usual animated characters up to that time . Both character design and art direction worked to set a definite distinction between the symmetrical , more angular look of the Egyptians versus the more organic , natural look of the Hebrews and their related environments . The Backgrounds department , headed by supervisors Paul Lasaine and Ron Lukas , oversaw a team of artists who were responsible for painting the sets / backdrops from the layouts . Within the film , approximately 934 hand @-@ painted backgrounds were created .
The animation team for The Prince of Egypt , including 350 artists from 34 different nations , was primarily recruited both from Walt Disney Feature Animation , which had fallen under Katzenberg 's auspices while at The Walt Disney Company , and from Amblimation , a defunct division of Steven Spielberg 's Amblin Entertainment . As at Disney 's , character animators were grouped into teams by character : for example , Kristof Serrand , as the supervising animator of Older Moses , set the acting style of the character and assigned scenes to his team . Consideration was given to properly depicting the ethnicities of the ancient Egyptians , Hebrews , and Nubians seen in the film .
There are 1192 scenes in the film , and 1180 contain work done by the special effects department , which animates everything in an animated scene which is not a character : blowing wind , dust , rainwater , shadows , etc . A blend of traditional animation and computer @-@ generated imagery was used in the depictions of the ten plagues of Egypt and the parting of the Red Sea . The animated characters were digitally inked and painted using Cambridge Systems ' Animo software system ( now merged with Toon Boom ) , and the compositing of the 2D and 3D elements was done using the " Exposure Tool " , a digital solution developed for DreamWorks by Silicon Graphics .
= = = Creating the voice of God = = =
The task of creating God 's voice was given to Lon Bender and the team working with the film 's music composer , Hans Zimmer . " The challenge with that voice was to try to evolve it into something that had not been heard before , " says Bender . " We did a lot of research into the voices that had been used for past Hollywood movies as well as for radio shows , and we were trying to create something that had never been previously heard not only from a casting standpoint but from a voice manipulation standpoint as well . The solution was to use the voice of actor Val Kilmer to suggest the kind of voice we hear inside our own heads in our everyday lives , as opposed to the larger than life tones with which God has been endowed in prior cinematic incarnations . " As a result , in the final film , Kilmer gave voice to Moses and God , as well , yet the suggestion is that someone else would have heard God speak to them in their own voice .
= = Music = =
Composer and lyricist Stephen Schwartz began working on writing songs for the film from the beginning of the film 's production . As the story evolved , he continued to write songs that would serve to both entertain and help move the story along . Composer Hans Zimmer arranged and produced the songs and then eventually wrote the film 's score . The film 's score was recorded entirely in London , England .
Three soundtrack albums were released simultaneously for The Prince of Egypt , each of them aimed towards a different target audience . While the other two accompanying records , the country @-@ themed " Nashville " soundtrack and the gospel @-@ based " Inspirational " soundtrack , functioned as film tributes , the official The Prince of Egypt soundtrack contained the actual songs from the film . This album combines elements from the score composed by Hans Zimmer and film songs by Stephen Schwartz . The songs were either voiced over by professional singers ( such as Salisbury Cathedral Choir ) , or sung by the film 's voice actors , such as Michelle Pfeiffer and Ofra Haza . Various tracks by contemporary artists such as K @-@ Ci & JoJo and Boyz II Men were added , including the Mariah Carey and Whitney Houston duet " When You Believe " , a Babyface rewrite of the original Schwartz composition , sung by Michelle Pfeiffer and Sally Dworsky in the film .
= = = Musical numbers = = =
" Deliver Us " – Ofra Haza , Eden Riegel , and Chorus
" All I Ever Wanted " – Amick Byram
" River Lullaby " - Amy Grant
" All I Ever Wanted ( Queen 's Reprise ) " – Linda Dee Shayne
" Through Heaven 's Eyes " – Brian Stokes Mitchell
" Playing with the Big Boys " – Steve Martin and Martin Short
" The Plagues " – Byram , Ralph Fiennes , and Chorus
" When You Believe " – Sally Dworsky , Michelle Pfeiffer , and Chorus
= = Release = =
The Prince of Egypt had its premiere at the UCLA 's Royce Hall on December 16 , 1998 , with its wide release occurring two days later . Despite being the inaugural production by DreamWorks Animation , it wound up the second to get a theatrical release , as Antz was rushed to reach theatres in September . The international release occurred simultaneously to the United States , as according to DreamWorks ' distribution chief Jim Tharp , opening one week prior to the " global holiday " of Christmas , audiences all over the world would be available at the same time .
The accompanying marketing campaign aimed to bring more adults , usually averse to animated films . Merchandising was limited to a line of collectible figures and books . Wal @-@ Mart served as a promotional partner , and offered in stores a package featuring two tickets to The Prince of Egypt , a storybook and the film 's soundtrack .
= = = Home media = = =
The Prince of Egypt was released on DVD and VHS on September 14 , 1999 . The ownership of the film was assumed by DreamWorks Animation when that company split from DreamWorks Pictures in 2004 ; as with the rest of the DreamWorks Animation catalog , it is available for streaming on Netflix in HD . However , both the DVD release and the streaming versions used a 35mm print of the film , rather than using the original files to encode the movie directly to digital .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office performance = = =
On its opening weekend , the film grossed $ 14 @.@ 5 million for a $ 4 @,@ 658 average from 3 @,@ 118 theaters , earning second place at the box office , behind You 've Got Mail . Due to the holiday season , the film gained 4 % in its second weekend , earning $ 15 @.@ 1 million and finishing in fourth place . It had a $ 4 @,@ 698 average from 3 @,@ 218 theaters . It would hold well in its third weekend , with only a 25 % drop to $ 11 @,@ 244 @,@ 612 for a $ 3 @,@ 511 average from 3 @,@ 202 theaters and once again finishing in fourth place . The film closed on May 27 , 1999 after earning $ 101 @.@ 4 million in the United States and Canada with an additional $ 117 @.@ 2 million overseas for a worldwide total of $ 218 @.@ 6 million . The Prince of Egypt was the second non @-@ Disney animated feature to gross over $ 100 million in the U.S. after Paramount / Nickelodeon 's The Rugrats Movie . It remained the top grossing non @-@ Disney animated film until being surpassed by the 2000 stop motion film Chicken Run , also distributed by DreamWorks , and remained the highest grossing traditionally animated non @-@ Disney film until 2007 , when it was out @-@ grossed by 20th Century Fox 's The Simpsons Movie .
= Maple syrup =
Maple syrup is a syrup usually made from the xylem sap of sugar maple , red maple , or black maple trees , although it can also be made from other maple species . In cold climates , these trees store starch in their trunks and roots before the winter ; the starch is then converted to sugar that rises in the sap in late winter and early spring . Maple trees can be tapped by drilling holes into their trunks and collecting the exuded sap , which is processed by heating to evaporate much of the water , leaving the concentrated syrup .
Maple syrup was first collected and used by the indigenous peoples of North America , and the practice was adopted by European settlers , who gradually refined production methods . Technological improvements in the 1970s further refined syrup processing . The Canadian province of Quebec is by far the largest producer , responsible for 75 % of the world 's output ; Canadian exports of maple syrup in 2014 were C $ 380 million ( approximately US $ 300 million ) , with Quebec accounting for 85 % of this total . Vermont is the largest producer in the United States , generating about 6 % of the global supply .
Maple syrup is graded according to the Canada , United States , or Vermont scales based on its density and translucency . Sucrose is the most prevalent sugar in maple syrup . In Canada , syrups must be made exclusively from maple sap to qualify as maple syrup and must also be at least 66 percent sugar . In the United States , a syrup must be made almost entirely from maple sap to be labelled as " maple " , though states such as Vermont and New York have more restrictive definitions ( see below ) .
Maple syrup is often eaten with pancakes , waffles , French toast , oatmeal or porridge . It is also used as an ingredient in baking , and as a sweetener or flavouring agent . Culinary experts have praised its unique flavour , although the chemistry responsible is not fully understood .
= = History = =
= = = Indigenous peoples = = =
Indigenous peoples living in northeastern North America were the first groups known to have produced maple syrup and maple sugar . According to aboriginal oral traditions , as well as archaeological evidence , maple tree sap was being processed into syrup long before Europeans arrived in the region . There are no authenticated accounts of how maple syrup production and consumption began , but various legends exist ; one of the most popular involves maple sap being used in place of water to cook venison served to a chief . Other stories credit the development of maple syrup production to Nanabozho , Glooskap , or the squirrel . Aboriginal tribes developed rituals around sugar @-@ making , celebrating the Sugar Moon ( the first full moon of spring ) with a Maple Dance . Many aboriginal dishes replaced the salt traditional in European cuisine with maple sugar or syrup .
The Algonquians recognized maple sap as a source of energy and nutrition . At the beginning of the spring thaw , they used stone tools to make V @-@ shaped incisions in tree trunks ; they then inserted reeds or concave pieces of bark to run the sap into buckets , which were often made from birch bark . The maple sap was concentrated either by dropping hot cooking stones into the buckets or by leaving them exposed to the cold temperatures overnight and disposing of the layer of ice that formed on top . While there was widespread agriculture in Mesoamerica and the Southeast and Southwest regions of the United States , the production of maple syrup is one of only a few agricultural processes in the Northeast that is not a European colonial import .
= = = Europeans = = =
In the early stages of European colonization in northeastern North America , local Indigenous peoples showed the arriving colonists how to tap the trunks of certain types of maples during the spring thaw to harvest the sap . André Thevet , the " Royal Cosmographer of France " , wrote about Jacques Cartier drinking maple sap during his Canadian voyages . By 1680 , European settlers and fur traders were involved in harvesting maple products . However , rather than making incisions in the bark , the Europeans used the method of drilling tapholes in the trunks with augers . During the 17th and 18th centuries , processed maple sap was used primarily as a source of concentrated sugar , in both liquid and crystallized @-@ solid form , as cane sugar had to be imported from the West Indies .
Maple sugaring parties typically began to operate at the start of the spring thaw in regions of woodland with sufficiently large numbers of maples . Syrup makers first bored holes in the trunks , usually more than one hole per large tree ; they then inserted wooden spouts into the holes and hung a wooden bucket from the protruding end of each spout to collect the sap . The buckets were commonly made by cutting cylindrical segments from a large tree trunk and then hollowing out each segment 's core from one end of the cylinder , creating a seamless , watertight container . Sap filled the buckets , and was then either transferred to larger holding vessels ( barrels , large pots , or hollowed @-@ out wooden logs ) , often mounted on sledges or wagons pulled by draft animals , or carried in buckets or other convenient containers . The sap @-@ collection buckets were returned to the spouts mounted on the trees , and the process was repeated for as long as the flow of sap remained " sweet " . The specific weather conditions of the thaw period were , and still are , critical in determining the length of the sugaring season . As the weather continues to warm , a maple tree 's normal early spring biological process eventually alters the taste of the sap , making it unpalatable , perhaps due to an increase in amino acids .
The boiling process was very time @-@ consuming . The harvested sap was transported back to the party 's base camp , where it was then poured into large vessels ( usually made from metal ) and boiled to achieve the desired consistency . The sap was usually transported using large barrels pulled by horses or oxen to a central collection point , where it was processed either over a fire built out in the open or inside a shelter built for that purpose ( the " sugar shack " ) .
= = = Since 1850 = = =
Around the time of the American Civil War , syrup makers started using large , flat sheet metal pans as they were more efficient for boiling than heavy , rounded iron kettles , because of a greater surface area for evaporation . Around this time , cane sugar replaced maple sugar as the dominant sweetener in the US ; as a result , producers focused marketing efforts on maple syrup . The first evaporator , used to heat and concentrate sap , was patented in 1858 . In 1872 , an evaporator was developed that featured two pans and a metal arch or firebox , which greatly decreased boiling time . Around 1900 , producers bent the tin that formed the bottom of a pan into a series of flues , which increased the heated surface area of the pan and again decreased boiling time . Some producers also added a finishing pan , a separate batch evaporator , as a final stage in the evaporation process .
Buckets began to be replaced with plastic bags , which allowed people to see at a distance how much sap had been collected . Syrup producers also began using tractors to haul vats of sap from the trees being tapped ( the sugarbush ) to the evaporator . Some producers adopted motor @-@ powered tappers and metal tubing systems to convey sap from the tree to a central collection container , but these techniques were not widely used . Heating methods also diversified : modern producers use wood , oil , natural gas , propane , or steam to evaporate sap . Modern filtration methods were perfected to prevent contamination of the syrup .
A large number of technological changes took place during the 1970s . Plastic tubing systems that had been experimental since the early part of the century were perfected , and the sap came directly from the tree to the evaporator house . Vacuum pumps were added to the tubing systems , and preheaters were developed to recycle heat lost in the steam . Producers developed reverse @-@ osmosis machines to take a portion of water out of the sap before it was boiled , increasing processing efficiency .
Improvements in tubing and vacuum pumps , new filtering techniques , " supercharged " preheaters , and better storage containers have since been developed . Research continues on pest control and improved woodlot management . In 2009 , researchers at the University of Vermont unveiled a new type of tap that prevents backflow of sap into the tree , reducing bacterial contamination and preventing the tree from attempting to heal the bore hole . Experiments show that it may be possible to use saplings in a plantation instead of mature trees dramatically boosting productivity per acre .
= = Processing = =
Production methods have been streamlined since colonial days , yet remain basically unchanged . Sap must first be collected and boiled down to obtain pure syrup without chemical agents or preservatives . Maple syrup is made by boiling between 20 and 50 volumes of sap ( depending on its concentration ) over an open fire until 1 volume of syrup is obtained , usually at a temperature 4 @.@ 1 ° C ( 7 @.@ 4 ° F ) over the boiling point of water . As the boiling point of water varies with changes in air pressure the correct value for pure water is determined at the place where the syrup is being produced , each time evaporation is begun and periodically throughout the day . Syrup can be boiled entirely over one heat source or can be drawn off into smaller batches and boiled at a more controlled temperature .
Boiling the syrup is a tightly controlled process , which ensures appropriate sugar content . Syrup boiled too long will eventually crystallize , whereas under @-@ boiled syrup will be watery , and will quickly spoil . The finished syrup has a density of 66 ° on the Brix scale ( a hydrometric scale used to measure sugar solutions ) . The syrup is then filtered to remove sugar sand , crystals made up largely of sugar and calcium malate . These crystals are not toxic , but create a " gritty " texture in the syrup if not filtered out . The filtered syrup is graded and packaged while still hot , usually at a temperature of 82 ° C ( 180 ° F ) or greater . The containers are turned over after being sealed to sterilize the cap with the hot syrup . Packages can be made of metal , glass , or coated plastic , depending on volume and target market . The syrup can also be heated longer and further processed to create a variety of other maple products , including maple sugar , maple butter or cream , and maple candy or taffy .
= = = Off @-@ flavours = = =
Off @-@ flavours can sometimes develop during the production of maple syrup ; causes include contaminants in the boiling apparatus , such as paint or cleanser ; changes in the sap , such as fermentation when it has been left sitting too long ; and changes in the tree , such as " buddy sap " late in the season when budding has begun . In some circumstances it is possible to remove off @-@ flavours through processing .
= = Production = =
Maple syrup production is centred in northeastern North America ; however , given the correct weather conditions , it can be made wherever suitable species of maple trees grow .
A maple syrup production farm is called a " sugarbush " or " sugarwood " . Sap is often boiled in a " sugar house " ( also known as a " sugar shack , " " sugar shanty , " or cabane à sucre ) , a building louvered at the top to vent the steam from the boiling sap .
Maples are usually tapped beginning at 30 to 40 years of age . Each tree can support between one and three taps , depending on its trunk diameter . The average maple tree will produce 35 to 50 litres ( 9 @.@ 2 to 13 @.@ 2 US gal ) of sap per season , up to 12 litres ( 3 @.@ 2 US gal ) per day . This is roughly equal to 7 % of its total sap . Seasons last for four to eight weeks , depending on the weather . During the day , starch stored in the roots for the winter rises through the trunk as sugary sap , allowing it to be tapped . Sap is not tapped at night because the temperature drop inhibits sap flow , although taps are typically left in place overnight . Some producers also tap in autumn , though this practice is less common than spring tapping . Maples can continue to be tapped for sap until they are over 100 years old .
= = Commerce = =
Until the 1930s , the United States produced most of the world 's maple syrup . Today , after rapid growth in the 1990s , Canada produces more than 80 percent of the world 's maple syrup , producing about 26 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 litres ( 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gal ) in 2004 . The vast majority of this comes from the province of Quebec , which is the world 's largest producer , with about 75 percent of global production totalling 24 @,@ 660 @,@ 000 litres ( 6 @,@ 510 @,@ 000 US gal ) in 2005 . As of 2003 , Quebec had more than 7 @,@ 000 producers , collectively making over 24 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 6 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 US gal ) of syrup . Production in Quebec is controlled through a supply management system , with producers receiving quota allotments from the Federation of Quebec Maple Syrup Producers ( Fédération des producteurs acéricoles du Québec ) , which also maintains reserves of syrup although there is a black @-@ market trade in Quebec product . Canada exports more than 9 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 litres ( 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 US gal ) of maple syrup per year , valued at more than C $ 145 million . The provinces of Ontario , Nova Scotia , New Brunswick , and Prince Edward Island produce smaller amounts of syrup .
The Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan produce maple syrup using the sap of the box elder or Manitoba maple ( Acer negundo ) . A Manitoba maple tree 's yield is usually less than half that of a similar sugar maple tree . Manitoba maple syrup has a slightly different flavour from sugar @-@ maple syrup , because it contains less sugar and the tree 's sap flows more slowly .
Vermont is the biggest US producer , with over 1 @,@ 320 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) during the 2013 season , followed by New York with 574 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 2 @,@ 170 @,@ 000 L ) and Maine with 450 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 L ) . Wisconsin , Ohio , New Hampshire , Michigan , Pennsylvania , Massachusetts , and Connecticut all produced marketable quantities of maple syrup of less than 265 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) each in 2013 . As of 2003 , Vermont produced about 5 @.@ 5 percent of the global syrup supply .
Maple syrup has been produced on a small scale in some other countries , notably Japan and South Korea . However , in South Korea in particular , it is traditional to consume maple sap , called gorosoe , instead of processing it into syrup .
In 2013 , 65 % of Canadian maple syrup exports went to the United States ( a value of C $ 178 million ) , 9 % to Japan ( C $ 25 million ) , 8 % to Germany ( C $ 22 million ) and 4 @.@ 3 % to the United Kingdom ( C $ 12 million ) .
= = Grades = =
Following an effort from the International Maple Syrup Institute ( IMSI ) and many maple syrup producer associations , both Canada and the United States have altered their laws regarding the classification of maple syrup to be uniform . Whereas in the past each state or province had their own laws on the classification of maple syrup , now those laws define a unified grading system . This had been a work in progress for several years , and most of the finalization of the new grading system was made in 2014 . The Canadian Food Inspection Agency announced in the Canada Gazette on 28 June 2014 that rules for the sale of maple syrup would be amended to include new descriptors , at the request of the IMSI .
As of December 31 , 2014 , the Canadian Food Inspection Agency ( CFIA ) and as of March 2 , 2015 , the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) Agricultural Marketing Service ( AMS ) issued revised standards on the classification of maple syrup as follows :
Grade A
Golden Colour and Delicate Taste
Amber Colour and Rich Taste
Dark Colour and Robust Taste
Very Dark Colour and Strong Taste
Processing Grade
Substandard
As long as maple syrup does not have an off @-@ flavour and is of a uniform colour and clean and free from cloudiness , turbidity , sediment , it can be identified as one of the A grades . If it exhibits any of these problems , it does not meet Grade A requirements and must be labeled as Processing Grade maple syrup and may not be sold to the consumer . If maple syrup does not meet the requirements of Processing Grade maple syrup ( including a fairly characteristic maple taste ) , it is classified as Substandard .
As of February 2015 , this grading system has been accepted and made law by most maple @-@ producing states and provinces , other than Ontario , Quebec , and Ohio . Vermont , in an effort to " jump @-@ start " the new grading regulations , adopted the new grading system as of January 1 , 2014 , after the grade changes passed the Senate and House in 2013 . Maine passed a bill to take effect as soon as both Canada and the United States adopted the new grades . They are allowing a one @-@ year grace period . In New York , the new grade changes became law on January 1 , 2015 , with a one @-@ year grace period . New Hampshire did not require legislative approval and so the new grade laws became effective as of December 16 , 2014 , and producer compliance is required as of January 1 , 2016 .
Golden and Amber grades typically have a milder flavour than Dark and Very dark , which are both dark and have an intense maple flavour . The darker grades of syrup are used primarily for cooking and baking , although some specialty dark syrups are produced for table use . Syrup harvested earlier in the season tends to yield a lighter colour . With the new grading system , the classification of maple syrup depends ultimately on its translucence . Golden has to be more than 75 percent translucent , Amber has to be 50 @.@ 0 to 74 @.@ 9 percent translucent , Dark has to be 25 @.@ 0 to 49 @.@ 9 percent translucent , and Very Dark is any product less than 25 @.@ 0 percent translucent .
= = = Old grading system = = =
In Canada , maple syrup was classified prior to December 31 , 2014 , by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency ( CFIA ) as one of three grades , each with several colour classes : Canada No. 1 , including Extra Light , Light , and Medium ; No. 2 Amber ; and No. 3 Dark or any other ungraded category . Producers in Ontario or Québec may have followed either federal or provincial grading guidelines . Québec 's and Ontario 's guidelines differed slightly from the federal : there were two " number " categories in Québec ( Number 1 , with four colour classes , and 2 , with five colour classes ) . As in Québec , Ontario 's producers had two " number " grades : 1 , with three colour classes ; and 2 , with one colour class , which was typically referred to as " Ontario Amber " when produced and sold in that province only . A typical year 's yield for a maple syrup producer will be about 25 to 30 percent of each of the # 1 colours , 10 percent # 2 Amber , and 2 percent # 3 Dark .
The United States used ( some states still do , as they await state regulation ) different grading standards . Maple syrup was divided into two major grades : Grade A and Grade B. Grade A was further divided into three subgrades : Light Amber ( sometimes known as Fancy ) , Medium Amber , and Dark Amber . The Vermont Agency of Agriculture Food and Markets used a similar grading system of colour , and is roughly equivalent , especially for lighter syrups , but using letters : " AA " , " A " , etc . The Vermont grading system differed from the US system in maintaining a slightly higher standard of product density ( measured on the Baumé scale ) . New Hampshire maintained a similar standard , but not a separate state grading scale . The Vermont @-@ graded product had 0 @.@ 9 percent more sugar and less water in its composition than US @-@ graded . One grade of syrup not for table use , called commercial or Grade C , was also produced under the Vermont system .
= = Nutrition and food characteristics = =
The basic ingredient in maple syrup is the sap from the xylem of sugar maple or various other species of maple trees . It consists primarily of sucrose and water , with small amounts of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose from the invert sugar created in the boiling process .
In a 100g amount , maple syrup provides 260 calories and is composed of 32 % water by weight , 67 % carbohydrates ( 90 % of which are sugars ) , and no appreciable protein or fat ( table ) . Maple syrup is generally low in overall micronutrient content , although manganese and riboflavin are at high levels along with moderate amounts of zinc and calcium ( right table ) . It also contains trace amounts of amino acids which increase in content as sap flow occurs .
Maple syrup contains a wide variety of volatile organic compounds , including vanillin , hydroxybutanone , and propionaldehyde . It is not yet known exactly what compounds are responsible for maple syrup 's distinctive flavour , however its primary flavour contributing compounds are maple furanone , strawberry furanone , and maltol .
New compounds have been identified in maple syrup , one of which is quebecol , a natural phenolic compound created when the maple sap is boiled to create syrup .
One author described maple syrup as " a unique ingredient , smooth- and silky @-@ textured , with a sweet , distinctive flavour – hints of caramel with overtones of toffee will not do – and a rare colour , amber set alight . Maple flavour is , well , maple flavour , uniquely different from any other . " Agriculture Canada has developed a " flavour wheel " that details 91 unique flavours that can be present in maple syrup . These flavours are divided into 13 families : vanilla , empyreumatic ( burnt ) , milky , fruity , floral , spicy , foreign deterioration or environment , maple , confectionery , plants forest @-@ humus @-@ cereals , herbaceous , or ligneous . These flavours are evaluated using a procedure similar to wine tasting . Other culinary experts praise its unique flavour .
Maple syrup and its various artificial imitations are widely used as toppings for pancakes , waffles , and French toast in North America . They can also be used to flavour a variety of foods , including fritters , ice cream , hot cereal , fresh fruit , and sausages . It is also used as sweetener for granola , applesauce , baked beans , candied sweet potatoes , winter squash , cakes , pies , breads , tea , coffee , and hot toddies . Maple syrup can also be used as a replacement for honey in wine ( mead ) .
= = Imitations and substitutions = =
In Canada , maple syrup must be made entirely from maple sap , and syrup must have a density of 66 ° on the Brix scale to be marketed as maple syrup . In the United States , maple syrup must be made almost entirely from maple sap , although small amounts of substances such as salt may be added . Labelling laws prohibit imitation syrups from having " maple " in their names . " Maple @-@ flavoured " syrups include maple syrup but may contain additional ingredients . " Pancake syrup " , " waffle syrup " , " table syrup " , and similarly named syrups are substitutes which are less expensive than maple syrup . In these syrups , the primary ingredient is most often high fructose corn syrup flavoured with sotolon ; they have no genuine maple content , and are usually thickened far beyond the viscosity of maple syrup .
Imitation syrups are generally cheaper than maple syrup , but tend to taste artificial . A 2009 Cook 's Illustrated comparison between top @-@ selling maple and imitation syrups consistently rated the real maple brands ( Maple Grove Farms , Highland Sugarworks , Camp Maple , Spring Tree , and Maple Gold ) above the imitation brands tested ( Eggo , Aunt Jemima , Mrs. Butterworth 's , Log Cabin , and Hungry Jack ) . In the United States , consumers generally prefer imitation syrups , likely because of the significantly lower cost . The fenugreek seed , a spice with high amounts of sotolon , can be prepared to have a maple @-@ like flavour , and is used to make a very strong commercial flavouring that is similar to maple syrup , but much less expensive ; one such syrup , Mapleine , was popular during the Great Depression .
= = Cultural significance = =
Maple syrup and maple sugar were used during the American Civil War and by abolitionists in the years prior to the war because most cane sugar and molasses were produced by Southern slaves . Because of food rationing during the Second World War , people in the northeastern United States were encouraged to stretch their sugar rations by sweetening foods with maple syrup and maple sugar , and recipe books were printed to help housewives employ this alternative source .
Maple products are considered emblematic of Canada , in particular Quebec , and are frequently sold in tourist shops and airports as souvenirs from Canada . The sugar maple 's leaf has come to symbolize Canada , and is depicted on the country 's flag . Several US states , including New York , Vermont and Wisconsin , have the sugar maple as their state tree . A scene of sap collection is depicted on the Vermont state quarter , issued in 2001 .
= = = Cited works = = =
Ciesla , William M ( 2002 ) . Non @-@ wood Forest Products from Temperate Broad @-@ leaved Trees . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . ISBN 978 @-@ 92 @-@ 5 @-@ 104855 @-@ 9 .
Eagleson , Janet ; Hasner , Rosemary ( 2006 ) . The Maple Syrup Book . The Boston Mills Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55046 @-@ 411 @-@ 5 .
Elliot , Elaine ( 2006 ) . Maple Syrup : Recipes from Canada 's Best Chefs . Formac Publishing Company . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 88780 @-@ 697 @-@ 1 .
= Desperate Souls =
" Desperate Souls " is the eighth episode of the first season of the American Fairy Tale / Drama television series Once Upon a Time . It was written by consulting producer Jane Espenson , and was directed by Michael Waxman . Espenson wrote it to give viewers some " crucial facts " about Rumpelstiltskin 's origins . Guest stars included Brad Dourif , Giancarlo Esposito , Beverley Elliott , Ty Olsson , Meghan Ory , and Dylan Schmid .
The series takes place in the fictional seaside town of Storybrooke , Maine
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2007 , Lademoen / Nedre Elvehavn Station in Trondheim opened . Previously , the former station known as Lademoen was renamed Lilleby so the new station serving Nedre Elvehavn could be named Lademoen . The name @-@ change caused protests from historians and the municipal committee responsible for naming . The 4 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometer ( 2 @.@ 7 mi ) long Gevingåsen Tunnel opened on 15 August 2011 , shortening travel time between Hommelvik and Værnes by five minutes . It also allows the number of trains on the line between Trondheim and Stjørdal to increase to eight trains per hour ( both directions combined ) , which will free up sufficient capacity to allow additional commuter trains to run to Stjørdal .
= = Future = =
There are political signals to prioritize electrification the tracks from Trondheim to Steinkjer plus the Meråker Line . NSB will need to replace the rolling stock in the 2010s , and want to coordinate the new stock with electrification .
The National Rail Administration has stated that they may have to close Innherred Sykehus Station . The station is located in a curve and within the signaling area of Levanger Station , and the Norwegian Railway Inspectorate has required the station to be corrected by 2012 . Because of the adjacent Levanger Hospital , the station is one of the busiest on the system , with 90 @,@ 000 annual riders . One possible solution is to move the platforms of Levanger Station closer towards the hospital and thus serve both the town and the hospital from the same station .
The two county municipalities proposed during the early 2000s that the Nordland Line between Trondheim and Steinkjer be upgraded allow travel time to be reduced to one hour . This would require the average speed to be increased to 115 kilometres per hour ( 71 mph ) , mainly through a modernization of the existing line . Specific projects include electrification , double track between Trondheim and Trondheim Airport , Gevingåsen Tunnel , a 11 @.@ 3 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 0 mi ) tunnel through Forbordfjellet ( between Stjørdal and Åsen ) , additional passing loops , a new bridge over the Sjørdal River and a rearrangement of the tracks at Hell . This would have to be combined with a reduction in the number of stops . The National Rail Administration estimates that the mentioned investments , which would cost between NOK 4 and 6 billion , will allow a travel time of 1 hour and 10 minutes . If a number of curves are straightened , increased capacity is introduced between Stjørdal and Steinkjer and a further number of stops are removed , travel time could be reduced to 1 hour .
Norsk Bane , a lobbyist organisation which is suggesting to build a high @-@ speed line from Oslo to Trondheim and onwards to Steinkjer , estimates that regional trains will , with their infrastructure , be able to operate trains from Steinkjer to Trondheim in 40 minutes . The proposals involves only keeping the stations at Hommelvik , Trondheim Airport , Stjørdal , Åsen , Levanger , Verdal , Røra and Steinkjer north of Trondheim . South of Trondheim , the proposal involves a 35 @-@ minute service to Oppdal , with intermediate stops at Heimdal , Melhus , Støren and Berkåk . The proposal involves building an all @-@ new double track and having a stopping pattern where not all stations are served by all services . It would involve three services per hour and direct trains to Oslo , with speeds up to 300 kilometres per hour ( 190 mph ) .
= Swedish emigration to the United States =
During the Swedish emigration to the United States in the 19th and early 20th centuries , about 1 @.@ 3 million Swedes left Sweden for the United States . The main pull was the availability of low cost , high quality farm land in the upper Midwest ( the area from Illinois to Montana ) , and high paying jobs in mechanical industries and factories in Chicago , Minneapolis , Worcester and many smaller cities . Religious freedom was also a pull factor for some . Most migration was of the chain form , with early settlers giving reports and recommendations ( and travel money ) to relatives and friends in Sweden , who followed the same route to new homes . A major push factor inside Sweden was population growth and the growing shortage of good farm lands . Additional factors in the earliest stages of emigration included crop failures , the lack of industrial jobs in urban Sweden , and for some the wish to escape the authority of an established state church . After 1870 , transatlantic fares were cheap . By the 1880s , American railroads had agents in Sweden who offered package deals on one @-@ way tickets for entire families . The railroad would ship the family , their house furnishings and farm tools , and provide a financial deal to spread out payments for the farm over a period of years .
Swedish migration peaked 1870 @-@ 1900 . By 1890 , the U.S. census reported a Swedish @-@ American population of nearly 800 @,@ 000 . Many of the immigrants became classic pioneers , clearing and cultivating the prairies of the Great Plains , while others remained in the cities , particularly Chicago . Single young women usually went straight from agricultural work in the Swedish countryside to jobs as housemaids . Many established Swedish Americans visited the old country in the later 19th century , their narratives illustrating the difference in customs and manners . Some made the journey with the intention of spending their declining years in Sweden .
After a dip in the 1890s , emigration rose again , causing national alarm in Sweden . At this time , Sweden 's economy had developed substantially , but the higher wages prevailing in the United States retained their attractiveness . A broad @-@ based parliamentary emigration commission was instituted in 1907 . It recommended social and economic reform in order to reduce emigration by " bringing the best sides of America to Sweden " . The commission 's major proposals were rapidly implemented : universal male suffrage , better housing , general economic development , and broader popular education , measures which also can be attributed to numerous other factors . The effect of these measures on migration is hard to assess , as World War I ( 1914 – 1918 ) broke out the year after the commission published its last volume , reducing emigration to a mere trickle . From the mid @-@ 1920s , there was no longer a Swedish mass emigration .
= = Early history : the Swedish @-@ American dream = =
The Swedish West India Company established a colony on the Delaware River in 1638 , naming it New Sweden . A small , short @-@ lived colonial settlement , New Sweden contained at its height only some 600 Swedish and Finnish settlers ( Finland being part of Sweden ) . It was lost to the Dutch in New Netherland in 1655 . Nevertheless , the descendants of the original colonists maintained spoken Swedish until the late 18th century . Modern day reminders of the history of New Sweden are reflected in the presence of the American Swedish Historical Museum in Philadelphia , Fort Christina State Park in Wilmington , Delaware , and The Printzhof in Essington , Pennsylvania .
The historian H. A. Barton has suggested that the greatest significance of New Sweden was the strong and long @-@ lasting interest in America that the colony generated in Sweden . America was seen as the standard @-@ bearer of liberalism and personal freedom , and became an ideal for liberal Swedes . Their admiration for America was combined with the notion of a past Swedish Golden Age with ancient Nordic ideals . Supposedly corrupted by foreign influences , the timeless " Swedish values " would be recovered by Swedes in the New World . This remained a fundamental theme of Swedish , and later Swedish @-@ American , discussion of America , though the recommended " timeless " values changed over time . In the 17th and 18th centuries , Swedes who called for greater religious freedom would often refer to America as the supreme symbol of it . The emphasis shifted from religion to politics in the 19th century , when liberal citizens of the hierarchic Swedish class society looked with admiration to the American Republicanism and civil rights . In the early 20th century , the Swedish @-@ American dream even embraced the idea of a welfare state responsible for the well @-@ being of all its citizens . Underneath these shifting ideas ran from the start the current which carried all before it in the later 20th century : America as the symbol and dream of unfettered individualism .
Swedish debate about America remained mostly theoretical before the 19th century , since very few Swedes had any personal experience of the nation . Emigration was illegal and population was seen as the wealth of nations . However , the Swedish population doubled between 1750 and 1850 , and as population growth outstripped economic development , it gave rise to fears of overpopulation based on the influential population theory of Thomas Malthus . In the 1830s , the laws against emigration were repealed .
= = 19th century = =
Akenson argues that hard times in Sweden before 1867 produced a strong push effect , but that for cultural reasons most Swedes refused to emigrate and clung on at home . Akenson says the state wanted to keep its population high and :
The upper classes ' need for a cheap and plentiful labor force , the instinctive willingness of the clergy of the state church to discourage emigration on both moral and social grounds , and the deference of the lower orders to the arcade of powers that hovered above them — all these things formed an architecture of cultural hesitancy concerning emigration .
A few " countercultural " deviants from the mainstream did leave and showed the way . The severe economic hardship of the " Great Deprivation " of 1867 to 1869 , finally overcame the reluctance and the floodgates opened to produce an " emigration culture " "
= = = European mass emigration : push and pull = = =
Large @-@ scale European emigration to the United States started in the 1840s in Britain , Ireland and Germany . That was followed by a rising wave after 1850 from most Northern European countries , and in turn by Central and Southern Europe . Research into the forces behind this European mass emigration has relied on sophisticated statistical methods . One theory which has gained wide acceptance is Jerome 's analysis in 1926 of the " push and pull " factors — the impulses to emigration generated by conditions in Europe and the U.S. respectively . Jerome found that fluctuations in emigration co @-@ varied more with economic developments in the U.S. than in Europe , and deduced that the pull was stronger than the push . Jerome 's conclusions have been challenged , but still form the basis of much work on the subject .
Emigration patterns in the Nordic countries — Finland , Sweden , Norway , Denmark , and Iceland — show striking variation . Nordic mass emigration started in Norway , which also retained the highest rate throughout the century . Sweden got underway in the early 1840s , and had the third @-@ highest rate in all of Europe , after Ireland and Norway . Denmark had a consistently low rate of emigration , while Iceland had a late start but soon reached levels comparable to Norway . Finland , whose mass emigration did not start until the late 1880s , and at the time part of the Russian Empire , is usually classified as part of the Eastern European wave .
= = = Crossing the Atlantic = = =
The first European emigrants travelled in the holds of sailing cargo ships . With the advent of the age of steam , an efficient transatlantic passenger transport mechanism was established at the end of the 1860s . It was based on huge ocean liners run by international shipping lines , most prominently Cunard , White Star , and Inman . The speed and capacity of the large steamships meant that tickets became cheaper . From the Swedish port towns of Stockholm , Malmö and Gothenburg , transport companies operated various routes , some of them with complex early stages and consequently a long and trying journey on the road and at sea . Thus North German transport agencies relied on the regular Stockholm — Lübeck steamship service to bring Swedish emigrants to Lübeck , and from there on German train services to take them to Hamburg or Bremen . There they would board ships to the British ports of Southampton and Liverpool and change to one of the great transatlantic liners bound for New York . The majority of Swedish emigrants , however , travelled from Gothenburg to Hull , UK , on dedicated boats run by the Wilson Line , then by train across Britain to Liverpool and the big ships .
During the later 19th century , the major shipping lines financed Swedish emigrant agents and paid for the production of large quantities of emigration propaganda . Much of this promotional material , such as leaflets , was produced by immigration promoters in the U.S. Propaganda and advertising by shipping line agents was often blamed for emigration by the conservative Swedish ruling class , which grew increasingly alarmed at seeing the agricultural labor force leave the country . It was a Swedish 19th @-@ century cliché to blame the falling ticket prices and the pro @-@ emigration propaganda of the transport system for the craze of emigration , but modern historians have varying views about the real importance of such factors . Brattne and Åkerman have examined the advertising campaigns and the ticket prices as a possible third force between push and pull . They conclude that neither advertisements nor pricing had any decisive influence on Swedish emigration . While the companies remain unwilling , as of 2007 , to open their archives to researchers , the limited sources available suggest that ticket prices did drop in the 1880s , but remained on average artificially high because of cartels and price @-@ fixing . On the other hand , H. A. Barton states that the cost of crossing the Atlantic dropped drastically between 1865 and 1890 , encouraging poorer Swedes to emigrate . The research of Brattne and Åkerman has shown that the leaflets sent out by the shipping line agents to prospective emigrants would not so much celebrate conditions in the New World , as simply emphasize the comforts and advantages of the particular company . Descriptions of life in America were unvarnished , and the general advice to emigrants brief and factual . Newspaper advertising , while very common , tended to be repetitive and stereotyped in content .
= = = Mid @-@ 19th century = = =
Swedish mass migration took off in the spring of 1841 with the departure of Uppsala University graduate Gustaf Unonius ( 1810 – 1902 ) together with his wife , a maid , and two students . This small group founded a settlement they named New Upsala in Waukesha County , Wisconsin , and began to clear the wilderness , full of enthusiasm for frontier life in " one of the most beautiful valleys the world can offer " . After moving to Chicago , Unonius soon became disillusioned with life in the U.S. , but his reports in praise of the simple and virtuous pioneer life , published in the liberal newspaper Aftonbladet , had already begun to draw Swedes westward .
The rising Swedish exodus was caused by economic , political , and religious conditions affecting particularly the rural population . Europe was in the grip of an economic depression . In Sweden , population growth and repeated crop failures were making it increasingly difficult to make a living from the tiny land plots on which at least three quarters of the inhabitants depended . Rural conditions were especially bleak in the stony and unforgiving Småland province , which became the heartland of emigration . The American Midwest was an agricultural antipode to Småland , for it , Unonius reported in 1842 , " more closely than any other country in the world approaches the ideal which nature seems to have intended for the happiness and comfort of humanity . " Prairie land in the Midwest was ample , loamy , and government @-@ owned . From 1841 it was sold to squatters for $ 1 @.@ 25 per acre , ( $ 29 per acre ( $ 72 / ha ) as of 2016 ) , following the Preemption Act of 1841 ( later replaced by the Homestead Act ) . The inexpensive and fertile land of Illinois , Iowa , Minnesota and Wisconsin was irresistible to landless and impoverished European peasants . It also attracted more well @-@ established farmers .
The political freedom of the American republic exerted a similar pull . Swedish peasants were some of the most literate in Europe , and consequently had access to the European egalitarian and radical ideas that culminated in the Revolutions of 1848 . The clash between Swedish liberalism and a repressive monarchist regime raised political awareness among the disadvantaged , many of whom looked to the U.S. to realize their republican ideals .
Dissenting religious practitioners also widely resented the treatment they received from the Lutheran State Church through the Conventicle Act . Conflicts between local worshipers and the new churches were most explosive in the countryside , where dissenting pietist groups were more active , and were more directly under the eye of local law enforcement and the parish priest . Before non @-@ Lutheran churches were granted toleration in 1809 , clampdowns on illegal forms of worship and teaching often provoked whole groups of pietists to leave together , intent on forming their own spiritual communities in the new land . The largest contingent of such dissenters , 1 @,@ 500 followers of Eric Jansson , left in the late 1840s and founded a community in Bishop Hill , Illinois .
The first Swedish emigrant guidebook was published as early as 1841 , the year Unonius left , and nine handbooks were published between 1849 and 1855 . Substantial groups of lumberjacks and iron miners were recruited directly by company agents in Sweden . Agents recruiting construction builders for American railroads also appeared , the first in 1854 , scouting for the Illinois Central Railroad .
The Swedish establishment disapproved intensely of emigration . Seen as depleting the labor force and as a defiant act among the lower orders , emigration alarmed both the spiritual and the secular authorities . Many emigrant diaries and memoirs feature an emblematic early scene in which the local clergy warns travellers against risking their souls among foreign heretics . The conservative press described emigrants as lacking in patriotism and moral fibre : " No workers are more lazy , immoral and indifferent than those who immigrate to other places . " Emigration was denounced as an unreasoning " mania " or " craze " , implanted in an ignorant populace by " outside agents " . The liberal press retorted that the " lackeys of monarchism " failed to take into account the miserable conditions in the Swedish countryside and the backwardness of Swedish economic and political institutions . " Yes , emigration is indeed a ' mania ' " , wrote the liberal Göteborgs Handels- och Sjöfartstidning sarcastically , " The mania of wanting to eat one 's fill after one has worked oneself hungry ! The craze of wanting to support oneself and one 's family in an honest manner ! "
The great Famine of 1866 – 68 , and the distrust and discontent concerning the way the establishment distributed the relief help , is estimated to have contributed greatly to the raising Swedish emigration to the United States .
= = = Late 19th century = = =
Swedish emigration to the United States reached its height in the 1870 @-@ 1900 era . The size of the Swedish @-@ American community in 1865 is estimated at 25 @,@ 000 people , a figure soon to be surpassed by the yearly Swedish immigration . By 1890 the U.S. census reported a Swedish @-@ American population of nearly 800 @,@ 000 , with immigration peaking in 1869 and again in 1887 . Most of this influx settled in the North . The great majority of them had been peasants in the old country , pushed away from Sweden by disastrous crop failures and pulled towards America by the cheap land resulting from the 1862 Homestead Act . Most immigrants became pioneers , clearing and cultivating the virgin land of the Midwest and extending the pre @-@ Civil War settlements further west , into Kansas and Nebraska . Once sizable Swedish farming communities had formed on the prairie , the greatest impetus for further peasant migration came through personal contacts . The iconic " America @-@ letter " to relatives and friends at home spoke directly from a position of trust and shared background , carrying immediate conviction . At the height of migration , familial America @-@ letters could lead to chain reactions which would all but depopulate some Swedish parishes , dissolving tightly knit communities which then re @-@ assembled in the Midwest .
Other forces worked to push the new immigrants towards the cities , particularly Chicago . According to historian H. Arnold Barton , the cost of crossing the Atlantic dropped by more than half between 1865 and 1890 , which led to progressively poorer Swedes contributing a growing share of immigration ( but compare Brattne and Åkerman , see " Crossing the Atlantic " above ) . The new immigrants were increasingly younger and unmarried . With the shift from family to individual immigration came a faster and fuller Americanization , as young , single individuals with little money took whatever jobs they could get , often in cities . Large numbers even of those who had been farmers in the old country made straight for American cities and towns , living and working there at least until they had saved enough capital to marry and buy farms of their own . A growing proportion stayed in urban centers , combining emigration with the flight from the countryside which was happening in the homeland and all across Europe .
Single young women , a group Barton considers particularly significant , most commonly moved straight from field work in rural Sweden to jobs as live @-@ in housemaids in urban America . " Literature and tradition have preserved the often tragic image of the pioneer immigrant wife and mother " , writes Barton , " bearing her burden of hardship , deprivation and longing on the untamed frontier ... More characteristic among the newer arrivals , however , was the young , unmarried woman ... As domestic servants in America , they ... were treated as members of the families they worked for and like ' ladies ' by American men , who showed them a courtesy and consideration to which they were quite unaccustomed at home . " They found employment easily , as Scandinavian maids were in high demand , and learned the language and customs quickly . In contrast , newly arrived Swedish men were often employed in all @-@ Swedish work gangs . The young women usually married Swedish men , and brought with them in marriage an enthusiasm for ladylike , American manners and middle @-@ class refinements . Many admiring remarks are recorded from the late 19th century about the sophistication and elegance that simple Swedish farm girls would gain in a few years , and about their unmistakably American demeanor .
As ready workers , the Swedes were generally welcomed by the Americans , who often singled them out as the " best " immigrants . There was no significant anti @-@ Swedish nativism of the sort that attacked Irish , German and , especially , Chinese newcomers . The Swedish style was more familiar : " They are not peddlers , nor organ grinders , nor beggars ; they do not sell ready @-@ made clothing nor keep pawn shops " , wrote the Congregational missionary M. W. Montgomery in 1885 ; " they do not seek the shelter of the American flag merely to introduce and foster among us ... socialism , nihilism , communism ... they are more like Americans than are any other foreign peoples . "
A number of well @-@ established and longtime Swedish Americans visited Sweden in the 1870s , making comments that give historians a window on the cultural contrasts involved . A group from Chicago made the journey in an effort to remigrate and spend their later years in the country of their birth , but changed their minds when faced with the realities of 19th @-@ century Swedish society . Uncomfortable with what they described as the social snobbery , pervasive drunkenness , and superficial religious life of the old country , they returned promptly to America . The most notable visitor was Hans Mattson ( 1832 – 1893 ) , an early Minnesota settler who had served as a colonel in the Union Army and had been Minnesota 's secretary of state . He visited Sweden in 1868 – 69 to recruit settlers on behalf of the Minnesota Immigration Board , and again in the 1870s to recruit for the Northern Pacific Railroad . Viewing Swedish class snobbery with indignation , Mattson wrote in his Reminiscences that this contrast was the key to the greatness of America , where " labor is respected , while in most other countries it is looked down upon with slight " . He was sardonically amused by the ancient pageantry of monarchy at the ceremonial opening of the Riksdag : " With all respects for old Swedish customs and manners , I cannot but compare this pageant to a great American circus — minus the menagerie , of course . "
Mattson 's first recruiting visit came immediately after consecutive seasons of crop failure in 1867 and 1868 , and he found himself " besieged by people who wished to accompany me back to America . " He noted that :
the laboring and middle classes already at that time had a pretty correct idea of America , and the fate that awaited emigrants there ; but the ignorance , prejudice and hatred toward America and everything pertaining to it among the aristocracy , and especially the office holders , was as unpardonable as it was ridiculous . It was claimed by them that all was humbug in America , that it was the paradise of scoundrels , cheats , and rascals , and that nothing good could possibly come out of it .
A more recent American immigrant , Ernst Skarstedt , who visited Sweden in 1885 , received the same galling impression of upper @-@ class arrogance and anti @-@ Americanism . The laboring classes , in their turn , appeared to him coarse and degraded , drinking heavily in public , speaking in a stream of curses , making obscene jokes in front of women and children . Skarstedt felt surrounded by " arrogance on one side and obsequiousness on the other , a manifest scorn for menial labor , a desire to appear to be more than one was " . This traveller too was incessantly hearing American civilization and culture denigrated from the depths of upper @-@ class Swedish prejudice : " If I , in all modesty , told something about America , it could happen that in reply I was informed that this could not possibly be so or that the matter was better understood in Sweden . "
Swedish emigration dropped dramatically after 1890 ; return migration rose as conditions in Sweden improved . Sweden underwent a rapid industrialization within a few years in the 1890s , and wages rose , principally in the fields of mining , forestry , and agriculture . The pull from the U.S. declined even more sharply than the Swedish " push " , as the best farmland was taken . No longer growing but instead settling and consolidating , the Swedish @-@ American community seemed set to become ever more American and less Swedish . The new century , however , saw a new influx .
= = = Religious confusion = = =
In the 1800s @-@ 1900s the Church of Sweden supported the Swedish government by opposing both emigration and preachers ' efforts recommending sobriety ( alcoholic beverages are sold in Sweden by a government monopoly ) . This escalated to a
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line and 27 smaller vessels , and carrying as many as 25 @,@ 000 men . Despite elements of the force spending up to a week in Bantry Bay , not a single French soldier was successfully landed , and the expedition was a total disaster , with 13 ships lost and over 2 @,@ 000 men drowned .
The following year , Tone and his companions tried again , this time persuading the government of the Batavian Republic , which was under French occupation , to prepare their own expedition . During 1797 , the Dutch fleet was readied and provisioned , intending to combine with the French fleet and launch a second invasion attempt . The Batavian fleet sailed on a preparatory raiding cruise in the North Sea in October 1797 and on their return were confronted off the Dutch coast by the Royal Navy 's North Sea Fleet under Admiral Sir Adam Duncan . Duncan immediately attacked , and in the ensuing Battle of Camperdown captured or destroyed ten ships and scattered the rest , ending the Batavian invasion threat .
= = = Rebellion of 1798 = = =
Hoping to capitalise on the spontaneous uprising that spread across Ireland in May 1798 , Commodore Daniel Savary led a third , and more successful , effort . He took a small frigate squadron flying false British colours to Killala , and in August landed 1 @,@ 150 French troops under General Humbert . A larger force would have been despatched , but the French had been caught unprepared — the Irish rebellion had originally been planned to coincide with a later French landing , but British intelligence operations had infiltrated the United Irishmen and arrested much of its leadership , prompting a precipitate revolt . Although the uprising achieved some early successes , by the time Humbert arrived its outcome had already been decided with the defeat of successive rebel armies by British troops . Humbert 's force was joined by many United Irishmen and had some initial success , but was unable to face superior British numbers at the Battle of Ballinamuck , and surrendered on 8 September . Although its small size allowed it to reach Ireland unobserved , neither Savary 's frigate squadron nor the army it carried were large enough to have a significant impact on the campaign .
= = Bompart 's mission = =
Unaware that Humbert had surrendered and the rebellion been defeated , the French prepared a follow @-@ up expedition under the command of Commodore Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ François Bompart . Three thousand men were embarked aboard the ship of the line Hoche and eight frigates , the force departing Brest on 16 September . However , having missed Savary 's frigate squadron , the Royal Navy were more watchful ; roving frigate patrols cruised off the principal French ports and in the approaches to Ireland , while squadrons of battleships from the Channel Fleet sailed nearby , ready to move against any new invasion force . In command of the squadron on the Irish station was Commodore Sir John Borlase Warren , a highly experienced officer ( and politician ) who had made a name for himself raiding the French coast early in the war .
Bompart 's squadron departed Brest late in the evening , hoping to slip past the inshore British blockade in the dark . However , they took too long to navigate the Raz passage , and were spotted at dawn on 17 September by a frigate squadron under Captain Richard Goodwin Keats , in HMS Boadicea . Keats immediately divided his forces , ordering HMS Ethalion under Captain George Countess and the brig HMS Sylph under Commander John Chambers White to follow the French force , while Keats brought news of the French movements to Admiral Lord Bridport , admiral of the Channel Fleet .
= = = Countess 's pursuit = = =
Aware of the British pursuit , Bompart nevertheless continued to the north . Countess followed closely , and was joined on 18 September by HMS Amelia under Captain Charles Herbert . Initially north of the French , Amelia had spotted the chase the previous day and caught up during the night by passing silently through Bompart 's squadron . The next day , Bompart attempted to throw off his pursuers by feinting towards Lorient , and again the following day by feinting south , as if travelling towards the Antilles . However , the British captains remained on track , and by 20 September were only nine miles from Bompart 's force , which was continuing south @-@ west as though sailing for the Americas . HMS Anson , a large razee frigate under Captain Philip Charles Durham , joined the British force on 20 September .
Despite Bompart 's attempts to disguise his destination , by the evening of 23 September Countess had correctly deduced the French were heading for Ireland , and despatched the brig Sylph to warn Commodore Warren and any other British ships she came across . Two days later , on 25 September , Commodore Bompart was forced to haul to the east and lose ground to his pursuers when a 100 @-@ ship British convoy passed to the north . This convoy consisted of many well @-@ armed East Indiamen , protected by several frigates , and posed a serious threat to Bompart 's overloaded ships . He then tried to drive off pursuit by feinting towards Countess 's squadron , but the faster British ships simply withdrew to a safe distance , resuming their chase once the French had returned to their original course . On 29 September Bompart made a final bid to shake his pursuers ; he attempted to engage the British frigates with three of his own — Immortalité , Loire and another . This plan failed after his flagship Hoche lost a topmast in heavy weather and fell behind the rest of the squadron , forcing the frigates to return to her protection .
Unable to escape , Bompart finally abandoned his pretence of sailing for the Americas and instead turned north @-@ west . During the next day high winds cost both Hoche and Anson a topmast , slowing both squadrons , but the repairs to Hoche were conducted faster and the French were able to pull ahead . For four more days pursuit continued directly north , until 4 October , when a storm descended and Bompart successfully outran Countess in the increasing darkness . In the high winds , Amelia was driven off course and away from her compatriots on 7 October while Anson again suffered damage , this time losing two topmasts .
On 11 October the weather cleared , and spotting two sails to the south , Countess took Ethalion to investigate . The ships were Amelia and a ship of the line of Warren 's squadron , who having received Sylph 's warning on 23 September , was sailing north in an attempt to intercept the French . Warren 's squadron of three ships of the line and the razee frigate HMS Magnanime had been joined the day before by two additional frigates stationed at Lough Swilly ; HMS Melampus under Captain Graham Moore and HMS Doris under Captain Lord Ranelagh . Warren attached Melampus to his squadron and detached Doris to scout along the Irish coast and warn the British garrisons , especially along the coast of County Donegal and the North @-@ West of Ireland region generally . Doris was also to scout along part of the coast of the West of Ireland region , further south , where the previous French landing had been effected at Killala .
= = = Warren 's pursuit = = =
Having finally eluded his pursuers , Bompart made directly for Lough Swilly where the landing was scheduled to take place . Unaware of the rebellion 's defeat , he hoped that Humbert 's army would be operating in the Lough Swilly area , as intended in the campaign planned before Humbert left France . Arriving off the coast , Bompart searched for a suitable landing site but was unable to find one before dark on 10 October . He waited out the night close to Tory Island , but was surprised the next day by sails on the horizon ; Warren 's squadron had been joined by Countess 's ships , and an overwhelming force was bearing down on the French . Abandoning all notions of landing the troops , Bompart hauled his ships close to the wind to give them room to manoeuvre and allow their captains as much opportunity as possible to escape the approaching British .
Throughout the day , Warren 's squadron closed from the north @-@ east while Bompart made frantic efforts to reach open water . Both fleets were hindered by a gale which swept the sea shortly before 20 : 00 . All three of Hoche 's topmasts were blown down and her mizzensail shredded , leaving her substantially slower than her compatriots and forcing them to hold back in her defence . Other ships suffered too , as the French Résolue sprang a severe leak and HMS Anson lost her mizzenmast and several topmasts .
During the night , Bompart attempted to decoy the British by sending the schooner Biche with orders for the frigate Résolue , commanding Captain Jean @-@ Pierre Bargeau to beach his ship and fire flares in the hope of distracting Warren from his pursuit . For unknown reasons this order was never carried out , and in the morning Warren was still hard behind Bompart , whose ships were now sailing in two uneven lines . Warren 's force was even more dispersed , with HMS Robust and HMS Magnanime 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) astern of the French and gaining fast , Amelia and Melampus shortly behind them and Warren 's flagship HMS Canada with HMS Foudroyant under Captain Sir Thomas Byard , Kt . , 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ) from the enemy . The other British ships were scattered throughout this formation except Anson , which was wallowing to the rear , far out of sight .
Realising that he could not escape and would have to fight his way past the British , Bompart formed his squadron into a battleline and turned westwards , waiting for Warren 's signal for the attack . Because of the dispersed nature of his squadron , Warren did not issue this signal until 07 : 00 , when he ordered Robust to steer for the French line and attack Hoche directly . Captain Edward Thornbrough of Robust obeyed immediately and closed with the French , firing into the frigates Embuscade and Coquille as he passed , before closing with Hoche and , at 08 : 50 , beginning a bitter close @-@ range artillery duel . Minutes later Magnanime joined the action , firing on the rear frigates and engaging the French van of Immortalité , Loire and Bellone , which had worn out of the line in an attempt to rake her . The next three British ships into action , Ethalion , Melampus and Amelia , all raked the isolated Hoche as they passed , before pressing on sail to pursue the French frigates , now making distance to the south @-@ west . Canada and the subsequent British ships all ignored Hoche except to fire a few distant shots . By the time they passed , the ship was clearly a wreck , having been pounded repeatedly by Robust and Magnanime . Bompart finally surrendered at 10 : 50 with 270 of his crew and passengers killed or wounded .
Embuscade was the next to surrender , having been battered in the opening exchanges by Magnanime , and further damaged by long @-@ range fire from Foudroyant during the pursuit . Overhauled by several larger British ships , Captain de la Ronciére surrendered at 11 : 30 rather than allow his ship to be destroyed . Magnanime , suffering the effects of her engagement with Hoche , took possession of Embuscade and continued to follow slowly behind the rest of the fleet , while Robust , which had suffered severely in her duel with Hoche , remained alongside her erstwhile opponent to take possession . The direction of the French squadron 's flight , following the direction of the wind , took them across the path of the straggling British ships , beginning with the Foudroyant . Most of the frigates were able outrun this ponderous enemy , but Bellone was less fortunate and a speculative shot from the battleship detonated a case of grenades in one of her topmasts . This began a disastrous fire which was eventually brought under control , but at a significant cost in speed . She was soon closely attacked by Melampus and suffered further damage . Nearby , the struggling Coquille surrendered after being outrun by the approaching Canada ; Warren ordered the slowly following Magnanime to take possession .
Ethalion took over pursuit of Bellone from Melampus , and for two hours maintained continuous fire with her bow @-@ chasers on the French ship . Ethalion was faster than her quarry , and she slowly pulled parallel with Bellone during the afternoon , but could not get close enough for a decisive blow . It took another two hours of pursuit before the battered Bellone eventually surrendered . Hoche apart , Bellone had suffered more casualties than any other ship present . To the south of this conflict , the struggling Anson discovered herself in danger when the surviving frigates of the French vanguard swept towards her en masse . Captain Durham was initially confused by their approach as he had been too distant to witness the action and the French ships flew false British ensigns , but he rapidly realised their true identity and at 16 : 00 opened fire on Loire . The damaged Anson was severely hampered by her inability to manoeuvre , and so could do nothing when the French ships pulled back and sailed away , except to continue to fire until they were out of range . During the evening , the surviving French frigates gradually pulled away from their pursuers and disappeared into the gathering night , leaving behind four of their squadron , including their flagship , as captives .
= = Chase = =
By nightfall some of the remaining French ships had entered Donegal Bay with Canada , Melampus and Foudroyant still in pursuit . The two forces repeatedly passed one another in the dark , and Canada almost drove ashore . Back at the battle site , Warren had ordered Robust to tow Hoche into Lough Swilly — this order later came under criticism , as Robust was in a battered state herself and the storms of the previous week had not abated . When a gale struck the pair on 13 October , Hoche lost several masts and broke her tow , only being prevented from foundering by the combined efforts of the British prize crew and their French prisoners . Eventually , on 15 October , Doris appeared and took Hoche in tow , arriving in Lough Swilly without further incident a few days later . Meanwhile , Ethalion saw Bellone safely into port , and Magnanime and Amelia brought in Coquille and Embuscade respectively .
= = = Melampus and Résolue = = =
On the morning of 13 October , Warren sighted two of the French frigates standing out of Donegal Bay and went after them , directing Moore in Melampus to stay behind to search for stragglers . Hindered by contrary winds , Melampus scoured the bay until well after nightfall , and at 23 : 30 was surprised by the sudden appearance directly in front of her of Immortalité and Résolue near St. John 's Point . Immortalité soon spotted Melampus and made sail , but Captain Bargeau of Résolue had not seen the British ship , and was hesitant about following his compatriot in the dark . In the gloom and confusion , he mistook Melampus for Immortalité and came alongside , only realising his mistake when Melampus opened fire . Because of the heavy seas , Résolue 's guns had been tied down below decks , so the only return fire she could offer was from her handful of quarterdeck guns . Bargeau , whose ship was still leaking badly , recognised that further resistance was futile and surrendered in minutes , having lost ten men and much of his rigging . Melampus put aboard a prize crew and then departed in pursuit of Immortalité .
= = = Flight of Loire = = =
Loire and Sémillante had escaped from the battle into Black Sod Bay , where they hoped to hide until they had a clear passage back to France . However , late on 15 October , a British frigate squadron under James Newman @-@ Newman rounded the southern headland of the bay , forcing the French ships to flee to the north . Pressing on sail in pursuit , Newman ordered HMS Révolutionaire to focus on Sémillante whilst he pursued Loire in HMS Mermaid , accompanied by the brig HMS Kangaroo under Commander Edward Brace . Loire and Sémillante separated to divide their pursuers ; Mermaid and Kangaroo lost track of Loire in the early evening , and Sémillante evaded Révolutionaire after dark .
However , on the morning of 16 October Newman spotted Loire on the horizon and immediately ordered his ships in pursuit . Loire was faster than Mermaid in the high winds but was unable to outrun Kangaroo , which directly engaged the far larger frigate in a distant artillery duel . The difference in weight of shot between the combatants was greatly unbalanced , and Kangaroo eventually fell behind after suffering damage to her rigging . Loire too had been damaged , and by 06 : 45 the following morning Captain Segond realised he could not escape his pursuers and instead shortened sail , intending to engage Mermaid — by then the only pursuer still within reach .
Mermaid and Loire joined battle at 07 : 00 , and the artillery exchange became close and furious after a boarding attempt by Loire was foiled by the helmsman of the British ship . Both ships took severe damage , Mermaid knocking away several of her opponent 's spars , but suffering in turn from the musketry of the soldiers still aboard the Loire . At 09 : 15 , the French vessel lost another spar , and Newman determined to rake his opponent . As he attempted to complete this manoeuvre , a shot from Loire brought down Mermaid 's mizzenmast , making her unmanageable and disabling a number of her guns . Seeing an opportunity to escape , the battered Loire disengaged , making significant distance before Newman 's crew could clear the wreckage of the mast . High winds further hampered Mermaid 's repair efforts by tearing away several sails and spars and drowning the ship 's carpenter when he was blown overboard . By the time Mermaid was ready for action once more , Loire had escaped .
Unfortunately for Captain Segond , when dawn broke on 18 October , HMS Anson was revealed only a short distance off , limping southwards after the damage its rigging and masts had suffered before the battle on 12 October . Although his ship was almost unmanageable , Captain Durham was not prepared to lose a second opportunity to engage , and slowly brought his vessel to bear on Loire , which was unable to escape . Accompanying Anson was Kangaroo , recovered from the damage of 16 October and ready for further action . At 10 : 30 , Anson and Loire began firing on one another , neither able to effectively manoeuvre and both relying on firepower to overwhelm their opponent . Kangaroo closed on the unprotected stern of Loire , firing as she did so and repeatedly raking the immobile French ship . By 12 : 00 Loire had lost her mainmast and was leaking badly , forcing Segond to surrender . His ship was towed to port as the sixth prize of the campaign .
= = = Fisgard and Immortalité = = =
The four remaining survivors of the French fleet had mostly avoided pursuit , and by 19 October were nearing Brest independently , hoping to slip through the tight British blockade around the harbour . Captain Mathieu @-@ Charles Bergevin on Romaine had attempted to land the troops aboard his ship in Ireland on 13 October , but was forced to abandon this plan when the soldiers refused to be put ashore . He then sailed southwest and successfully avoided all contact with British forces , joining with the schooner Biche and arriving at Brest on 23 October . The same day , after outrunning Révolutionaire 's pursuit , Sémillante arrived in Lorient — the last French ship to return home .
Immortalité almost reached safety . On the morning of 20 October , Captain Jean @-@ François Legrand was approaching Brest when he was spotted by Captain Thomas Byam Martin of HMS Fisgard . Fisgard , part of the inshore squadron of the Brest blockade , immediately offered battle . Immortalité initially attempted to flee but was forced to engage the faster Fisgard at 11 : 00 . During the bitter , close – range action , Fisgard took severe damage and almost lost her opponent . Immortalité , which had lost a mast and was in a sinking condition , surrendered at 15 : 00 . Among the 115 casualties aboard Immortalité were Captain Legrand , his first lieutenant and General Monge ( commander of the 250 soldiers on board ) , all dead . Fisgard , with the aid of other ships of the blockade squadron , successfully brought her prize into port .
= = Savary 's squadron = =
The French high command had not been idle during the destruction of their invasion force , and had prepared and despatched a second squadron of four frigates under Commodore Daniel Savary . This force was initially ordered to support Bompart , but was later tasked with escorting the squadron 's survivors back to France . On 27 October , Savary learnt of the destruction of both Bompart 's squadron and the Irish rebellion from sympathetic locals at Killala , and turned immediately south , hoping to avoid a similar fate . However , on 28 October , he was spotted by a three @-@ ship squadron under Captain Sir James Saumarez , which included two ships of the line . Saumarez immediately gave chase , and the squadrons exchanged long @-@ distance cannon fire throughout the day . Late in the evening Saumarez 's flagship HMS Caesar lost its foretopmast in strong winds , and command passed to Sir Richard Bickerton , 2nd Bt . , in HMS Terrible .
After another day 's chase , late on 29 October Savary divided his squadron , sending two frigates to the south east and turning north west with two more . In response , Bickerton split his force , sending the frigate HMS Melpomene after the southern group and following Savary himself in Terrible . By 30 October , both British ships were within 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) of their opponents and were preparing for action , when at 17 : 00 a severe storm lashed the area . Savary
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a formal treaty with Johnson in July 1766 .
= = = Securing his position = = =
When General Amherst left North America in 1763 , it was on a leave of absence from his position as commander @-@ in @-@ chief . In 1764 , Amherst announced that he had no intention of returning to North America , at which point Gage 's appointment to that post was made permanent . ( Amherst retained posts as governor of Virginia and colonel of the 60th Foot , positions he only gave up in 1768 when he was required to actually go to Virginia or give up the post . ) Intrigues of other high @-@ ranking officers , especially Robert Monckton and his supporters , for his offices , continued throughout his tenure as commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Gage was promoted to lieutenant general in 1771 . In 1767 Gage ordered the arrest of Major Robert Rogers , the former leader of Rogers ' Rangers who Gage had come to dislike and distrust during the war . The arrest was based on flimsy evidence that Rogers might have been engaging in a treasonous relationship with the French ; he was acquitted in a 1768 court martial .
Gage spent most of his time as commander @-@ in @-@ chief , the most powerful office in British America , in and around New York City . Although Gage was burdened by the administrative demands of managing a territory that spanned the entirety of North America east of the Mississippi River , the Gages clearly relished life in New York , actively participating in the social scene . Although his position gave him the opportunity to make financial arrangements that might have lined the pockets of high @-@ ranking officers at the expense of the military purse , there is little evidence that he engaged in any significant improper transactions . In addition to the handsome sum of £ 10 per day as commander @-@ in @-@ chief , he received a variety of other stipends , including his colonel 's salary , given for leading his regiment . These funds made it possible to send all of the Gage children ( at least six of whom survived to adulthood ) to school in England .
If Gage did not dip his hand unnecessarily in the public till , he did engage in the relatively common practices of nepotism and political favouritism . In addition to securing advantageous positions for several people named Gage or Kemble , he also apparently assisted in the placement of some of his friends and political supporters , or their children .
= = = Rising colonial tension = = =
During Gage 's administration political tensions rose throughout the American colonies . As a result , Gage began withdrawing troops from the frontier to fortify urban centres like New York City and Boston . As the number of soldiers stationed in cities grew , the need to provide adequate food and housing for these troops became urgent . Parliament passed the Quartering Act of 1765 , permitting British troops to be quartered in private residences .
Gage 's thoughts on the reasons for colonial unrest played an important role in furthering the unrest . He at first believed that the popular unrest after the 1765 Stamp Act was primarily due to a small number of colonial elites , led by those in Boston . In 1768 he recommended the deployment of two regiments to occupy Boston , a move that further inflamed the city . Among the troops quartered in the city was the 29th Regiment of Foot , which had previously clashed with colonists in Quebec and New York , and had a reputation for poor discipline . This occupation eventually led to the Boston Massacre in 1770 . Later that year he wrote that " America is a mere bully , from one end to the other , and the Bostonians by far the greatest bullies . "
Gage later came to change his opinion about the source of the unrest , believing that democracy was a significant threat . He saw the movement of colonists into the interior , beyond effective Crown control , and the development of the town meeting as a means of local governance as major elements of the threat , and wrote in 1772 that " democracy is too prevalent in America " . He believed that town meetings should be abolished and recommended that colonisation should be limited to the coastal areas where British rule could be enforced .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
Gage returned to Britain in June 1773 with his family and thus missed the Boston Tea Party in December of that year . The British Parliament reacted to the Tea Party with a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts known in the colonies as the Intolerable Acts . Some of the terms of those acts , for example the option to remove political trials to England , originated with Gage , and measures such as curbing the activities of town meetings and withholding representative government from the Ohio Country also show his influence . With his military experience and relative youth ( Massachusetts governor Thomas Hutchinson was then 62 years old and unpopular , and the equally unpopular lieutenant governor Andrew Oliver was 67 in 1773 and died in March 1774 ) , Gage , a popular figure on both sides of the Atlantic , was deemed the best man to handle the brewing crisis and enforce the Parliamentary acts .
In early 1774 , he was appointed military governor of Massachusetts , replacing Hutchinson . He arrived from Britain in early May , first stopping at Castle William on Castle Island in Boston Harbour . He then arrived in Boston on 13 May 1774 , having been carried there by HMS Lively . His arrival was met with little pomp and circumstance , but was generally well received at first as Bostonians were happy to see Hutchinson go . Local attitudes toward him rapidly deteriorated as he began implementing the various acts , including the Boston Port Act , which put many people out of work , and the Massachusetts Government Act , which formally rescinded the provincial assembly 's right to nominate members of the Governor 's Council , though it retained the elected General Court . Gage dissolved the Assembly in June 1774 after he discovered the Massachusetts representatives were sending delegates to the extralegal Continental Congress . He called for new elections to be held as per the Massachusetts Government Act , but his authority was undermined by the representatives who refused to meet with the new , appointed Governor 's Council . He attempted to buy off political leaders in Massachusetts , notably Benjamin Church and Samuel Adams . With the former he was successful — Church secretly supplied him with intelligence on the activities of rebel leaders — but Adams and other rebel leaders were not moved .
In September 1774 Gage withdrew his garrisons from New York , New Jersey , Philadelphia , Halifax and Newfoundland and brought all under his wing in Boston together with a large British naval presence under the control of Admiral Samuel Graves . He also sought to strictly enforce army directives calling for the confiscation of war @-@ making materials . In September 1774 , he ordered a mission to remove provincial gunpowder from a magazine in what is now Somerville , Massachusetts . This action , although successful , caused a huge popular reaction known as the Powder Alarm , resulting in the mobilization of thousands of provincial militiamen who marched towards Cambridge , Massachusetts . Although the militia soon dispersed , the show of force on the part of the provincials had a lasting effect on Gage , and he subsequently grew more cautious in his actions . The rapid response of the provincials was in large part due to Paul Revere and the Sons of Liberty . The Sons of Liberty kept careful watch over Gage 's activities and successfully warned others of future actions before Gage could mobilise his British regulars to execute them .
Gage was criticised for allowing groups like the Sons of Liberty to exist . One of his officers , Lord Percy , remarked , " The general 's great lenity and moderation serve only to make them [ the colonists ] more daring and insolent . " Gage himself wrote after the Powder Alarm , " If force is to be used at length , it must be a considerable one , and foreign troops must be hired , for to begin with small numbers will encourage resistance , and not terrify ; and will in the end cost more blood and treasure . " Edmund Burke described Gage 's conflicted relationship by saying in Parliament , " An Englishman is the unfittest person on Earth to argue another Englishman into slavery . "
= = American War of Independence = =
On April 14 , 1775 , Gage received orders from London to take decisive action against the Patriots . Given intelligence that the militia had been stockpiling weapons at Concord , Massachusetts , he ordered a troop of regulars to march there on the night of 18 April to confiscate them . A brief skirmish in Lexington scattered colonial militia forces gathered there , but in a later standoff in Concord , a portion of the British force was routed by a stronger colonial militia contingent . When the British left Concord following their search ( which was largely unsuccessful , as the colonists , with advance warning of the action , had removed most of the supplies ) , arriving colonial militia engaged the British column in a running battle all the way back to Charlestown . The Battles of Lexington and Concord resulted in 273 total casualties for the British and 93 for the American rebels .
Following Lexington and Concord , thousands of colonial militia surrounded the city , beginning the Siege of Boston . At first , the rebels ( led mainly by Massachusetts General Artemas Ward ) faced some 4 @,@ 000 British regulars , who were bottled up in the city . British Admiral Samuel Graves commanded the fleet that continued to control the harbour . On 25 May , 4 @,@ 500 reinforcements arrived in the city , along with three more generals : Major General William Howe and Brigadiers John Burgoyne and Henry Clinton .
On 12 June , Gage issued a proclamation , believed to have been written by Burgoyne but distributed in Gage 's name , granting a general pardon to all who would demonstrate loyalty to the crown — with the notable exceptions of John Hancock and Samuel Adams . Gage also worked with the newly arrived generals on a plan to break the grip of the besieging forces . They would use an amphibious assault to take control of the unoccupied Dorchester Heights , which would be followed up by an attack on the rebel camp at Roxbury . They would then seize the heights on the Charlestown peninsula , including Breed 's Hill and Bunker Hill . This would allow the British to eventually take the colonial headquarters at Cambridge . The colonists were warned of these plans , and seized the initiative . On the night of 16 – 17 June , they fortified Breed 's Hill , threatening the British position in Boston . On 17 June 1775 , British forces under General Howe seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill . It was a Pyrrhic victory ; Britain won but suffered more than 1 @,@ 000 casualties without significantly altering the state of the siege . Henry Clinton called it " [ a ] dear bought victory , another such would have ruined us " , while other officers noted that nothing had been gained in the victory . Gage himself wrote the Secretary at War :
These people show a spirit and conduct against us they never showed against the French … .They are now spirited up by a rage and enthusiasm as great as ever people were possessed of and you must proceed in earnest or give the business up . A small body acting in one spot will not avail , you must have large armies making diversions on different sides , to divide their force . The loss we have sustained is greater than we can bear . Small armies cannot afford such losses , especially when the advantage gained tends to do little more than the gaining of a post .
= = Return to Great Britain = =
On 25 June 1775 , Gage wrote a dispatch to Great Britain , notifying Lord Dartmouth of the results of the battle on 17 June . Three days after his report arrived in England , Dartmouth issued the order recalling Gage and replacing him with William Howe . The rapidity of this action is likely attributable to the fact that people within the government were already arguing for Gage 's removal , and the battle was just the final straw . Gage received the order in Boston on 26 September , and set sail for England on 11 October .
The nature of Dartmouth 's recall order did not actually strip Gage of his offices immediately . William Howe temporarily replaced him as commander of the forces in Boston , while General Guy Carleton was given command of the forces in Quebec . Although King George wanted to reward his " mild general " for his
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24 , 2010 , almost two years after the release of All Hope Is Gone , and drummer Joey Jordison , who departed from the group in December 2013 .
= = Recording = =
Preparation for All Hope Is Gone began in 2007 . Drummer Joey Jordison explained , " I 've told them to demo whatever they can so we 've got as much material to choose from as possible . " In February 2008 , Slipknot entered the Sound Farm Studio in Jamaica , Iowa with producer Dave Fortman . All Hope Is Gone is the band 's first album written and recorded in their home state of Iowa . Bassist Paul Gray explained that the band decided to record in Iowa because there were too many distractions in Los Angeles , where production of their previous albums had taken place . The band also stated that being close to home was good for their mindset ; vocalist Corey Taylor drove home every night to see his son . Unlike Slipknot 's previous releases , the album 's writing process involved all nine band members , who wrote over 30 songs . Jordison commented , " I have to say that the band is at its peak ; everyone — I mean everyone — is now completely involved in the writing process , and it 's a beautiful thing . " Taylor felt the writing process had some problems , but also noted that the creation of every Slipknot album has had conflict and that the band has come to embrace it after realizing that the conflict helps to bring out their creativity . Taylor and guitarist Jim Root paired up with Sid Wilson , performing on keyboards , and percussionist Shawn Crahan to work on " oblique , arty pieces " . Taylor also experimented with tracking in an old well , stating , " There was this natural reverb to it that was just intense . " According to Crahan none of the experimental tracks made it onto the album . However , one of them , " Til We Die " , appears as a bonus track on the album 's special edition along with " Child Of Burning Time " and the similarly experimental Bloodstone Mix of " Vermillion Pt . 2 " . The track " Sulfur " was the first combined effort of Jordison and Root , who wrote the song in one evening .
Many of the band members have expressed their dissatisfaction with All Hope Is Gone and is considered to be their least favorite album . Feeling discontent over the record 's production process , Root said , " it felt a little bit rushed . And it felt like we were trying to do things just to appease a schedule , which I didn 't really like . " Root was particularly disappointed with the record 's producer , Dave Fortman , and said , " Dave Fortman really helped me appreciate Rick Rubin as a producer . [ Fortman ] wasn 't able to get nine people together on the same page and , to me , that 's the most important thing in making a Slipknot record . " Conversely , Jordison said , " It 's finally the record that I 've wanted Slipknot to sound like . " He went on to compliment Fortman 's ear for tone , and considered All Hope Is Gone to be the band 's best album . All Hope Is Gone was mixed by Colin Richardson in Miloco 's The Engine Room studio in the United Kingdom .
= = Promotion = =
Rumors that Slipknot would be recording and touring All Hope Is Gone without their trademark masks circulated after band members appeared unmasked during performances with various side @-@ projects . However , Shawn Crahan dismissed these rumors in an interview on The Sauce . Bassist Paul Gray elaborated that the band would return with a new image ; " It 'll still be Slipknot , " he stated , " but we 're gonna upgrade , step things up a little . " Beginning April 1 , 2008 , Slipknot 's website displayed ten teasers to promote All Hope Is Gone . The first nine displayed the band in their purgatory masks , however , the final teaser featured a darkened photograph of the band with their new masks . Slipknot premiered their new masks on July 1 , 2008 on Spinner.com ; eight million people visited the website to view the masks on the first day .
On June 15 , 2008 , a 30 @-@ second sample and cover art from the album 's title track , " All Hope Is Gone " , were made available on Amazon.com. The song began airplay the same day and on June 20 , 2008 , Roadrunner Records offered the track as a free download on their website . " All Hope Is Gone " was later released as a digital single . The second single from the album , " Psychosocial " , began airplay on June 26 , 2008 and was released as a digital single on July 7 , 2008 . Following the album 's launch , " Dead Memories " was released as a digital single on December 1 , 2008 , along with an accompanying music video . The music video for " Sulfur " , the album 's fourth single , premiered on April 18 , 2009 , and the single was released on June 15 , 2009 . From August 17 through 19 , 2008 , Kerrang ! magazine held six listening events across the United Kingdom which included a preview of the documentary supplied with the album 's special edition , and free merchandise . On April 17 , 2009 , Roadrunner Records announced that the album would be released on vinyl on April 19 , 2009 , coinciding with Record Store Day .
The album 's cover art and track listing were released on July 8 , 2008 . Slipknot began its All Hope Is Gone World Tour the following day — the tour was their first since 2005 . The band initially toured with the Mayhem Festival across the United States , through August 16 , 2008 . Afterward , Slipknot was scheduled to appear at the Reading and Leeds Festivals in England , the Two Days a Week Festival in Austria , and the Area4 Festival in Germany . However , the European tour dates were canceled due to Jordison breaking his ankle . Slipknot performed at the Rock on the Range Festival on May 16 and 17 , 2009 then headlined the Download Festival in England during the summer , the first time they had headlined the festival .
= = Style and themes = =
Musically , the album sees the band moving away from nu metal and focusing on a more standard metal sound , featuring additional elements of groove metal , death metal and thrash metal . Prior to the album 's release , Slipknot 's members displayed interest in making All Hope Is Gone their heaviest album , which Joey Jordison affirmed saying , " It 's going to be heavier than Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) , but just as weird and as experimental . " Corey Taylor reiterated this , describing All Hope Is Gone as a " very dark " combination of the band 's two previous studio albums , Iowa and Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) . In All Hope Is Gone , Slipknot expands on their use of traditional song structures , acoustics , and solos that they introduced on their previous album Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) . The song " Snuff " is led by acoustic guitars and has been dubbed as Slipknot 's " attempt at a power ballad " , though it remains " dark and ominous " . In an interview with Artistdirect , Shawn Crahan stated , " Everyone can feel the pain that 's in there . It 's not forced upon you . You have it in there innately . " Slipknot also retained a metal edge reminiscent of their earlier work . Stephen Erlewine of Allmusic wrote " Gematria ( The Killing Name ) " goes from " a cluster of cacophony " to " an onslaught of densely dark intricate riffs " . Crahan compared it to the song " ( sic ) " from their debut album , explaining , " The technique and the style are very reminiscent of the old , brutal shit that we 've done . " Jim Kaz of IGN stated that the " swaggering , cock @-@ rock groove and an anthemic chorus " of " Psychosocial " gives Slipknot the potential to reach out to new fans " without sacrificing a lick of intensity " . Crahan stated he " loves " his parts of " Psychosocial " , in which the band incorporates snare drums , reminiscent of " Before I Forget " . He also cited " This Cold Black " as one of his favorite songs , saying that it has a " driving tempo and a lot of attitude " . The track " Gehenna " incorporates elements of Slipknot 's slower , more cerebral edge reminiscent of " Prosthetics " and " Purity " from their debut album , and " Skin Ticket " from Iowa . Crahan called it a " trippy song " , explaining , " It 's just somewhere we go . "
Corey Taylor explained that the phrase " All Hope Is Gone " is aimed at the fans ' expectations of the band , further elaborating , " Just when you thought you had us figured out , give up all hope because you 're never , ever going to . " Throughout the album , Taylor incorporates a focus on politics in his lyrics , compared to Slipknot 's previous albums . The opening track , " .execute. " , features Taylor 's response to former United States Vice President Spiro Agnew ’ s speech targeted at Vietnam War protesters. and the second track " Gematria ( The Killing Name ) " follows in the same vein . During an interview with Kerrang ! , Taylor discussed the song 's lyrical content , explaining , " There are a lot of people who are disguising politics as religion and dictating taste and turning it into policy . And that hurts me . " Reviewing for IGN , Jim Kaz said that lyrically , " Gematria ( The Killing Name ) " gives the listener a " heaping dose of Corey Taylor 's caustic bravado " . On the track " Wherein Lies Continue " , Taylor offers a " dressing down of the world as we know it " , explaining , " It kinda goes up against any civilization that takes themselves way too seriously and where the ' leaders ' are so pretentious that they think they are deemed to speak for the people . " He also proclaimed , " It wouldn 't be a Slipknot album if I didn 't rag on the recording industry . " On " Butcher 's Hook " , Taylor specifically targets " all those little emo boys " , commenting , " People give us shit for wearing outfits , but all of
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The Nîmes aqueduct was built to channel water from the springs of the Fontaine d 'Eure near Uzès to the castellum divisorum ( repartition basin ) in Nemausus . From there , it was distributed to fountains , baths and private homes around the city . The straight @-@ line distance between the two is only about 20 km ( 12 mi ) but the aqueduct takes a winding route measuring around 50 km ( 31 mi ) . This was necessary to circumvent the southernmost foothills of the Massif Central , known as the Garrigues de Nîmes . They are difficult to cross , as they are covered in dense vegetation and garrigue and indented by deep valleys . It was impractical for the Romans to attempt to tunnel through the hills , as it would have required a tunnel of between 8 and 10 kilometres ( 5 and 6 mi ) , depending on the starting point . A roughly V @-@ shaped course around the eastern end of the Garrigues de Nîmes was therefore the only practical way of transporting the water from the spring to the city .
The Fontaine d 'Eure , at 76 m ( 249 ft ) above sea level , is only 17 m ( 56 ft ) higher than the repartition basin in Nîmes , but this provided a sufficient gradient to sustain a steady flow of water to the 50 @,@ 000 inhabitants of the Roman city . The aqueduct 's average gradient is only 1 in 3 @,@ 000 . It varies widely along its course , but is as little as 1 in 20 @,@ 000 in some sections . The Pont du Gard itself descends 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) in 456 m ( 1 @,@ 496 ft ) , a gradient of 1 in 18 @,@ 241 . The average gradient between the start and end of the aqueduct is far shallower than was usual for Roman aqueducts – only about a tenth of the average gradient of some of the aqueducts in Rome .
The reason for the disparity in gradients along the aqueduct 's route is that a uniform gradient would have meant that the Pont du Gard would have been infeasibly high , given the limitations of the technology of the time . By varying the gradient along the route , the aqueduct 's engineers were able to lower the height of the bridge by 6 metres ( 20 ft ) to 48 @.@ 77 metres ( 160 @.@ 0 ft ) above the river – still exceptionally high by Roman standards , but within acceptable limits . This height limit governed the profile and gradients of the entire aqueduct , but it came at the price of creating a " sag " in the middle of the aqueduct . The gradient profile before the Pont du Gard is relatively steep , descending at 0 @.@ 67 metres ( 2 ft 2 in ) per kilometre , but thereafter it descends by only 6 metres ( 20 ft ) over the remaining 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) . In one section , the winding route between the Pont du Gard and St Bonnet required an extraordinary degree of accuracy from the Roman engineers , who had to allow for a fall of only 7 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) per 100 metres ( 330 ft ) of the conduit .
It is estimated that the aqueduct supplied the city with around 200 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 44 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water a day that took nearly 27 hours to flow from the source to the city . The water arrived in the castellum divisorum at Nîmes – an open , shallow , circular basin 5 @.@ 5 m in diameter by 1 m deep . It would have been surrounded by a balustrade within some sort of enclosure , probably under some kind of small but elaborate pavilion . When it was excavated , traces of a tiled roof , Corinthian columns and a fresco decorated with fish and dolphins were discovered in a fragmentary condition . The aqueduct water entered through an opening 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 ft 11 in ) wide , and ten large holes in the facing wall , each 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) wide , directed the water into the city 's main water pipes . Three large drains were also located in the floor , possibly to enable the nearby amphitheatre to be flooded rapidly to enable naumachia ( mock naval battles ) to be held .
The spring still exists and is now the site of a small modern pumping station . Its water is pure but high in dissolved calcium carbonate leached out of the surrounding limestone . This presented the Romans with significant problems in maintaining the aqueduct , as the carbonates precipitated out of the water during its journey through the conduit . This caused the flow of the aqueduct to become progressively reduced by deposits of calcareous sinter . Another threat was posed by vegetation penetrating the stone lid of the channel . As well as obstructing the flow of the water , dangling roots introduced algae and bacteria that decomposed in a process called biolithogenesis , producing concretions within the conduit . It required constant maintenance by circitores , workers responsible for the aqueduct 's upkeep , who crawled along the conduit scrubbing the walls clean and removing any vegetation .
Much of the Nîmes aqueduct was built underground , as was typical of Roman aqueducts . It was constructed by digging a trench in which a stone channel was built and enclosed by an arched roof of stone slabs , which was then covered with earth . Some sections of the channel are tunnelled through solid rock . In all , 35 km ( 22 mi ) of the aqueduct was constructed below the ground . The remainder had to be carried on the surface through conduits set on a wall or on arched bridges . Some substantial remains of the above @-@ ground works can still be seen today , such as the so @-@ called " Pont Rue " that stretches for hundreds of metres around Vers and still stands up to 7 @.@ 5 m ( 25 ft ) high . Other surviving parts include the Pont de Bornègre , three arches carrying the aqueduct 17 m ( 56 ft ) across a stream ; the Pont de Sartanette , near the Pont du Gard , which covers 32 m ( 105 ft ) across a small valley ; and three sections of aqueduct tunnel near Sernhac , measuring up to 66 m ( 217 ft ) long . However , the Pont du Gard is by far the best preserved section of the entire aqueduct .
= = = Description of the bridge = = =
Built on three levels , the Pont is 49 m ( 161 ft ) high above the river at low water and 274 m ( 899 ft ) long . Its width varies from 9 m ( 30 ft ) at the bottom to 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) at the top . The three levels of arches are recessed , with the main piers in line one above another . The span of the arches varies slightly , as each was constructed independently to provide flexibility to protect against subsidence . Each level has a differing number of arches :
The first level of the Pont du Gard adjoins a road bridge that was added in the 18th century . The water conduit or specus , which is about 1 @.@ 8 m ( 6 ft ) high and 1 @.@ 2 m ( 4 ft ) wide , is carried at the top of the third level . The upper levels of the bridge are slightly curved in the upstream direction . It was long believed that the engineers had designed it this way deliberately to strengthen the bridge 's structure against the flow of water , like a dam wall . However , a microtopographic survey carried out in 1989 showed that the bend is caused by the stone expanding and contracting by about 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) a day under the heat of the sun . Over the centuries , this process has produced the current deformation .
The Pont du Gard was constructed largely without the use of mortar or clamps . It contains an estimated 50 @,@ 400 tons of limestone with a volume of some 21 @,@ 000 m3 ( 740 @,@ 000 cu ft ) ; some of the individual blocks weigh up to 6 tons . Most of the stone was extracted from the local quarry of Estel located approximately 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) downstream , on the banks of the Gardon River . The coarse @-@ grained soft reddish shelly limestone , known locally as " Pierre de Vers " , lends itself very well to dimension stone production . The blocks were precisely cut to fit perfectly together by friction alone , eliminating the need for mortar . The builders also left inscriptions on the stonework conveying various messages and instructions . Many blocks were numbered and inscribed with the required locations , such as fronte dextra or fronte sinistra ( front right or front left ) , to guide the builders .
The method of construction is fairly well understood by historians . The patron of the aqueduct – a rich individual or the city of Nîmes itself – would have hired a large team of contractors and skilled labourers . A surveyor or mensor planned the route using a groma for sighting , the chorobates for levelling , and a set of measuring poles five or ten Roman feet long . His figures and perhaps diagrams were recorded on wax tablets , later to be written up on scrolls . The builders may have used templates to guide them with tasks that required a high degree of precision , such as carving the standardised blocks from which the water conduit was constructed .
The builders would have made extensive use of cranes and block and tackle pulleys to lift the stones into place . Much of the work could have been done using simple sheers operated by a windlass . For the largest blocks , a massive human @-@ powered treadmill would have been used ; such machines were still being used in the quarries of Provence until as late as the start of the 20th century . A complex scaffold was erected to support the bridge as it was being built . Large blocks were left protruding from the bridge to support the frames and scaffolds used during construction . The aqueduct as a whole would have been a very expensive undertaking ; Émile Espérandieu estimated the cost to be over 30 million sesterces , equivalent to 50 years ' pay for 500 new recruits in a Roman legion .
Although the exterior of the Pont du Gard is rough and relatively unfinished , the builders took care to ensure that the interior of the water conduit was as smooth as possible so that the flow of water would not be obstructed . The walls of the conduit were constructed from dressed masonry and the floor from concrete . Both were covered with a stucco incorporating minute shards of pottery and tile . It was painted with olive oil and covered with maltha , a mixture of slaked lime , pork grease and the viscous juice of unripe figs . This produced a surface that was both smooth and durable .
Although the Pont du Gard is renowned for its appearance , its design is not optimal as the technique of stacking arches on top of each other is clumsy and inefficient ( and therefore expensive ) in the amount of materials it requires . Later aqueducts had a more sophisticated design , making greater use of concrete to reduce their volume and cost of construction . The Aqueduct bridge of Segovia and the Pont de les Ferreres are of roughly similar length but use far fewer arches . Roman architects were eventually able to do away with " stacking " altogether . The Acueducto de los Milagros in Mérida , Spain and the Chabet Ilelouine aqueduct bridge , near Cherchell , Algeria utilise tall , slender piers , constructed from top to bottom with concrete @-@ faced masonry and brick .
= = History = =
The construction of the aqueduct has long been credited to Augustus ' son @-@ in @-@ law and aide , Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , around the year 19 BC . At the time , he was serving as aedile , the senior magistrate responsible for managing the water supply of Rome and its colonies . Espérandieu , writing in 1926 , linked the construction of the aqueduct with Agrippa 's visit to Narbonensis in that year . Newer excavations suggest the construction may have taken place between 40 and 60 AD . Tunnels dating from the time of Augustus had to be bypassed by the builders of the Nîmes aqueduct , and coins discovered in the outflow in Nîmes are no older than the reign of the emperor Claudius ( 41 – 54 AD ) . On this basis , a team led by Guilhem Fabre has argued that the aqueduct must have been completed around the middle of the 1st century AD . It is believed to have taken about fifteen years to build , employing between 800 and 1 @,@ 000 workers .
From the 4th century onwards , the aqueduct 's maintenance was neglected as successive waves of invaders disrupted the region . It became clogged with debris , encrustations and plant roots , greatly reducing the flow of the water . The resulting deposits in the conduit , consisting of layers of dirt and organic material , are up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) thick on each wall . An analysis of the deposits originally suggested that it had continued to supply water to Nîmes until as late as the 9th century , but more recent investigations suggest that it had gone out of use by about the sixth century , though parts of it may have continued to be used for significantly longer .
Although some of its stones were plundered for use elsewhere , the Pont du Gard remained largely intact . Its survival was due to its use as a toll bridge across the valley . In the 13th century the French king granted the seigneurs of Uzès the right to levy tolls on those using the bridge . The right later passed to the Bishops of Uzès . In return , they were responsible for maintaining the bridge in good repair . However , it suffered serious damage during the 1620s when Henri , Duke of Rohan made use of the bridge to transport his artillery during the wars between the French royalists and the Huguenots , whom he led . To make space for his artillery to cross the bridge , the duke had one side of the second row of arches cut away to a depth of about one @-@ third of their original thickness . This left a gap on the lowest deck wide enough to accommodate carts and cannons , but severely weakened the bridge in the process .
In 1703 the local authorities renovated the Pont du Gard to repair cracks , fill in ruts and replace the stones lost in the previous century . A new bridge was built by the engineer Henri Pitot in 1743 – 47 next to the arches of the lower level , so that the road traffic could cross on a purpose @-@ built bridge . The novelist Alexandre Dumas was strongly critical of the construction of the new bridge , commenting that " it was reserved for the eighteenth century to dishonour a monument which the barbarians of the fifth had not dared to destroy . " The Pont du Gard continued to deteriorate and by the time Prosper Mérimée saw it in 1835 it was at serious risk of collapse from erosion and the loss of stonework .
Napoleon III , who had a great admiration for all things Roman , visited the Pont du Gard in 1850 and took a close interest in it . He approved plans by the architect Charles Laisné to repair the bridge in a project which was carried out between 1855 – 58 , with funding provided by the Ministry of State . The work involved substantial renovations that included replacing the eroded stone , infilling some of the piers with concrete to aid stability and improving drainage by separating the bridge from the aqueduct . Stairs were installed at one end and the conduit walls were repaired , allowing visitors to walk along the conduit itself in reasonable safety .
There have been a number of subsequent projects to consolidate the piers and arches of the Pont du Gard . It has survived three serious floods over the last century ; in 1958 the whole of the lower tier was submerged by a giant flood that washed away other bridges , and in 1998 another major flood affected the area . A further flood struck in 2002 , badly damaging nearby installations .
The Pont du Gard was added to UNESCO 's list of World Heritage Sites in 1985 on the criteria of " Human creative genius ; testimony to cultural tradition ; significance to human history " . The description on the list states : " The hydraulic engineers and ... architects who conceived this bridge created a technical as well as artistic masterpiece . "
= = Tourism = =
The Pont du Gard has been a tourist attraction for centuries . The outstanding quality of the bridge 's masonry led to it becoming an obligatory stop for French journeymen masons on their traditional tour around the country ( see Compagnons du Tour de France ) , many of whom have left their names on the stonework . From the 18th century onwards , particularly after the construction of the new road bridge , it became a famous staging @-@ post for travellers on the Grand Tour and became increasingly renowned as an object of historical importance and French national pride .
The bridge has had a long association with French monarchs seeking to associate themselves with a symbol of Roman imperial power . King Charles IX of France visited in 1564 during his Grand Tour of France and was greeted with a grand entertainment laid on by the Duc d 'Uzès . Twelve young girls dressed as nymphs came out of a cave by the riverside near the aqueduct and presented the king with pastry and preserved fruits . A century later , Louis XIV and his court visited the Pont du Gard during a visit to Nîmes in January 1660 shortly after the signature of the Treaty of the Pyrenees . In 1786 his great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandson Louis XVI commissioned the artist Hubert Robert to produce a set of paintings of Roman ruins of southern France to hang in the king 's new dining room at the Palace of Fontainebleau , including a picture depicting the Pont du Gard in an idealised landscape . The commission was meant to reassert the ties between the French monarchy and the imperial past . Napoleon III , in the mid @-@ 19th century , consciously identified with the Roman emperor Augustus and accorded great respect to Roman antiquities ; his patronage of the bridge 's restoration in the 1850s was essential to its survival .
By the 1990s the Pont du Gard had become a hugely popular tourist attraction but was congested with traffic – vehicles were still allowed to drive over the 1743 road bridge – and was cluttered with illegally built structures and tourist shops lining the river banks . As the architect Jean @-@ Paul Viguier put it , the " appetite for gain " had transformed the Pont du Gard into " a fairground attraction " . In 1996 the General Council of the Gard département began a major four @-@ year project to improve the area , sponsored by the French government , in conjunction with local sources , UNESCO and the EU . The entire area around the bridge was pedestrianised and a new visitor centre was built on the north bank to a design by Jean @-@ Paul Viguier . The redevelopment has ensured that the area around the Pont du Gard is now much quieter due to the removal of vehicle traffic , and the new museum provides a much improved historical context for visitors . The Pont du Gard is today one of France 's top five tourist attractions , with 1 @.@ 4 million visitors reported in 2001 .
= = = Literary visitors = = =
Since it became a tourist destination , many novelists and writers have visited the Pont du Gard and written of the experience . Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau was overwhelmed when he first visited it in 1738 :
I had been told to go and see the Pont du Gard ; I did not fail to do so . It was the first work of the Romans that I had seen . I expected to see a monument worthy of the hands which had constructed it . This time the object surpassed my expectation , for the only time in my life . Only the Romans could have produced such an effect . The sight of this simple and noble work struck me all the more since it is in the middle of a wilderness where silence and solitude render the object more striking and the admiration more lively ; for this so @-@ called bridge was only an aqueduct . One asks oneself what force has transported these enormous stones so far from any quarry , and what brought together the arms of so many thousands of men in a place where none of them live . I wandered about the three storeys of this superb edifice although my respect for it almost kept me from daring to trample it underfoot . The echo of my footsteps under these immense vaults made me imagine that I heard the strong voices of those who had built them . I felt myself lost like an insect in that immensity . While making myself small , I felt an indefinable something that raised up my soul , and I said to myself with a sigh , " Why was I not born a Roman ! "
The novelist Henry James , visiting in 1884 , was similarly impressed ; he described the Pont du Gard as " unspeakably imposing , and nothing could well be more Roman . " He commented :
The hugeness , the solidity , the unexpectedness , the monumental rectitude of the whole thing leave you nothing to say – at the time – and make you stand gazing . You simply feel that it is noble and perfect , that it has the quality of greatness ... When the vague twilight began to gather , the lonely valley seemed to fill itself with the shadow of the Roman name , as if the mighty empire were still as erect as the supports of the aqueduct ; and it was open to a solitary tourist , sitting there sentimental , to believe that no people has ever been , or will ever be , as great as that , measured , as we measure the greatness of an individual , by the push they gave to what they undertook . The Pont du Gard is one of the three or four deepest impressions they have left ; it speaks of them in a manner with which they might have been satisfied .
The mid @-@ 19th @-@ century writer Joseph Méry wrote in his 1853 book Les Nuits italiennes , contes nocturnes that on seeing the Pont du Gard :
[ O ] ne is struck dumb with astonishment ; you are walking in a desert where nothing reminds you of man ; cultivation has disappeared ; there are ravines , heaths , blocks of rock , clusters of rushes , oaks , massed together , a stream which flows by a melancholy strand , wild mountains , a silence like that of Thebaid , and in the midst of this landscape springs up the most magnificent object that civilization has created for the glory of the fine arts .
Hilaire Belloc wrote in 1928 that :
[ W ] hen one sees the thing all that is said of it comes true . Its isolation , its dignity , its weight , are all three awful . It looks as though it had been built long before all record by beings greater than ourselves , and were intended to stand long after the dissolution of our petty race . One can repose in it . I confess to a great reluctance to praise what has been praised too much ; but so it is . A man , suffering from the unrest of our time , might do worse than camp out for three days , fishing and bathing under the shadow of the Pont du Gard .
= Potcake dog =
The potcake dog is a mixed @-@ breed dog type found on several Caribbean islands . Its name comes from the congealed rice and pea mixture that local residents traditionally fed dogs . Although appearance varies , potcake dogs generally have smooth coats , cocked ears , and long faces .
= = History = =
Dogs on various Caribbean islands share a common ancestry ; many residents of Turks and Caicos were originally from nearby islands and took their dogs with them . Three types may have contributed to development : dogs the Arawak brought with them to the Bahamas ; terriers protecting supplies from rodents on ships that arrived in Eleuthera , New Providence , and the Abaco Islands ; and dogs from North Carolina that arrived with Loyalists during the American Revolutionary War period . It is also likely that the early Spanish settlers may have introduced their own dogs . As these could have included fighting dogs , the Arawak dogs may have been killed off . In addition , many breeds were imported in the 20th century which interbred with the local dogs , so making the mix of breeds in the potcake dynamic . DNA studies have shown no residue of early dog DNA in today 's potcakes . Any such remaining DNA has become inconsequential due to the constant imports of dogs with the arrival of colonizers .
The type 's name is derived from the term " potcake " , which refers to the congealed rice mixture at the bottom of the family cooking pot that Bahamians have traditionally fed dogs In Nassau alone , there are an estimated 5 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 stray potcakes . In the late 1970s , The Bahamas named the type the " Royal Bahamian Potcake " . As of February 2011 , the Bahamas Kennel Club lists it separately from the mixed @-@ breed dog within Group 9 – Non @-@ Registered .
= = Description = =
= = = Appearance = = =
Although described as having a " shepherd @-@ mix " look , the potcake dog 's appearance varies by island . It may resemble a typical pariah dog or have hound , mastiff , spaniel , terrier , or retriever characteristics . The type typically has cocked ears , a long face , and a smooth coat without undercoat , or less commonly , a " shaggy " or rough coat . As a result of their mixed heritage , potcakes vary widely in terms of color , with many being brown , white , black , and far more with mixed coats . On average , a potcake dog will stand approximately 24 inches ( 61 cm ) at the withers . Healthy dogs typically weigh from 45 to 50 pounds ( 20 to 23 kg ) , while strays may weigh only 25 pounds ( 11 kg ) .
According to Jane Parker @-@ Rauw , potcake dogs are intelligent , loyal , calm , and hardy . Unlike many dog breeds , potcakes are able to eat many foods that would be upsetting to most dogs . Their stomachs are incredibly hardy , . However , they tend to wander if not properly confined or supervised .
= = Overpopulation and rescue efforts = =
The number of stray potcake dogs on the Turks and Caicos Islands has apparently increased , despite spay @-@ and @-@ neuter programmes designed to minimise their numbers . Because the territory is dependent on tourism , officials consider the dogs nuisances , and police have shot and poisoned them . Strays have a median age of three years In the Bahamas , misconceptions about spaying and neutering dissuade residents from altering their pets . According to The Bahamas Advocates for Animal Rights group , there are 11 @,@ 000 unowned dogs in New Providence . Forty five percent of tourists report seeing roaming dogs , and two percent state they were " scared " by their presence .
Local organisations adopt out stray potcake dogs to alleviate the overpopulation problem . In 2005 , Turks and Caicos @-@ based rescue organisation Potcake Place became a registered charity . After running out of families to adopt to on Providenciales , volunteers connected with potential adopters through the rescue 's website www.potcakeplace.com and Facebook page . Puppies are vaccinated and sent on airlifts free of charge to adopters . Additionally , several no @-@ kill United States shelters accept potcake puppies . The Humane Society of Grand Bahama , located in Freeport , ships them to Florida on ferries .
Additional rescue programs exist in Puerto Rico and St. Croix .
= = Notable dogs = =
A potcake dog named Amigo is the mascot of the Humane Society of Grand Bahama and the BEKIND Campaign , a collaboration with the HSUS to bring greater attention to animal welfare issues . He was also an Ambassador of Hope for homeless animals until his death due to cancer in 2007 . Amigo has appeared on MSNBC , Fox News , and CNN , and received the Ambassador of Goodwill and Hollywood Life Breakthrough of the Year 2007 awards . In 2009 , he was one of four potcake dogs honoured in a series of commemorative stamps .
Potcake dogs Daisy and Dusty , born in Providenciales and owned by Andy LoCascio , are trained to locate fish through scent on the water and distant cries of feeding sea birds . They have been featured on television and in magazines , including Northeast Boating Magazine .
= The X @-@ Files ( season 8 ) =
The eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files commenced airing in the United States on November 5 , 2000 , concluded on May 20 , 2001 , and consisted of twenty @-@ one episodes . Season eight takes place after Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) alien abduction in the seventh season . The story arc for the search of Mulder continues until the second half of the season , while a new arc about Dana Scully 's ( Gillian Anderson ) pregnancy is formed . This arc would continue , and end , with the next season . The season explores various themes such as life , death , and belief .
For this season , Duchovny elected to return only as an intermittent main character , appearing in only half of the episodes . Actor Robert Patrick was hired as a replacement for Mulder , playing John Doggett . The season also marked the first appearance of Annabeth Gish as Monica Reyes , who would become a main character in the ninth season . In addition to the cast change , series creator Chris Carter updated the opening credits , which had remained unchanged since the first season .
Season eight was received well by critics but was less warmly received by fans , many of whom were unhappy that Duchovny reduced his role and that Patrick took over as co @-@ lead alongside Anderson . Ratings for the season were initially strong , but it eventually averaged a total of 13 @.@ 53 million viewers , down from the seventh season 's 14 @.@ 2 million . Concurrent with the airing of this season , Carter and The X @-@ Files production team created and aired a short @-@ lived spinoff titled The Lone Gunmen .
= = Plot overview = =
At the end of the seventh season finale , " Requiem " , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) was abducted by aliens . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) meets Special Agent John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , the leader of an FBI taskforce organized to conduct a search for Mulder . Although the search ultimately proves unsuccessful , Doggett is assigned to the X @-@ Files and works with Scully to look for explanations to several cases . When Scully learns that several women have reportedly been abducted and impregnated with alien babies , she begins to question her own pregnancy and fears for her unborn child .
Doggett introduces Scully to Special Agent Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , an FBI specialist in ritualistic crime , shortly before Mulder 's deceased body suddenly appears in a forest at night . Following Mulder 's funeral , Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) is threatened by Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) that he must kill Scully 's baby before it is born . Billy Miles ( Zachary Ansley ) , a multiple abductee who disappeared on the same night as Mulder , is returned deceased but his dead body is resurrected and restored to full health . Mulder also returns from death , with Scully supervising his recovery . Fully rejuvenated , Mulder investigates several X @-@ Files , against orders to do so , but soon gets fired , leaving Doggett in charge of the cases . Mulder continues to provide input in an unofficial capacity .
Reluctantly accepting Krycek 's assistance , Mulder , Doggett and Skinner learn that an alien virus recently created in secret by members of the United States government has replaced several humans , including Miles and several high @-@ ranking FBI personnel , with so @-@ called alien " Super Soldiers " . Krycek claims that the soldiers are virtually unstoppable aliens who want to make sure that humans will not survive the colonisation of Earth . They have learned that Scully 's baby is a miraculously special child and are afraid that it may be greater than them . They have only recently learned of the baby 's importance , which is why Krycek told Skinner to kill the unborn child earlier . When Miles arrives at the FBI Headquarters , Mulder , Doggett , Skinner and Krycek help Scully to escape along with Reyes who drives her to a remote farm . Shortly after Skinner kills Krycek , Scully delivers an apparently normal baby while the alien super soldiers surround her . Without explanation , the aliens leave the area as Mulder arrives . While Doggett and Reyes report to the FBI Headquarters , Mulder takes Scully and their newborn son , William , back to her apartment .
= = = Themes = = =
The eighth season of The X @-@ Files takes place in a science fiction environment and employs the common science fiction concepts of strongly differentiated characters fighting an unequivocally evil enemy , in this case , the alien Colonists . The first episode of the season , " Within " explores " loss " , " loneliness " and " pain " after the disappearance of Mulder . " Per Manum " included basic themes common in the series , such as " dark , foreboding terror " , an " overriding sense of paranoia " , and " the fear of the unknown " , among others . Later on , death and resurrection emerged as a major sub @-@ theme during the season , starting with " The Gift " , wherein John Doggett is killed and resurrected , and later in " Deadalive " when Mulder is brought back to life after apparently being dead for three months . This sub @-@ theme would continue well into the ninth season . The main story arc of the season dealt with the idea that , at times , humanity is a greater danger to itself . This theme is made manifest by the Syndicate and the human conspiracy with the aliens .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The series ' original title sequence , crafted in 1993 during the show 's first season had remained unchanged for seven seasons . With the partial loss of Duchovny after the seventh season finale , the decision was made to update the credits , which were first featured in the premiere episode of season eight , " Within " . The opening sequence now included new images , updated FBI badge photos for Duchovny and Anderson , and the addition of Patrick to the main cast . Duchovny 's badge features in the opening credits only when he appears in an episode . The opening contains images of Scully 's pregnancy and , according to Frank Spotnitz , shows an " abstract " explanation for Mulder 's absence in this season , with him falling into an eye .
After the partial departure of Duchovny , Carter decided to focus almost solely on the character of Doggett during the first half of the season . This led to some unhappiness from the cast and critics , most notably Duch
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a lava fountain that sends globs of lava 100 m ( 330 ft ) into the air . This is similar to those that occur in Hawaii . Hickson said that a Nazko eruption could be a tourist attraction , but warned that noxious gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide would be released during the event .
= = Preparedness and hazards = =
Because no seismographs were close enough to the Nazko swarm zone before the earthquakes began , employees of Natural Resources Canada placed seismographs in the area to monitor future earthquakes in the area more clearly . An infrasound station is also being established , which is able to measure sound waves that would normally go unnoticed by human hearing . These stations can detect volcanic eruptions and the release of gas at volcanic vents , and can be used in combination with other geophysical data to monitor fluid flow within volcanoes . Employees of Natural Resources Canada have also visited two communities that were adjacent to the 2007 – 2008 earthquake swarm to renew information about the Nazko swarm , collect samples , and examine some of the more poorly studied volcanic deposits in the Nazko region . The Natural Resources Canada employees also measured carbon dioxide levels during the earthquake swarm . Carbon dioxide is usually discharged at faults in volcanically active areas and can collect in soil and under snow . Because of this , carbon dioxide concentrations can provide information on volcanic activity in the subsurface . The Nazko swarm did not cause any discernible discharge of carbon dioxide , which is normal for non @-@ eruptive events .
The 2007 – 2008 Nazko earthquake swarm is one of numerous seismic events that have occurred near volcanoes in British Columbia . Volcanoes that have experienced volcanic earthquakes include Mount Meager ( seventeen events ) , Mount Cayley ( four events ) , Mount Garibaldi ( three events ) , Silverthrone Caldera ( two events ) , Castle Rock ( two events ) , Hoodoo Mountain ( eight events ) , Crow Lagoon ( four events ) , The Volcano ( five events ) , and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex ( eight events ) . Seismic data suggest that these volcanoes still contain active magma chambers , indicating possible future eruptive activity . Although the available data do not allow a clear conclusion , these observations are indications that some of Canada 's volcanoes may be active , with significant potential dangers . This seismic activity correlates both with some of Canada 's most youthful volcanoes and with long @-@ lived volcanoes with a history of significant explosive activity , such as Hoodoo Mountain and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex .
If magma were to rise towards the surface of Nazko , new earthquake swarms would occur , with a significant increase in the size and number of earthquakes . An eruption in the Nazko area would probably create a small cinder cone , similar to what formed Nazko Cone 7 @,@ 200 years ago . Immediate hazards related to cinder cone eruptions in the Nazko area would probably be forest fires and , if an eruption column were produced , redirection of nearby air traffic .
= The City ( 2008 TV series ) =
The City is an American reality television series that originally aired on MTV from December 29 , 2008 , until July 13 , 2010 . Developed as the spin @-@ off of The Hills , the series aired two seasons and focused on the personal and professional lives of several young women residing in New York City , New York . Its premise was conceived by Adam DiVello , while Liz Gateley and Sean Travis served as executive producers .
The series originally focused on Whitney Port , who appeared in its predecessor , as she began employment with Diane von Fürstenberg . It additionally placed emphasis on her workplace rival Olivia Palermo , Port 's boyfriend Jay Lyon , his roommate Adam Senn , and her friend Erin Lucas . The latter three were replaced by Port 's roommate Roxy Olin and Palermo 's enemy Erin Kaplan for the second half of the first season .
The City received generally mixed reviews from critics , and proved less successful than The Hills . Like its predecessor , the series was often criticized for tending towards a narrative format more commonly seen in scripted genres including soap operas , and appearing to fabricate much of its storyline . The show has distributed all seasons to DVD .
= = Conception = =
In 2004 , the reality television series Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County premiered on MTV . The program was created by Liz Gateley and documented the lives of several students attending Laguna Beach High School as they completed secondary education . The series proved among the network 's most successful programming , though the entire original cast left after the second season and were replaced by another group of teenagers for the following season . Television producer Adam DiVello developed the spin @-@ off program The Hills to follow one of its predecessor 's original cast members Lauren Conrad as she moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the fashion industry . After The Hills itself became similarly successful , DiVello developed The City upon the conclusion of the parent series ' fourth season , which saw one of its primary cast members Whitney Port move to New York City to begin employment with Diane von Fürstenberg .
= = Series synopsis = =
= = = Overview and casting = = =
The City chronicles the lives of several young women living in New York City , New York . Every installment commences with a voice @-@ over narrative from series lead Whitney Port , foreshadowing the theme of the episode . Each season concludes with a finale , typically involving a major event such as a progressing relationship or the departure of a cast member . Most installments revolve around the women 's everyday lives , with the intention of balancing coverage of their personal and professional endeavors . The City : Live After Show was occasionally aired following the broadcast of an episode ; the program followed the The After Show format used by other MTV programs , including The Hills , where Jessi Cruickshank and Dan Levy served as hosts while the audience commented on the episode .
Throughout its run , the series was led by four ( season 2 ) and five ( season 1 ) primary cast members , who were credited by their first names . Its original main cast members were Port , Erin Lucas , Jay Lyon , Olivia Palermo , and Adam Senn . Lucas , Lyon , and Senn were replaced by Erin Kaplan and Roxy Olin beginning in the second half of the first season . The aforementioned women 's storylines were largely developed by a number of supporting cast members . Alexandra Crandell was credited as " Adam 's girlfriend " , while Samantha Swetra was labeled " Whitney 's friend " . Kelly Cutrone was featured the owner of the PR firm People 's Revolution and the employer of Port and Olin , while Joe Zee was credited as Palermo 's boss at Elle .
= = = Storylines = = =
In its series premiere , The City first introduces Whitney Port , who moved from Los Angeles , California to New York City , New York to begin employment for fashion designer Diane von Fürstenberg . She reunited with her friend Erin Lucas and love interest Jay Lyon , and befriended co @-@ worker Olivia Palermo against her companions ' advice . Port became irritated the feelings Lyon had for his ex @-@ girlfriend Danielle and his unwillingness to commit to a relationship , and eventually severed ties with him . Lyon 's distaste for his housemate Adam Senn 's girlfriend Allie Crandell ultimately ruined their friendship , while Senn and Crandell 's relationship was strained by rumors of his alleged infidelity . Lucas ' long @-@ distance boyfriend Duncan Davies , who lived in Toronto , Canada , broke up with Lucas after discovering that she had become friendly with her ex @-@ boyfriend JR . Meanwhile , the companionship between Port and Palermo dissolved after growing tensions in the workplace .
Prior to production of the second half of the season , Lucas , Lyon , and Senn departed from the series . Port also left her position at Diane von Fürstenberg and resumed working at her previous employer Kelly Cutrone 's PR firm People 's Revolution . As the season resumed , Port 's friend Roxy Olin was introduced as a new main cast member , and was hired at People 's Revolution . Palermo had left Diane von Fürstenberg for a position with Elle , where she clashed with co @-@ worker and new main cast member Erin Kaplan . With Cutrone 's guidance , Port begins designing a fashion line , while Kaplan becomes increasingly displeased with Palermo 's under @-@ performance . Port also began dating friend Freddie Fackelmayer , but was dismayed to learn that he had a girlfriend . By the season finale , Port had presented the " Whitney Eve " lookbook to Bergdorf Goodman , and decided to further publicize her collection through a fashion show at Bryant Park .
In the beginning of the second season , Joe Zee attempted to salvage the relationship between Palermo and Kaplan by reassigning the former to work on Elle.com. However , the strategy proved unsuccessful as the women continue to clash with one another . Meanwhile , Olin begins a flirtatious friendship with photographer Zach Hyman . Cutrone cautions Port that Olin 's lack of professionalism and inexperience in the industry may damage Port 's reputation . However , Olin 's under @-@ performance ultimately strained their friendship , and culminated in Olin moving into an apartment with their friend Samantha Swetra . The season finale sees Palermo promoted as the new face of Elle.com after a successful business trip to Japan , while Port contemplates leaving People 's Revolution after she and Cutrone clash over the development of her fashion line .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The City received generally mixed reviews from critics . Melissa Camacho of Common Sense Media criticized the program for featuring a near @-@ identical plotline to its predecessor The Hills , where Lauren Conrad was similarly shown to pursue a career in the fashion industry while addressing difficulties among her friends . Ginia Bellefante from The New York Times suggested that the series was purposely produced sub @-@ par to its parent series , commenting that it " is not the advertisement for New York that The Hills , with its dreamily shot opening @-@ credit sequence , is for Los Angeles " . An editor from The Village Voice questioned if Port was interesting enough to lead her own spin @-@ off series , describing her personality as featuring " unavoidable , inexorable ordinariness " .
= = = Scripting allegations = = =
The City was often criticized for appearing to fabricate much of its storyline . In one instance , Diane von Fürstenberg workers were reportedly angered that Port " doesn 't really work " and was " hardly ever in the office " , elaborating that series producers would inhibit normal work operations by not allowing employees to move items in their offices . Freddie Fackelmayer , Port 's former love interest , commented that the network " never asked the cast to say or do anything " , though the editing that followed portrayed him as a " womanizing jerk " .
An additional source of suspicion arose in the second half of the first season , where Palermo allegedly purchased counterfeit accessories on Canal Street for a work assignment ; the non @-@ discreet nature of the transaction led to speculation that the scene was staged for the segment . In 2009 , Palermo commented that she was " disappointed " by the " villainous " manner in which she was portrayed on the program . She added that she was " super friendly " with Port at work , whereas the series depicted a more strained relationship . In 2012 , she added that her character was " not [ her ] at all " , further opining that her time on television was " ridiculous " .
= = = U.S. television ratings = = =
The series opening of The City premiered to 1 @.@ 6 million viewers , significantly less than the 2 @.@ 6 million viewers attracted by the fourth season finale of The Hills . The second half of the season premiered with 2 million viewers , a 43 % increase from its debut . The remainder of the season maintained an average 1 @.@ 9 million viewers , with the finale peaking at 2 @.@ 3 million . Upon the conclusion of the second season in July 2010 , rumors were widespread that The City would be cancelled . In October 2010 , Port commented that " it doesn 't really look like we 're doing it anymore " , with MTV later adding that the series would not be renewed for a third season .
= = Broadcast history and distribution = =
The City 's first season commenced airing on December 29 , 2008 , one week after the fourth season finale of The Hills . The series continued to air on Monday evenings until its midseason finale on March 16 , 2009 , at which point it had aired thirteen episodes . Rather than ordering an official second season , MTV included an additional ten episodes to the first season . The extension premiered on September 29 , 2009 , where it was moved to the Tuesday night timeslot , and concluded on December 1 , 2009 . The second season premiered on April 27 , 2010 , after the sixth season premiere of The Hills . Both programs held the Tuesday evening timeslot ; both concluded after twelve episodes on July 13 , 2010 .
The City episodes aired regularly on MTV in the United States . All episodes are approximately thirty minutes , and were broadcast in standard definition . The series ' episodes are also available for download at the iTunes Store . Episodes were previously available for viewing through the official MTV website , though they have since become unavailable since the series ' conclusion . Since its debut , Paramount Pictures has released both seasons of The City onto DVD , to regions 1 , 2 , and 4 . Each product includes all episodes of the respective season , in addition to deleted scenes and interviews of series personnel .
= Amanita onusta =
Amanita onusta , commonly known as the loaded Lepidella or the gunpowder Lepidella , is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family of mushrooms . It is characterized by its small to medium @-@ sized fruit bodies that have white to pale gray caps crowded with roughly conical , pyramidal , or irregular gray warts . The stipe is whitish @-@ gray with woolly or wart @-@ like veil remnants , and at the base is a spindle- or turnip @-@ shaped base that is rooted somewhat deeply in the soil . The species is distributed in eastern North America , from Nova Scotia to Mexico , and may be found growing on the ground in deciduous forests , particularly those with oak , hickory and chestnut . Fruit bodies smell somewhat like bleaching powder , and their edibility is unknown , but possibly toxic .
= = Taxonomy = =
Amanita onusta was first described in 1874 by American mycologist Elliot Calvin Howe as Agaricus onustus . Later , in 1891 , Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred the species to the genus Amanita . Amanita authority Cornelis Bas , writing in his extensive 1969 monograph on the genus , placed the species in his stirps Microlepis , subsection Solitariae , section Lepidellus . This grouping of Amanita mushroom species also includes A. abrupta , A. atkinsoniana , A. costaricensis ( a provisionally named species authored by Tulloss , Halling , & G.M. Muell . ) , A. nitida ( as Coker described the species ) and A. sphaerobulbosa .
The Latin epithet onustusa means " charged , load @-@ carrying , burdened " , and a regular adjective derived from onus , " burden " ( the same word that gave the English onus ) . A. onusta is commonly known as the " loaded Lepidella " , or the " gunpowder Lepidella " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Amanita onusta have caps that are initially broadly convex but flatten out as they mature , reaching diameters of 5 to 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) . The cap surface , grayish @-@ white in color , is ornamented with conical or pyramidal raised warts , or flattened , symmetrically arranged gray to brownish gray , grayish brown or grayish @-@ orange small scales ( squamules ) that are densely arranged over the surface .
The squamules are less crowded near the edge of the cap ( the margin ) . The margin does not have striations , and is typically fringed with remnants of the veil . The gills on the underside of the cap are spaced closely together , and either free or narrowly attached to the stipe . They are white to cream color , and are interspersed with short lamellulae ( gills that do not extend completely from cap margin to stipe ) . The gills may look as if they are waterlogged .
The stipe is 5 @.@ 5 to 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) long , 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and tapers slightly upwards . It is solid gray to brownish @-@ gray near base , paler towards the top , and appears cottony ( floccose ) or hairy ( fibrillose ) . The bulb at the base of the stipe is roughly spindle- to turnip @-@ shaped , and may root deeply into the soil , especially if the soil is loose . The short @-@ lived partial veil is white , and attached just below the top of the stipe . It is sticky and in maturity often clings to the upper part of the stipe , or may have some meagre remnants hanging from the cap margin . The universal veil remains are arranged in rows of warts and patches of gray to brownish @-@ gray small scales over the upper portion of the bulb ; below this , the color is a dirty white . The flesh is firm and white . Fruit bodies can range in smell from mild to " slightly unpleasant " . The odor has been described as resembling " chloride of lime " , a smell similar to some bathroom disinfectants containing bleach .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Viewed in deposit , such as with a spore print , the spores are white . Viewed with a microscope , the spores are broadly ellipsoid to elongate , transclucent , thin @-@ walled , amyloid , and have dimensions of 8 @.@ 3 – 11 @.@ 6 by 4 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 6 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are 38 – 46 by 9 – 11 µm , club @-@ shaped , mostly 4 @-@ spored but some are 2- or 3- spored , with clamps . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia found on the edge of a gill ) are 23 @.@ 3 – 31 @.@ 5 by 11 @.@ 6 – 15 @.@ 7 µm , ellipsoid , club- to pear @-@ shaped cells , partly in short rows . The cap cuticle is up to 168 µm thick , and consists of thin @-@ walled interwoven hyphae that are 2 – 5 @.@ 3 µm diameter , and gelatinized . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of this species — these are short branches connecting one cell to the previous cell to allow passage of the products of nuclear division .
= = = Edibility = = =
The edibility of A. onusta is unknown , but the mushroom has been described as " possibly poisonous " . In general , species of Amanita are best avoided for consumption because of the prevalence of toxic species in that genus .
= = = Similar species = = =
Amanita onusta may be confused with A. cinereoconia because of the similar gray powdery veil remnants on the cap surface . A. cinereoconia is distinguished from A. onusta by the absence of clamps , its powdery @-@ wooly to powdery @-@ warty cap , as well as the absence of warts or scales at the base of the stipe . A. cinereoconia also smells distinctly of chloride of lime . Another similar species is A. costaricensis , found only in Costa Rica . A. atkinsoniana , another North American species , has shorter warts that are spaced further apart than those of A. onusta , and the warts on the basal bulb are arranged in parallel rows .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Amanita onusta grows solitary or scattered on the ground in mixed oak , hickory and chestnut forests from southern New England to Texas . The species has a preference for sandy or loose soils . Its range extends north to Nova Scotia , Canada , and south to Mexico .
= = = Cited books = = =
Jenkins DB . ( 1986 ) . Amanita of North America . Eureka , California : Mad River Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 916422 @-@ 55 @-@ 4 .
= Divine Heresy =
Divine Heresy is an American technical death metal band formed by founder of Fear Factory guitarist Dino Cazares and Devolved drummer John Sankey . Although the band 's origins trace back to 2002 , Divine Heresy was officially formed in 2006 . The band currently consists of guitarist Cazares , former Vital Remains drummer and current World Under Blood drummer Tim Yeung , former Nile bassist Joe Payne and vocalist Travis Neal . Tommy " Vext " Cummings was fired from Divine Heresy following an onstage altercation on April 26 , 2008 . After holding auditions for a new frontman for the band , it was announced on August 14 that The Bereaved vocalist Travis Neal is to fill the position .
The band 's debut album Bleed the Fifth was released on August 28 , 2007 , and sold 2 @,@ 700 copies in its first week . Receiving generally positive reviews , Eduardo Rivadavia of Allmusic commented the album " strikes a near @-@ perfect balance between confirmation and innovation " , while Dom Lawson of Metal Hammer commented " All in all , the portly pioneer [ Cazares ] has hit the bull 's @-@ eye " .
= = History = =
= = = Formation ( 2002 – 2007 ) = = =
Following his departure from Fear Factory in 2002 , guitarist Dino Cazares was looking for a drummer that " fit in " with the band . First he tried drummers John Sankey from Devolved and Nicholas Barker from the bands Cradle of Filth and Dimmu Borgir . But both drummers had to return to their homelands of Australia and England respectively due to visa issues . He then met former Vital Remains drummer Tim Yeung . Cazares and Yeung recorded the material they wrote and sent tapes to Cummings for his vocal audition . Cazares comments " We heard passion and anger in his voice , which was something we wanted . It was also very aggressive . " Divine Heresy held auditions for a permanent bassist — Tony Campos of Static @-@ X played bass on three songs and Cazares acted as bassist on the remaining songs . Following unsuccessful auditions , Cazares was contacted by former Nile bassist Joe Payne . Cazares knew Joe Payne from seeing him play live with Nile . After auditioning Joe Payne joined Divine Heresy as the permanent bass guitarist .
= = = Bleed the Fifth ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = =
The band recorded its debut album , Bleed the Fifth in early 2007 with production duties handled by former Machine Head guitarist Logan Mader . The title of the album is a play on words , Cazares comments " You have the right to keep your mouth shut , but on this record we believe we ’ re saying a lot " . Cummings wrote the majority of the lyrics , which are about personal strifes and how people overcome them . Much of the lyrical content was influenced by the Book of Revelation , natural disasters , war , and terrorism . Cazares stated the album is a " big fuck you " to the people who want his projects to fail .
Released on August 28 , 2007 , in the United States , Bleed the Fifth sold 2 @,@ 700 copies in its first week . Dom Lawson of Metal Hammer summarized his review by saying " All in all , the portly pioneer has hit the bull 's @-@ eye and it 's going to be fascinating to see what happens next " , awarding an 8 out of a possible 10 . Eduardo Rivadavia of Allmusic felt the album " strikes a near @-@ perfect balance between confirmation ( reminding fans of Cazares ' abilities and unique vision ) and innovation ( he even plays a few guitar solos ! ) " . Scott Alisoglu of Blabbermouth.net summarized his review claiming the album is " one tough son of a bitch that may still have you humming melodies long after you 've ejected the disc . " Chad Bowar of About.com commented " Great musicianship , good songs and excellent production make this a very respectable debut . "
After recording was completed , Cazares announced the band signed a North American deal with Century Media Records , and a licensing deal with Roadrunner Records in Europe . His decision to choose Century Media was based on the creative freedom the label gave him , whereas Roadrunner would ask him to produce radio and commercial songs when he was in Fear Factory . However , Yeung claims Roadrunner were not interested and said he did not want to be on a label that is " sort of interested " .
= = = Departure of Tommy Vext ( 2008 ) = = =
Lead singer Tommy Vext left the band following an on @-@ stage altercation on April 26 , 2008 . Cause of the altercation remains controversial . According to Dino Cazares , Vext was fired because of a conflict during a live show . " We felt that he wanted to end the show early to go hang out at the New England Metal Fest , which we were supposed to be performing at the next day " coming up with all sorts of excuses to make this happen . The band continued to play after what Vext said was supposed to be the last song . Vext then began screaming at Dino and argued with him before he pushed Dino across the stage . Vext was kicked out of the band immediately . In a video interview Vext explained that he wanted to prevent ruining his voice for the next show by ending the set early because the PA system went out during the show .
In exclusive " Metal Injection " interview Tommy explained the real reasons behind his departure from the band :
I ’ ve been suffering the indignities of Dino ’ s massive ego for as long as I ’ ve worked with him , and unfortunately everything I ’ ve heard about him had eventually come to fruition , and he is exactly as he ’ s been portrayed as by his ex @-@ band members . And this happening now is the same reason why he ’ s not in Fear Factory anymore . It was a stepping stone in my life and I ’ m moving on .
= = = Bringer of Plagues and hiatus ( 2009 – 2015 ) = = =
Divine Heresy 's follow @-@ up to 2007 's Bleed the Fifth was the group 's first release with new vocalist Travis Neal , formerly of Pushed . He is also currently a member of the Swedish band The Bereaved and the band Hate Times Nine from San Diego / LA . The album , titled Bringer of Plagues , was released on July 28 release via Century Media Records . Dino co @-@ produced the album with the acclaimed producing team Dirty Icon ( Logan Mader and Lucas Banker ) .
As of November 25 , 2010 , Divine Heresy cannot be found on the Century Media Records website .
Dino has also given interviews that during breaks from the current Fear Factory tour , Dino and drummer Tim Yeung have started writing new material for the next Divine Heresy record .
On January 26 , 2011 , it was announced that bassist Joe Payne had left Divine Heresy . It is still unknown whether anybody has been found to replace him .
On 10 May 2011 , Dino announced via Divine Heresy 's Facebook page and through his own personal account that Divine Heresy are still together and that there will be a new album in 2012 . He also said that they were planning a tour along the US east coast . On August 17 , 2012 , guitarist Dino Cazares via Twitter commented on the status of Tim Yeung as a DH drummer :
On July 27 , 2015 , in an interview with MetalSucks , Cazares confirmed that he is the only remaining member of Divine Heresy and the band is currently inactive due to his commitments with Fear Factory .
= = Band members = =
= = = Current members = = =
Dino Cazares – guitars ( 2005 – present ) , bass ( 2007 )
= = = Former members = = =
Jose Maldanado – vocals ( 2005 )
John Sankey – drums ( 2005 )
Tim Yeung – drums ( 2006 – 2012 )
Tommy " Vext " Cummings – vocals ( 2006 – 2008 )
Joe Payne – bass , backing vocals ( 2007 – 2011 )
Travis Neal – vocals ( 2008 – 2013 )
= = = Live members = = =
Risha Eryavec – bass ( 2006 – 2007 )
Jake Veredika – vocals ( 2008 )
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Bleed the Fifth ( 2007 )
Bringer of Plagues ( 2009 )
= = Music videos = =
" Failed Creation " ( The only video with Tommy " Vext " Cummings )
" Bleed The Fifth " ( This track is on the first album with Tommy . However , due to his early departure before the video was complete , Travis Neal appeared instead and recorded his vocals over Tommy 's , marking his first appearance as their new vocalist )
" Facebreaker "
= Hilbert space =
The mathematical concept of a Hilbert space , named after David Hilbert , generalizes the notion of Euclidean space . It extends the methods of vector algebra and calculus from the two @-@ dimensional Euclidean plane and three @-@ dimensional space to spaces with any finite or infinite number of dimensions . A Hilbert space is an abstract vector space possessing the structure of an inner product that allows length and angle to be measured . Furthermore , Hilbert spaces are complete : there are enough limits in the space to allow the techniques of calculus to be used .
Hilbert spaces arise naturally and frequently in mathematics and physics , typically as infinite @-@ dimensional function spaces . The earliest Hilbert spaces were studied from this point of view in the first decade of the 20th century by David Hilbert , Erhard Schmidt , and Frigyes Riesz . They are indispensable tools in the theories of partial differential equations , quantum mechanics , Fourier analysis ( which includes applications to signal processing and heat transfer ) — and ergodic theory , which forms the mathematical underpinning of thermodynamics . John von Neumann coined the term Hilbert space for the abstract concept that underlies many of these diverse applications . The success of Hilbert space methods ushered in a very fruitful era for functional analysis . Apart from the classical Euclidean spaces , examples of Hilbert spaces include spaces of square @-@ integrable functions , spaces of sequences , Sobolev spaces consisting of generalized functions , and Hardy spaces of holomorphic functions .
Geometric intuition plays an important role in many aspects of Hilbert space theory . Exact analogs of the Pythagorean theorem and parallelogram law hold in a Hilbert space . At a deeper level , perpendicular projection onto a subspace ( the analog of " dropping the altitude " of a triangle ) plays a significant role in optimization problems and other aspects of the theory . An element of a Hilbert space can be uniquely specified by its coordinates with respect to a set of coordinate axes ( an orthonormal basis ) , in analogy with Cartesian coordinates in the plane . When that set of axes is countably infinite , this means that the Hilbert space can also usefully be thought of in terms of the space of infinite sequences that are square @-@ summable . The latter space is often in the older literature referred to as the Hilbert space . Linear operators on a Hilbert space are likewise fairly concrete objects : in good cases
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by Winthrop in 1642 . Bellingham 's defeat may have been caused in part by the scandalous impropriety surrounding his second marriage . A friend who was a guest in his house had been courting Penelope Pelham , a young woman of twenty . According to Winthrop , Bellingham , now 50 and a widower , won her heart , and , without waiting for the formalities of the banns of marriage , officiated at his own wedding . When the issue came before the colonial magistrates , Bellingham ( as the governor and chief magistrate ) refused to step down from the bench to face the charges , thus bringing the matter to a somewhat awkward end . Bellingham 's term in office was characterized by Winthrop as extremely difficult : " The General Court was full of uncomfortable agitations and contentions by reason of Bellingham 's unfriendliness to some other magistrates . He set himself in an opposite frame to them in all proceedings , which did much to retard business " .
In the 1640s constitutional issues concerning the power of the assistants arose . In a case involving an escaped pig , the assistants ruled in favor of a merchant who had allegedly taken a widow 's errant animal . She appealed to the general court , which ruled in her favor . The assistants then asserted their right to veto the general court 's decision , sparking the controversy . John Winthrop argued that the assistants , as experienced magistrates , must be able to check the democratic institution of the general court , because " a democracy is , amongst most civil nations , accounted the meanest and worst of all forms of government . " Bellingham was one of only two assistants ( the other was Richard Saltonstall ) who opposed the final decision that the assistants ' veto should stand . Bellingham and Saltonstall were often in a minority that opposed the more conservative views of Winthrop and Thomas Dudley . In 1648 Bellingham sat on a committee established to demonstrate that the colony 's legal codes were not " repugnant to the laws of England " , as called for by the colonial charter .
In 1650 , when Bellingham was an assistant , he concurred in the judicial decision banning William Pynchon 's The Meritorious Price of Our Redemption , which expressed views many Puritans considered heretical . Bellingham was again elected governor in 1654 , and again in May 1665 after the death of Governor John Endecott . He was thereafter annually re @-@ elected to the post until his death , ultimately serving a total of ten years as governor and thirteen as deputy governor . While he was deputy to Endecott in 1656 , a boat carrying several Quakers arrived in Boston . Since Endecott was in Salem at the time , Bellingham directed the government 's reaction to their arrival . Because Quakerism was anathema to the Puritans , the Quakers were confined to the ship , their belongings were searched , and books promoting their religion were destroyed . After five weeks of captivity , they were sent back to England . During Endecott 's administration the penalties for Quakers defying banishment from the colony were made progressively harsher , until they included the imposition of the death penalty for repeat offenders . Under these laws , four Quakers were put to death for returning to the colony after their banishment . Quaker historians have also been harsh in their assessments of Bellingham . After Massachusetts authorities agreed that the death penalty did not work ( it had long term negative consequences , feeding perceptions of Massachusetts intransigence ) , the law was modified to reduce the penalties to branding and whipping .
= = English Restoration = =
The 1640s and 1650s in England were a time of great turmoil . The English Civil War led to the establishment of the Commonwealth of England and eventually the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell . In this period , Massachusetts was generally sympathetic to Cromwell and the Parliamentary cause . With the restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 , all of the colonies , and Massachusetts in particular , came under his scrutiny . In 1661 he issued a mandamus forbidding further persecution of the Quakers . He also requested specific changes to be made to Massachusetts laws to increase suffrage and tolerance for other Protestant religious practices , actions that were resisted or ignored during the Endecott administration . Charles finally sent royal commissioners to New England in 1664 to enforce his demands , but Massachusetts , of all the New England colonies , was the most recalcitrant , refusing all of the substantive demands or enacting changes that only superficially addressed the issues .
The reaction by Charles to this was to issue an order in 1666 demanding that Bellingham , since he was then governor , and William Hathorne , the speaker of the general court , travel to England to answer for the colony 's behavior . The issue of how to answer this demand divided the colony , with petitions from a cross @-@ section of the colony 's population calling for the magistrates to obey the king 's demand . The debate also introduced a long @-@ term rift in the council of assistants between hardliners wanting to resist the king 's demands at all costs and moderates who thought the king 's demands should be accommodated . Bellingham sided with the hardliners and the decision was reached to send the king a letter . The letter questioned whether the request actually originated with the king , protested that the colony was loyal to him , and claimed the magistrates had already explained fully why they were unable to comply with the king 's demands . The magistrates further pacified the angered sovereign by sending over a ship full of masts as a gift ( New England was a valuable source of timber for the Royal Navy ) . Distracted by the war with the Dutch and domestic politics , Charles did not pursue the issue further until after Bellingham 's death , though for numerous reasons the Massachusetts Bay Colony charter was finally voided in 1684 .
= = Death and legacy = =
Richard Bellingham died on 7 December 1672 . He was the last surviving signer of the colonial charter , and was buried in Boston 's Granary Burying Ground . He was survived by his son Samuel from his first marriage and his second wife Penelope , who outlived him by 30 years . His landholdings at Winnessimmett became tied up in legal action lasting more than 100 years , and involved court and procedural decisions on both sides of the Atlantic to resolve . Under the terms of his will , some of his properties in Winnessimmett were set aside for religious uses . His son challenged the will , which was eventually set aside . The litigation continued , carried on by his heirs and succeeding owners and occupants of the properties , and was finally concluded in 1785 . The town of Bellingham , Massachusetts is named in his honor , and a number of features in Chelsea , including a square , a street , and a hill , bear the name Bellingham .
Bellingham was immortalized as a fictional character in Nathaniel Hawthorne 's The Scarlet Letter , as the brother of Ann Hibbins , a woman who was executed ( in real life in 1656 , as well as in the book ) for practicing witchcraft . There are apparently no contemporary references to Mrs. Hibbins as Bellingham 's sister — Hawthorne 's formation of this connection appears to be based on a footnote in James Savage 's 1825 edition of John Winthrop 's journals , and a genealogical tree of the Bellinghams published early in the 20th century does not mention her . However , Ann Hibbins ' second husband , William Hibbins , was first married to Richard Bellingham 's sister Hester but she died a year later and was buried in England . Bellingham also appears in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's The New England Tragedies , which fictionalizes events dealing with the Quakers .
= Raid on Batavia ( 1806 ) =
The Raid on Batavia of 27 November 1806 was an attempt by a large British naval force to destroy the Dutch squadron based on Java in the Dutch East Indies that posed a threat to British shipping in the Straits of Malacca . The British admiral in command of the eastern Indian Ocean , Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Edward Pellew , led a force of four ships of the line , two frigates and brig to the capital of Java at Batavia ( later renamed Djakarta ) , in search of the squadron , which was reported to consist of a number of Dutch ships of the line and several smaller vessels . However the largest Dutch ships had already sailed eastwards towards Griessie over a month earlier , and Pellew only discovered the frigate Phoenix and a number of smaller warships in the bay , all of which were driven ashore by their crews rather than engage Pellew 's force . The wrecks were subsequently burnt and Pellew , unaware of the whereabouts of the main Dutch squadron , returned to his base at Madras for the winter .
The raid was the third of series of actions intended to eliminate the threat posed to British trade routes by the Dutch squadron : at the Action of 26 July 1806 and the Action of 18 October 1806 , British frigates sent on reconnaissance missions to the region succeeded in attacking and capturing two Dutch frigates and a number of other vessels . The raid reduced the effectiveness of Batavia as a Dutch base , but the continued presence of the main Dutch squadron at Griessie concerned Pellew and he led a second operation the following year to complete his defeat of the Dutch . Three years later , with the French driven out of the western Indian Ocean , British forces in the region were strong enough to prepare an expeditionary force against the Dutch East Indies , which effectively ended the war in the east .
= = Background = =
In early 1806 , Pellew was relieved by the news that a large French squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Charles Linois had sailed out of the Indian Ocean and into the Atlantic . The departure of Linois after three years of operations in eastern waters freed Pellew 's small squadron based at Madras for operations against the Dutch East Indies . Pellew 's particular target was the island of Java , where the principal Dutch squadron and their base at Batavia were located . The Dutch Kingdom of Holland was a French client state under Emperor Napoleon 's brother Louis Bonaparte and Batavia had been used by Linois in his preparations for the Battle of Pulo Aura , in which a valuable British convoy came under attack , and its position close to the Straits of Malacca threatened British trade with China .
Pellew 's departure for the East Indies was delayed by the Vellore Mutiny in the spring , and instead he sent frigates to reconnoitre the situation of the Dutch forces in the region . In July , HMS Greyhound under Captain Edward Elphinstone cruised in the Molucca Islands and captured a Dutch convoy at the Action of 26 July 1806 off Celebes . Three months later another frigate , HMS Caroline under Captain Peter Rainier , cruised successfully in the Java Sea and managed to capture a Dutch frigate at the Action of 18 October 1806 from the entrance to Batavia harbour . Shortly before Rainier 's engagement , the principal ships of the Dutch squadron , the two ships of the line Pluto and Revolutie , had sailed westwards towards the port of Griessie , Rear @-@ Admiral Hartsinck seeking to divide his forces in preparation for the coming British attack to prevent their complete destruction .
Pellew sailed from Madras in the early autumn of 1806 , expecting the full Dutch squadron to be present and preparing accordingly with the ship of the line HMS Culloden under Captain Christopher Cole as his flagship , accompanied by HMS Powerful under Captain Robert Plampin , HMS Russell under Captain Thomas Gordon Caulfield and HMS Belliqueux under Captain George Byng . The ships of the line were accompanied
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by the frigate HMS Terpsichore under Captain Fleetwood Pellew , Admiral Pellew 's son , as well as the brig HMS Seaflower under Lieutenant William Fitzwilliam Owen .
= = Pellew 's attack = =
By 23 November , Pellew 's squadron was approaching the Sunda Strait from the southwest when he encountered the British frigate HMS Sir Francis Drake , which he attached to his force . Three days later , the squadron passed the port of Bantam and seized the Dutch East India Company brig Maria Wilhelmina , continuing on to Batavia during the night . At the approaches to the port , the squadron separated , with the frigates and brig passing between Onrust Island and the shore while the ships of the line took a longer route through deeper water . Although Terpsichore was able to surprise and capture the corvette William near Onrust Island , the main body of the squadron was spotted by Dutch lookouts from a distance , who initially mistook the approaching vessels for a French squadron . The Dutch officers , led by Captain Vander Sande on the frigate Phoenix , decided that resistance against such a large British squadron was useless : the only warships remaining in the harbour were the Phoenix and six small armed ships , none of which could contend with the approaching British force . In an effort to dissuade the British from pressing their attack , the Dutch captains all drove their vessels ashore , joined by the 22 merchant vessels that were anchored in the harbour .
Determined to prevent the Dutch from refloating the grounded ships , Admiral Pellew ordered landing parties to assemble in the boats of his squadron alongside Terpsichore . From there , under distant covering fire from the British frigates , Fleetwood Pellew led the boats against Phoenix , coming under fire from the grounded vessels and gun batteries ashore . Passing through the bombardment from the shoreline , Pellew 's men boarded Phoenix to find that the Dutch crew had just abandoned the vessel , scuttling the frigate as they departed . Although now useless as a ship , Phoenix 's guns were turned on the other beached vessels to cover the British boats as they spread out to board and burn them . This operation was followed by the destruction of 20 grounded merchant ships in the harbour , although two others were successfully refloated and captured . In a final act before withdrawing to the squadron offshore , Captain Pellew set fire to the wreck of Phoenix , burning the ship to the waterline . The entire operation was conducted under heavy fire from the shore , but British casualties were only one Royal Marine killed and three men wounded .
Without sufficient troops to attempt a landing at Batavia itself , Admiral Pellew withdrew from the harbour . Preparing his prizes for the return to Madras , he ordered all prisoners taken from the captured and burnt ships returned to shore under condition of parole . The captured William was found to be in such a poor state of repair that it was not worth keeping the corvette and Admiral Pellew ordered the ship burnt , noting in his official report that Lieutenant Owen , who as senior lieutenant would otherwise have been placed in command , should be recompensed with another command as reward for his services in the engagement . With his preparations complete , Pellew then ordered his squadron to disperse , Culloden sailing to Malacca .
= = Aftermath = =
The British raid on Batavia had destroyed 28 vessels . In addition to Phoenix , William and the merchant ships , Pellew 's squadron had burnt the 18 @-@ gun brigs Aventurier and Patriot , the 14 @-@ gun Zee @-@ Ploeg , the 10 @-@ gun Arnistein , the 8 @-@ gun Johanna Suzanna and the 6 @-@ gun Snelheid . Just three ships were captured : two merchant vessels and Maria Wilhelmina . The elimination of the smaller vessels of the Dutch squadron was an important victory for Pellew , leaving only the larger ships of the line at large . These ships were old and in poor condition , limiting the threat they posed to British trade routes . Nevertheless , Pellew returned to the Java Sea in 1807 in search of the warships , destroying them at the Raid on Griessie in November , a year after the success at Batavia . A lack of resources in the region and the threat posed by the French Indian Ocean island bases delayed larger scale British operations against the East Indies until 1810 , when a series of invasions rapidly eliminated the remaining Dutch presence in the Pacific .
= Buffalo Grove ambush =
The Buffalo Grove ambush was an ambush that occurred on May 19 , 1832 as part of the Black Hawk War . A six @-@ man detail carrying dispatches from United States Colonel James M. Strode at Galena , Illinois to General Henry Atkinson at Dixon 's Ferry was ambushed by Native Americans during the attack . William Durley was killed and buried near the site of the ambush . Durley 's remains were initially interred by the party that would become victims of the St. Vrain massacre . Two other men had bullet holes in their clothing , but were uninjured . In 1910 the Polo Historical Society moved Durley 's remains to a plot beneath a memorial they erected west of Polo , Illinois .
= = Background = =
As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between the Governor of Indiana Territory and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement , the Sauk and Fox tribes vacated their lands in Illinois and moved west of the Mississippi in 1828 . However , Sauk Chief Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty , claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted , nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands . Angered by the loss of his birthplace , between 1830 – 31 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River , but was persuaded to return west each time without bloodshed . In April 1832 , encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British , he again moved his so @-@ called " British Band " of around 1000 warriors and non @-@ combatants into Illinois . Finding no allies , he attempted to return to Iowa , but ensuing events led to the Battle of Stillman 's Run . A number of other engagements followed , and the state militias of Wisconsin and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk 's band . The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War .
= = Prelude = =
When the Black Hawk War began in the spring of 1832 , the settlers at Buffalo Grove were notified of Black Hawk 's victory at Stillman 's Run and ordered to leave the grove . Most of the settlers went to Peoria where they remained for the duration of the war . On May 19 , 1832 a small unit was detailed to carry dispatches from Colonel James M. Strode in Galena to General Henry Atkinson at Dixon 's Ferry ( present @-@ day Dixon , Illinois ) . The group of men , which included soldiers Fred Stahl , William Durley , Vincent Smith , Redding Bennett , James Smith , and mail contractor John D. Winters , left Dixon around 3 p.m. on May 19 .
= = Ambush = =
The Buffalo Grove ambush occurred near Buffalo Grove , Illinois , a small , unincorporated settlement in present @-@ day Ogle County . As the group neared the edge of the grove one of the party noted the increased chances for ambush and suggested that the party avoid the usual route by taking a more roundabout route . The suggestion was opposed and Durley reared his horse and entered the wooded area within the grove . He had traveled only a few " bounds " when he was cut down by gunfire from the previously suggested ambush .
On May 20 , 1832 , Sergeant Stahl returned to Dixon 's Ferry with the other four survivors of the attack and reported that his party had been ambushed by a group of Native Americans the evening before on the edge of the grove . He reported that Durley was killed instantly , scalped , and left on the spot . Stahl and James Smith both had bullets rip through articles of clothing but were uninjured and only Durley died in the attack .
= = Aftermath = =
The events of the Buffalo Grove ambush are closely interrelated with those of the St. Vrain massacre . A group of four men , including Aaron Hawley and John Fowler , both casualties of the St. Vrain massacre , was en route to Galena when they stumbled upon the body of Durley at Buffalo Grove . The group returned to Dixon 's Ferry , reported their find and stayed there overnight .
When Atkinson returned to Dixon on May 23 it was with dispatches destined for Fort Armstrong . He ordered Indian Agent Felix St. Vrain to join the group that had discovered Durley 's body and travel with them to Galena . The group left Dixon and traveled north where they found , and interred the remains of Durley at Buffalo Grove .
The Polo Historical Society erected a memorial to Durley on May 19 , 1910 , the 78th anniversary of the attack . At that time , Durley 's remains were moved from where St. Vrain 's party buried him , near where he had fallen , and interred beneath the memorial . The Buffalo Grove ambush historical marker and memorial to Durley are located west of the city of Polo , Illinois along Eagle Point Road .
= Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management =
Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management , also published as Mrs Beeton 's Cookery Book , is an extensive guide to running a household in Victorian Britain , edited by Isabella Beeton and first published as a book in 1861 . It had previously been published in parts . It was originally entitled Beeton 's Book of Household Management , as one of the series of guide @-@ books published by her husband , Samuel Beeton . The recipes were highly structured , in contrast to earlier cookbooks . It was illustrated with many monochrome and colour plates .
Although Mrs Beeton died in 1865 , the book continued to be a best @-@ seller . The first editions after her death contained an obituary notice , but this was removed from later editions , allowing readers to imagine that every word was written by an experienced Mrs Beeton personally . This fiction was expressed in one of Arthur Conan Doyle 's novels , where a character declares : " Mrs Beeton must have been the finest housekeeper in the world , therefore Mr. Beeton must have been the happiest and most comfortable man " .
Many of the recipes were copied from the most successful cookery books of the day including Eliza Acton 's Modern Cookery for Private Families , Elizabeth Raffald 's The Experienced English Housekeeper , Marie @-@ Antoine Carême 's Le Pâtissier royal parisien , Hannah Glasse 's The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy , Maria Eliza Rundell 's A New System of Domestic Cookery , and the works of Charles Elmé Francatelli . This practice of Mrs Beeton 's has in modern times repeatedly been described as plagiarism .
The book expanded steadily in length , until by 1907 it reached 74 chapters and over 2000 pages . Nearly two million copies were sold by 1868 , and it remains in print ( as of 2016 ) . Between 1875 and 1914 it was probably the most often consulted cookery book . Mrs Beeton has been compared on the strength of the book with modern domestic goddesses like Nigella Lawson and Delia Smith .
= = History = =
The author , Isabella Beeton , was 21 years old when she started working on the book . It was initially serialised in 24 monthly instalments , in her husband Samuel Orchart Beeton 's publication The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine ; the first instalment appeared in 1859 . On 1 October 1861 , the instalments were collected into one volume with the title The Book of Household Management , comprising information for the Mistress , Housekeeper , Cook , Kitchen @-@ Maid , Butler , Footman , Coachman , Valet , Upper and Under House @-@ Maids , Lady 's @-@ Maid , Maid @-@ of @-@ all @-@ Work , Laundry @-@ Maid , Nurse and Nurse @-@ Maid , Monthly Wet and Sick Nurses , etc. etc . — also Sanitary , Medical , & Legal Memoranda : with a History of the Origin , Properties , and Uses of all Things Connected with Home Life and Comfort .
In its preface she wrote :
I must frankly own , that if I had known , beforehand , that this book would have cost me the labour which it has , I should never have been courageous enough to commence it . What moved me , in the first instance , to attempt a work like this , was the discomfort and suffering which I had seen brought upon men and women by household mismanagement . I have always thought that there is no more fruitful source of family discontent than a housewife 's badly @-@ cooked dinners and untidy ways .
Beeton 's half @-@ sister , Lucy Smiles , was later asked about her memories of the book 's development . She recalled :
Different people gave their recipes for the book . That for Baroness pudding ( a suet pudding with a plethora of raisins ) was given by the Baroness de Tessier , who lived at Epsom . No recipe went into the book without a successful trial , and the home at Pinner was the scene of many experiments and some failures . I remember Isabella coming out of the kitchen one day , ' This won 't do at all , ' she said , and gave me the cake that had turned out like a biscuit . I thought it very good . It had currants in it .
Previously published as a part @-@ work , it was first published as a book in 1861 by S. O. Beeton Publishing , 161 Bouverie Street , London , a firm founded by Samuel Beeton . The book was an immediate best @-@ seller , selling 60 @,@ 000 copies in its first year and totalling nearly two million by 1868 . In 2010 a copy of the first edition of Household Management in " top condition " was stated to be worth more than £ 1 @,@ 000 . In 1863 a revised edition was issued .
In 1866 , a year after Isabella 's death , Samuel was in debt due to the collapse of Overend and Gurney , a London discount house to which he owed money . To save himself from bankruptcy he sold the copyright to all of his publications for a little over £ 19 @,@ 000 . Of that , the rights to Household Management were sold to publishers Ward , Lock and Tyler for £ 3 @,@ 250 . The early editions included an obituary notice for Beeton , but the publishers insisted it be removed " allowing readers to imagine – perhaps even as late as 1915 – that some mob @-@ capped matriarch was out there still keeping an eye on them " .
Revisions to Household Management by its publisher have continued to the present day . The effort has kept the Beeton name in the public eye for over 125 years , although current editions are far removed from those published in Mrs. Beeton 's lifetime . By 1906 the book had 2 @,@ 056 pages , " exclusive of advertising " , with 3 @,@ 931 recipes and was " half as large again " as the previous edition .
= = Book = =
= = = Contents = = =
The following description refers to the 1907 edition ; the book had been greatly extended in the decades since Mrs. Beeton 's death ( in 1865 ) to 74 chapters and over 2000 pages ; the first edition had 44 chapters .
The book begins with general chapters on the duties of the " mistress " , the housekeeper , and the cook . There follow chapters on the kitchen itself , " marketing " ( choosing good @-@ quality produce at the market ) , and an introduction to cookery ( Chapter 6 ) . Together , these take up over 100 pages . Chapters 7 to 38 ( roughly 1000 pages ) cover English cooking , with recipes for soups , gravies , fish , meat ( principally veal , beef , mutton and lamb , and pork ) , poultry , game , preserves , vegetables , pastries , puddings , sweets , jams , pickles , and savouries . Chapter 39 describes the " art of carving at table " , supported by 11 illustrations . Chapters 40 to 50 ( some 200 pages ) give instructions for dairy products , vegetarian and invalid ( sick person ) cookery , making bread , biscuits and cakes , and beverages . Chapters 51 to 59 describe cooking in various international styles including French , German , Spanish , Jewish , Australian , South African , Indian , American and Canadian cookery . Chapters 60 to 68 provide guidance on matters from trussing poultry to the definitions of culinary terms , arranging meals , decorating the table , making menus and the duties of domestic servants . Chapters 69 to 73 describe " household recipes " and medical preparations . The final chapter , 74 , offers " legal memoranda " .
There is a detailed index . The edition includes advertisements for products such as " Lemco " beef extract and " Cadbury 's Cocoa " .
= = = Approach = = =
The preface sets out the book 's goal of providing " men " with such well @-@ cooked food at home that it may compete with what they could eat " at their clubs , well @-@ ordered taverns , and dining @-@ houses " . Mrs. Beeton claims that
I have attempted to give , under the chapters devoted to cookery , an intelligible arrangement to every recipe , a list of the ingredients , a plain statement of the mode of preparing each dish , and a careful estimate of its cost , the number of people for whom it is sufficient , and the time when it is seasonable
She explains that she was thus attempting to make the basics of cookery " intelligible " to any " housewife " .
The first chapter sets the tone of the book with a quotation from the Book of Proverbs , and in early editions cites also The Vicar of Wakefield with
The modest virgin , the prudent wife , and the careful matron , are much more serviceable in life than petticoated philosophers , blustering heroines , or virago queens . She who makes her husband and her children happy , who reclaims the one from vice and trains up the other to virtue
The book thus advocates early rising , cleanliness , frugality , good temper , and the wisdom of interviewing servants rather than relying on written references .
Cookery is introduced with words about " the progress of mankind from barbarism to civilization " , with a mention of man " in his primitive state , [ living ] upon roots and the fruits of the earth " , rising to become in turn " a hunter and a fisher " ; then a " herdsman " and finally " the comfortable condition of a farmer . " It is granted that " the fruits of the earth , the fowls of the air , the beasts of the field , and the fish of the sea , are still the only food of mankind " , but that
these are so prepared , improved , and dressed by skill and ingenuity , that they are the means of immeasurably extending the boundaries of human enjoyments . The text then swiftly passes to a description of simple measures like a table @-@ spoonful , and the duties of servants .
The whole of the rest of the book is taken up with instructions for cooking , with an introduction in each chapter to the type of food it describes . The first of these , on soups , begins " Lean , juicy beef , mutton , and veal , form the basis of all good soups ; therefore it is advisable to procure those pieces which afford the richest succulence , and such as are fresh @-@ killed . " The account of how to make soup consists of a single essay , divided into general advice and numbered steps for making any kind of ( meat @-@ based ) soup . This is followed in early editions by a separate chapter of recipes for soups of different kinds .
Each recipe is structured into a title , a list of ingredients ( with quantities , either natural — as a number of eggs or vegetables , a number of slices of ham — or measured in Imperial units — ounces of salt , quarts of water . The actual instructions are headed " Mode " , as " Cut up the veal , and put it with the bones and trimmings of poultry " . A separate section gives the overall preparation time , and the average cost as , for example , " 9d. per quart " . Many recipes state in separate brief sections when a recipe is " Seasonable " and for how many persons it is " Sufficient " . Finally , a " Note " gives any required advice , as " When stronger stock is desired , double the quantity of veal , or put in an old fowl . " This highly structured presentation was the book 's main innovation .
= = = Oddities = = =
Despite professing to be a guide of reliable information about every aspect of running a house for the aspirant middle classes , the original edition devotes 23 pages to household management , then discusses cooking for almost all of the other 900 . Even with the emphasis on food , some of her cooking advice is so odd as to suggest that she had little experience preparing meals . For example , the book recommends boiling pasta for an hour and forty @-@ five minutes . Like many other British people of her social class and generation , Mrs Beeton adopted a distaste for unfamiliar foods , saying that mangoes tasted like turpentine , lobsters were indigestible , garlic was offensive , potatoes were " suspicious ; a great many are narcotic , and many are deleterious " , cheese could only be consumed by sedentary people , and tomatoes were either good or bad for a range of reasons .
Unlike earlier cookbook authors , such as Hannah Glasse , the book offered an " emphasis on thrift and economy " . It also discarded the style of previous writers who employed " daunting paragraph [ s ] of text with ingredients and method jumbled up together " for what is a recognisably modern " user @-@ friendly formula listing ingredients , method , timings and even the estimated cost of each recipe " .
= = = Plagiarism = = =
In a critical letter , Mrs Beeton 's sister Mrs Henrietta Mary Pourtois English advised her that " Cookery is a Science that is only learnt by Long Experience and years of study which of course you have not had . Therefore my advice would be compile a book from receipts from a Variety of the Best Books published on Cookery and Heaven knows there is a great variety for you to choose from . " The recipes were largely copied from the most successful cookery books of the day , the copying in some cases acknowledged in the text . The " variety " included Eliza Acton 's Modern Cookery for Private Families and her The English Bread – Book , Elizabeth Raffald 's The Experienced English Housekeeper , Marie @-@ Antoine Carême 's Le Pâtissier royal parisien , Louis Eustache Ude 's The French Cook , Alexis Soyer 's The Modern Housewife or , Ménagère and The Pantropheon , Hannah Glasse 's The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy , Maria Eliza Rundell 's A New System of Domestic Cookery , and the works of Charles Elmé Francatelli .
In modern times Mrs. Beeton 's practice has been criticised as plagiarism ; Beeton 's modern biographer Kathryn Hughes talks of her " lifting " and " brazenly copying " recipes from others , and says that this was " the way that cookery books had been put together from time immemorial ... " . The New York Times said , " Isabella [ Beeton ] plagiarised only the best " . This led to the comment that " Mrs Beeton couldn 't cook but she could copy " . Hughes recounts that Beeton 's " first recipe for Victoria sponge was so inept that she left out the eggs " and that her work was " brazenly copied ... almost word for word , from books as far back as the Restoration " . The influential 20th @-@ century food writer Elizabeth David dismissed her as " a plagiarist " and later wrote : " I wonder if I would have ever learned to cook at all if I had been given a routine Mrs Beeton to learn from " .
= = = Illustrations = = =
The 1907 edition runs to some 30 full @-@ page colour plates , and over 100 full @-@ page illustrations in monochrome . These include photographs , such as of the housekeeper standing with hands behind her back in her kitchen ( pictured ) , facing the first page of Chapter 2 , " The Housekeeper " . An idea of the amount of detail may be gained from the fact that there are 11 illustrations of types of fish ( one pictured ) , such as " steamed sole " and " soused mackerel " , and another of " fish entrées " .
One full @-@ page colour plate ( pictured ) illustrated a range of puddings , showing jelly , raspberry cream , a centre dish piled high with fruits , a trifle , and an ornamental flowerpot containing a strawberry plant .
Another full @-@ page colour plate ( pictured ) showed a variety of fruits including apricots , white and black cherries , white , red and black currants , a melon , strawberries and varieties of plums , all piled high on circular dishes or fruit stands .
= = Influence and legacy = =
= = = Contemporary = = =
The preface of Wilhelmina Rawson 's Queensland Cookery and Poultry Book ( 1878 ) , published in Australia , observes that : " Mrs Lance Rawson 's Cookery Book ... is written entirely for the Colonies , and for the middle classes , and for those people who cannot afford to buy a Mrs Beeton or a Warne , but who can afford the three shillings for this . "
The Oxford English Dictionary recognised that , by the 1890s , Beeton 's name " was adopted as a term for an authority on all things domestic and culinary " . The Robert Mondavi Institute for Wine and Food Science observed that " it was probably found in more homes than any other cookery book , and [ was probably ] the most often consulted , in the years 1875 to 1914 " .
A chapter of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's novel A Duet , with an Occasional Chorus ( 1899 ) is entitled , " Concerning Mrs. Beeton " ; a character declares : " Mrs Beeton must have been the finest housekeeper in the world , therefore Mr. Beeton must have been the happiest and most comfortable man " .
= = = Modern = = =
Mrs Beeton has been described as " the grandmother of modern domestic goddesses " , like Nigella Lawson and Delia Smith , who saw , as Beeton did , the need to provide reassuring advice on culinary matters for the British middle classes . However , while Lawson and Smith " insist that cooking can be easy , fun and uncomplicated " , Beeton " acknowledges the labour and skill required to cook well " .
The food writer and chef Gerard Baker tested and revised 220 of Beeton 's recipes , and published the result as Mrs. Beeton : How To Cook ( 2011 ) .
For the book 's 150th anniversary in 2011 the Royal Society of Chemistry planned to feature one of Beeton 's recipes . Due to the financial climate at the time in wake of the Great Recession , the Society selected Beeton 's toast sandwich , a dish that Beeton included to cater to the less well @-@ off .
In 2012 the food economist for the British television period drama Downton Abbey described Beeton 's book as an " important guide " for the food served in the series .
= = Editions = =
The book has appeared in many editions , including :
= Matangi =
Matangi is one of the Mahavidyas , ten Tantric goddesses and a ferocious aspect of Devi , the Hindu Divine Mother . She is considered to be the Tantric form of Sarasvati , the goddess of music and learning . Like Sarasvati , Matangi governs speech , music , knowledge and the arts . Her worship is prescribed to acquire supernatural powers , especially gaining control over enemies , attracting people to oneself , acquiring mastery over the arts and gaining supreme knowledge .
Matangi is often associated with pollution , inauspiciousness and the periphery of Hindu society , which is embodied in her most popular form , known as Ucchishta @-@ Chandalini or Ucchishta @-@ Matangini . She is described as an outcaste ( Chandalini ) and offered left @-@ over or partially eaten food ( Ucchishta ) with unwashed hands or food after eating , both of which are considered to be impure in classical Hinduism .
Matangi is often represented as emerald green in colour . While Ucchishta @-@ Matangini carries a noose , sword , goad , and club , her other well @-@ known form , Raja @-@ Matangi , plays the veena and is often pictured with a parrot .
= = Iconography and textual descriptions = =
The Dhyana mantra ( a mantra that details the form of the deity on which a devotee should meditate ) of the Brhat Tantrasara describes Ucchishta @-@ Matangini , one of the most popular forms of the goddess . Matangi is seated on a corpse and wears red garments , red jewellery and a garland of gunja seeds . The goddess is described as a young , sixteen @-@ year @-@ old maiden with fully developed breasts . She carries a skull and a sword in her two hands , and is offered leftovers .
The Dhyana mantras in the Purashcharyarnava and the Tantrasara describe Matangi as blue in colour . The crescent moon adorns her forehead . She has three eyes and a smiling face . She wears jewellery and is seated on a jewelled throne . In her four arms , she carries a noose , a sword , a goad , and a club . Her waist is slim and her breasts well @-@ developed .
The Dhyana Mantra of Raja @-@ matangi from the Purashcharyarnava describes Matangi as green in colour with the crescent moon upon her forehead . She has long hair , a smiling expression and intoxicated eyes , and wears a garland of kadamba flowers and various ornaments . She perspires a little around the face , which renders her even more beautiful . Below her navel are three horizontal folds of skin and a thin vertical line of fine hair . Seated on an altar and flanked by two parrots , she represents the 64 arts . The Saradatilaka , adds to this description that Raja @-@ Matangi plays the veena , wears conch @-@ shell earrings and flower garlands , and has flower paintings adorning her forehead .
According to the Shyamaladandakam , Matangi plays a ruby @-@ studded veena and speaks sweetly . The Dhyana Mantra describes her to be four @-@ armed , with a dark emerald complexion , full breasts anointed with red kumkum powder , and a crescent moon on her forehead . She carries a noose , a goad , a sugarcane bow and flower arrows , which the goddess Tripura Sundari is often described to hold . She is also described to love the parrot and is embodied in the nectar of song .
The green complexion is associated with deep knowledge and is also the colour of Budha , the presiding deity of the planet Mercury who governs intelligence . Matangi is often depicted with a parrot in her hands , representing speech . The veena symbolizes her association with music .
= = Legends = =
Matangi is often named as the ninth Mahavidya . A list contained within the prose of the Mundamala equates Vishnu 's ten avatars with the ten Mahavidyas . The Buddha is equated to Matangi . A similar list in the Guhyatiguhya @-@ Tantra omits Matangi altogether , however the scholar Sircar interprets the goddess Durga – equated to the avatar Kalki in the list – as an allusion to Matangi .
In a story from the Shakta Maha @-@ Bhagavata Purana , which narrates the creation of all the Mahavidyas , Sati , the daughter of Daksha and first wife of god Shiva , feels insulted that she and Shiva are not invited to Daksha 's yagna ( " fire sacrifice " ) and insists on going there , despite Shiva 's protests . After futile attempts to convince Shiva , the enraged Sati transforms into the Mahavidyas , including Matangi . The Mahavidyas then surround Shiva from the ten cardinal directions ; Matangi stands in the northwest . Another similar legend replaces Sati with Kali ( the chief Mahavidya ) as the wife of Shiva and the origin of Matangi and the other Mahavidyas . The Devi Bhagavata Purana describes Matangi and her fellow Mahavidyas as war @-@ companions and forms of the goddess Shakambhari .
The Shaktisamgama @-@ tantra narrates the birth of Ucchishta @-@ matangini . Once , the god Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi visited Shiva and his second wife Parvati ( a reincarnation of Sati ) and gave them a banquet of fine foods . While eating , the deities dropped some food on the ground , from which arose a beautiful maiden who asked their left @-@ overs . The four deities granted her their left @-@ overs as prasad , food made sacred by having been first consumed by the deity . This can be interpreted as the Ucchishta of the deity , although due to its negative connotation the word Ucchishta is never explicitly used in connection to prasad . Shiva decreed that those who repeat her mantra and worship her will have their material desires satisfied and gain control over foes , declaring her the giver of boons . From that day , the maiden was known as Ucchishta @-@ matangini .
The Pranotasani Tantra narrates that once Parvati longed to go back to her maternal house for some days and asked Shiva 's permission to do so . The reluctant Shiva agreed on the condition that if she did not return in a few days , he would come to fetch her . Parvati agreed and went to her father Himalaya 's place , where she stayed for many days . The lovesick Shiva went to Himalaya 's abode disguised as an ornament seller and sold shell ornaments to Parvati . In order to test her fidelity , the disguised Shiva asked for sex in return . The disgusted Parvati was about to curse the ornament @-@ seller , when she realizes by her yogic powers that it was none other than Shiva . She agrees to grant sexual favours but at the appropriate time . In the evening , Parvati returns to Shiva 's abode disguised as a Chandala huntress . She is dressed in red and had a lean figure and large breasts and performs a seductive dance to lure him . She told Shiva that she had come to do penance . Shiva replied that he is the one gives fruit to all penance and took her hand and kissed her . Further , they made love when Shiva himself changed into a Chandala and recognized the Chandala woman as his wife . After the love @-@ making , Parvati asked Shiva to grant her wish that her form as a Chandalini ( the Chandala female form in which Shiva made love to her ) might last forever as Ucchishta @-@ Chandalini and that her worship in this form precede his for his worship to be considered fruitful . This tale is also found in many Bengali Mangalkavyas . In these texts , however , Parvati is not explicitly identified with Matangi .
The Svatantra @-@ tantra mentions that Matanga practised austerities for thousands of years to gain the power to subdue all beings . Finally , goddess Tripura Sundari appeared and from eyes emitted rays that produced goddess Kali , who had greenish complexion and was known as Raja @-@ matangini . With her help , Matanga fulfilled his desire . Many texts including the Shyamaladandakam describe Matangi as the daughter of the sage Matanga .
Another tale is associated with the temple dedicated to Kauri @-@ bai — an aspect of Matangi — who appeared in low caste area of Varanasi . Kauri @-@ bai was a goddess who was obsessed with the Brahmin ways and purity and abhorred Shiva 's heterodox practices like dwelling in cremation grounds , partaking of intoxicants and being in the company of ghosts and goblins . While Shiva simply ignored Kauri @-@ bai 's words at first , after his marriage his wife Parvati could not bear Kauri @-@ bai 's abusive words toward her husband and cursed Kauri @-@ bai to be reborn in and spend her entire lifetime within an " untouchable " area of Varanasi which Kauri @-@ b
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5 February , Dukovac flew five sorties . On the first he and his wingman downed a Yak @-@ 1 each , and on the second he shot down a Yak and a P @-@ 39 . During his fifth mission , he was shot down by P @-@ 39s and crash @-@ landed , injuring his spine . He was evacuated to a field hospital , but returned to 15 . / JG 52 as soon as he could walk , ten days later , only to find that he had just three pilots fit for duty . Despite the pending arrival of newly trained pilots , the loss of another two pilots by mid @-@ March led the Luftwaffe to decide that attempting to maintain 15 . / JG 52 was futile , and the men were sent home to the NDH . During its three tours , the Staffel had accounted for a total of 297 Soviet aircraft , of which Dukovac had 37 confirmed and eight unconfirmed aerial victories , seven of which were later confirmed . At the beginning of July , the Luftwaffe reconsidered its decision , and the newly promoted Hauptmann Dukovac and a group of veteran and fresh pilots began to make their way back to the Eastern Front . They were transported to Romania and then the Slovak Republic , but no aircraft were provided , and on 21 July the pilots were advised that the HZL was to be disbanded . Despite this , in August they were moved to an airfield in East Prussia , where they took delivery of ten Bf 109G @-@ 14s . At the beginning of September they flew to Lithuania in preparation to rejoin the fray .
= = = Defections = = =
On 20 September 1944 , Dukovac and another pilot defected to the Soviets after taking off from Labjau airfield . His defection was soon announced by the Red Army . This spelled the end of the Staffel , and the remaining members were withdrawn to East Prussia and retrained as infantry . These men were eventually released from infantry duties in early 1945 and were allowed to return to the NDH , where they were assigned to the ZNDH . In November 1944 , the Soviets handed Dukovac over to the Yugoslav Partisans , who offered him the position of flight instructor with the Yugoslav Air Force ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Jugoslovensko ratno vazduhoplovstvo , JRV ) . The following month , Dukovac returned to Belgrade as a kapetan in the JRV , and after a conversion to fly Yakovlev fighters , he worked as a flight instructor in Pančevo . By February 1945 , constant provocations and insults directed at him by fellow JRV personnel owing to his service with the ZNDH prompted him to apply for a transfer . In April he was posted to the 1st Pilot Training School in Zadar as an instructor .
On 8 August , Dukovac commandeered a de Havilland Tiger Moth biplane , flew it across the Adriatic and defected again , this time to Italy . He was first placed in a refugee camp in Modena , and then one in Bagnoli del Trigno .
= = Later life and legacy = =
Dukovac began expressing increasingly anti @-@ Jewish beliefs following the war . He joined the Syrian Air Force in 1946 . During the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , he was a captain in No. 1 Squadron of the Syrian Air Force , based in Estabal in Lebanon 's Beqaa Valley . He flew combat missions in an American T @-@ 6 Texan equipped with ground @-@ attack rockets and 110 @-@ pound ( 50 kg ) bombs .
Following the end of the Arab – Israeli War , Dukovac emigrated to Canada . He settled in Toronto and started a family there . He worked for IBM and was a co @-@ founder of one of the largest Croatian émigré organisations in Canada , the United Croats of Canada . He died in Toronto in September 1990 .
Dukovac was the top @-@ scoring Croatian pilot of World War II . During his life , there was much controversy surrounding the exact number of aircraft that he had downed . Croatian wartime documents discovered in the Military History Institute in Belgrade after his death show that the ZNDH credited him with 44 confirmed kills . At least one other source indicates a tally of 40 confirmed kills with five unconfirmed . The ZNDH total of 44 included 18 LaGG @-@ 3s , 12 Ilyushin Il @-@ 2s , three P @-@ 39s , two DB @-@ 3s , two Yak @-@ 1s , and one each of the following aircraft ; II @-@ 16 , MiG @-@ 3 , Spitfire , La @-@ 5 , Yak @-@ 9 , Pe @-@ 2 , and A @-@ 20 . The ZNDH records also noted one unconfirmed claim .
= Foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong =
Foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong ( Chinese : 香港外籍家庭傭工 ) are domestic workers employed by Hongkongers , typically families . About three percent of Hong Kong 's population , an overwhelming majority are women . In 2013 , there were 320 @,@ 000 foreign domestic helpers in the territory ; of these , 48 percent were from the Philippines , 49 @.@ 4 percent from Indonesia and 1 @.@ 3 percent from Thailand . Required by law to live in their employer 's residence , they perform household tasks such as cooking , serving , cleaning , dishwashing and child care .
Since October 2003 the employment of domestic workers has been subject to the unpopular Employees ' Retraining Levy , totalling HK $ 9 @,@ 600 for a two @-@ year contract . It has not been applied since 16 July 2008 , and has since been abolished . Whether foreign workers should be able to apply for Hong Kong residency is the subject of debate , and a high @-@ profile court battle for residency by a foreign worker failed .
The condition of foreign domestic workers is being increasingly scrutinised by human @-@ rights groups and criticised as tantamount to modern slavery . Documented cases of worker abuse , including the successful prosecution of an employer for subjecting Erwiana Sulistyaningsih to grievous bodily harm , assault , criminal intimidation and unpaid wages , are increasing in number . In March 2016 , an NGO , Justice Centre , reported its findings that one domestic worker in six in Hong Kong were deemed to have been forced into labour .
= = Terminology = =
In Hong Kong Cantonese , 女傭 ( maid ) and 外傭 ( foreign servant ) are neutral , socially @-@ acceptable words for foreign domestic helpers . Fei yung ( 菲傭 , Filipino servant ) referred to foreign domestic helpers , regardless of origin , at a time when most were from the Philippines . The slang term bun mui ( 賓妹 , Pinoy girl ) is widely used by local residents .
In Chinese @-@ language government documentation , foreign domestic helpers are referred to as 家庭傭工 ( domestic workers ) " of foreign nationality " ( 外籍家庭傭工 ) or " recruited from abroad " ( 外地區聘用家庭傭工 ) . Although the government uses words with the same meanings in English @-@ language documentation , it substitutes the term " domestic helper " for " domestic worker " . Director of the Bethune House shelter for domestic workers Adwina Antonio has criticised the term " helper " , saying that the migrants do dirty jobs ; calling them " helpers " strips them of the dignity accorded workers and implies that they can be mistreated , like slaves .
= = History = =
Faced with a poor economy in 1974 , Filipino President , Ferdinand Marcos implemented a labour code which began his country 's export of labour in the form of overseas workers . The Philippine government encouraged this labour export to reduce the unemployment rate and enrich its treasury with the workers ' remittances . The economy of the Philippines became increasingly dependent on labour export ; in 1978 labour @-@ export recruiting agencies were privatised , and became a cornerstone of the economy .
Increasing labour export from the Philippines coincided with the economic rise of Hong Kong during the late 1970s and early 1980s . When the People 's Republic of China implemented wide @-@ reaching economic reform in the late 1970s and initiated trade with other countries , Hong Kong became mainland China 's biggest investor . Labour @-@ intensive Hong Kong industries moved to the mainland , and high @-@ profit service industries in the territory ( such as design , marketing and finance ) expanded dramatically . To deal with the resulting labour shortage and increase in labour costs , the female labour force was mobilised . Two @-@ income families sought help to manage their households , creating a demand for domestic workers . Female participation in the workforce increased , from 47 @.@ 5 percent in 1982 to 54 @.@ 7 percent in 2013 . Families began hiring foreign domestic workers from the Philippines , with the number of workers steadily increasing during the 1980s and 1990s .
= = Prevalence and demographics = =
Singapore , Hong Kong and Taiwan are considered attractive destinations by those seeking employment as domestic workers . According to Quartz , Hong Kong has one of the highest densities of foreign domestic workers in the world and its pay scale is a benchmark for other jurisdictions . Since the mid @-@ 1970s , when the foreign @-@ domestic @-@ helper policy was initiated , the number of workers has increased to around 300 @,@ 000 . At the end of 2013 , there was an average of one foreign domestic worker for every eight households overall ; in households with children , the average is one for every three . Foreign domestic helpers are about 10 percent of the working population . In December 2014 the number of migrant workers employed as helpers was over 330 @,@ 000 , 4 @.@ 6 percent of the total population ; the vast majority were female .
Before the 1980s and increased prosperity on the mainland , Chinese domestic workers were dominant . Until the 1990s , workers then came primarily from the Philippines ; the percentage is now shifting from Philippine workers to Indonesian and other nationalities . During the 1990s Indonesia and Thailand followed the Filipino model of labour export to deal with domestic economic crises , and Hong Kong families began hiring workers from those countries as well . The Indonesians provided competition , since those workers were often prepared to accept half the minimum wage .
According to the Immigration Department , in 1998 there were 140 @,@ 357 Filipino domestic workers in Hong Kong and 31 @,@ 762 from Indonesia . In 2005 , official figures indicated 223 @,@ 394 " foreign domestic helpers " in the territory ; 53 @.@ 11 percent were from the Philippines , 43 @.@ 15 percent from Indonesia and 2 @.@ 05 percent from Thailand . In 2010 , the respective numbers were 136 @,@ 723 from the Philippines ( 48 percent ) , 140 @,@ 720 from Indonesia ( 49 @.@ 4 percent ) , 3 @,@ 744 from Thailand ( 1 @.@ 3 percent ) , 893 Sri Lankans , 568 Nepalese and 2 @,@ 253 of other nationalities . Vietnamese are not permitted to work in Hong Kong as domestic workers for what authorities call " security reasons " linked to ( according to one lawmaker ) historical problems with Vietnamese refugees .
Attempts to import workers from Myanmar and Bangladesh have failed . Indonesian president Joko Widodo has reportedly said that he considers the export of domestic labour a national embarrassment , pledging that his government will end the practice . In February 2015 there were 331 @,@ 989 foreign domestic workers in Hong Kong , of which 166 @,@ 743 were from the Philippines – an increase of 7 @,@ 000 from the previous year , with the number of Indonesians remaining static .
= = Recruitment = =
Foreign domestic workers are recruited primarily by a large number of specialised agencies , with local firms connected to correspondents in the workers ' home countries . Agencies are paid by employers and workers , and are regulated according to the Employment Ordinance and Employment Agency Regulations . Local agencies dealing with workers from the Philippines are accredited by the Philippine consulate . To hire an Indonesian worker , an employer must use an agent ; there is no similar requirement for Filipino workers . Although agency fees are regulated by law to 10 percent of one month 's salary , some agencies in the workers ' countries charge commissions and " training " fees which take several months to pay off . The Philippine government outlawed commissions in 2006 , and employment agencies may only charge fees .
= = Employment regulations = =
The government of Hong Kong has drawn up rules and regulations concerning the employment , labour and conditions of stay of foreign domestic helpers . Since 2003 , all foreign domestic helpers are required by law to be live @-@ in . An employer and employee are required to enter into a standard , two @-@ year contract specifically for the employment of foreign domestic helpers . Employer regulations include :
Household income of at least HK $ 15 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 920 ) per month for each foreign domestic helper employed
A levy of HK $ 9 @,@ 600 for employing a foreign domestic helper , for the duration of a 2 @-@ year contract ( abolished 31 July 2013 )
Free medical treatment for the foreign domestic helper
A monthly salary of no less than the minimum allowable wage set by the government
Helpers ' rights and obligations include :
To perform only the domestic duties outlined in the employment contract
To not accept other employment during the effective period of the contract
To work and live in the employer 's place of residence , and to be provided with suitable living accommodation with reasonable privacy
One rest day ( a continuous period of not less than 24 hours ) every week
= = = Minimum allowable wage = = =
Foreign domestic workers ' wages are subject to a statutory minimum , a breach of which is sanctionable under the Employment Ordinance . An employer convicted of paying less than the minimum allowable wage ( MAW ) is subject to a maximum fine of HK $ 350 @,@ 000 and three years ' imprisonment .
Helpers ' minimum wages are inflation @-@ adjusted annually for contracts about to be signed , and apply for the duration of the contract . They were reduced by HK $ 190 ( five percent ) in 1999 . In April 2003 , another deflationary period , the government announced a HK $ 400 reduction in pay ( to HK $ 3 @,@ 270 ) " due to the steady drop in a basket of economic indicators since 1999 . " The minimum allowable wage was raised by HK $ 80 , to HK $ 3 @,@ 480 per month , for contracts signed on or after 6 June 2007 . Another HK $ 100 cost @-@ of @-@ living adjustment took effect for all employment contracts signed on or after 10 July 2008 , increasing the minimum wage to HK $ 3 @,@ 580 per month . The minimum allowable wage was reset to HK $ 3 @,@ 740 per month on 2 June 2011 , and raised to HK $ 3 @,@ 920 per month for contracts signed from 20 September 2012 onwards .
The MAW has been criticised by workers ' and welfare groups for making FDWs second @-@ class citizens . The statutory minimum wage does not apply to them ; although the MAW is HK $ 3 @,@ 920 , a local worker working a 48 @-@ hour week would earn HK $ 6 @,@ 240 if paid at the minimum hourly wage of HK $ 30 ( as of 30 March 2015 ) . The International Domestic Workers Federation has complained that the MAW rose by only 3 @.@ 9 percent ( or HK $ 150 ) from 1998 to 2012 , failing to keep pace with Hong Kong 's median monthly income ( which rose over 15 percent during the same period ) . Since Hong Kong is a benchmark market for Asian migrant workers , there is pressure to keep wages low . Wages were also held in check by competition from Indonesian workers , who began arriving in large numbers during the 1990s . Since then , workers from other Asian countries ( such as Bangladesh and Nepal ) may be willing to work for less than the MAW .
= = = Employees ' Retraining Levy = = =
During a recession in October 2003 , the Hong Kong government imposed a HK $ 400 monthly Employees ' Retraining Levy for hiring a foreign domestic helper under the Employees Retraining Ordinance . The tax , proposed by the Liberal Party in 2002 to tackle a fiscal deficit , was introduced by Donald Tsang as part of the government 's population policy when he was Chief Secretary for Administration . Although Tsang called foreign and local domestic workers two distinct labour markets , he said : " Employers of foreign domestic helpers should play a role in helping Hong Kong in ... upgrading the local workforce . "
According to Government Policy Support and Strategic Planning , the levy would be used to retrain the local workforce and improve their employment opportunities . The government said that the extension of the levy to domestic helpers would remove the disparity between imported and local workers . According to The Standard , it was hoped that fewer foreign maids would be employed in Hong Kong . The Senate of the Philippines disagreed with the Hong Kong government , denounced the levy as " discriminatory " and hinted that it would take the issue to the International Labour Organization . Senate president Franklin Drilon said that a tax on domestic workers countered Hong Kong 's free @-@ market principles and would damage its reputation for openness to foreign trade , investment and services .
Earlier that year the minimum wage for foreign domestic helpers was lowered by the same amount , although the government said the reduction in the minimum wage and imposition of the levy were " unrelated " ; lawyers for the government called the moves an " unfortunate coincidence " . The measure was expected to bring HK $ 150 million annually into government coffers .
Thousands of workers , fearing that the financial burden would be passed to them , protested the measures . The government , defending the measures as necessary in Hong Kong 's changing economy , said that foreign domestic workers were still better paid than their counterparts in other Asian countries ; according to James Tien , the monthly wage of Filipina maids in Singapore was about HK $ 1 @,@ 400 and $ 1 @,@ 130 in Malaysia .
In 2004 a legal challenge was mounted , asserting that the levy on employers was unlawful as a discriminatory tax . In January 2005 High Court Justice Michael Hartmann ruled that since the levy was instituted by law it was not a tax , but a fee for the privilege of employing non @-@ local workers ( who would not otherwise be permitted to work in Hong Kong ) . In 2007 the Liberal Party urged the government to abolish the Employees ' Retraining Levy as a part of its District @-@ Council election platform , saying that the HK $ 3 @.@ 26 billion fund should be used as originally intended : to retrain employees . In an August 2008 South China Morning Post column , Chris Yeung called the case for retaining the levy increasingly morally and financially weak : " Middle class people feel a sense of injustice about the levy " . According to Regina Ip , the levy had lost its raison d 'être . In 2013 the government abolished the levy in the Chief Executive 's policy address , effective 31 July .
= = Levy waiver controversy = =
As part of " extraordinary measures for extraordinary times " ( totalling HK $ 11 billion ) announced by Donald Tsang on 16 July 2008 , the levy would be temporarily waived at an estimated cost of HK $ 2 billion . In the Chinese press , the measures were mockingly called 派糖 ( handing out candy ) .
The levy would be waived for a two @-@ year period on all helpers ' employment contracts signed on or after 1 September 2008 , and would not apply to existing contracts . The Immigration Department said it would not reimburse levies , which are prepaid semiannually . The announcement resulted in confusion and uncertainty for workers . Before Tsang 's October policy address , Chris Yeung called the waiver a " gimmick dressed up as an economic relief initiative , designed to boost the administration 's popularity " .
Maids ' representatives said that when the waiver was announced , the guidelines were unclear and had no implementation date . Employers deferred contracts or dismissed workers pending confirmation of the effective date , leaving them in limbo . They protested the uncertainty , demanding an increase in their minimum wage to HK $ 4 @,@ 000 . Employers reportedly began terminating their helpers ' contracts , stoking fears of mass terminations . On 20 July Secretary for Labour and Welfare Matthew Cheung announced that the waiver commencement date would be moved up by one month , and the Immigration Department temporarily relaxed its 14 @-@ day re @-@ employment requirement for helpers whose contracts had expired .
On 30 July the Executive Council approved the suspension of the levy for two years , from 1 August 2008 to 31 July 2010 . After widespread criticism , the government said that maids with advanced contract renewals would not be required to leave Hong Kong ; employers would benefit from the waiver by renewing contracts within the two @-@ year period . According to the government , some employers could benefit from the waiver for up to four years . The effect of turning a two @-@ year moratorium into four @-@ year suspension was denounced by newspapers across the political spectrum , and the levy itself was called " farcical " in a South China Morning Post editorial . Stephen Vines wrote : " The plan for a two @-@ year suspension of the levy ... provides an almost perfect example of government dysfunction and arrogance " , and Albert Cheng said that the controversy exposed " worst side of our government bureaucracy " . Columnist Frank Ching criticised senior officials for living in ivory towers , and said that there would have been no disruption if the government had suspended payment immediately and repaid those who had prepaid . Hong Kong Human Rights Monitor called for the levy 's permanent abolition , saying that the temporary two @-@ year waiver was discriminatory and criticising the confusion and inconvenience caused to employers by the Immigration Department because the policy had not been thought through .
= = = Administrative crush = = =
On the morning of 1 August the Immigration Department issued 2 @,@ 180 passes to workers and agents to collect visas and submit applications to work in Hong Kong , promising to handle all applications submitted . Offices opened one hour earlier than usual , added staff and extended their hours to guarantee that all 2 @,@ 180 cases would be processed . The Philippine consulate also expected a large workload as a result of the rehiring provisions . Chinese newspapers published articles calculating how households could maximise their benefits under the waiver rules . Street protests on 3 August decried the waiver 's unfairness and its burden on the Immigration Department . According to one protester , the waiver would teach households how to use legal loopholes .
The West Kowloon Immigration office in Yau Ma Tei processed 5 @,@ 000 advance contract renewals and 7 @,@ 400 regular renewals in August 2008 . Despite the availability of online booking for slots at its five branch offices , the daily quota on the number of applications being processed resulted in overnight queues . Positions in the waiting line were illegally sold for up to HK $ 120 .
= = = = Legislative Council debate = = = =
The government was required to move an amendment in the Legislative Council ( LegCo ) to suspend the levy in accordance with the Executive Council decision . Faced with calls to abolish the levy , the government was adamantly opposed ; according to the Secretary for Labour and Welfare , the HK $ 5 billion fund would only support the Employment Retraining Board for four or five years if the levy was permanently waived .
Regina Ip began a campaign to abolish the levy , and tabled an amendment at LegCo . The government said that it would attempt to rule it out of order on the grounds that it would breach rule 31 ( 1 ) of the Rules of Procedures , which prohibit amendments impacting government revenue . Ip compared this stance with a 2005 High Court decision that the Employees ' Retraining Levy was not a tax . According to the government , a bill to abolish the levy would breach Article 74 of Hong Kong Basic Law and it would take Article 74 to the central government for interpretation . Legislators and commentators called this proposal a " nuclear bomb " , and a University of Hong Kong academic said that reinterpretation would be a " totally disproportionate ... route to resolve this dispute . "
Under pressure from legislators , the government ( through the Executive Council ) agreed to extend the levy 's suspension from two to five years . The amendment for the five @-@ year suspension , one of several proposed amendments to the Employees Retraining Ordinance Notice 2008 , was tabled by the Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong and would apply to first @-@ time and renewed contracts and visas issued between 1 August 2008 and 31 July 2013 .
= = Grievances = =
Foreign domestic workers and their supporters , including activists and employers , have periodically staged rallies protesting what they perceive as discriminatory treatment on the part of the Hong Kong government . Grievances include discrimination , the minimum wage and the two @-@ week stay limit at the end of a domestic worker 's employment contract . According to the Hong Kong Human Rights Monitor ( HKHRM ) , foreign domestic helpers face discrimination from the Hong Kong government and their employers .
A 2013 Amnesty International report on Indonesian migrant domestic workers , " Exploited For Profit , Failed By Governments – Indonesian Migrant Domestic Workers Trafficked To Hong Kong " , suggested that they may be the victims of serious human- and labour @-@ rights violations in Hong Kong and some regulations make the problem worse . Abuses noted by AI include confiscation of travel documents , lack of privacy , pay below the Minimum Allowable Wage and being " on call " at all hours . Many are subjected to physical and verbal abuse by their employers , and are forced to work seven days a week .
= = = Systemic exploitation = = =
Many migrant workers have little education , little knowledge of the law and their rights , and leave home to support their families . They fall victim to agents ( official and unofficial ) , unscrupulous officials and a lack of legal protection at home and in their host countries . The debts they incur to secure employment overseas may lock them in a cycle of abuse and exploitation .
There is criticism in the Philippines that the country is one of the biggest human traffickers in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations . In the Manila Standard , Alejandro Del Rosario criticised the government for continuing its 1960s policy of labour export instead of focussing on domestic production and job creation ( allowing the program to expand , contributing to the brain drain ) . Amnesty International suggests that a lack of oversight allows criminal syndicates to profit from foreign workers , who are often unaware of their legal rights in their host country . AI 's 2013 report alleges that many Indonesians are victims of forced human trafficking , and criticises the Indonesian and Hong Kong governments for having " failed to take adequate action to enforce domestic legislation in their own territories which could have protected migrant workers from trafficking , exploitation and forced labour ... In particular , they have not properly monitored , regulated or punished recruitment and placement agencies who are not complying with the law . "
In 2014 and 2015 several incidents involving worker mistreatment surfaced , indicating that employment agencies often neglect workers ' rights or are complicit in the cycle of abuse ; there have also been many instances of failure to provide service to employers . According to media reports , between 2009 and 2012 the Consumer Council in Hong Kong received nearly 800 complaints about agencies . Many complaints concerned workers who did not match the descriptions provided , to the extent that it was suspected that the agencies deliberately misrepresented the workers ' experience . The 2015 death of Elis Kurniasih , awaiting her work visa before beginning employment , exposed grey areas and legal loopholes in the Employment Agency Regulations ; Kurniasih was crushed to death by falling masonry at an agency boarding house in North Point . Worker protections against illegal fees , unsanitary accommodations and lack of insurance were criticised as inadequate .
= = = Right of abode = = =
Under the Immigration Ordinance a foreigner may be eligible to apply for permanent residency after having " ordinarily resided " in Hong Kong for seven continuous years , and thus enjoy the right of abode in Hong Kong . However , the definition of " ordinary residency " excludes ( amongst other groups ) those who lived in the territory as foreign domestic helpers ; this effectively denied foreign workers the rights of permanent residents ( including the right to vote ) , even if they had lived in Hong Kong for many years . Since 1997 , section 2 ( 4 ) of the Immigration Ordinance has stated that " a person shall not be treated as ordinarily resident in Hong Kong while employed as a domestic helper who is from outside Hong Kong " . In 2011 , the issue of foreign workers applying for Hong Kong residency was debated ; since one million families live under the poverty line in the territory , some political parties argued that Hong Kong has insufficient welfare funding to support 300 @,@ 000 foreign workers if they can apply for public housing and social @-@ welfare benefits . The Court of First Instance found in Vallejos v Commissioner of Registration that this definition of " ordinarily resident " contravenes Article 24 of the Basic Law . The latter stipulates , " Persons not of Chinese nationality who have entered Hong Kong with valid travel documents , have ordinarily resided in Hong Kong for a continuous period of not less than seven years and have taken Hong Kong as their place of permanent residence before or after the establishment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region " , feeding speculation that domestic helpers could obtain the right of abode . An appeal was made to the Court of Appeal of the High Court , which overturned the judgment of the Court of First Instance . The plaintiffs then appealed to the Court of Final Appeal , which ruled against them in a unanimous judgment .
= = = Two @-@ week rule = = =
The government requires foreign domestic helpers to leave Hong Kong within two weeks of the termination of their employment contract , unless they find another employer ( the two @-@ week rule ) . According to Hong Kong Human Rights Monitor , this is a form of discrimination against foreign domestic helpers ( who are almost all Southeast Asian ) ; this limitation is not enforced for other foreign workers . The two @-@ week rule has been condemned by two United Nations committees : the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women and the Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights .
According to human @-@ rights groups , the two @-@ week rule may pressure workers to remain with abusive employers . In 2005 , the UN Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights urged the government to " review the existing ' two @-@ week rule ' ... and to improv [ e ] the legal protection
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sixth round , Manchester City were again at home , and faced Reading , the only non @-@ Premier League team left in the competition . Micah Richards scored the only goal , a header from a corner in the 73rd minute . In the semi @-@ final , at Wembley Stadium , City defeated rivals Manchester United 1 – 0 with a Yaya Touré goal , and continued their FA Cup semi @-@ final record of nine victories out of 11 , reaching the FA Cup Final for the first time since 1981 .
= = = Stoke City = = =
Stoke are also a Premier League side and thus entered the competition at the third round stage , where they were drawn at home to Welsh side Cardiff City . Stoke City made seven changes to the team that played their previous match . Michael Chopra gave Cardiff an early lead , but Stoke 's Tuncay Şanlı levelled the score just before half time . Stoke had a number of chances in the later stages of the match , but Cardiff held out for a replay . In the replay at the Cardiff City Stadium Stoke again used several reserves , changing all but one of the players from the previous league match . Few chances occurred during the game ; the score was 0 – 0 after 90 minutes , prompting extra time . In the added period , Jonathan Walters scored twice to secure a 2 – 0 Stoke City win ; the first goal was a header from a corner , the second a near @-@ post rebound . Stoke City then travelled to fellow Midlands team Wolverhampton Wanderers for the fourth round , in one of five all @-@ Premier League ties . Stoke defender Robert Huth was a central figure in the match . Ten minutes from time he gave Stoke a 1 – 0 lead with a header from a free @-@ kick , but in the final minute he conceded a penalty for tripping Nenad Milijaš . Milijaš took the spot @-@ kick himself , but his effort was saved by Thomas Sørensen .
Stoke 's fifth round match was at home against League One leaders Brighton & Hove Albion . Three first half goals by John Carew , Jonathan Walters , Ryan Shawcross led Stoke to a 3 – 0 win . Stoke then faced West Ham United in the sixth round . Stoke scored an early goal from a set @-@ piece , when long throw @-@ in specialist Rory Delap delivered the ball into the penalty area for Huth to score with a header . Controversial refereeing decisions then provoked the ire of both teams . When Frédéric Piquionne equalised for West Ham , the decision to award the goal infuriated Stoke ; in controlling the ball Piquionne committed what Stoke manager Tony Pulis called a " stonewall " handball . West Ham themselves felt aggrieved in the first minute of the second half when Stoke were awarded a penalty . Matthew Etherington was adjudged to have been fouled by Scott Parker though , as the BBC correspondent wrote , " there appeared to be minimal contact " . Robert Green saved Etherington 's penalty to keep the score level . The winning goal also came from a set piece . Danny Higginbotham 's free @-@ kick was reached by Green but could not be stopped , and Stoke won 2 – 1 to reach the semi @-@ finals for the first time since 1972 . In the semi @-@ final , Stoke beat Bolton Wanderers comfortably , winning 5 – 0 . Stoke took a three @-@ goal lead in less than half an hour after goals from Etherington , Huth and Kenwyne Jones . Walters scored twice in the second half to complete the win . The margin of victory was the biggest in an FA Cup semi @-@ final since 1939 , and secured Stoke 's first ever FA Cup Final appearance . By reaching the final , Stoke qualified for the 2011 – 12 UEFA Europa League before the final , as Manchester City had beat Tottenham days before the final to secure fourth position in the Premier League and consequently Champions League qualification .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
Manchester City were appearing in the final for the ninth time . They had won the cup four times previously ( in 1904 , 1934 , 1956 and 1969 ) , and had been beaten in the final four times ( in 1926 , 1933 , 1955 and 1981 ) . Stoke City were making their first appearance in the final . Their previous best was participation in the semi @-@ finals , which had occurred three times .
The 2011 final faced scheduling problems . The match clashed with top flight League fixtures for the first time since 1934 , which disappointed football traditionalists . The 2011 UEFA Champions League Final was being hosted at Wembley on 28 May 2011 and UEFA rules stipulate that the host stadium for the final must not have a fixture played two weeks prior to the final . Therefore , the FA Cup final had to be moved forward , and for the first time since 1989 was played before the English football domestic season ended .
Many of the weekend 's Premier League fixtures were rescheduled to avoid a clash with the final , with some kicking off at 12 : 45 on Saturday and others on Sunday . By coincidence , Manchester City and Stoke City were scheduled to meet in the league on cup final day . The league match was rearranged for the Wednesday after the final . This prompted criticism from Tottenham Hotspur manager Harry Redknapp , whose team was challenging Manchester City for a place in the 2011 – 12 Champions League . Redknapp stated that if Manchester City won the final , it would then be in Stoke City 's interest to lose against Manchester City in the league match , as it would make Europa League qualification for Stoke more likely . Stoke City refuted this accusation strongly , but ultimately this scenario was avoided . Champions League qualification was settled four days before the final , when Manchester City beat Tottenham Hotspur 1 – 0 in a league match .
Both clubs received an allocation of approximately 25 @,@ 000 tickets , fewer than the 32 @,@ 000 received for the semi @-@ finals . The allocation was enough for the 21 @,@ 000 Stoke City season ticket holders , but not for Manchester City 's 36 @,@ 000 season ticket holders . Consequently , some supporters felt aggrieved at the lack of tickets , including Stoke City chairman Peter Coates who expressed his disappointment and suggested an allocation in the region of 30 @,@ 000 for both clubs . Ticket prices for the final exceeded £ 100 for the first time . The most expensive tickets cost £ 115 , an increase of 22 per cent on the previous season . The cheapest tickets available at £ 45 , up £ 5 from 2010 .
As for every match in the 2010 – 11 FA Cup , the ball for the final was provided by Nike @-@ owned , Manchester @-@ based sports equipment company Umbro . The Umbro Neo Pro features a 14 @-@ panel design , and is patterned in blue and red . The majority of the balls to be used in the game arrived on the previous Wednesday , while the ball to be used at kick @-@ off was delivered to the stadium on the day of the game .
The traditional Cup Final hymn , " Abide with Me " , was sung by Tenors Unlimited , a trio of male vocalists , and former X Factor contestant Stacey Solomon performed the national anthem , " God Save the Queen " .
= = Match = =
Stoke City went into their first FA Cup Final as underdogs according to their manager Tony Pulis , while Manchester City manager Roberto Mancini saw in @-@ form Stoke 's underdog tag as a risk for complacency from his side . There were fitness doubts over key players for both teams , Carlos Tevez for Manchester City , and Matthew Etherington for Stoke City , who suffered a hamstring tear only 17 days prior to the final , but both were able to start the match . However , Stoke City 's underdog tag proved true as Mancini 's Manchester City side had the better of the match , with a 59 per cent share of ball possession and 23 attempts on goal to Stoke City 's nine , only one of which was on target .
Both teams were able to play in their respective home colours without any colour clash : Stoke City played in their red @-@ and @-@ white stripes , and Manchester City played in their sky blue colours with the Manchester coat of arms on their shirt numbers , keeping up a long @-@ standing club tradition of wearing the city 's coat of arms for cup finals .
= = = Report = = =
Manchester City set up in a 4 – 2 – 3 – 1 formation , with Mario Balotelli , David Silva and Yaya Touré playing behind lone striker Carlos Tevez , and Nigel de Jong and Gareth Barry in defensive midfield roles . Stoke City set up in a rigid 4 – 4 – 2 formation , with two wingers in Jermaine Pennant and Matthew Etherington to support strikers Kenwyne Jones and Jonathan Walters .
Manchester City started sprightly , managing to create some chances which forced saves from Stoke goalkeeper Thomas Sørensen and steady defending to keep Stoke City in the game in the first half . Yaya Touré unleashed a 30 @-@ yard strike in the 11th minute which went only inches wide of the top corner of the goal , while Mario Balotelli had a curling shot from the corner of the penalty area in the 24th minute which was destined for the goal but for a strong , one @-@ handed save from Sørensen .
Stoke improved after the break , but Manchester City had a key opportunity in the 56th minute when a counter @-@ attack led by Carlos Tevez , who drifted out to the right flank , allowed David Silva to find space outside the Stoke City penalty area as the Stoke defence vanished . Tevez managed to pass to Silva , but Silva was guilty of over @-@ elaboration instead of shooting first @-@ time , and the Stoke City defence managed to regroup , dispossessing Silva before he could adjust himself to shoot at goal .
Only six minutes later , in the 62nd minute , Stoke had their key chance and only shot on target of the match with Kenwyne Jones in the 61st minute . A looping ball over the top of the Manchester City defence by Matthew Etherington allowed Jones a one @-@ on @-@ one , but he failed to convert , firing straight at goalkeeper Joe Hart with the ball ricocheting off both striker and keeper before bobbling to safety . Doubts over Matthew Etherington 's fitness resurfaced when he was taken off in the 63rd minute , with Stoke City still in the game at 0 – 0 as it stood .
However , in the 74th minute , Sørensen was powerless to prevent Yaya Touré 's effort from ten yards when he pounced on a stray ball in the penalty area to thrash his thunderous shot with his left foot past Sørensen in front of the travelling thousands of Manchester City supporters . Stoke City attempted to get a goal back , resorting to direct long balls into the Manchester City penalty area but struggled to create any concrete chances . Despite Yaya Touré clinching the winning goal , enigmatic striker Mario Balotelli – who claimed he had a " shit " season in a post @-@ match interview – was named man of the match for his efforts .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Tony Pulis commented after the game that " Manchester City were the better team " and that " they deserved to win the game " , while Roberto Mancini dedicated the victory to the Manchester City supporters . Pundits Graham Taylor and Mark Lawrenson agreed that Manchester City deserved to win but expressed disappointment at Stoke City 's under @-@ par performance in the final .
As President of the FA since 2006 , Prince William , Duke of Cambridge is a frequent guest of honour at the FA Cup final , attending the 2007 and 2010 finals , but his recent marriage to Catherine , Duchess of Cambridge meant he could not attend . Instead , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , David Cameron awarded the medals to individual players at Wembley Stadium . Presenting the trophy was British Army Corporal Mark Ward , a lifelong Manchester City supporter who served in Afghanistan and whose bravery was rewarded with the Military Cross . Corporal Ward presented the trophy to the winning captain , Carlos Tevez , after the game .
Manchester City 's victory set up a Community Shield match against rivals Manchester United – who City had beaten in the semi @-@ finals – after United clinched the Premier League shortly before kick @-@ off in the Final . The FA Cup winners are usually awarded qualification for the UEFA Europa League , but because Manchester City qualified for the UEFA Champions League via their league position , the Europa League place was passed to Stoke City as runners @-@ up . In the 2011 FA Community Shield match in August , the FA Cup winners Manchester City lost 3 – 2 to Manchester United after creating a 2 – 0 lead at half time .
Manchester United winning the 2010 – 11 Premier League title earlier in the day meant double pride for Manchester as its teams claimed both of English football 's blue ribbon competitions . Some football pundits debated whether the joint win – along with City 's qualification for the Champions League – would mark the start of new era similar to the late 1960s when both City and United dominated English football ; during that period , both clubs won the league championship once , with United winning the European Cup and City winning the FA Cup , League Cup and European Cup Winners ' Cup within four years . The ' 35 years ' banner that had stood at Old Trafford , home of Manchester United which referenced to Manchester City 's long trophy drought , was taken down in recognition of City 's victory .
The match was broadcast live in the United Kingdom by both ITV and ESPN , with ITV providing the free @-@ to @-@ air coverage and ESPN being the pay @-@ TV alternative . Television viewing figures were collated after the final , with a peak of 8 @.@ 5 million viewers recorded across both channels . ITV held the majority of the viewership , with a peak audience of 8 @.@ 1 million during the last 30 minutes of the final and averaged at 6 @.@ 68 million , their highest viewing figures for an FA Cup since the competition moved to ITV from the BBC in 2009 . The pay @-@ to @-@ view alternative ESPN averaged 412 @,@ 000 viewers throughout the day with a peak of 476 @,@ 000 .
Manchester City and Stoke City had been scheduled to play in a Premier League fixture on the day of the FA Cup Final , but instead the match had to be moved to the following Tuesday , making it the last mid @-@ week game of the Premier League season , a match Manchester City won , 3 – 0 . Despite it being Manchester City 's final home game of the season , they postponed their homecoming celebrations until the post @-@ season out of respect for the opposition .
Manchester City elected not to parade the trophy at the match as they did not wish to be seen as ' crass ' in front of the visiting Stoke City supporters . Instead , Manchester City were invited by Manchester City Council to host an open @-@ top bus parade through the City of Manchester in celebration of their victory . The parade took place on 23 May 2011 and began at 18 : 00 starting at Albert Square outside Manchester Town Hall where 10 @,@ 000 people were present to see the team set off on the bus parade with various streets of the city centre closed by 12 : 00 in preparation for the parade . The open @-@ top bus then travelled out of Manchester city centre via Princess Street , Portland Street , Piccadilly Gardens , Newton Street on onto Great Ancoats Street . The parade finally reached Ashton New Road where thousands supporters were waiting at the gates of the City of Manchester Stadium to welcome the team home . The parade culminated in a special reception at the stadium , where 40 @,@ 000 who claimed free tickets for the event were waiting . Greater Manchester Police estimated that the parade attracted a crowd in excess of 100 @,@ 000 .
= Dungeons & Dragons ( album ) =
Dungeons & Dragons is a studio album by Midnight Syndicate , released August 12 ,
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2003 by Entity Productions . The album is designed as a soundtrack to the role @-@ playing game Dungeons & Dragons and was produced by Midnight Syndicate at the request of Wizards of the Coast , the company which owns the rights to the Dungeons & Dragons franchise . Midnight Syndicate were approached by game designers at a gaming convention where they had set up stall , and they agreed to produce the album .
After an initial meeting with Wizards of the Coast , the two members of Midnight Syndicate — Edward Douglas and Gavin Goszka — were left to write and produce the album themselves . They went their separate ways and produced tracks independently of one another , but came back together to arrange the album and master the tracks . The album was a change in style for Midnight Syndicate , because most of it had a fantasy feel , whereas their earlier works had been almost entirely horror @-@ based . Artwork within the album booklet came from Dungeons & Dragons sourcebooks , including works from prominent game designers such as Skip Williams . The album was well received by Wizards of the Coast , with positive reviews from music critics and the gaming community . It is reputedly the only official Dungeons & Dragons soundtrack .
= = Conception and production = =
According to Bob Ignizio of Utter Trash , an ezine featuring " music , movies and more " , Midnight Syndicate 's older albums had already been used as background music to role @-@ playing sessions for many years . Wizards of the Coast described the band 's music as " the perfect accompaniment to role @-@ playing game sessions " . Support for Midnight Syndicate 's music as a role @-@ playing aid grew so much that the band decided to set up stalls at gaming conventions . At their first convention , Midnight Syndicate was approached by Wizards of the Coast , which subsequently asked if they would be interested in recording an official soundtrack , to which they agreed .
Before the band started writing or recording music they sat down with the Dungeons & Dragons designers who informed them of several elements that were essential on the album . According to Ed Stark , special project manager of Wizards of the Coast , this consisted of " a chase scene and a fight scene and things like that " . This was new to the band who had never written music to fit someone else 's ideas before . Stark said , however , that " ... they really got that . We were very impressed , because we 're in sort of a niche industry , and we 're not always used to people getting exactly what we need right away " . After this , the band was mostly left to deal with the music themselves . The designers were already familiar with Midnight Syndicate 's music and knew what to expect from the album . As inspiration for earlier albums had sometimes come from Dungeons & Dragons gaming sessions , Douglas said that writing the album came very naturally .
After the initial meeting with game designers , the album was written in the same way Midnight Syndicate conventionally write . First , Douglas and Goszka agreed on the setting they were trying to create with the album and then filled in details about the setting . Once this was done , they worked on music separately , in their own different studios . They remained in contact throughout the writing process to ensure that their work was cohesive and appropriate for the album . Once writing was complete , they worked together on arranging , mastering and mixing the tracks .
Douglas said that , for him , instrument choice came naturally and that " sounds and sometimes even melodies fall in line themselves " . The band had a wide number of instruments at their disposal , as all the music is produced on synthesizers . To ensure Douglas stayed true to creating the musical landscape he intended , his studio was covered with Dungeons & Dragons artwork and module covers throughout recording .
Joseph Vargo , executive producer on Midnight Syndicate 's albums Born of the Night and Realm of Shadows , as well as the author of LegionoftheNight.com , says that he was the one who initiated the first contact between Wizards of the Coast and the band . Vargo claims that , in 1999 , he sent a copy of Born of the Night to Dungeons & Dragons game designer Jason Carl , at the time employed by TSR , who described the album as " terrific gaming music " . Vargo also says that he sent a copy of Realm of Shadows to Carl a year later , and this communication helped forge the link between the band and Dungeons & Dragons game designers .
= = = First soundtrack = = =
Wizards of the Coast claimed that the album was the first official Dungeons & Dragons soundtrack , one that was mirrored by other groups , including Metropolis Mail Order , GamingReport.com and Skirmisher Game Store . It was not , however , the first official Dungeons & Dragons music . Years earlier another album , First Quest : The Music , was released by Filmtrax and licensed by TSR , then owners of Dungeons and Dragons , for Advanced Dungeons & Dragons . The album was released both as a cassette and a record and came with a pre @-@ printed module . Both formats proved unpopular and are difficult to find today . The music on First Quest was keyed specifically to the module that came with it , rather than as a soundtrack to the game in general .
= = Musical style = =
According to Mario Mesquita Borges of Allmusic , Midnight Syndicate typically create " darkly blended compositions " , described both as " gloomy " and " brooding " . Leonard Pickel of Haunted Attraction Magazine stated that " each year , the band 's music becomes more a part of America 's Halloween culture " , and stated that the band had " literally formed their own musical genre " . For Douglas , however , Dungeons & Dragons was a different style of music from other albums and soundtracks that the band had produced . Originally , he had described Midnight Syndicate 's music as " Gothic Nightmare Soundtracks " , but claimed that Dungeons & Dragons had a more fantasy feel than previous releases which focused more on horror , meaning that he now describes the band 's music as " Gothic Fantasy Nightmare Soundtracks " . Chris Harvey of Movement Magazine — a magazine supporting " underground " music and arts — described the album as being symphonic , which he claimed added to the feel of the album . Sounds were also sampled , including the sounds of battle on " Final Confrontation " , and spoken words in " Craft of the Wizard " .
Peter @-@ Jan Van Damme , owner of the alternative music ezine Darker than the Bat , described Dungeons & Dragons as going more in the direction of contemporary classical composers such as Trevor Jones , while still retaining the horror sound typical of Midnight Syndicate . The album has been categorized into many genres by various reviewers , including neoclassical , Gothic ambient , ethereal , and Gothic rock .
= = Reception = =
Wizards of the Coast were happy with the resulting album with Anthony Valterra , RPG category manager , saying that Midnight Syndicate " have succeeded at capturing the magic of D & D through music " . Numerous critics picked up on the idea that new subject matter had resulted in a new feel for the music , with reviewers claiming that the fantasy influence had given the album a different sound to Midnight Syndicate 's classic Gothic horror soundtracks . An unnamed writer for the now defunct Living Dead Girls ezine said that Dungeons & Dragons " brings a wider range of songs than Midnight Syndicate produces for their Gothic horror soundtracks " , meaning the album " displays for the first time the diversity and musical craft [ of which ] Midnight Syndicate is capable " . GamingReport.com claimed that the album " furthered the band 's establishment as the leading producer / supplier of music to the hobby game industry " . The band became the best @-@ selling role @-@ playing game soundtrack ever in its first month of release , and Leonard Pickel of Haunted Attraction Magazine claimed that the album helped spread the band 's popularity to Europe where " Halloween and Haunted Attractions are just beginning to take hold " .
The album was criticized by Marc Shayed , of hobby gaming news site GamingReport.com , for focusing too much on combat and ambiance . He explained that there was only one track that felt triumphant and no tracks suitable for traveling or character " down time " , which are standards in fantasy gaming . Despite these perceived gaps , he did call it the " ultimate " gaming soundtrack . The album was further criticized by Gene Vogal of the National Gamers Guild who said that it lacked a lot of the " oomph " that Vampyre had , and thought Wizards of the Coast may have been to blame for it . He did think its being composed explicitly for D & D made it superior to music not specifically composed for games ( e.g. film soundtracks ) as a gaming aid . He criticized the soundtrack for being less original than Vampyre , and sounding much like The Lord of the Rings soundtracks .
= = Personnel = =
The album was written and produced by Edward Douglas and Gavin Goszka , the only two members of Midnight Syndicate . The album 's graphical design was executed by Mark Rakocy and Jeff Visgaitis , with " additional design " credited to " Stan ! " The album heralded a change in production in that it was the first album in which the band hired a professional writer to write the descriptions in the album booklet and the blurb . Before this point the descriptions had been written by Douglas or by Joseph Vargo , who had been responsible for artwork in some earlier albums . Artwork for the album was taken from Dungeons & Dragons role @-@ playing sourcebooks . Douglas said that he was " a huge fan of Dungeons & Dragons artwork , so having free reign [ sic ] on that material was fun " . This artwork was praised by Gene Vogal who described it as " one plus to the possible Wizards of the Coast interference " and said that the " CD jacket was done very nicely and has some cool artwork throughout " . The album contains artwork by game designers Todd Lockwood and Skip Williams , as well as from artists Scott Fischer , Brian Snoddy , Lars Grant @-@ West , Wayne Reynolds , Mark Tedin , and Sam Wood .
= = Track listing = =
There is a final 36 @-@ second bonus track , which sometimes receives no title , and sometimes is named " BOTCH ! " The Midnight Syndicate website does not mention the track at all . It is a joke track in which a hapless D & D player summons something from the game into the real world . Chris Harvey of Movement Magazine found the dice @-@ rolling sound effects " hilarious " .
= Operation Kita =
Operation Kita ( 北号作戦 , Hoku @-@ gō sakusen , " North " ) was conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during the Pacific War in February 1945 . Its purpose was to return two Ise @-@ class hybrid battleship @-@ aircraft carriers and four escort ships to Japan from Singapore , where they had been based since November the previous year . The movement of the Japanese force was detected by the Allies , but all attempts to attack it with submarines and aircraft failed . Nevertheless , as a result of the intensifying Allied blockade of Japan , the Ise @-@ class battleship @-@ carriers and their escorts were among the last IJN warships to safely reach the country from the Southwest Pacific before the end of the war .
Before departing Singapore , the Japanese ships , which were designated the Completion Force , were loaded with supplies of oil and other important raw materials . This formed part of an effort to run increased quantities of supplies through the Allied blockade of Japan before the country was cut off from its empire . The Allies had learned of the Completion Force 's composition and goals through intelligence gained from decrypting Japanese radio signals , and plans were developed for coordinated attacks on it by submarines and United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) aircraft . As part of these preparations , 26 submarines were eventually positioned along the ships ' expected route .
The Completion Force sailed on 10 February 1945 and was sighted leaving port by a Royal Navy submarine . However , attempts by it and several United States Navy submarines to attack between 11 and 14 February were unsuccessful . More than 88 USAAF aircraft attempted to bomb the Completion Force on 13 and 14 February , but were unable to do so because of bad weather . A further submarine attack on 16 February did not damage any of the Japanese ships . As a result , the Completion Force reached its destination of Kure in Japan on 20 February without having suffered any casualties . Despite this success , the Japanese Government was forced to discontinue its efforts to ship oil from Southeast Asia to Japan in March due to the heavy losses Allied submarines were inflicting on oil tankers , and all the ships of the Completion Force were sunk in or near Japanese home waters before the end of the war .
= = Background = =
During 1944 , Allied submarine attacks effectively cut off the supply of oil from Southeast Asia to Japan and greatly reduced Japanese imports of other commodities . By this stage of the war , the oil reserves in Japan had been largely depleted . U.S. Navy submarines sank many Japanese warships during 1944 , including the battleship Kongō , seven aircraft carriers , two heavy and seven light cruisers . In early 1945 , the Japanese Government assessed that all convoy routes from the south would eventually be cut , and attempted to supplement the supplies of oil brought in by tankers by loading drums of oil on freighters . Several IJN aircraft carriers were also used to transport drums of oil from Singapore to Japan . On 11 November 1944 , the two Ise @-@ class hybrid battleship @-@ aircraft carriers — Ise and Hyūga , which were grouped as Carrier Division 4 and under the command of Rear Admiral Matsuda Chiaki — sailed from the Japanese home islands to join the main body of the IJN in the Southwest Pacific . This deployment was made to both reinforce the remaining elements of the IJN in the area and place the ships near a source of fuel . During their voyage from Japan , each of the battleship @-@ carriers was loaded with about 1 @,@ 000 short tons ( 910 t ) of munitions for the units defending Manila in the Philippines . Due to heavy Allied air attacks on Manila , the two warships unloaded their supplies in the Spratly Islands from 14 November . They sailed for Lingga Roads near Singapore on the 20th of the month and arrived there two days later . The Allies learned from intelligence gained by decrypting Japanese radio signals that the battleship @-@ carriers had sailed . Allied submarines were ordered to keep watch for the ships , but did not intercept Ise or Hyūga during their voyage to Singapore . The two battleship @-@ carriers were deployed to Cam Ranh Bay in Indochina during December and returned to Singapore on 11 January 1945 . The U.S. Third Fleet raided the South China Sea between 10 and 20 January in search of the Japanese fleet , but did not locate Ise or Hyūga .
= = Preparations = =
In early February 1945 , Ise , Hyūga and an escort of smaller warships received orders to sail to Japan in what was designated Operation Kita . The goal of this operation was to return some of the IJN warships in the Southwest Pacific to Japan loaded with important supplies . The ships selected to accompany the battleship @-@ carriers were the light cruiser Ōyodo ( which became part of Carrier Division 4 from 10 February ) and destroyers Asashimo , Hatsushimo and Kasumi . Carrier Division 4 and its escorts was designated the Completion Force .
The ships of the Completion Force departed the Lingga Roads on 6 February and began loading their cargoes in Singapore the next day . Shortly before docking , Ise sustained a small amount of damage when she struck a mine which had been dropped by Allied aircraft . During the Completion Force 's period at Singapore all six ships were loaded with supplies and Ise received temporary repairs . Hyūga embarked 4 @,@ 944 drums of aviation gasoline as well as 326 drums of standard gasoline and 440 oil field workers . Ise was loaded with 5 @,@ 200 drums of aviation gasoline and 551 oil workers ; each of the battleship @-@ carriers also embarked 1 @,@ 750 short tons ( 1 @,@ 590 t ) of rubber , 1 @,@ 750 short tons of tin and 200 short tons ( 180 t ) of other metals . Ōyodo was loaded with 120 short tons ( 110 t ) of tin , 70 short tons ( 64 t ) of tungsten , 70 tons of aviation gasoline , 50 short tons ( 45 t ) of rubber , 40 short tons ( 36 t ) of zinc and 20 short tons ( 18 t ) of mercury . A further 140 short tons ( 130 t ) of rubber and tin was split among the three destroyers .
Through code breaking , Allied intelligence was aware of the Completion Force 's composition and objectives . Allied signals intelligence units carefully monitored radio transmissions in the Singapore region , and the resulting " Ultra " intelligence provided details of the two battleship @-@ carriers ' movements to Singapore , preparations to return to Japan and planned route . The commander of Allied submarines in the South @-@ West Pacific Area ( Task Force 71 ) , Rear Admiral James Fife , Jr . , placed a high priority on stopping Ise and Hyūga from reaching Japan , and stationed 15 submarines along their expected route . A plan for coordinated attacks on the ships by the U.S. Navy and USAAF was developed . At the time , the U.S. Seventh Fleet was assigned four battleships in Filipino waters to guard the Allied beachhead at Lingayen Gulf in Luzon against attacks by the Japanese forces based at Lingga Roads and the Inland Sea until the USAAF forces in the region were strong enough to assume this responsibility . As of early February , the USAAF units in the Philippines were focused on supporting the United States Army – led Philippines Campaign and attacking Japanese facilities in Formosa . An intensive campaign against Japanese shipping in the South China Sea had been planned , but was yet to begin .
= = Voyage = =
The Completion Force sailed from Singapore on the evening of 10 February . The timing of its departure was set by a long @-@ term forecast of bad weather for the voyage to Japan . The British submarine HMS Tantalus observed the ships leaving port and attempted to attack them on 11 February , but
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bergen Treaty .
In 1919 , now already sixty years old , he got the chance to put his preachings on Dutch foreign policy into practice . In that year the Dutch government appointed him Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Romania , a country in the throes of political and economic transformation . The Dutch had had important business interests in the country , especially in petroleum . Muller stayed here until early 1924 when he was appointed envoy to Czechoslovakia . In Prague he was also involved in Dutch business affairs , inter alia looking after the interests of the Dutch electrotechnical firm Philips .
He resigned his post in 1932 after being requested to step back by the Dutch minister of Foreign Affairs , who wished to free some senior diplomatic posts for younger diplomats waiting to be appointed envoy . Muller decided not take his pension , allowing him to keep his title of Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary until his death .
= = = Dutch history and heritage = = =
From an early age Muller was interested in Dutch history , especially in the great national achievements of the Dutch during the centuries . During his lifetime Muller translated his interests in several concrete projects .
In line with his historical interests he initiated the erection of a statue for the murdered Grand Pensionary of Holland , Johan de Witt ( 1625 – 1672 ) . The statue was designed and made by the Dutch sculptor Frederik Engel Jeltsema . The unveiling in The Hague on 12 June 1918 was a national event . The actual unveiling was done by Queen Wilhelmina , with several ministers in attendance . The statue stands close to the place where De Witt and his brother Cornelis were killed by a mob in 1672 . On the side of the socle a text is engraved which – in translation – reads : ' Leader and servant of the Republic , designer of it most powerful fleets , defender of the freedom of the seas , caretaker of the State 's coffers , mathematician . He was a perfect Dutchman . ' Muller had an important hand in the formulation of the text .
Muller funded the erection of a plaque in honour of the Dutch seventeenth @-@ century admiral Maarten Harpertsz . Tromp in the newly built City Hall of his birthplace Rotterdam .
= = = Retirement = = =
In the years after 1932 Muller travelled a little around Europe and retired to his house in The Hague . He remained involved in cultural and academic activities , organised his papers , and kept a keen interest in South African affairs . In the last years of his life he was honoured in several ways , among others with an honorary doctorate in law from the University of South Africa , a bust in the hall of the Eeufeesgebou of the University of the Free State , with a copy in the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde ( National Museum of Ethnology ) in Leiden , and an honorary diner party by the Royal Geographical Society in London . Without children and never fully reconciled with his family , Muller left almost his complete estate to the Dr. Hendrik Muller 's Vaderlandsch Fonds for the support of academic research and cultural heritage . Finally his health failed more and more and H.P.N. Muller died in his house in The Hague on 11 August 1941 . He was buried in the cemetery of Oud Eik en Duinen in The Hague in a grand ceremony , with the Dutch flag covering the coffin and the national anthem being played , in defiance of the German Nazi occupation and as a – somewhat old @-@ fashioned – celebration of Dutch cultural identity . Among the attendants were several former government ministers and high @-@ ranking military officers , university professors , former diplomats , representatives of cultural and scientific organisations , and friends from his South African period and after .
During his lifetime H.P.N. Muller was well respected for his work . He was extensively decorated by almost all the countries he worked for or in , in many cases with the highest distinction . He was made a Knight Grand Cross in military and civilian orders of Portugal , Liberia , Romania , Bulgaria , Serbia , Czechoslovakia and the Netherlands , was commander of the French Legion of Honour , and knight in orders of Liberia , Annam and the Netherlands . Apart from having his bust placed in the University of the Free State , the Bloemfontein municipal authorities named a street after him .
Although highly decorated , honoured and well respected for his work , Muller was not an easy person . This shows through in a consistently bad press he received during his lifetime and after , which highlights his eccentricities and his at times volatile character .
= = Memberships = =
Muller was a member of several societies and associations :
Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society of Great Britain
Member and honorary member of the Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap ( Royal Netherlands Geographical Society )
Member and Director of the Hollandsche Akademie van Wetenschappen
Member of the Maatschappij der Nederlandsche Letterkunde ( Netherlands Literary Society )
Member and board member of the Nederlandsche Zuid @-@ Afrikaansche Vereeniging ( Netherlands – South African Society )
Honorary member of the Nederlandsche Vereeniging voor den Volkszang ( Dutch Society for the Propagation of Community Singing )
Member of the freemason 's lodge Hiram Abiff in The Hague ( 1897 – ? ) ( possibly only briefly )
Member of the Nieuwe of Littéraire Sociëteit De Witte ( New or Literary Club De ' Witte ' ) in The Hague 1894 – 1941
= = Pseudonyms = =
He sometomes used these names , with or without ' Dr. ' added :
Hendrik Muller van Rijckevorsel ( 1880s – 1900s ; added surname of his mother )
Hendrik de Warssel van Cingelshouck ( since 1911 ; pen @-@ name )
Hendrik Muller van Werendycke ( since c . 1919 while acting as Dutch envoy )
= = Honours = =
Domestic
Grand Cross in the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau of the Netherlands ( 1935 )
Knight in the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Foreign
Liberia 1897 : Grand Commander ( Grand Cross ) in the Humane Order of African Redemption
Japan : Grand Cordon in the Order of the Rising Sun of Japan
Bulgaria 1921 : Grand Cross in the Order of Civil Merit of Bulgaria
Romania 1922 : Grand Cross in the Order of the Crown of Romania
Romania 1922 : Grand Cross in the Order of the Star of Romania
Yugoslavia 1922 : Grand Cross in the Order of St. Sava of Yugoslavia
Czechoslovakia 1932 : Grand Cross in the Order of the White Lion of Czechoslovakia
Liberia 1890 : Knight Commander in the Humane Order of African Redemption of Liberia
France 1929 : Commander in the Legion of Honor of France
Russia : Knight 1st class in the Order of St. Anna of Russia
Viet Nam : Knight 3rd class in the Order of the Dragon of Annam
Belgium : Knight in the Order of Léopold of Belgium
Portugal : Knight in the Order of Christ of Portugal
= = Concise bibliography = =
During his life , H.P.N. Muller published well over 200 books , articles , columns , and papers . Many of these – especially his newspaper articles – were published anonymously . Many of the ( propaganda ) articles he wrote about the South African War when he was consul general for the Orange Free State were published secretly , often under another journalist 's or newspaper editor 's name , to maximise the public relations effect .
This bibliography only lists Muller 's main book publications and some key articles .
Muller , Hendrik P.N. , Zuid @-@ Afrika . Reisherinneringen van Hendrik P.N. Muller . De Delagoa @-@ Baai . – Natal . – De Transvaal . – De Diamantvelden . – De Oranje @-@ Vrijstaat . – De Kaapkolonie ( Leiden : A.W. Sijthoff , 1890 ) .
Muller , Hendrik P.N. & Joh . F. Snelleman , Industrie des Cafres du sud @-@ est de l ’ Afrique : collection recueillie sur les lieux et notice ethnographique ( Leiden : Brill z.j. [ 1892 ] ) . With addition : Chansons du Zambèse .
Muller , Hendrik Pieter Nicolaas , Land und Volk zwischen Zambesi und Limpopo : Abschnitte . Dissertation Giessen ( Giessen : Emil Roth 1894 ) .
Muller , Hendrik P.N. , Land und Leute zwischen Zambesi und Limpopo ( Giessen : Roth z.j. [ 1894 ] ) . Commercial edition of the dissertation .
Muller , H.P.N. , De Zuid @-@ Afrikaansche Republiek en Rhodesia ( Den Haag : Van Stockum 1896 ) .
Muller , Hendr . P.N. , Oom Paul ( president Kruger ) . Mannen en vrouwen van beteekenis in onze dagen ; [ serie 27 ] , afl . 6 ( Haarlem : Tjeenk Willink 1896 ) .
Muller , Dr. Hendrik P.N. , Door het land van Columbus : een reisverhaal ( Haarlem : De Erven F. Bohn 1905 ) .
Muller , Dr. Hendrik P.N. , Oude tijden in den Oranje @-@ Vrijstaat . Naar Mr. H.A.L. Hamelberg ’ s nagelaten papieren beschreven ( Leiden : E.J. Brill 1907 ) .
Muller , Hendrik P.N. , Azië gespiegeld : reisverhaal en studiën . Deel I : De Philippijnen , Siam , Frans
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ch Indo @-@ China , Korea , Mantsjoerije , de Siberische weg : reisverhaal en studiën ( Utrecht : Honig 1912 ) .
Muller , H.P.N. , ‘ Did Holland sell the Cape ? ’ , Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlands Aardrijkskundig Genootschap 2e serie , deel 33 ( 1916 ) , afl . 5 , 661 – 664 .
Muller , Hendrik , ‘ Onze vaderen in China ’ , De Gids 81 ( 1917 ) .
Muller , Hendrik P.N. , Azië gespiegeld : reisverhaal en studiën . Deel II : Malakka en China : studiën en ervaringen ( Leiden : Sijthoff 1918 ) .
Muller , Hendrik P.N. , Zij en Wij . Met ‘ beginselverklaring en perscirculaire der Japansche Commissie ’ en met een voorwoord door J.H. Abendanon . Uitgaven van de Japansche Commissie der Vereeniging tot Verbreiding van Kennis over Nederland in den Vreemde ( Amsterdam : E. van der Vecht , 1918 ) .
Muller , Hendrik , ‘ Nederland ’ s historische rechten op Spitsbergen ’ , Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap 2e serie , deel 34 ( 1919 ) no . 1 , 94 – 104 .
= = = Literature = = =
Doortmont , Michel R. , ‘ H.P.N. Muller als etnograaf en vroege Nederlandse Afrikanist ’ , in : E.O.G. Haitsma Mulier , L.H. Maas & J. Vogel ( eds . ) , Het beeld in the spiegel . Historiografische verkenningen . Liber amicorum voor Piet Blaas ( Hilversum : Verloren 2000 ) 39 – 56 . Digital version : H.P.N. Muller als etnograaf en vroege Nederlandse Afrikanist ( H.P.N. Muller as ethnographer and early Dutch Africanist ; in Dutch ) .
Doortmont , Michel R. , The collection Dr. Hendrik P.N. Muller in the Provincial Archives of the Free State , Bloemfontein , South Africa ( Acquisitions No. 160 ) . A reconstructed catalogue and research guide ( Groningen : DoortmontWEB 2008 ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 90 @-@ 367 @-@ 3358 @-@ 8 .
Marken , J.C. van , ' Ter nagedachtenis van Dr. Hendrik P.N. Muller ' , Het Vaderland 16 August 1941 .
[ Muller , Hendrik & C.E. Muller ] , Het geslacht Muller ( Müller ) uit Gerolsheim ( n.p. n.d. [ 1951 ] ) .
Muller , Hendrik , Muller , Een Rotterdams zeehandelaar : Hendrik Muller Szn . ( 1819 – 1898 ) ( Schiedam : Interbook International B.V. 1977 ) .
Muller , H.P.N. & Kersten , Carool , Dr. Muller 's Asian Journey . Thailand , Cambodia , Vietnam and Yunnan ( 1907 – 1909 ) , translated and introduced by Carool Kersten ( Bangkok : White Lotus 2004 ) . ISBN 974 @-@ 480 @-@ 070 @-@ 4 .
M [ uller ] , J.W. , Das Geslecht Müller aus Gerolsheim ( n.p. [ Oegstgeest ] n.d. [ 1926 ] ) .
Oudschans Dentz , F. , [ Obituary ] , Neerlandia . Maandblad van het Algemeen Nederlandsch Verbond 45 ( 1941 ) 108 – 109 .
Rees , P. van , [ Obituary ] , Ons Leger 27 ( 1941 ) 386 – 389 .
Schutte , G.J. , Muller , Hendrik Pieter Nicolaas ( 1859 – 1941 ) , in Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland . 20 February 2007 .
Spies , F.J. du Toit , Hendrik Pieter Nicolaas Muller . Rotterdam , 2 April 1859 – ' s @-@ Gravenhage , 11 Augustus 1941 , Levensberichten van de Maatschappij der Nederlandsche Letterkunde te Leiden 1943 , 96 – 103
Spies , F.J. du Toit , ' n Nederlander in diens van die Oranje @-@ Vrystaat . Uit die nagelate papiere van Dr. Hendrik P.N. Muller , oud @-@ konsul @-@ generaal van die Oranje @-@ Vrystaat ( Amsterdam : N.V. Swets & Zeitlinger 1946 ) .
[ Obituary ] , Zuid @-@ Afrika . Maandblad voor de cultureele en economische betrekkingen tusschen Nederland en Zuid @-@ Afrika 18 ( 1941 ) 79 – 80
[ Obituary ] , Die Huisgenoot 5 December 1941 .
[ Obituary ] , Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant 1 April 1934 .
= Tropical Storm Grace ( 2003 ) =
Tropical Storm Grace was a weak tropical storm that struck Texas in the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season . The eleventh tropical depression and the seventh tropical storm of the season , Grace was also the weakest storm of the season . On August 30 the storm developed from a long @-@ track tropical wave in the western Gulf of Mexico . Grace remained disorganized throughout its lifetime due to an upper level low to its west . The weak storm moved northwestward and made landfall on southeastern Texas . Grace quickly weakened over land , and dissipated on September 2 as it merged into a cold front .
In Texas , the storm dropped heavy rainfall , causing minor flash flooding damage . The cold front , combined with the remnants of the storm , dropped moderate to heavy rainfall from Texas through the Mid @-@ Atlantic . The worst of the flooding occurred in Indianapolis , where record rainfall affected over 700 homes . Despite the rainfall , damage was minimal along its path .
= = Meteorological history = =
A strong tropical wave accompanied with a low pressure system moved off the coast of Africa on August 19 . It moved quickly westward and organized , developing banding features and cirrus outflow near the blossoming convection . The wave nearly developed into a tropical cyclone on August 21 , though its fast forward motion dislocated the low level circulation from the deep convection . The wave entered an area of dry air in the central Atlantic Ocean , and by late on August 22 most of the convection dissipated from the system . On August 24 , convection increased as the wave passed through the Lesser Antilles , though strong southwesterly upper level wind shear prevented further development . The tropical wave moved through the Caribbean Sea , and developed deep convection due to more favorable conditions over the Gulf of Honduras on August 28 . The wave crossed the Yucatán Peninsula , and developed a surface low pressure area on the 29th in the Gulf of Mexico . Convection continued to organize , and the tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Eleven on August 30 while located 335 miles ( 540 km ) east @-@ southeast of Corpus Christi , Texas .
The depression moved to the northwest , and intensified into Tropical Storm Grace six hours after forming . Despite the increase in winds the center of circulation remained very broad , with Reconnaissance Aircraft having difficulty pinpointing the center . In addition , an upper level low located over Brownsville , Texas produced shear over the western portion of the system , which limited outflow to the east side . Forecasters predicted the upper level low to weaken , allowing for the possibility of Grace to intensify to a 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) tropical storm over warm waters . However , the upper level low remained in place and continued to produce shear across the system . A new center of circulation reformed 115 miles ( 185 km ) north of the original center , and made landfall near San Luis Pass on the southwestern portion of Galveston Island on August 31 as a minimal tropical storm . Grace quickly weakened to a tropical depression over land , and after turning northeastward into Oklahoma the depression was absorbed by a cold front .
= = Preparations = =
Three hours after forming , officials issued Tropical Storm Warnings from High Island to Corpus Christi , Texas . Local National Weather Service offices requested a voluntary evacuation for western Galveston Island including Jamaica Beach , the Bolivar Peninsula , and coastal areas of Brazoria and Matagorda counties , though few residents heeded the warnings . Local emergency management officials predicted tides of up to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above normal with coastal flooding .
= = Impact = =
Grace produced moderate amounts of rainfall along its path , peaking in southern Texas . The storm later merged with a cold front , which later dropped heavy rainfall in the Mid @-@ West United States . In addition to its impact on the United States , the outer rainbands of Grace caused light rainfall in Yucatán and northern Tamaulipas .
= = = South @-@ Central United States = = =
Upon making landfall , Tropical Storm Grace produced a light storm surge of 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 m ) in Matagorda and North Jetty , Texas . Wind gusts peaked at 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) with sustained winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) at Sea Rim State Park . Locations closer to where the storm made landfall reported below tropical storm force winds , with the exception of Galveston which recorded a 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) wind gust . Rainfall was moderate to heavy across eastern Texas , peaking at 10 @.@ 36 inches ( 263 mm ) in Spindletop Bayou . The outer bands of Grace spawned a waterspout just south of the western tip of Galveston Island , prompting the issuance of a tornado warning . The waterspout dissipated before moving onshore . The storm also caused light beach erosion , though little occurred beyond the erosion caused by Hurricane Claudette one month prior . Near the coast , high tides from the storm flooded piers , bulkheads , and low @-@ lying areas . Further inland , heavy rainfall lead to flash flooding , covering roads and entering a few houses . Overall , damage was minor , and totaled to $ 113 @,@ 000 ( 2003 USD , $ 132 @,@ 400 2008 USD ) .
In Oklahoma , moisture from the storm , combined with a slow @-@ moving cold front , produced heavy rainfall across the state , peaking at 8 @.@ 98 inches ( 228 mm ) in Courtney . Due to below normal precipitation by as much as 5 to 10 inches ( 127 to 255 mm ) , flooding was localized and overall minimal . Near Medford , the rainfall lead to 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) deep flooding on U.S. Highway 81 , forcing its closure . The rainfall was welcome in the state , and lessened the rainfall deficit .
Tropical Storm Grace , combined with the slow @-@ moving cold front , produced light to moderate rainfall totals across the southern United States , including isolated locations in Louisiana and Mississippi reporting over 3 inches ( 76 mm ) and over 5 inches ( 127 mm ) in northeastern Arkansas .
= = = Ohio Valley and Eastern United States = = =
In Missouri , the cold front combined with moisture from the remnants of Grace brought temporary relief to a severe drought by producing light to moderate rainfall of up to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) in the southeastern portion of the state . In Poplar Bluff , the rainfall caused severe flooding , resulting in rescues for people in trapped vehicles . The moisture produced over 5 inches ( 127 mm ) in northern Kentucky , as well .
Moisture from the remnants of Grace dropped heavy rainfall across central Indiana , including a record one @-@ day total of 7 inches ( 178 mm ) in Indianapolis , while other locations received over 9 inches ( 228 mm ) . Residents prepared sand bags to prevent overflowing rivers and creeks , though rising waters entered streets and over 700 homes . The rapid rainfall in Indianapolis backed up the sewage system , sending hundreds of millions of gallons of sewage into the streets . Following the deluge in the state , the governor declared a state of emergency for the state . Eight local American Red Cross chapters arrived to provide meals and aid to the affected people .
The remnants of Grace dropped moderate to heavy rainfall eastward through the Mid @-@ Atlantic States and New England . Locations in extreme western Maryland and southeastern Virginia received over 5 inches ( 127 mm ) of rain . In Maryland , Hagerstown recorded 3 @.@ 94 inches ( 100 mm ) , resulting in flash flooding . In Washington County , the system produced 1 @.@ 09 inches ( 27 @.@ 8 mm ) of rain , a new daily record . Damage in Maryland , if any , was unknown .
= The Kentucky Headhunters =
The Kentucky Headhunters is an American country rock and Southern rock band . They were founded in 1968 as Itchy Brother , which consisted of brothers Richard Young ( rhythm guitar , vocals ) and Fred Young ( drums ) along with Greg Martin ( lead guitar , vocals ) and Anthony Kenney ( bass guitar , vocals ) . Itchy Brother performed together until 1982 , with James Harrison replacing Martin from 1973 to 1976 . The Young brothers and Martin began performing as The Kentucky Headhunters in 1986 , adding brothers Ricky Lee Phelps ( lead vocals , harmonica ) and Doug Phelps ( bass guitar , backing vocals ) to the membership .
With the release of their 1989 debut album Pickin ' on Nashville via Mercury Records , the band charted four consecutive Top 40 country singles . A second album for Mercury , Electric Barnyard , did not do as well commercially , and the Phelps brothers left after its release to form Brother Phelps . Kenney re @-@ joined and Mark S. Orr took over on lead vocals for 1993 's Rave On ! ! and a compilation album entitled The Best of The Kentucky Headhunters : Still Pickin ' before the band exited Mercury . Orr left and Doug Phelps rejoined in 1996 as lead vocalist for the album Stompin ' Grounds . He also led on the Audium Entertainment albums Songs from the Grass String Ranch and Soul , as well as Big Boss Man and a second compilation , Flying Under the Radar , on CBuJ Entertainment . After Kenney 's departure , Doug once again became the band 's bass guitarist by the release of its next album , Dixie Lullabies , in 2011 .
The Kentucky Headhunters have released eight studio albums , three compilations , and twenty @-@ three singles , of which the highest @-@ peaking is a cover of the Don Gibson song " Oh Lonesome Me , " which the band took to number 8 in 1990 . In addition , the band has won three Country Music Association awards , an Academy of Country Music award and a Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal , won in 1990 for Pickin ' on Nashville .
= = History = =
= = = 1968 – 1982 : Early years as Itchy Brother = = =
Richard Young , his younger brother Fred , and their cousins Anthony Kenney and Greg Martin began performing music in the Youngs ' and Kenney 's hometown of Glasgow , Kentucky in the 1960s . They founded a band called Itchy Brother , named after Fred 's favorite cartoon character , from King Leonardo and His Short Subjects . The band achieved regional success in Kentucky in the 1970s , including at least one single , " Shotgun Effie , " which they wrote about the Youngs ' grandmother , Effie . It was released in 1973 on the King Fargo label . That same year , Greg Martin left the group to play in another band in his hometown of Louisville , Kentucky . In the meantime , guitarist James Harrison took his place . Martin returned to the group in 1976 .
Itchy Brother was almost signed to Swan Song Records , an independent label founded by the band Led Zeppelin , in 1980 . The label closed after Led Zeppelin drummer John Bonham died , and Itchy Brother never recorded a full album on Swan Song . Itchy Brother broke up in 1982 . After their disbanding , Richard started writing songs for Acuff @-@ Rose Music , and Fred became a backing musician for country singer Sylvia , who at the time was recording on RCA Records . Martin played bass guitar and sang backing vocals for Ronnie McDowell , then a recording artist for Curb Records , and Kenney stopped performing , although he continued to write songs with the Young brothers .
= = = 1986 – 1988 : Reunion with new name = = =
When Martin attempted to reunite Itchy Brother in 1985 , the Young brothers joined him , but Kenney declined . Martin invited Missouri Bootheel native Doug Phelps , also a member of McDowell 's band , to replace Kenney , and Doug brought his older brother Ricky Lee to sing lead vocals and play harmonica . The band decided to name themselves The Headhunters , taking the name from the term " headchopper , " which blues musician Muddy Waters used to indicate that he had supplanted another band in a gig . After discovering that other bands existed with that name , the band added " Kentucky " to its name and thus became The Kentucky Headhunters . The Kentucky Headhunters began performing together the following year , playing twice monthly on the 90 @-@ minute Chitlin ' Show , a radio program on WLOC in Munfordville , Kentucky .
= = = 1989 – 1990 : Debut album and early success = = =
The Kentucky Headhunters borrowed $ 4 @,@ 500 to record a demo album , which included seven original songs , plus covers of Bill Monroe 's " Walk Softly on This Heart of Mine , " Henson Cargill 's " Skip a Rope " and Don Gibson 's " Oh Lonesome Me . " Originally intended to be sold at the band 's live shows , the demo tape came to the attention of the Nashville music community . Although Martin said that the band had not seriously considered signing a record deal , the band pursued one through the suggestion of its manager , Mitchell Fox . Harold Shedd , a record producer who was then the head of Mercury Records , helped sign The Kentucky Headhunters to the label in 1989 .
Mercury released the demo in 1989 as The Kentucky Headhunters ' debut album , Pickin ' on Nashville . The album produced four singles , all of which reached top 40 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks ( now Hot Country Songs ) chart . The first of these , the " Walk Softly on This Heart of Mine " cover , peaked at number 25 in December 1989 . After it came " Dumas Walker , " about a then @-@ 74 @-@ year @-@ old marbles player who owned a liquor store that the band frequented . According to Doug , Mercury Records was initially reluctant to release the song as a single : " [ The label ] thought it was too regional , and that no one outside the area would get it , but what they didn 't see , was the reaction we got to it every night that we played it in front of a crowd , and it didn 't matter where we were playing either . " The single peaked at number 15 on the Billboard chart .
Following " Dumas Walker " was the " Oh Lonesome Me " cover ; peaking at number eight , this was the band 's only Top Ten hit . Finishing off the single releases was the number 23 " Rock ' n ' Roll Angel " , which Richard wrote . Pickin ' on Nashville also earned the band a Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal , Best New Vocal Group award from the Academy of Country Music ( ACM ) , and Album of the Year and Vocal Group of the Year awards from the Country Music Association ( CMA ) . In addition , it earned a double @-@ platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping two million copies in the United States . William Ruhlmann of Allmusic gave the album a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star rating out of five , saying that the band was " all the better " for having a sound closer to rock than country . After the success of their debut album , The Kentucky Headhunters began touring with Hank Williams , Jr. and Delbert McClinton .
= = = 1991 – 1992 : Second album and departure of the Phelps brothers = = =
In 1991 , the band released their second album , Electric Barnyard . Although the album earned a gold certification from the RIAA and a second CMA award for Vocal Group of the Year , its singles received little airplay compared to the band 's previous releases , with none of the four singles reaching the top 40 on the U.S. country charts . The album 's first single was a cover of " The Ballad of Davy Crockett , " which was released on the 155th anniversary of Davy Crockett 's death ; the single shipped to radio with promotional coonskin caps . It spent eleven weeks on the charts and peaked at 49 . " With Body and Soul " was the next single released , peaking at number 30 on the Canadian RPM country charts but reaching number 56 in the United States . The third and fourth singles were the original composition " It 's Chitlin ' Time " and a rendition of Waylon Jennings 's " Only Daddy That 'll Walk the Line , " at numbers 63 and 60 respectively . Norman Greenbaum 's 1969 single " Spirit in the Sky " was covered on this album as well .
This album was met with mixed reception from critics . Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly gave it an A rating , saying that it " skillfully blends raw wit , the working @-@ class energy of sweat @-@ stained factory workers jamming between shifts , and musical styles as diverse as the corny Tennessee Ernie Ford and the creamy Eric Clapton . " Allmusic critic Brian Mansfield , who gave it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars , called the band a " top @-@ notch Southern rock band with a sense of humor , " and said that the covers on Electric Barnyard were highlights , while the originals were " adequate , offbeat filler . " Randy Lewis of the Los Angeles Times called the band " ZZ Top lite " and said that most of the songs on the album had a " party @-@ hearty sound . "
Later in 1991 , The Kentucky Headhunters performed with Roy Rogers on the song " That 's How the West Was Swung " from his Tribute album , and covered Canned Heat 's " Let 's Work Together " for the soundtrack to the film Harley Davidson and the Marlboro Man . In addition , Martin played lead guitar for Canadian synthpop band Men Without Hats on its 1991 album Sideways and filled in for Southern rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd guitarist Ed King on that band 's 1992 tour , as King was injured at the time .
Ricky Lee and Doug departed in June 1992 due to creative differences . According to Richard , Ricky Lee 's tenure as lead vocalist was " a bad time " for the band given his opposition to Richard 's opinions , although Richard was still surprised to hear of the brothers ' departure , and said , " I tried everything I could to get them to stay . " Ricky Lee , meanwhile , said that he " was a country singer more than anything " and wanted to eliminate most of the band 's hard rock sounds . He and Doug then founded Brother Phelps , which had a more mainstream country sound than The Kentucky Headhunters did . Brother Phelps released two albums for Asylum Records and charted in the country top 40 with " Let Go " and " Were You Really Livin ' , " which peaked at number 6 and 28 respectively .
= = = 1992 – 1994 : New line @-@ up and lack of success = = =
Kenney rejoined in 1992 as bass guitarist , and Charlotte , Michigan native Mark S. Orr took over on lead vocals . The first album to feature Orr and Kenney , the more blues rock @-@ oriented Rave On ! ! , was released in 1993 . Although the band drew attention by touring with then @-@ labelmate Billy Ray Cyrus , Rave On ! ! sold poorly and failed to produce a successful single among its three releases : " Honky Tonk Walkin ' , " " Blue Moon of Kentucky " and " Dixie Fried , " the latter two being covers of Bill Monroe and Carl Perkins , respectively . The album also included a cover of The Lovin ' Spoonful 's " My Gal " . " Honky Tonk Walkin ' " and " Dixie Fried " respectively reached numbers 54 and 71 on the country charts , while the " Blue Moon of Kentucky " cover did not chart .
Mansfield gave a two @-@ star rating for Allmusic , where he wrote that the band had " devolved into a redneck boogie group . " Nash 's review for Entertainment Weekly gave it a C- grade , and called it " warmed @-@ over blues " that lacked the " outrageousness , wit , and brilliance that distinguished their earlier albums . " Steve Morse of The Boston Globe called it an " irresistible car @-@ stereo album , " and Rolling Stone critic John Swenson said that the album was more rock @-@ oriented than its predecessors , also saying that it " sounds like a hell of a blueprint for a summer concert tour . "
The Orr @-@ led lineup also recorded That 'll Work , a collaborative album with Chuck Berry 's pianist , Johnnie Johnson . It was released later in 1993 via Nonesuch Records , and it comprised twelve songs which Johnson and the band wrote over the course of four days . The album featured Johnson on piano , as well as lead vocals on the title track and one other song ; Jimmy Hall of Wet Willie also played harmonica and saxophone , and sang backing vocals . Thom Owens of Allmusic wrote of this album that " They certainly can work a heavy , bluesy groove with dexterity , but they lack the gonzo charm they had on their debut , Pickin ' on Nashville — there simply isn 't the sense of careening fun , nor is there the reckless fusions that resulted in such an invigorating listen . " One year later , Mercury released a greatest hits package , The Best of The Kentucky Headhunters : Still Pickin ' . It reprised singles and other songs from the band 's first three albums , as well as " Let 's Work Together " and a cover of The Beatles ' " You 've Got to Hide Your Love Away , " which The Kentucky Headhunters had previously recorded on the 1994 tribute album Shared Vision : The Songs of the Beatles . After Still Pickin ' , The Kentucky Headhunters left Mercury .
= = = 1995 – 2002 : Reunion with Doug Phelps = = =
Orr left The Kentucky Headhunters in August 1995 because he " was wantin ' to do somethin ' else , " according to Richard . Richard then called Doug and invited him to rejoin the band . As a result , Brother Phelps disbanded and Ricky Lee pursued a solo career . In 1997 , The Kentucky Headhunters signed to BNA Records to release its fourth non @-@ collaborative studio album , Stompin ' Grounds , with Doug on lead vocals . This album was also an unsuccessful venture , failing to enter the country albums charts and producing only a number 70 @-@ peaking cover of Marty Robbins ' " Singing the Blues " . In order to promote the album , Richard suggested that the label send free copies to smaller @-@ market radio stations , where the band 's fanbase was still strong . He also considered the album 's original songs as the strongest that the band had ever written . Brian Wahlert of Country Standard Time magazine wrote that it " may be the band 's best album ever ; " Thom Owens gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars in his Allmusic review , where he wrote that the band " show [ ed ] a lack
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invasive species on biodiversity must therefore consider the actual evidence ( either ecological or economic ) , in relation to the potential risk .
= = = = Genetic pollution = = = =
Native species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution . Genetic pollution is unintentional hybridization and introgression , which leads to homogenization or replacement of local genotypes as a result of either a numerical or fitness advantage of the introduced species . Genetic pollution can operate either through introduction or through habitat modification , bringing previously isolated species into contact . Hybrids resulting from rare species that interbreed with abundant species can swamp the rarer species ' gene pool . This is not always apparent from morphological observations alone . Some degree of gene flow is normal , and preserves constellations of genes and genotypes . An example of this is the interbreeding of migrating coyotes with the red wolf , in areas of eastern North Carolina where the red wolf was reintroduced .
= = Study = =
While the study of invasive species can be done within many subfields of biology , the majority of research on invasive organisms has been within the field of ecology and geography where the issue of biological invasions is especially important . Much of the study of invasive species has been influenced by Charles Elton 's 1958 book The Ecology of Invasion by Animals and Plants which drew upon the limited amount of research done within disparate fields to create a generalized picture of biological invasions . Studies on invasive species remained sparse until the 1990s when research in the field experienced a large amount of growth which continues to this day . This research , which has largely consisted of field observational studies , has disproportionately been concerned with terrestrial plants . The rapid growth of the field has driven a need to standardize the language used to describe invasive species and events . Despite this , little standard terminology exists within the study of invasive species which itself lacks any official designation but is commonly referred to as " Invasion ecology " or more generally " Invasion biology " . This lack of standard terminology is a significant problem , and has largely arisen due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field which borrows terms from numerous disciplines such as agriculture , zoology , and pathology , as well as due to studies on invasive species being commonly performed in isolation of one another .
In an attempt to avoid the ambiguous , subjective , and pejorative vocabulary that so often accompanies discussion of invasive species even in scientific papers , Colautti and MacIsaac proposed a new nomenclature system based on biogeography rather than on taxa .
By discarding taxonomy , human health , and economic factors , this model focused only on ecological factors . The model evaluated individual populations rather than entire species . It classified each population based on its success in that environment . This model applied equally to indigenous and to introduced species , and did not automatically categorize successful introductions as harmful .
= U.S. Route 50 in Nevada =
U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) is a transcontinental highway in the United States , stretching from West Sacramento , California , in the west to Ocean City , Maryland , on the east coast . The Nevada portion crosses the center of state and was named The Loneliest Road in America by Life magazine in July 1986 . The name was intended as a pejorative , but Nevada officials seized on it as a marketing slogan . The name originates from large desolate areas traversed by the route , with few or no signs of civilization . The highway crosses several large desert valleys separated by numerous mountain ranges towering over the valley floors , in what is known as the Basin and Range province of the Great Basin .
US 50 has a diverse route through the state , traversing the resort communities of Lake Tahoe , the state capital in Carson City , historical sites such as Fort Churchill State Historic Park , petroglyphs , alpine forests , desert valleys , ghost towns and Great Basin National Park .
The route was constructed over a historic corridor , first used for the Pony Express and Central Overland Route and later for the Lincoln Highway . Before the formation of the U.S. Highway System , most of US 50 in Nevada was designated State Route 2 . The routing east of Ely has changed significantly from the original plans . The route change resulted from a rivalry between Nevada and Utah over which transcontinental route was better to serve California bound traffic , the Lincoln Highway or the Victory Highway .
= = Route description = =
US 50 crosses the central portion of Nevada , entering the west side of the state near Lake Tahoe and exiting the east side near Great Basin National Park . The route crosses mostly desolate terrain in the journey across the state ; US 50 passes through several large desert valleys and basins . The highway crosses 17 named mountain passes that break up the Nevada desert . To crest some of the passes along US 50 requires navigating steep 8 % grades and hairpin turns through pine forests to reach altitudes of over 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) .
In the stretch of highway between Fallon and Delta , Utah , a span of 409 miles ( 658 km ) , there are three small towns , Austin , Eureka and Ely . This span is roughly the same distance as Boston , Massachusetts to Baltimore , Maryland or Paris , France to Zürich , Switzerland . Traffic along US 50 varies greatly . The average annual daily traffic in 2007 ranged from 52 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in Carson City , to 530 vehicles per day near the Duckwater turnoff .
= = = Western Nevada = = =
US 50 enters Nevada from California as a busy four lane thoroughfare on the shores of alpine Lake Tahoe in Stateline , Nevada . The highway follows the eastern shore , squeezing between the lake and the crest of the Carson Range . In one narrow spot , the highway cuts through the mountains via the Cave Rock Tunnel . Eventually , the route crests the Carson Range at Spooner Summit and then descends into Nevada 's capital , Carson City . Carson Street and Fairview Drive currently carry the highway through the city ; however , the Nevada Department of Transportation has announced that , upon completion , US 50 will be moved to a freeway alignment being constructed for Interstate 580 .
After Carson City , US 50 follows the Carson River towards the Lahontan Valley . This portion is also mostly four lane , serving the commuter towns of Dayton and Silver Springs as well as passing by Fort Churchill State Historic Park and Lahontan State Recreation Area . In addition to the trails of the Pony Express and Lincoln Highway , this portion parallels the Carson River branch of the California Trail . The Carson River forms the southern edge of the Forty Mile Desert . This desert , located between the termini of the Carson and Humboldt Rivers , was the most dreaded part of the California Trail , where travelers had to endure 40 miles ( 64 km ) of desert heat with no usable water .
At Silver Springs , U.S. Route 50 Alternate splits from the main route . Both branches are sometimes called the loneliest road , although the official designation begins with the first passport stamp available at Fernley , along the alternate branch . The two branches rejoin west of Fallon . Fallon , home to the Naval Air Station Fallon or TOPGUN , is an agricultural community along the last usable water of the Carson River . The town is located just south of the river 's terminus at the Carson Sink . Leaving Fallon , the highway passes by ancient petroglyph sites at Grimes Point and then Sand Mountain , a 600 @-@ foot ( 180 m ) sand dune .
= = = Fallon to Austin = = =
The scenery and level of traffic changes upon leaving the Fallon area . The road narrows from four lanes to two and crosses remote terrain characterized by Basin and Range topography . The summits start out small and gradually increase in altitude . The features in the first basins include Labou Flat , a dry lake used by the US Navy for low level flight operations , and Dixie Valley , with several visible earthquake fault lines that resulted from the magnitude 7 @.@ 1 Dixie Valley / Fairview earthquake in 1954 . Dixie Valley is now a US Navy Electronic Warfare Range .
The next services are located in the single building settlement of Middlegate , a roadhouse that has served as a restaurant , bar , hotel and refueling station since the Pony Express era of the 19th century . The building features Lincoln Highway and Pony Express era artifacts as well as plaques from various historical societies confirming the station is authentic . The station is the modern turnoff to Berlin – Ichthyosaur State Park , a preserved ghost town surrounded by dinosaur remains .
Nearby was the site of a relatively recent attraction , a cottonwood tree with thousands of shoes dangling from it . Patrons of the bar at Middlegate are unsure of the origins ; however , most believe it started sometime in the mid @-@ 1980s . A legend has formed about how a young man was traveling to Reno with his bride to be . When she balked and got out of the car , he threw her shoes in the tree so she couldn 't get away . A reporter for the San Francisco Chronicle began to study the phenomenon of shoe trees after seeing the one at Middlegate , stating to his knowledge this was the biggest in the world . It was discovered on December 31 , 2010 , that the shoe tree had been chopped down , possibly by vandals .
East of Middlegate , the paths of the Pony Express , Lincoln Highway and US 50 diverge , using different passes to cross the Desatoya Mountains . They rejoin west of Austin . The first paved route of the Lincoln Highway is preserved as State Route 722 .
= = = Austin to Ely = = =
Austin lies 110 miles ( 180 km ) east of Fallon . The city , founded by Pony Express riders that discovered silver , was a mining boomtown that now describes itself as a living ghost town . In 1862 , at the peak of the silver boom , Austin had a population of 10 @,@ 000 people . Today , about 300 residents remain . Perched above the town and just to the south of the highway is Stokes Castle , a long abandoned monument to a prominent eastern family with local mining interests . Passing Austin , travelers encounter hairpin turns and steep grades in the ascent up Austin Summit in the Toiyabe Range . This area is inside the Humboldt @-@ Toiyabe National Forest , the first part of US 50 to run inside a national forest since leaving Lake Tahoe . At Hickison Summit , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) east of Austin , is the Hickison Petroglyph Recreation Area , a rest area and campground featuring a walking tour of petroglyphs .
The next town is Eureka , which bills itself as the " Friendliest Town on the Loneliest Road in America " . Eureka was similarly founded as a mining boomtown . Although mining has diminished , it remains a large component of the community and its economy . The centerpiece of the historical district of Eureka is the Eureka Opera House , built in 1880 .
Past Eureka is Ely , founded as a stage coach station along the Pony Express and Central Overland Route . Ely 's mining boom came later than the other towns along US 50 , with the discovery of copper in 1906 . Though the railroads connecting the First Transcontinental Railroad to the mines in Austin and Eureka have long been removed , the railroad to Ely is preserved as a heritage railway by the Nevada Northern Railway and known as the Ghost Train of Old Ely . Here US 50 departs the historical routes of the Lincoln Highway , Pony Express and State Route 2 . These routes proceeded northeast towards Salt Lake City , while US 50 joins with US 6 and US 93 heading eastward towards the state line .
= = = Eastern Nevada = = =
Ely is the last city along US 50 in Nevada . The next city is Delta , Utah , 162 miles ( 261 km ) to the east ; there are only two gas stations along the stretch between Ely and Delta . US 93 continues south from the concurrency with US 50 at Majors Place . At the Nevada – Utah border , the highway passes by The Border Inn , with a gas station and restaurant .
This portion of the highway is mountainous with the highest point along US 50 in Nevada at Connors Pass at 7 @,@ 729 feet ( 2 @,@ 356 m ) . This section has been designated a Scenic Byway by the Nevada Scenic Byways program . Listed attractions include the Ward Charcoal Ovens State Historic Park and Great Basin National Park . The highway enters Utah northeast of Baker in a remote portion of the Great Basin desert .
= = = Mountain passes = = =
From west to east US 50 crosses several mountain ranges using 17 passes and one tunnel .
= = In popular culture = =
In July 1986 , Life magazine published an article that gave US 50 in Nevada the name " The Loneliest Road in America " . The article portrayed the highway , and rural Nevada , as a place devoid of civilization . Officials from White Pine County decided to make the best of the publicity generated from the article , and convinced state authorities to do the same . Jointly , they began to use the pejorative article as a platform to market the area for visitors interested in desert scenery , history , and solitude . The Nevada Department of Transportation adopted the name in official highway logs , and placed custom Highway 50 markers along the route .
The Nevada Commission on Tourism sponsors a promotion where visitors can stop at several designated locations along the route and have the passport section of a state issued " survival guide " marked with a stamp representing that location . Visitors can mail in the completed passport and receive a certificate , signed by the Governor , certifying they " survived " The Loneliest Road in America . The word " survived " is a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek reference to the Life article , which quoted an American Automobile Association spokesperson as saying , " We warn all motorists not to drive there unless they 're confident of their survival skills . "
Since the article was published , US 50 has gained popularity among people desiring a scenic or less traveled alternative to Interstate 80 across Nevada . This increase in popularity has caused at least one writer to dispute whether US 50 still deserves the title of The Loneliest Road in America . Traffic counts on US 50 are now considerably higher than on US 6 , just to the south in Nye County .
The 1971 road movie Vanishing Point , notable for its on @-@ location filming across the southwest United States , used several sections of US 50 as part of the driving sequences . In 1991 , Stephen King drove along US 50 as part of a cross country trip . He stopped at Ruth , a small town near Ely . Studying the town , King fantasized about the fate of the residents . King then heard a local legend about how the ghosts of Chinese miners , who died while trapped in a cave @-@ in , can be seen crossing Highway 50 to haunt the city of Ruth . King merged these details into his own story , including references to The Loneliest Road in America , which became the novel Desperation .
In 2002 , Neil Peart , then taking a sabbatical from Rush , published Ghost Rider : Travels on the Healing Road , his account of a long @-@ distance motorcycle journey across Canada and the United States . He traveled across US 50 in Nevada , and remarked on the complete absence of any development on long stretches of the road , including a sign reading " No Services for 88 Miles . "
In 2008 , the British television show Top Gear featured the show 's presenters Jeremy Clarkson , Richard Hammond and James May driving across Nevada along US 50 in the cars of their choice . Clarkson stated he was " mesmerised by the straightness of the road . "
= = History = =
= = = Lincoln Highway = = =
In Nevada , US 50 was built mostly along the route of the Lincoln Highway , the first transcontinental highway in the United States , formed in 1913 . This route had been previously used by the Pony Express , an early attempt at an express mail service , started in 1860 . The Pony Express used the technique of riders changing horses at stations approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) apart to maximize speed . Some of the towns along US 50 were stops along the Pony Express . The original numbered designation of this route , which appeared on Nevada Highway maps as far back as
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