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pushed Turkey to cede Kars and Ardahan , thus returning the pre @-@ World War I boundary between the Russian and Ottoman empires . Besides these provinces , the Soviet Union also claimed the Straits ( see Turkish Straits crisis ) . " Stalin , perhaps , expected that the Turks , shocked by the Red Army 's triumph , would give up , and Washington and London accept it as a fait accompli , " writes Jamil Hasanli . Athena Leoussi added , " While Stalin 's motives can be debated , for Armenians at home and abroad the re @-@ emergence of the Armenian Question revived hopes for territorial unification " . On 7 June 1945 Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed the Turkish ambassador in Moscow that the USSR demanded a revision of its border with Turkey .
To repopulate the claimed areas with Armenians , the Soviet government organized a repatriation of Armenians living abroad , mostly survivors of the Armenian Genocide . Between 1946 and 1948 , 90 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 Armenians from Lebanon , Syria , Greece , Iran , Romania , France , and elsewhere moved to Soviet Armenia .
An Office of Strategic Services ( predecessor of the CIA ) document dated 31 July 1944 reported that the Armenian Revolutionary Federation changed its extreme anti @-@ Soviet sentiment due to the rise of the Soviet power at the end of the war . In a memorandum sent to the Moscow Conference , Head of the Armenian Church Gevorg VI expressed hope that " justice will finally be rendered " to the Armenians by the " liberation of Turkish Armenia and its annexation to Soviet Armenia . " Armenia 's Communist leader Grigor Harutunian defended the claims , describing Kars and Ardahan " of vital importance for the Armenian people as a whole . " The Soviet Armenian élite suggested that the Armenians have earned the right to Kars and Ardahan by their contribution in the Soviet struggle against fascism . Armenian diaspora organizations also supported the idea .
As the relations between the West and the Soviet Union deteriorated with the US and the UK backing Turkey , Soviet claims were out of the agenda by 1947 . However , it was not until 1953 , after Stalin 's death , that they officially abandoned their claims , thus ending the dispute .
= = = Late Cold War : 1965 – 87 = = =
A wave of Armenian nationalism started in the mid @-@ 1960s in the Soviet Union after Nikita Khrushchev came to power and granted relative freedom to the Soviet people during the De @-@ Stalinization era . On 24 April 1965 , the 50th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide , a mass demonstration took place in Yerevan . Thousands of Armenians poured into the streets of Yerevan to commemorate the victims of the genocide ; however , their goal was not to " challenge the authority of the Soviet government " , but " draw the government 's attention " to the genocide and persuade the " Soviet government to assist them in reclaiming their lost lands . " The Kremlin , taking into account the demands of the demonstrators , commissioned a memorial for the genocide . The memorial , which was built on Tsitsernakaberd hill , was completed in 1967 .
The 1960s and 1970s saw a rise in underground political and armed struggle against the Soviet Union and the Turkish state in and outside of Armenia . In 1966 , an underground nationalist party called the National United Party was founded by Haykaz Khachatryan in Yerevan . It secretly operated in Soviet Armenia from 1966 to the late 1980s and , after the imprisonment of its founding members in 1968 , it was led by Paruyr Hayrikyan . It advocated for the creation of United Armenia through self @-@ determination . Most of its members were arrested and the party was banned . Though the NUP was blamed for the 1977 Moscow bombings , historian Jay Bergman states , " Who actually caused the explosion has never been determined conclusively . "
According to Gerard Libaridian , " by the 1970s , the recognition of the [ Armenian ] genocide became a very important objective of the Armenian cause and diaspora political parties linked the recognition of the genocide and the dream of a greater Armenia because Turkey 's recognition of the genocide would constitute the legal basis for the Armenian claims on Western Armenia . " From the mid @-@ 1970s to the late 1980s , several Armenian militant ( often considered terrorist ) groups operated in the Middle East and Western Europe . Most notably the Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia ( ASALA ) carried out armed attacks on Turkish diplomatic missions around the world . Two ARF @-@ affiliated groups — the Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide ( JCAG ) and the Armenian Revolutionary Army ( ARA ) — also carried out similar attacks , mainly in Western Europe . David C. Rapoport argues that these organizations were inspired by Kourken Yanigian , a 77 @-@ year @-@ old Armenian genocide survivor , who assassinated two Turkish consular officials in California in 1973 as an act of revenge against Turkey .
The ASALA was the largest of the three and was mostly composed of Lebanese Armenian young adults , who claimed revenge for the Armenian Genocide , which the Turkish state denies . The concept of United Armenia was one of the ultimate goals of ASALA . On 18 June 1987 , the European Parliament , with the initiative of the Greek MPs , formally recognized the Armenian Genocide . William Dalrymple and Olivier Roy claim that Armenian Genocide became internationalized as a result of the activities of the Armenian militant groups in the Western European countries .
= = = Nagorno @-@ Karabakh conflict : 1988 – 94 = = =
In February 1988 a popular nationalist movement emerged in Soviet Armenia and the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Autonomous Oblast ( NKAO ) , a small Armenian @-@ populated enclave under the jurisdiction of Soviet Azerbaijan since 1923 . The movement demanded the unification of the two entities , reviving the idea of a united Armenia .
On 20 February 1988 , the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Supreme Council ( the regional legislature ) issued a request to transfer the region from Soviet Azerbaijan to Soviet Armenia . The Moscow government declined the claims , while hundreds of thousands of people demonstrated in Yerevan in support of the idea . Few days later , on 26 February , an anti @-@ Armenian pogrom broke out in the Azerbaijani seaside industrial city Sumgait , forcing thousands of Armenians to leave Azerbaijan en masse .
On 15 June 1988 , the Supreme Council of Soviet Armenia voted to accept Nagorno @-@ Karabakh into Armenia . On 17 June 1988 , the Azerbaijan Supreme Soviet refused to transfer the area to Armenia , saying that it was part of Azerbaijan . The leading members of the Karabakh Committee , a group of intellectuals leading the demonstrations , were arrested in December 1988 , but were freed in May 1989 . On 1 December 1989 , the Soviet Armenian Supreme Council and NKAO Supreme Council declared the unification of the two entities ( օրենք « Հայկական ԽՍՀ @-@ ի և Լեռնային Ղարաբաղի վերամիավորման մասին » ) . In January 1990 , another pogrom took place against Armenians , this time in Baku . In the meantime , most Azerbaijanis of Armenia and Armenians of Azerbaijan left their homes and moved to their respective countries .
Pro @-@ independence members were elected in the majority to the Armenian parliament in the 1990 election . On 23 August 1990 , the Armenian parliament passed a resolution on sovereignty . The tensions grew even larger after the Soviet and Azeri forces deported thousands of Armenian from Shahumyan during Operation Ring in April and May 1991 . After the unsuccessful August Putsch , more Soviet republics declared independence . On 2 September 1991 , the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic proclaimed independence . On 21 September 1991 , the Armenian independence referendum was held with the overwhelming majority voting for the independence of Armenia from the Soviet Union . On 26 November 1991 , the Azerbaijani parliament abolished the autonomy of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . On 10 December 1991 , an independence referendum was held in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , boycotted by the Azeri minority , and gained a vote of 99 % in favor of independence .
The conflict escalated into a full @-@ scale war with the captured Shusha by Armenian forces on 9 May 1992 . By 1993 , the Armenian forces took control over not only the originally disputed Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , but also several districts surrounding the region . A ceasefire agreement was eventually signed on 5 May 1994 in Bishkek , Kyrgyzstan . According to Thomas de Waal , three factors contributed to the victory of the Armenian side : " Azerbaijan 's political and military chaos , greater Russian support for the Armenians , and the Armenians ' superior fighting skills . " Since the 1994 ceasefire , the Armenian Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic has de facto control of the territories taken over in the war .
= = Current claimants = =
= = = Armenian Revolutionary Federation = = =
Since its foundation in 1890 , the left @-@ wing nationalist Armenian Revolutionary Federation ( also known as Dashnaktsutyun or Dashnak / Tashnag ) has been known as the main advocate for United Armenia . Having affiliated organizations throughout the Armenian communities abroad , the ARF is regarded as one of the most influential Armenian institutions in the world , especially in the diaspora . According to researcher Arus Harutyunyan , the party has " made it abundantly clear that historical justice will be achieved once ethnic Armenian repatriate to united Armenia , which in addition to its existing political boundaries would include " Western Armenia , Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , Nakhichevan and Javakhk . In the 1998 party program , it states that the ARF 's first goal is " The creation of a Free , Independent and United Armenia . United Armenia should include inside its borders the Armenian lands [ given to Armenia ] by the Sevres Treaty , as well as Artsakh , Javakhk and Nakhichevan provinces . " " Free , Independent and United Armenia " is the party 's main slogan , and was adopted as its " supreme objective " in the 10th Party Congress in Paris ( 1924 – 25 ) . Hrant Markarian , ARF Bureau Chairman , stated at the 2004 party congress :
We are against any relations between Armenia and Turkey that would mean acceptance of any preconditions by us , that would require us to give up our rights or any part of them . We will keep up pressure on Turkey until we achieve full victory , until international recognition of the fact of genocide , until the creation of a United Armenia .
= = = Heritage Party = = =
Although the platform of the national liberal Heritage party makes no explicit reference to territorial claims , its leader and some its members have expressed their support for them . Heritage supports the formal recognition of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic by Armenia and has introduced bills for the recognition of the NKR to the Armenian National Assembly in 2007 , 2010 , and 2012 . Although all three attempts were voted down by the ruling Republican Party . Its leader , Raffi Hovannisian ( post @-@ Soviet Armenia 's first foreign minister ) , has hinted at Western Armenia , Javakhk and Nakhichevan with " vague formulations . " For instance , during a 2013 speech about his future plans Hovannisian stated that " only with [ the existence of a ] government belonging to the people will we have awareness of our national interest — with Artsakh , Javakhk , Western Armenia — and future for our children . " In 2011 , a leading party member , Zaruhi Postanjyan , stated in an open letter to presidents of Armenia and NKR that by organizing a repatriation of diaspora Armenians to Armenia and Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , " we will [ create a ] base for the liberation of our entire homeland . "
In an April 2015 conference on the Armenian Genocide centenary Postanjyan stated that Armenia should " restore its territorial integrity " by claiming the " territory of its historic homeland . " When asked about how realistic Armenian claims to its historic lands are , Heritage leader Hovannisian responded : " Today 's romantic will become tomorrow 's realist . " In an opinion piece published in The Jerusalem Post on April 11 , 2015 Hovannisian wrote that Turkey occupies Western Armenia and called for " the creation of an Armenian national hearth in historic Western Armenia . " He added , " negotiations between the republics of Turkey and Armenia triggering the first @-@ ever sovereign reciprocal demarcation of the official frontier , including but not limited to provisions for an Armenian easement to the Black Sea . "
= = Territories claimed = =
The modern use of United Armenia by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation ( ARF ) encompasses the following areas :
= = = Nagorno @-@ Karabakh ( Artsakh ) = = =
In the aftermath of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War , the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic , supported by the Republic of Armenia , took control over the territory of some 11 @,@ 500 km2 , including several districts outside of the originally claimed borders of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Autonomous Oblast of the Azerbaijani SSR , creating a " buffer zone " . Kelbajar and Lachin districts guarantee solid land corridor between Armenia proper and Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . Between 500 @,@ 000 and 600 @,@ 000 Azerbaijanis were displaced from the area . In the meantime , almost all Armenians from Azerbaijan ( between 300 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 ) and Azerbaijanis from Armenia ( over 150 @,@ 000 ) were forced to move to their respective countries as remaining in their homes became nearly impossible since tensions between the two groups have grown worse since the start of the conflict in 1988 .
The Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic ( also known as Artsakh among Armenians ) remains internationally unrecognized . Today , the Republic of Armenia and Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic are de facto functioning as one entity , although the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic territory is internationally recognized as de jure part of Azerbaijan . Nagorno @-@ Karabakh is more monoethnic than the Republic of Armenia , with 99 @.@ 7 % of its population being Armenian . The Azerbaijani minority was forced to leave during the war . The areas outside the original NKAO borders taken over by the Armenian forces during the war are mostly uninhabited or very sparsely inhabited , with the city of Lachin being exception . Between 2000 and 2011 , 25 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 people settled in NKR .
Since the end of the conflict , Armenia and Azerbaijan are negotiating through the OSCE Minsk Group . Presidents and Foreign Affairs Ministers of the two countries have been meeting each other alongside the Russian , French and American co @-@ chairmen trying to find a solution for the " frozen conflict " as described by experts . Armenia and Azerbaijan regularly exchange fires in clashes throughout their border .
= = = Javakhk ( Javakheti ) = = =
The region of Javakheti ( as known to Georgians ) / Javakhk ( as known to Armenians ) comprises the districts of Akhalkalaki and Ninotsminda , both part of Samtskhe @-@ Javakheti province of Georgia . It is overwhelmingly Armenian @-@ populated ( around 95 % ) . The area is geographically isolated from the rest of Georgia and remains economically and socially isolated from Georgia . According to Svante Cornell , Javakhk enjoys " wide cultural autonomy " and " certain Georgian analysts observe that the region is in practice as much ' Armenia ' as ' Georgia ' . It is distinctively easier to get around using Armenian than Georgian in this region ; indeed , foreign visitors claim that at first they had difficulties determining which country they are in . " Generally , Javakheti Armenians live in " reasonable inter @-@ ethnic harmony " within Georgia , although there is a " fairly strong fear for the future , a sense of insecurity . " Javakheti , along with Lori and Borchali , was disputed by Armenia and Georgia from 1918 to 1920 . A brief armed conflict took place between the two nations in December 1918 , mostly over Lori .
United Javakhk Democratic Alliance , a local civil organization , is the main organization advocating for an Armenian autonomy in the region . It was founded in 1988 , during the disintegration of the Soviet Union . It campaigns for a referendum in Javakheti on autonomy . It is believed that the organization has close links with the Armenian Revolutionary Federation . Although the ARF claims Javakhk as part of United Armenia , the ARF World Congresses " have agreed with the demands raised by the Armenians of Javakhk that a Javakhk with a high degree of self @-@ government within a federal Georgia would be able to sustain itself and would become a strong link in Georgian @-@ Armenian relations . " ARF Bureau Chairman Hrant Markarian declared in the 2004 party congress : " We want a strong , stable and autonomous Javakheti that is part of Georgia and enjoys state care . " The leader of the United Javakhk Democratic Alliance , Vahagn Chakhalian , was arrested in 2008 and freed in 2013 . A 2014 article suggested that the alliance has little influence today .
During Zviad Gamsakhurdia 's presidency ( 1991 ) , Javakheti remained de facto semi @-@ independent and only in November 1991 was the Tbilisi @-@ appointed governor able to take power . The issue of Javakheti was in the 1990s " clearly been perceived as the most dangerous potential ethnic conflict in Georgia " , however , no actual armed conflict ever occurred . Taking into account the importance of the bilateral relations , the governments of Armenia and Georgia have pursued a careful and calming policy to avoid tension . The Armenian government has not made territorial claims to Georgia , nor has called for an autonomy in Javakheti . Armenia – Georgia relations have traditionally been friendly , however , from time to time tensions arise between the two countries . In recent years , the status of Armenian churches in Georgia and the status of the Armenian language in Georgian public schools had been a matter of dispute . Svante Cornell argues that " Armenia seems to have had a calming influence on Javakhk " as it is highly dependent on Georgia for imports . This viewpoint is shared by Georgian analysts .
Armenian nationalist activist Alexander Yenikomshian has suggested that there are three long @-@ term solutions to the Javakhk issue : 1 ) the region remains part of a Georgia , where the rights of the Armenian population are protected 2 ) " Artsakhization " , i.e. de facto unification with the Republic of Armenia 3 ) " Nakhichevanization " , i.e. Javakhk loses its Armenian population .
= = = Western Armenia ( eastern Turkey ) = = =
Western Armenia refers to an undefined area , now in eastern Turkey , that had significant Armenian population prior to the Armenian Genocide of 1915 . As a result of the genocide , officially no Armenians live in the area today . However , at least two groups of Armenian origin reside in the area . Hemshin peoples , a islamisized group with Armenian ethnic origin , live in the Black Sea coast , particularity in the Rize province . Another group , Crypto @-@ Armenians or " secret " Armenians , live throughout Turkey , especially the eastern parts of the country . It is impossible to determine how many there are due to this ( the fact they keep their identity hidden ) . estimates range from millions to the low 100,000s depending on the criteria used to determine it. since the Armenian Genocide , the area has been mostly inhabited by Kurds and Turks , with smaller numbers of Azerbaijanis ( near the Turkish @-@ Armenian border ) and Georgians and Laz people in the northeastern provinces of Turkey .
Generally , the Armenian nationalist groups claim the area east of the boundary drawn by US President Woodrow Wilson for the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920 . The Armenian Revolutionary Federation and groups supporting the concept of United Armenia claim that the Treaty of Sèvres , signed on 10 August 1920 between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies , including Armenia is the only legal document determining the border between Armenia and Turkey . Armenia 's Former Deputy Foreign Minister Ara Papian claims that " Wilsonian Armenia " , the territory granted to the Republic of Armenia in 1920 by Wilson in the scope of the Treaty of Sèvres , is still de jure part of Armenia today . According to him the Treaty of Kars , which determined the current Turkish @-@ Armenian border , has no legal value because it was signed between two internationally unrecognized subjects : Bolshevik Russia and Kemalist Turkey . Papian has suggested that the Armenian government can file a suit at the International Court of Justice to dispute the border between Armenia and Turkey .
22 November is celebrated by some Armenians as the anniversary of the Arbitral Award . In 2010 and 2011 , posters with maps of the Treaty of Sèvres were hung throughout Yerevan .
= = = = Official position of Armenia = = = =
Since Armenia 's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 , the Armenian government has not officially made any territorial claims to Turkey . However , the Armenian government has avoided " an explicit and formal recognition of the existing Turkish @-@ Armenian border . " In 2001 , Armenian president Robert Kocharyan stated that the " genocide recognition will not lead to legal consequences or territorial claims . "
In 2010 , Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan addressed the Conference Dedicated to the 90th Anniversary of Woodrow Wilson 's Arbitral Award :
On 23 July 2011 , during a meeting of Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan with students in Tsaghkadzor resort city , a student asked Sargsyan if Armenia " will return Western Armenia " in the future . Sargsyan responded :
Sargsyan 's statements " were considered by Turkish officials an encouragement for young students to fulfill the task of their generation and occupy eastern Turkey . " During his visit to Baku a few days later , Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan denounced Sargsyan 's statements and described them as " provocation " and claimed that Sargsyan this " told young Armenians to be ready for a future war with Turkey . " Erdoğan demanded apology from Sargsyan calling his statements a " blunder " . In response , Armenian Deputy Foreign Minister Shavarsh Kocharyan stated that Sargsyan 's words were " interpreted out of context . "
On 5 July 2013 , during a forum of Armenian lawyers in Yerevan on the 100th Anniversary of the Armenian Genocide organized by the Ministry of Diaspora , Armenia 's Prosecutor General Aghvan Hovsepyan made a " sensational statement " . Hovsepyan particularly stated :
According to ArmeniaNow news agency " this was seen as the first territorial claim of Armenia to Turkey made on an official level . The prosecutor general is the carrier of the highest legal authority in the country , and his statement is equivalent to an official statement . " In response , the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs released a statement on 12 July 2013 denouncing Hovsepyan 's statements . According to the Turkish side his statements reflect the " prevailing problematic mentality in Armenia as to the territorial integrity of its neighbor Turkey . " The statement said that " one should be well aware that no one can presume to claim land from Turkey . "
= = = Nakhichevan = = =
Armenian tradition says that Nakhichevan ( Նախիջևան Naxidjevan in Armenian and Naxçıvan in Azerbaijani ) was founded by Noah . Armenians have been living in Nakhichevan since ancient times . It was one of gavars of Vaspurakan province of the Kingdom of Armenia . In 189 BC , Nakhchivan became part of the new Kingdom of Armenia established by Artaxias I. Within the kingdom , the region of present @-@ day Nakhichevan was part of the Ayrarat , Vaspurakan and Syunik provinces .
By the 16th century , control of Nakhichevan passed to the Safavid dynasty of Persia . Because of its geographic position , it frequently suffered during the earlier wars between Persia and the Ottoman Empire in the 14th to 18th centuries . In 1604 – 1605 , Shah Abbas I , concerned that the lands of Nakhichevan and the surrounding areas could potentially pass into Ottoman hands , decided to institute a scorched earth policy . He forced some 300 @,@ 000 Armenians , including the Armenian population of Nakhichevan to leave their homes and move to the Persian provinces south of the Aras River . After the last 1826 @-@ 1828 Russo @-@ Persian War , Nakhichevan became part of Russia per the Treaty of Turkmenchay after Persia 's forced ceding . Alexandr Griboyedov , the Russian envoy to Persia , reported that 1 @,@ 228 Armenian families from Persia migrated to Nakhichevan , while prior to their migration there were 2 @,@ 024 Muslim and 404 Armenian families living in the province .
According to the 1897 Russian Empire Census , the Nakhichevan uyezd of the Erivan Governorate had a population of 100 @,@ 771 , of which 34 @,@ 672 were Armenian ( 34 @.@ 4 % ) , while Caucasian Tatars ( Azerbaijanis ) numbered 64 @,@ 151 or 63 @.@ 7 % of the total population . The proportion of Armenian was around 40 % prior to World War I. Nakhichevan was disputed between Armenia and Azerbaijan from 1918 to 1920 during the countries ' brief independence . The Armenian population of Nakhichevan largely fled
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was the first to sight the Allied invasion fleet through the battery rangefinder . He immediately reported his observation to the Kriegsmarine headquarters at Cherbourg , which triggered the German alarm throughout installations on the Atlantic coast . The notification of the award of his Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) , announced in the German newspapers on 15 June 1944 , also referred to Ohmsen as the first person to report the invasion fleet off Normandy . At 5 : 52 a.m. he received the order to open fire on the ships , which were then 17 kilometers ( 11 mi ) away . At 5 : 55 a.m. , Ohmsen 's battery targeted and exchanged fire with the US cruisers USS Tuscaloosa and USS Quincy and the US battleship USS Nevada . At 6 : 30 a.m. , the battery fired upon the US destroyer USS Corry and sank her .
At 8 a.m. , Nevada hit the foremost casemated gun . The US battleships USS Texas and USS Arkansas , originally assigned to provide covering fire for the landing at Omaha Beach , intervened to help silence the Crisbecq Battery . At 9 a.m. the concentrated fire of the three battleships put the second casemate out of action , when a shell from Nevada pierced the embrasure , killing the entire crew . The remaining gun behind casemate No. 24 , withstood the naval bombardment , but was incapable of reaching targets out at sea ; the gun initiated fire at 11 a.m. , directed to the beach facing WN 5 Widerstandsnest 5 ( Resistance Nest 5 ) , 10 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) away . It caused heavy losses among the Americans and hindered the landing of material and reinforcements at Utah Beach .
The American 1st Battalion , 22nd Infantry Regiment , 4th Infantry Division started their advance towards Saint @-@ Marcouf and the Crisbecq Battery at 7 a.m. on 7 June . After the first assault they succeeded in entering Saint @-@ Marcouf but were stopped in front of the battery by the 75 mm Flak guns that had been repaired and were put in firing positions against ground targets . A German counterattack on the flanks of the American forces , supported by the 105 mm K331 ( f ) guns from the Azeville Battery 49 ° 27 @.@ 7 ′ N 01 ° 18 @.@ 42 ′ W forced Captain Tom Shields to withdraw . Concurrent to this ground fighting , the artillery duel between the Crisbecq Battery and the Allied fleet continued . One of the Škoda 210 mm gun K39 / 41 had been put back into service during the previous night . The gun was damaged once more and remained silent for the rest of the day . The Americans brought several field artillery guns in position during the afternoon and immediately started firing at the battery . Subsequently , the battery was subjected to harassing fire every night .
Ohmsen was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 2 . Klasse ) in the morning of 7 June 1944 for his defense of his strong point against the American attacks . On the evening of 7 June he received a phone call from Cherbourg with the information that he had been awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 1 . Klasse ) in addition to the earlier award . Ohmsen was wounded on the left hand during a bombardment of the battery in the afternoon of 8 June .
The American 1st Battalion started their second attack on the battery at 10 a.m. on 8 June and retook the village of Saint @-@ Marcouf . At 1 : 30 p.m. after the naval artillery had prepared the attack with a 20 @-@ minute bombardment and rolling artillery fire the attack on the battery continued . The Americans succeeded in entering the battery perimeter . The Germans had fallen back in the shelters but the last 210 mm gun was destroyed . At 4 p.m. , American forces started to blow up the shelters ; seeing that his forces had been overwhelmed , Ohmsen ordered the Azeville Battery to fire on his own position with its four 105 mm guns to chase them away . The effect was immediate and the Americans fell back in disarray . Ohmsen took advantage of the situation and counterattacked with the support of Leutnant Geissler 's 6th company , and pushed the Americans back to Dodainville ( roughly 1 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) south southeast of the battery ) . American casualties reached 15 % of the forces they had committed to the attack and 98 soldiers were taken prisoner .
By the morning of 11 June , Ohmsen had run out of ammunition and medical equipment for the wounded and all his guns were out of service . In the afternoon , he received a phone call from Konteradmiral ( Counter Admiral or Rear Admiral ) Walter Hennecke , who instructed him to escape with the survivors . Leaving 21 wounded German soldiers and 126 American prisoners behind , Ohmsen and 78 men broke through the American encirclement and reached the German lines at Aumeville , roughly 8 kilometers ( 5 mi ) away . On 14 June , Ohmsen and his men reached the Morsalines battery , where he was decorated with the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross . Ohmsen and his men were subsequently assigned to an infantry company and took part in the final days of the Battle of Cherbourg . Ohmsen was taken prisoner of war in Cherbourg on 26 June by the American forces . He was released on 15 March 1946 .
On 12 June the soldiers of the 9th Infantry Division , who had come ashore the previous day , readied themselves for an attack on the battery . At 8 : 30 a.m. , the men of the 2nd Battalion of the 39th Infantry Regiment started their attack but found only an empty battery . The fighting over the battery took a heavy toll on both sides , 307 German soldiers died to defend it and about as many Americans died to take it .
= = Later life = =
After World War II Ohmsen initially worked as a government employee of the Schleswig @-@ Holstein agricultural ministry . He ran for public office as a candidate of the Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Block in the 1954 Landtag of Schleswig @-@ Holstein election . During an election speech , he disparaged the Minister @-@ President of Schleswig @-@ Holstein Friedrich @-@ Wilhelm Lübke . Ohmsen was immediately dismissed without notice from his position in the agricultural ministry for insulting the Minister @-@ President . He rejoined the military service of the Bundeswehr on 16 March 1956 as a Kapitänleutnant ( Captain Lieutenant ) of the Bundesmarine ( German Federal Navy ) . He was promoted to Korvettenkapitän ( Corvette Captain ) on 15 November 1957 and Fregattenkapitän ( Frigate Captain ) on 13 August 1965 and retired on 30 September 1967 .
From 1968 to 1978 , Ohmsen was one of the organizers of the sailing at the Summer Olympics events and of numerous other larger sailing regattas and events . From 1970 to 1978 he also served as a member of the consultative council of the city of Kiel and was involved in the support of war victims . For these services he received the Freiherr @-@ von @-@ Stein commemorative medal and Federal Cross of Merit 2nd Class ( Bundesverdienstkreuz 2 . Klasse ) . The father of three daughters , Walter Ohmsen died in Kiel on 19 February 1988 .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 7 June 1944 )
1st Class ( 7 June 1944 )
War Merit Cross 2nd Class with Swords ( 20 April 1941 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 14 June 1944 as Oberleutnant ( M.A. ) and chief of the Marinebatterie " Marcouf " ( Marine @-@ Artillerie @-@ Abteilung 260 )
Freiherr @-@ von @-@ Stein commemorative medal
Federal Cross of Merit 2nd Class
= = Promotions = =
= Interstate 68 =
Interstate 68 ( I @-@ 68 ) is a 112 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 181 @.@ 7 km ) Interstate Highway in the U.S. states of West Virginia and Maryland , connecting I @-@ 79 in Morgantown , West Virginia , to I @-@ 70 in Hancock , Maryland . I @-@ 68 is also Corridor E of the Appalachian Development Highway System . From 1965 until the freeway 's construction was completed in 1991 , it was designated as U.S. Route 48 ( US 48 ) . In Maryland , the highway is known as the National Freeway , an homage to the historic National Road , which I @-@ 68 parallels between Keysers Ridge and Hancock . The freeway mainly spans rural areas and crosses numerous mountain ridges along its route . A road cut at Sideling Hill exposed geological features of the mountain and has become a tourist attraction .
The construction of I @-@ 68 began in 1965 and continued for over 25 years , with completion on August 2 , 1991 . While the road was under construction , it was predicted that economic conditions would improve along the corridor for the five counties connected by I @-@ 68 :
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Mac crafted some new tracks in Florida . Founding members Fleetwood and John McVie chose to dispense with the services of their previous producer , Keith Olsen , because he favoured a lower emphasis on the rhythm section . The duo formed a company called Seedy Management to represent the band 's interests .
= = Recording = =
In February 1976 , Fleetwood Mac convened at the Record Plant in Sausalito , California , with hired engineers Ken Caillat and Richard Dashut . Production duties were shared by the three parties , while the more technically adept Caillat was responsible for most of the engineering ; he took a leave of absence from Wally Heider Studios in Los Angeles on the premise that Fleetwood Mac would eventually use their facilities . The set @-@ up in Sausalito included a number of small recording rooms in a large , windowless wooden building . Most band members complained about the studio and wanted to record at their homes , but Fleetwood did not allow any moves . Christine McVie and Nicks decided to live in two condominiums near the city 's harbour , while the male contingent stayed at the studio 's lodge in the adjacent hills . Recording occurred in a six @-@ by @-@ nine @-@ metre room which included a 3M 24 @-@ track tape machine , a range of high @-@ quality microphones , and an API mixing console with 550A equalisers ; the latter were used to control frequency differences or a track 's timbre . Although Caillat was impressed with the set @-@ up , he felt that the room lacked ambience because of its " very dead speakers " and large amounts of soundproofing .
The record 's working title in Sausalito was Yesterday 's Gone . Buckingham took charge of the studio sessions to make " a pop album " . According to Dashut , while Fleetwood and the McVies came from an improvisational blues @-@ rock background , the guitarist understood " the craft of record making " . During the formative stages of compositions , Buckingham and Christine McVie played guitar and piano together to create the album 's basic structures . The latter was the only classically trained musician in Fleetwood Mac , but both shared a similar sense of musicality . When the band jammed , Fleetwood often played his drum kit outside the studio 's partition screen to better gauge Caillat 's and Dashut 's reactions to the music 's groove . Baffles were placed around the drums and around John McVie , who played his bass guitar facing Fleetwood . Buckingham performed close to the rhythm section , while Christine McVie 's keyboards were kept away from the drum kit . Caillat and Dashut spent about nine days working with a range of microphones and amplifiers to get a larger sound , before discovering they could adjust the sound effectively on the API mixing console .
As the studio sessions progressed , the band members ' new intimate relationships that formed after various separations started to have a negative effect on Fleetwood Mac . The musicians did not meet or socialise after their daily work at the Record Plant . At the time , the hippie movement still affected Sausalito 's culture and drugs were readily available . Open @-@ ended budgets enabled the band and the engineers to become self @-@ indulgent ; sleepless nights and the extensive use of cocaine marked much of the album 's production . Chris Stone , one of the Record Plant 's owners , indicated in 1997 that Fleetwood Mac brought " excess at its most excessive " by taking over the studio for long and extremely expensive sessions ; he stated , " The band would come in at 7 at night , have a big feast , party till 1 or 2 in the morning , and then when they were so whacked @-@ out they couldn 't do anything , they 'd start recording " .
Nicks has suggested that Fleetwood Mac created the best music when in the worst shape , while , according to Buckingham , the tensions between band members informed the recording process and led to " the whole being more than the sum of the parts " . The couple 's work became " bittersweet " after their final split , although Buckingham still had a skill for taking Nicks ' tracks and " making them beautiful " . The vocal harmonies between the duo and Christine McVie worked well and were captured using the best microphones available . Nicks ' lyrical focus allowed the instrumentals in the songs that she wrote to be looser and more abstract . According to Dashut , all the recordings captured " emotion and feeling without a middle man ... or tempering " . John McVie tended to clash with Buckingham about the make @-@ up of songs , but both admit to achieving good outcomes . Christine McVie 's " Songbird " , which Caillat felt needed a concert hall 's ambience , was recorded during an all @-@ night session at Zellerbach Auditorium , across San Francisco Bay in Berkeley .
Following over two months in Sausalito , Fleetwood arranged a ten @-@ day tour to give the band a break and fan feedback . After the concerts , recording resumed at venues in Los Angeles , including Wally Heider Studios . Christine McVie and Nicks did not attend most of the sessions and took time off until they were needed to record any remaining vocals . The rest of Fleetwood Mac , with Caillat and Dashut , struggled to finalise the overdubbing and mixing of Rumours after the Sausalito tapes were damaged by repeated use during recording ; the kick and snare drum audio tracks sounded " lifeless " . A sell @-@ out autumn tour of the US was cancelled to allow the completion of the album , whose scheduled release date of September 1976 was pushed back . A specialist was hired to rectify the Sausalito tapes using a vari @-@ speed oscillator . Through a pair of headphones which played the damaged tapes in his left ear and the safety master recordings in his right , he converged their respective speeds aided by the timings provided by the snare and hi @-@ hat audio tracks . Fleetwood Mac and their co @-@ producers wanted a " no @-@ filler " final product , in which every track seemed a potential single . After the final mastering stage and hearing the songs back @-@ to @-@ back , the band members sensed they had recorded something " pretty powerful " .
= = Promotion and release = =
In autumn 1976 , while still recording , Fleetwood Mac showcased tracks from Rumours at the Universal Amphitheatre in Los Angeles . John McVie suggested the album title to the band because he felt the members were writing " journals and diaries " about each other through music . Warner Bros. confirmed the release details to the press in December and chose " Go Your Own Way " as a December 1976 promotional single . The label 's aggressive marketing of 1975 's Fleetwood Mac , in which links with dozens of FM and AM radio stations were formed across America , aided the promotion of Rumours . At the time , the album 's advance order of 800 @,@ 000 copies was the largest in Warner Bros. ' history .
Rumours was released on 4 February 1977 in the US and a week later in the UK . The front cover features a stylised shot of Fleetwood and Nicks dressed in her " Rhiannon " stage persona , while the back has a montage of band portraits ; all the photographs were taken by Herbert Worthington . On 28 February 1977 , after rehearsing at SIR Studios in Los Angeles , Fleetwood Mac started a seven @-@ month @-@ long promotional tour of America . Nicks has noted that , after performing mostly Rumours songs during gigs , the band initially encountered poor receptions from fans who were not accustomed to the new material . A one @-@ off March performance at a benefit concert for United States Senator Birch Bayh in Indiana was followed by a short European tour of the UK , the Netherlands , France , and Germany in April . Nigel Williams of Uncut called Fleetwood Mac 's performances " rock 's greatest soap opera " . " Dreams " , released in June 1977 , became the band 's only number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Composition = =
= = = Lyrics = = =
Fleetwood Mac 's main writers — Buckingham , Christine McVie and Nicks — worked individually on specific songs , but sometimes shared lyrics with each other . " The Chain " is the only track that all members , including Fleetwood and John McVie , collaborated on . All songs on Rumours concern personal , often troubled , relationships . According to Christine McVie , the fact that the lyricists were extensively focusing on the various separations became apparent to the band only with hindsight . " You Make Loving Fun " is about her boyfriend , Fleetwood Mac 's lighting director , after she split from John . Nicks ' " Dreams " details a breakup and has a hopeful message , while Buckingham 's similar effort in " Go Your Own Way " is more pessimistic . After a short fling with a New England woman , he was inspired to write " Never Going Back Again " , a song about the illusion of thinking that sadness will never occur again once feeling content with life . The lines " Been down one time / Been down two times " are in reference to the lyricist 's efforts when persuading the woman to give him a chance .
" Don 't Stop " , written by Christine McVie , is a song about optimism . She noted that Buckingham helped her craft the verses because their personal sensibilities overlapped . McVie 's next track , " Songbird " , features more introspective lyrics about " nobody and everybody " in the form of " a little prayer " . " Oh Daddy " , the last McVie song on the album , was written about Fleetwood and his wife Jenny Boyd , who had just gotten back together . The band 's nickname for Fleetwood was " The Big Daddy " . McVie commented that the writing is slightly sarcastic and focuses on the drummer 's direction for Fleetwood Mac , which always turned out to be right . Nicks provided the final lines " And I can 't walk away from you , baby / If I tried " . Her own song , " Gold Dust Woman " , is inspired by Los Angeles and the hardship encountered in such a metropolis . After struggling with the rock lifestyle , Nicks became addicted to cocaine and the lyrics address her belief in " keeping going " .
= = = Music = = =
Featuring a soft rock and pop rock sound , Rumours is built around a mix of acoustic and electric instrumentation . Buckingham 's guitar work and Christine McVie 's use of Fender Rhodes piano or Hammond B @-@ 3 organ are present in all tracks . The record often includes stressed drum sounds and distinctive percussion such as congas and maracas . It opens with " Second Hand News " , originally an acoustic demo titled " Strummer " . After hearing Bee Gees ' " Jive Talkin ' " , Buckingham and co @-@ producer Dashut built up the song with four audio tracks of electric guitar and the use of chair percussion to evoke celtic rock . " Dreams " includes " ethereal spaces " and a recurring two note pattern on the bass guitar . Nicks wrote the song in an afternoon and led the vocals , while the band played around her . The third track on Rumours , " Never Going Back Again " , began as " Brushes " , a simple acoustic guitar tune played by Buckingham , with snare rolls by Fleetwood using brushes ; the band added vocals and further instrumental audio tracks to make it more layered . Inspired by triple step dancing patterns , " Don 't Stop " includes both conventional acoustic and tack piano . In the latter instrument , nails are placed on the points where the hammers hit the strings , producing a more percussive sound . " Go Your Own Way " is more guitar @-@ oriented and has a four @-@ to @-@ the @-@ floor dance beat influenced by The Rolling Stones ' " Street Fighting Man " . The album 's pace slows down with " Songbird " , conceived solely by Christine McVie using a nine @-@ foot Steinway piano .
Side two of Rumours begins with " The Chain " , one of the record 's most complicated compositions . A Christine McVie demo , " Keep Me There " , and a Nicks song were re @-@ cut in the studio and were heavily edited to form parts of the track . The whole of the band crafted the rest using an approach akin to creating a film score ; John McVie provided a prominent solo using a fretless bass guitar , which marked a speeding up in tempo and the start of the song 's final third . Inspired by R & B , " You Make Loving Fun " has a simpler composition and features a clavinet , a special type of keyboard instrument , while the rhythm section plays interlocking notes and beats . The ninth track on Rumours , " I Don 't Want to Know " , makes use of a twelve string guitar and harmonising vocals . Influenced by the music of Buddy Holly , Buckingham and Nicks created it in 1974 before they were in Fleetwood Mac . " Oh Daddy " was crafted spontaneously and includes improvised bass guitar patterns from John McVie and keyboard blips from Christine McVie . The album ends with " Gold Dust Woman " , a song inspired by free jazz , which has music from a harpsichord , a Fender Stratocaster guitar , and a dobro , an acoustic guitar whose sound is produced by one or more metal cones .
= = Commercial performance = =
Rumours was a huge commercial success and became Fleetwood Mac 's second US number one record , following the 1975 eponymous release . It stayed at the top of the Billboard 200 for 31 non @-@ consecutive weeks , while also reaching number one in the United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , and New Zealand . In May 2011 it re @-@ entered Billboard 200 chart at number 11 , and the Australian ARIA chart at number 2 , due to several songs from the album being used for the " Rumours " episode of the American TV series Glee . The album was certified platinum in America and the UK within months of release after one million units and 300 @,@ 000 units were shipped respectively . All three major US trade publications — Billboard , Cash Box , and Record World — named it Album of the Year for 1977 . After a debut at number seven , Rumours peaked at the top of the UK Albums Chart in January 1978 , becoming Fleetwood Mac 's first number one album in the country . In February , the band and co @-@ producers Caillat and Dashut won the 1978 Grammy Award for Album of the Year . By March , the album had sold over 10 million copies worldwide , including over eight million in the US alone .
By 1980 , 13 million copies of Rumours had been sold worldwide , a figure which increased to nearly 20 million by 1987 . By the time of Fleetwood Mac 's reunion tour in 1997 , it had sold 25 million copies worldwide . The amount rose to 30 million by 2004 , and to 40 million by 2009 . As of May 2016 , Rumours has spent 630 weeks in the UK Top 75 album chart and is the 11th best @-@ selling album in UK history and is certified 11 × platinum by the British Phonographic Industry , the equivalent of 3 @.@ 3 million units shipped . The record has received a Diamond Award from the Recording Industry Association of America for a 20 × platinum certification or 20 million units shipped , making it , as of 2012 , the sixth best @-@ selling album in US history ( by number of units shipped ) .
= = Critical reception = =
Rumours has been acclaimed by music critics since its release . Robert Christgau , reviewing in The Village Voice , gave the album an " A " and described it as " more consistent and more eccentric " than its predecessor . He added that it " jumps right out of the speakers at you " . Rolling Stone magazine 's John Swenson believed the interplay among the three vocalists was one of the album 's most pleasing elements ; he stated , " Despite the interminable delay in finishing the record , Rumours proves that the success of Fleetwood Mac was no fluke . " In a review for The New York Times , John Rockwell said the album is " a delightful disk , and one hopes the public thinks so , too " , while Dave Marsh of the St. Petersburg Times claimed the songs are " as grandly glossy as anything right now " . Robert Hilburn was less receptive and called Rumours a " frustratingly uneven " record in his review for the Los Angeles Times , while Juan Rodriguez of The Gazette suggested that , while the music is " crisper and clearer " , Fleetwood Mac 's ideas are " slightly more muddled " . The album finished fourth in The Village Voice 's 1977 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll , which aggregated the votes of hundreds of prominent reviewers .
In a retrospective review , AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave Rumours five stars and noted that , regardless of the voyeuristic element , the record was " an unparalleled blockbuster " because of the music 's quality ; he concluded , " Each tune , each phrase regains its raw , immediate emotional power — which is why Rumours touched a nerve upon its 1977 release , and has since transcended its era to be one of the greatest , most compelling pop albums of all time . " According to Slant Magazine 's Barry Walsh , Fleetwood Mac drew on romantic dysfunction and personal turmoil to create a timeless , five @-@ star record , while Andy Gill of The Independent claimed it " represents , along with The Eagles Greatest Hits , the high @-@ water mark of America 's Seventies rock @-@ culture expansion , the quintessence of a counter @-@ cultural mindset lured into coke @-@ fuelled hedonism " . In 2007 , BBC 's Daryl Easlea labelled the sonic results as " near perfect " , " like a thousand angels kissing you sweetly on the forehead " , while Patrick McKay of Stylus Magazine wrote , " What distinguishes Rumours — what makes it art — is the contradiction between its cheerful surface and its anguished heart . Here is a radio @-@ friendly record about anger , recrimination , and loss . "
= = Legacy = =
Mick Fleetwood has called Rumours " the most important album we ever made " , because its success allowed the group to continue recording for years to come . Pop culture journalist Chuck Klosterman links the record 's sales figures to its " really likable songs " , but suggests that " no justification for greatness " is intrinsically provided by them . The Guardian collated worldwide data in 1997 from a range of renowned critics , artists , and radio DJs , who placed the record at number 78 in the list of the 100 Best Albums Ever . In 1998 , Legacy : A Tribute to Fleetwood Mac 's Rumours was produced by Fleetwood and released . The record contained each song of the original Rumours covered by a different act influenced by it . Among the musicians involved were alternative rock bands Tonic , Matchbox 20 , and Goo Goo Dolls , Celtic rock groups The Corrs and The Cranberries , and singer @-@ songwriters Elton John , Duncan Sheik , and Jewel . Other diverse acts influenced by Rumours include baroque pop artist Tori Amos , hard rock group Saliva , indie rock band Death Cab for Cutie. and art pop singer Lorde , who called it a " perfect record " .
In 1998 , Q placed Rumours at number three — behind The Clash 's London Calling and Pink Floyd 's The Dark Side of the Moon — in its list of 50 Best Albums of the 70s . In 1999 , Vibe featured it as one of 100 Essential Albums of the 20th Century . In 2003 , VH1 ranked the record at number 16 during its 100 Greatest Albums countdown , while Slant included it as one of 50 Essential Pop Albums . The same year , USA Today placed Rumours at number 23 in its Top 40 Albums list , while Rolling Stone ranked it at number 25 in its special issue of " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " , the highest Fleetwood Mac record . In 2006 , Time named it in its All @-@ TIME 100 Albums shortlist , while Mojo featured it in its unnumbered list of 70 from the 1970s : Decade ’ s Greatest Albums . The record is included in both The Guardian 's " 1000 Albums to Hear Before You Die " and the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . In the 2013 reissue of the album , Pitchfork Media 's Jessica Hopper gave the album a rare 10 out of 10 , earning it best new reissue .
= = Track listing = =
Cassette
The original cassette release has a different running order , transposing " Second Hand News " and " I Don 't Want to Know " .
Silver Springs
" Silver Springs " ( 4 : 48 ) , a song written by Nicks , was recorded at the same sessions and intended for inclusion on Rumours . It was eventually released as the B @-@ side of " Go Your Own Way " and has been restored to later reissues of the album .
2001 reissue
The DVD @-@ Audio version of Rumours released in 2001 includes " Silver Springs " ( Track 6 , with " Songbird " relocated to Track 12 ) , and short audio interviews with band members about the making of each song .
2004 reissue
Warner Bros. released a remastered version in 2004 with " Silver Springs " between " Songbird " and " The Chain " . The booklet features additional photography and detailed liner notes . Rhino Entertainment coupled this disc with a bonus disc of demos , roughs , and outtakes .
2013 reissue
The 2013 triple CD reissue restored the original running order of the album , instead moving " Silver Springs " to follow " Gold Dust Woman " . The second CD contained live versions , recorded during their 1977 tour , of eight songs from the album and three from its predecessor , Fleetwood Mac . The third disc contained demo versions , early takes and instrumental versions of songs from the album , but different selections from those on the 2004 reissue . A Deluxe Edition also included the second disc from the 2004 reissue , a DVD documentary , The Rosebud Film , from 1977 and the original album on 12 " LP .
= = Personnel = =
Those involved in the making of Rumours are :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Lenore Romney =
Lenore LaFount Romney ( born Lenore Lafount but adopted the variation LaFount ; November 9 , 1908 – July 7 , 1998 ) was an American actress and political figure . The wife of businessman and politician George W. Romney , she was First Lady of Michigan from 1963 to 1969 . She was the Republican Party nominee for the U.S. Senate in 1970 from Michigan . Her youngest son , Mitt Romney , was the former Governor of Massachusetts and was the 2012 Republican presidential nominee .
Lenore LaFount was born in Logan , Utah , and raised in Salt Lake City . She went to Latter @-@ day Saints High School , where she developed an interest in drama and first met George Romney . She attended the University of Utah and George Washington University , graduating from the latter in 1929 . She studied acting at the American Laboratory Theatre in New York , then went to Hollywood where she became a bit player who appeared in a number of films with Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer . Turning down a contract offer with them , she married George Romney in 1931 . The couple had four children together ; she was a stay @-@ at @-@ home mother , eventually living in Bloomfield Hills , Michigan , while he became a success in business and politics .
Lenore Romney was a popular First Lady of Michigan and was a frequent speaker at events and before civic groups . She was involved with many charitable , volunteer , and cultural organizations , including high positions with the Muscular Dystrophy Association , YWCA , and American Field Services , and also was active in the LDS Church that she was a lifelong member of . She was an asset to her husband 's 1968 presidential campaign . Although a traditionalist , she was an advocate for the greater involvement of women in business and politics .
In 1970 , she was urged by her husband and state Republican Party officials to run against popular , two @-@ term Democratic incumbent Senator Philip Hart . However , she struggled to establish herself as a serious candidate apart from her husband and failed to capture the support of conservatives within the party , only narrowly defeating State Senator Robert J. Huber in the party primary . Her difficulties continued in the general election and she lost to Hart by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin . She returned to volunteer activities during the 1970s , including stints on the boards of the National Center for Voluntary Action and the National Conference of Christians and Jews , and gave speeches to various organizations .
= = Early life and education = =
Lenore LaFount was born on November 9 , 1908 , in Logan , Utah , the second of four daughters Alma Luella ( née Robison ; 1882 – 1938 ) and Harold Arundel Lafount ( 1880 – 1952 ) . Her father was born in Birmingham in England , and her mother , born in Montpelier , Idaho , was of colonial English ancestry ( with more distant French roots ) . She had three sisters , one older and two younger . The family belonged to the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ; her father had converted to it in England and then come to the U.S. , while her maternal grandmother , Rosetta Berry , had been one of the Mormon handcart pioneers . Her father worked as a headphone manufacturer while her mother was prominent in local charities .
Lenore was raised in Salt Lake City , in a house located at Fifteenth South and Ninth East . She played the ukulele and was a member of the LDS girls club The Seagulls . She attended Latter @-@ day Saints High School , where she had a strong interest in drama . In 1924 , during her junior year , she and senior George W. Romney became high @-@ school sweethearts . She was from a more assimilated Mormon family than his , which had struggled with financial failure and debt . Although she was a " reach " for him in terms of social standing , he pursued her relentlessly from that point on , studying at a nearby junior college while she was a senior .
She graduated from high school in 1926 after only three years and attended the University of Utah for two years , while George went to England and Scotland to serve as a Mormon missionary ( making her " promise never to kiss anybody " while he was away ) . At the university , she was a member of the Chi Omega sorority . In 1927 , she was one of six attractive young women chosen to welcome Charles Lindbergh to Salt Lake City following his historic Spirit of St. Louis flight , and she was featured on the front page of the Salt Lake Telegram as a result . Later that year , on the strength of his friendship with U.S. Senator Reed Smoot , Harold Lafount was appointed by President Calvin Coolidge to serve on the new Federal Radio Commission . The family moved to Washington , D.C. , and Lenore transferred to George Washington University , where she graduated with an A.B. degree in English literature in June 1929 after spending only three years total in college . George returned from his missionary stint and soon followed her to Washington .
= = Acting career = =
LaFount 's mother wanted her to explore a theatrical career before marrying , and an aunt offered her further encouragement and assistance . LaFount thus moved to New York and enrolled in the American Laboratory Theatre to study acting , where she was taught Stanislavski 's system under school co @-@ founder Maria Ouspenskaya . She found the experience inspiring . In student productions there , she starred in the Shakespearean roles of Ophelia and Portia and also appeared in roles from Ibsen and Chekhov plays . She received a performance award there in 1930 . Talent scouts attending the productions were impressed , and she received an offer from the National Broadcasting Corporation to perform in a series of Shakespeare radio programs and from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer to go to Hollywood under an apprentice actress contract . She decided on the latter , despite strenuous arguments against doing so from a threatened George , who had been visiting her on weekends . By then , he had a job with Alcoa , and arranged to be transferred to Los Angeles to be with her . In September 1930 , the couple became engaged .
A 5 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) slender woman with porcelain skin and naturally curly chesnut colored hair , LaFount earned bit parts in Hollywood . These included appearing as a fashionable young French woman in a Greta Garbo film and as an ingenue in the William Haines film A Tailor Made Man . She also appeared in films that starred Jean Harlow and Ramon Navarro and was a stand @-@ in for Lili Damita . Her trained voice made her valuable during this dawn of the talking pictures era , and she worked as a voice actor in animated cartoons , sometimes doing the parts of speaking cats and dogs . She appeared in a promotional film clip with Buster , MGM 's star dog . George 's long @-@ time jealousy about her being in contact with other men became even worse as she met stars like Clark Gable , and in reaction to his attempts to control her , she threatened to break off their engagement .
After a few months in Hollywood , she had the opportunity to sign a three @-@ year contract with MGM that was worth $ 50 @,@ 000 if all the options were picked up . However , she was dismayed by some of the seamier aspects of Hollywood , including the studio 's request that she pose for cheesecake photos and the constant gambling among the extras . She also found the long waits between shots unsatisfying as a thespian , and read Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky novels on the set to pass the time . Romney finally convinced her to go ahead with marriage and return to Washington , where he worked for Alcoa as a lobbyist , earning $ 125 a month .
Although Lenore had been more independent than many women of the time , she later stated that she " never had any regrets about giving up movies . " Another time she said that she had never had a choice of both marriage and an acting career : " In an acting career , I would have been upstaging him , and he couldn 't stand that . It was never either and ; it was always either or . " George would later consider his successful seven @-@ year courtship of her to be his greatest sales achievement .
= = Marriage and family = =
Lenore LaFount married George Romney on July 2 , 1931 , at the Salt Lake Temple . Their wedding reception in the Chi Omega house at the University of Utah was attended by about four hundred guests .
In Washington , Lenore 's cultural refinement and hosting skills , along with her father 's social and political connections , helped George in his business career , and the couple met the Hoovers , the Roosevelts , and other prominent Washington figures . George often called upon her to host short @-@ notice parties . During 1933 – 1934 , Lenore hosted a 15 @-@ minute weekly program , Poetical Hitchhiking , on Washington 's famed radio station WRC
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On June 13 , 2004 , " Everybody 's Fool " debuted at number 23 on the Australian Singles Chart which later became its peak position . It spent five weeks on the chart appearing at number 42 in its last week on July 11 , 2004 . On the UK Singles Chart , " Everybody 's Fool " debuted at number 24 on June 12 , 2004 which later became its peak position . The next week , it fell at number 40 and it was last seen on the chart on June 26 at number 49 . It also charted in other European countries upon its release .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Everybody 's Fool " was directed by Philipp Stölzl and it was filmed in Los Angeles , California in mid @-@ April 2004 . Talking about the filming and the development of the video , Lee said : " There 's this one scene with everybody on motorbikes that every time I see it I just crack up . It 's the slow @-@ mo scene where I take off the helmet and swoosh my hair and look at the camera ... and it kills me . It 's so hilarious , it 's ridiculous . [ ... ] It 's a really different thing for us to do because it 's not performance at all . Everybody was laughing at me the whole time . I was just like , ' Please don 't laugh at me . Just give me five minutes so I can do this . ' " Lee added that the message of the video is in the name of the products her character is advertising , each of which are called " Lies " because according to her " [ ... the ] whole life is a lie . Every smile , that 's a lie . "
Lee conceptualized the video around the lyrics to the song : " It 's kind of about exposing that it 's fake . And the video 's more along the lines of exposing the real behind @-@ the @-@ scenes [ lives ] of some of these people . It 's basically showing the glamorous lifestyle and the depressed , selfish misery behind it . [ ... ] It 's like beating a dead horse at this point , but at the time Britney Spears was just coming out . But I still think it 's relevant . " Joe D 'Angelo of MTV News wrote that " fans will get to see Amy Lee like never before . Instead of her homemade wings and signature gothic garb , the clip finds Lee dressed alternately as a wholesome teenager , a kitschy pop idol and a softly lit glamazon . " Amy Lee portrays the life of a model who promotes products by a company called " Lies " . The music video focuses on the struggles that Lee 's character suffers with because of her modeling career and her opposite lifestyle .
Before the music begins , Lee appears with blond hair , a baby @-@ blue blouse and a long white skirt and emerges from the kitchen holding a fresh @-@ from @-@ the @-@ oven frozen pizza , in a TV commercial . She presents the pizza to her family and , as the camera zooms in for a close @-@ up , the brand name on the pizza box is visible and it is called Lies . " There is nothing better than a good lie , " Lee says cheerily , through a smile . Scenes of Lee in her hotel room follow as she removes her makeup . Those scenes are followed by Lee with " luxurious auburn tresses and dangling diamond earrings " as she plays a glamorous spokesmodel who violently scribbles and scratches out her picture in magazines after the photo shoot has finished . She also portrays a motorcycle girl in a commercial who drinks a soft drink called " Lies " that affords its drinker the opportunity to " Be somebody . "
In a Japanese commercial , she plays a Barbie @-@ like doll with pink hair . Each scene ends with Lee crying . During the bridge , two girls in an elevator are seen laughing at the model 's appearance , stating that she looks much older than they thought she was . Next scene , she is shown in a bathtub singing the song to herself . Another segment shows her breaking a mirror with her bare hand , which starts to bleed uncontrollably . In the final scene , she stands on the balcony of a building , crying and screaming at a billboard featuring one of her advertisements , saying that the model side of her isn 't " real and you can 't save me " , and that the public is oblivious to how she really lives .
= = Live performances = =
The song was part of the set list of Evanescence 's first worldwide tour , Fallen Tour . An acoustic version is performed on the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes section on their first live album , Anywhere but Home ( 2004 ) and another live version of the song from Le Zénith , Paris is also placed on the album . Johnny Loftus of Allmusic said that " when the guitars do show up ( like on ' Everybody 's Fool ' ) , Lee matches their power easily . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Everybody 's Fool " are taken from Fallen 's liner notes .
= = Track listing = =
CD single ( Australian version ) ( Released June 2004 )
" Everybody 's Fool " ( album version ) – 3 : 15
" Taking Over Me " ( live from Cologne ) – 4 : 06
" Whisper " ( live from Cologne ) – 5 : 22
" Everybody 's Fool " ( instrumental version ) – 3 : 15
= = Charts = =
= = In popular culture = =
The song was made available to download on April 3 , 2012 for play in Rock Band 3 Basic and PRO mode utilizing real guitar / bass guitar , and MIDI compatible electronic drum kits / keyboards plus vocal harmonies .
= Hurricane Emily ( 1987 ) =
Hurricane Emily was the only major hurricane to develop during the below @-@ average 1987 Atlantic hurricane season . Forming out of a tropical disturbance that moved off the west coast of Africa on September 20 , the storm quickly attained hurricane status before undergoing rapid intensification . On September 22 , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 958 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 29 inHg ) . The storm weakened slightly to Category 2 status before making landfall in the Dominican Republic . After weakening to a tropical storm , Emily rapidly tracked northeastward through the Atlantic Ocean , undergoing a second phase of rapid intensification before passing directly over Bermuda on September 25 . The following day the final public advisory from the National Hurricane Center was issued on the storm as it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
Hurricane Emily brought heavy rains and strong winds in the Windward Islands on September 21 , leaving numerous homes damaged and severe losses in the banana industry . Losses throughout the islands amounted to $ 291 @,@ 000 . In the Dominican Republic , despite the storm 's high intensity , relatively moderate damage occurred . Three people were killed by the storm and damages amounted to $ 30 million . Unexpected intensification of the storm led to severe impact in Bermuda . The storm caused $ 50 million in damages and injured 16 people .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Emily originated out of a tropical disturbance , associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) , that moved off the west coast of Africa on September 13 . Tracking westward at a low latitude , the system fluctuated in organization , with the development and weakening of deep convection and weak outflow for several days . By September 18 , the disturbance entered a region where there was sinking air , an inhibiting factor of tropical cyclone development . Two days later , the system separated from the ITCZ and quickly developed into a tropical depression , the twelfth of the season , while located about 605 miles ( 975 kilometers ) southeast of Barbados .
Gradual intensification took place throughout September 20 , attaining the status of tropical storm by 1800 UTC and received the name Emily . The storm tracked in a general west @-@ northwest direction around the edge of a strong subtropical ridge . By 1200 UTC on September 21 , the center of Emily passed directly over St. Vincent with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Situated underneath an anticyclone , rapid intensification took place as the storm quickly tracked towards Hispaniola . In the 24 @-@ hour span between 1800 UTC on September 21 and 1800 UTC on September 22 , the central barometric pressure of the storm dropped 44 mbar ( hPa ) to 958 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 29 inHg ) and winds increased to 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) , equivalent to a high @-@ end Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . At the time of peak intensity , the hurricane hunters recorded flight @-@ level winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) and unofficial pressure of 949 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 02 inHg ) .
Slight weakening took place late on September 22 and early on September 23 as the hurricane neared landfall . Around 0300 UTC , the eye of Emily tracked onshore between Barahona and Bani , Dominican Republic as a strong Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . Within 12 hours of landfall , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm and had emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near Haiti with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . The storm significantly slowed while tracking through the eastern Bahamas as a quasi @-@ stationary frontal system influenced Emily . Moving generally towards the north , the center of circulation passed very close to Inagua and Mayaguana on September 24 .
By midday on September 24 , the system became embedded within the mid @-@ latitude westerlies and rapidly accelerated towards the northeast . The National Hurricane Center anticipated that Emily would undergo an extratropical transition within 24 hours at this point as they forecast it to merge with the frontal system to the northeast . However , the storm unexpectedly underwent a second phase of rapid intensification on September 25 , at one point reaching the rate of explosive intensification with the central pressure decreasing at 2 @.@ 5 mbar per hour . By 0600 UTC , Emily had re @-@ attained hurricane intensity and at 1145 UTC , the center passed directly over Bermuda with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Soon after , the storm reached its secondary peak intensity with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 974 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 76 inHg ) .
Hurricane Emily continued tracking northeast throughout September 25 into the following day with increasing speed . By late on September 25 , the forward motion of the storm had reached 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The storm now began to undergo an extratropical transition with forward speed peaking at 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , the third highest forward motion ever recorded in a tropical cyclone . Interacting with a baroclinic zone , the hurricane completed its transition at 1800 UTC on September 26 , resulting in the issuance of the final advisory on the storm .
= = Preparations = =
As Tropical Storm Emily quickly approached the Windward Islands on September 21 , a tropical storm warning was issued for Grenada , Barbados , St. Vincent and St. Lucia . A tropical storm watch was also declared for Martinique . As the storm tracked through the islands , all watches and warnings were discontinued later that day . Early on September 22 , a hurricane warning was issued for the southern coast of the Dominican Republic and southern Haiti , including the southwestern peninsula . Upon attaining major hurricane status , a hurricane warning was declared for northern Haiti as the storm was anticipated to maintain hurricane intensity through landfall . Later that day , a hurricane watch was issued for the southeastern Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands . This watch was later upgraded to a warning as the storm was expected to regain intensity over the Bahamas .
Following the anticipation of a more westerly track on September 23 , a hurricane watch was issued for the northwestern Bahamas , later superseded by a warning , and a hurricane warning was declared for eastern Cuba . Early on September 24 , all watches and warnings for the Caribbean Islands , including the Bahamas , were discontinued as Emily moved out over the Atlantic Ocean . On September 25 , a special advisory was issued for Bermuda as tropical storm @-@ force winds were likely to impact the island . Following the unexpected intensification , another special advisory was issued stating that hurricane @-@ force winds would impact the island during the day on September 25 . This advisory was discontinued following the storms ' passage later that day .
Throughout the Windward Islands , schools and businesses were closed ahead of the storm . In the Dominican Republic , roughly 6 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from Santo Domingo ahead of the storm . Although the storm never tracked towards Florida , state officials advised residents to prepare for the storm . Officials were in the " awareness stage " of hurricane preparation as they were discussing the possibility of impact from Emily . In the Turks and Caicos , residents were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas to shelters throughout the islands .
On September 25 , the Canadian Hurricane Centre issued its first information bulletin ever related to a tropical cyclone as Emily was moving into Canadian offshore waters . The agency was created less than a month earlier , and warned for the potential of heavy rainfall and strong winds in the ocean southeast of Newfoundland .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Tracking through the Lesser Antilles as a tropical storm , Emily brought heavy rains to several islands . In Barbados , high winds caused widespread roof damage and downed trees and power lines ; losses on the island reached $ 100 @,@ 000 . On St. Vincent , the banana industry sustained severe losses , with roughly 70 % of the crop destroyed . Schools throughout the island were closed prior and during the storm . Up to of 3 in ( 76 mm ) of rain fell within six hours on the island , causing flooding that forced eight families to evacuate their homes . Damage on the island amounted to $ 191 @,@ 000 , mainly from landslides . The outer bands of Emily produced moderate rainfall across portions of southwest Puerto Rico , peaking at 4 @.@ 63 in ( 118 mm ) .
In the Dominican Republic , Emily 's heavy rains caused widespread mudslides , killing two people . Another person was killed after stepping on a downed power line . An estimated 5 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the aftermath of the storm . Upwards of 4 @.@ 59 in ( 117 mm ) of rain fell during the storm in the Dominican Republic . The farming industry was impacted particularly hard , with $ 30 million in losses occurring . Following the storm , hundreds of volunteers in the Dominican Republic assisted evacuees in shelters and helped officials clean up the affected areas . The Red Cross was also deployed to the region to assist those left homeless by the storm . In all , Emily caused $ 80 @.@ 3 million in damage and killed three people .
Although Emily passed over Haiti , it produced little damage and no loss of life . The lack of fatalities was linked to the amount of forest remaining over the mountains of the country , estimated at 25 % of their original size , compared to the 1 @.@ 4 % remaining in 2004 . In the Bahamas , Emily produced winds up to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) along with rainfall up to 1 @.@ 35 in ( 34 mm ) .
Since the storm was not expected to be strong when it passed Bermuda , islanders were caught off guard by the 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) winds . Cars and boats were affected the most , though some houses experienced severe damage during the storm 's passage as well . Hurricane Emily caused $ 50 million in damage to the island , though no one was killed . About 230 buildings lost their roofs and 16 people were injured due to winds gusting in excess of 112 mph ( 180 km / h ) . The local airport was shut down as a large portion of its roof was blown off during the storm . Several cars and boats were flipped by the storm and a cruise ship carrying 700 people slipped from its moorings . Before the storm 's landfall , officials in Bermuda cut power to roughly 90 % of the island to protect the power grid . There were also unconfirmed reports of tornadoes associated with the storm . Emily was the strongest hurricane to hit Bermuda since the 1948 season .
= Death of Leelah Alcorn =
Leelah Alcorn ( November 15 , 1997 – December 28 , 2014 ) was an American transgender girl whose suicide attracted international attention . Alcorn had posted a suicide note to her Tumblr blog , writing about societal standards affecting transgender people and expressing the hope that her death would create a dialogue about discrimination , abuse and lack of support for transgender people .
Assigned male at birth and given the name Joshua Ryan Alcorn , she was raised in a conservative Christian household in Ohio . At age 14 , she came out as transgender to her parents , Carla and Doug Alcorn , who refused to accept her female gender identity . When she was 16 , they denied her request to undergo transition treatment , instead sending her to Christian @-@ based conversion therapy with the intention of convincing her to reject her gender identity and accept her gender as assigned at birth . After she revealed her attraction toward males to her classmates , her parents removed her from school and revoked her access to social media . In her suicide note , Alcorn cited loneliness and alienation as key reasons for her decision to end her life and blamed her parents for causing these feelings . She committed suicide by walking out in front of oncoming traffic on the Interstate 71 highway .
Alcorn arranged for her suicide note to be posted online several hours after her death , and it soon attracted international attention across mainstream and social media . LGBT rights activists called attention to the incident as evidence of the problems faced by transgender youth , while vigils were held in her memory in the United States and United Kingdom . Petitions were formed calling for the establishment of " Leelah 's Law " , a ban on conversion therapy in the U.S. , which received a supportive response from U.S. President Barack Obama . Within a year , the city of Cincinnati had criminalised conversion therapy . Alcorn 's parents were criticized for misgendering Leelah in comments that they made to the media , while LGBT rights activist Dan Savage blamed them for their child 's death and social media users subjected them to online harassment . They defended their refusal to accept their child 's identity and their use of conversion therapy by reference to their Christian beliefs .
= = Life = =
Assigned male at birth , Alcorn was given the name Joshua Ryan Alcorn . She eventually rejected this forename , and in her suicide note signed herself " ( Leelah ) Josh Alcorn " . She was one of several children . Describing herself as being raised in a conservative Christian environment , she and her family attended the Northeast Church of Christ in Cincinnati , and had been featured in a profile of that church published in a 2011 article in The Christian Chronicle .
According to her suicide note , Alcorn had felt " like a girl trapped in a boy 's body " since she was four , and came to identify as a transgender girl from the age of fourteen , when she became aware of the term . According to her note , she immediately informed her mother , who reacted " extremely negatively " by claiming that it was only a phase and that God had made her a male , so she could never be a woman . She stated that this made her hate herself , and that she developed a form of depression . Her mother sent her to Christian conversion therapists , but there " only got more Christians telling me that I was selfish and wrong and that I should look to God for help . " Aged sixteen , she requested that she be allowed to undergo transition treatment , but was denied permission : " I felt hopeless , that I was just going to look like a man in drag for the rest of my life . On my 16th birthday , when I didn 't receive consent from my parents to start transitioning , I cried myself to sleep . "
Alcorn publicly revealed her attraction to males when she was sixteen , as she believed that identifying as a gay male at that point would be a stepping stone to coming out as transgender at a later date . According to a childhood friend , Alcorn received a positive reception from many at school , although her parents were appalled . In Alcorn 's words , " They felt like I was attacking their image , and that I was an embarrassment to them . They wanted me to be their perfect little straight Christian boy , and that 's obviously not what I wanted . " They removed her from Kings High School , and enrolled her as an eleventh grader at an online school , Ohio Virtual Academy . According to Alcorn , her parents cut her off from the outside world for five months as they denied her access to social media and many forms of communication . She described this as a significant contributing factor towards her suicide . At the end of the school year , they returned her phone to her and allowed her to regain contact with her friends , although by this time – according to Alcorn – her relationship with many of them had become strained and she continued to feel isolated .
Two months prior to her death , Alcorn sought out help on the social media website Reddit , asking users whether the treatment perpetrated by her parents was considered child abuse . There , she revealed that while her parents had never physically assaulted her , " they always talked to
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me in a very derogatory tone " and " would say things like ' You 'll never be a real girl ' or ' What 're you going to do , fuck boys ? ' or ' God 's going to send you straight to hell ' . These all made me feel awful about myself , I was Christian at the time so I thought that God hated me and that I didn 't deserve to be alive . " Further , she explained , " I tried my absolute hardest to live up to their standards and be a straight male , but eventually I realized that I hated religion and my parents . " On Reddit , Alcorn also disclosed that she was prescribed increasing dosages of the anti @-@ depressant Prozac . In concluding her post , she wrote , " Please help me , I don 't know what I should do and I can 't take much more of this . "
Alcorn 's computer was recovered near the site of her suicide . It contained conversations showing that she had planned to jump off the bridge that overlooks Interstate 71 days before the incident , but then contacted a crisis hotline and , as told to a friend , " basically cried my eyes out for a couple of hours talking to a lady there " .
= = Death = =
Prior to her death on December 28 , 2014 , Alcorn had scheduled for her suicide note to be automatically posted on her Tumblr account at 5.30pm. In the note , she stated her intention to end her life , commenting :
I have decided I 've had enough . I 'm never going to transition successfully , even when I move out . I 'm never going to be happy with the way I look or sound . I 'm never going to have enough friends to satisfy me . I 'm never going to have enough love to satisfy me . I 'm never going to find a man who loves me . I 'm never going to be happy . Either I live the rest of my life as a lonely man who wishes he were a woman or I live my life as a lonelier woman who hates herself . There 's no winning . There 's no way out . I 'm sad enough already , I don 't need my life to get any worse . People say " it gets better " but that isn 't true in my case . It gets worse . Each day I get worse . That 's the gist of it , that 's why I feel like killing myself . Sorry if that 's not a good enough reason for you , it 's good enough for me .
She expressed her wish that all of her possessions and money be donated to a transgender advocacy charity , and called for issues surrounding gender identity to be taught in schools . The note ended with the statement : " My death needs to mean something . My death needs to be counted in the number of transgender people who commit suicide this year . I want someone to look at that number and say " that 's fucked up " and fix it . Fix society . Please . " A second post appeared shortly after ; titled " Sorry " , it featured an apology to her close friends and siblings for the trauma that her suicide would put them through , but also contained a message to her parents : " Fuck you . You can 't just control other people like that . That 's messed up . " An additional , handwritten suicide note reading " I 've had enough " was found on her bed , but then thrown away by Alcorn 's mother after police made a copy .
In the early morning of December 28 , police informed news sources that she had been walking southbound on Interstate 71 near Union Township when she was struck by a semi @-@ trailer just before 2 : 30 am near the South Lebanon exit . She died at the scene . It is believed that Alcorn walked three to four miles from her parents ' house in nearby Kings Mills , Ohio , before being struck . The highway was closed for more than an hour after the incident . An investigation was launched by the Ohio State Highway Patrol , while Alcorn 's body was transported to the Montgomery County coroner , where an autopsy was scheduled . The truck driver was uninjured in the incident and was not charged with any criminal offence by police .
Within 48 hours of the posting of her suicide note , it had attracted 82 @,@ 272 views , and by the morning of December 31 it had been reposted on Tumblr 200 @,@ 000 times . The Boston Globe described it as a " passionate post " . The suicide note was later deleted after Alcorn 's parents asked for it to be removed , and the blog was made inaccessible to the public . According to the family minister , the Alcorn family decided to hold the funeral privately after receiving threats . Alcorn 's body was reportedly cremated . The Ohio State Patrol completed their investigation into Alcorn 's death on April 30 , 2015 , officially ruling it a suicide .
= = Reaction = =
= = = Criticism of Alcorn 's parents = = =
On December 28 at 2 : 56 p.m. , Alcorn 's mother , Carla Wood Alcorn , posted a public message on the social media website Facebook , stating : " My sweet 16 @-@ year @-@ old son , Joshua Ryan Alcorn , went home to Heaven this morning . He was out for an early morning walk and was hit by a truck . Thank you for the messages and kindness and concern you have sent our way . Please continue to keep us in your prayers . " Carla Alcorn 's post was subsequently deleted , and her Facebook account was made private . The Alcorn family publicly requested that they be given privacy to grieve in a statement issued by the Kings Local School District . In that statement , staff from Alcorn 's former school , Kings High School , declared that " Joshua Alcorn was a sweet , talented , tender @-@ hearted 17 @-@ year @-@ old " , adding that counselors would be made available to students affected by the incident . A moment of silence was held in Alcorn 's memory before a Kings High basketball game on December 30 .
Some of Alcorn 's sympathizers publicly criticized the teen 's mother , Carla Alcorn , for misgendering her daughter in the Facebook post announcing Leelah 's death . Some individuals — termed " the Internet 's self @-@ appointed vigilantes " in The Washington Post — subsequently doxed and harassed Carla via her Facebook account " in revenge " for Leelah 's death . On Twitter , American gay rights activist Dan Savage argued that Alcorn 's parents should be prosecuted for their role in bringing about their daughter 's death , commenting that through their actions they " threw her in front of that truck " . He cited the successful prosecution of Dharun Ravi following the suicide of Tyler Clementi as a legal precedent for such an action . He added that legal action should also be brought against the conversion therapists who had counselled Leelah , and suggested that the Alcorns should lose custody of their other children .
Carla Alcorn responded to such criticism in an interview with CNN , stating " we loved him unconditionally . We loved him no matter what . I loved my son . People need to know that I loved him . He was a good kid , a good boy . " Although acknowledging that Leelah had requested transition surgery , Carla stated that she had never heard her child use the name " Leelah " , before reiterating her refusal to accept her child 's transgender status , adding " We don 't support that , religiously . " She expressed concern that users of social media thought her to be a " horrible person " , but defended her actions in dealing with her child , stating that she had banned Leelah 's internet access to prevent her accessing " inappropriate " things . In an email to Cincinnati @-@ based channel WCPO @-@ TV , Leelah 's father Doug Alcorn wrote , " We love our son , Joshua , very much and are devastated by his death . We have no desire to enter into a political storm or debate with people who did not know him . We wish to grieve in private . We harbor no ill will towards anyone ... I simply do not wish our words to be used against us . "
Writing for Salon , Mary Elizabeth Williams commented that " it would be cruel and inaccurate to suggest that Carla Alcorn did not love her child " , but added that Carla 's statement that she " loved him unconditionally " revealed " a tragic lack of understanding of the word ' unconditionally , ' even in death . " People magazine quoted Johanna Olson , Medical Director for the Center of Trans Youth Health and Development at Children 's Hospital Los Angeles , as stating that " Did Leelah 's parents love her ? Yes , I 'm sure they did . Did they support her ? No , they didn 't . And that 's a tragedy . " Mara Keisling , the Executive Director of the National Center for Transgender Equality , was quoted in The Independent as stating that the blaming of Alcorn 's parents was unhelpful , adding , " Despite the great cultural and policy advances transgender people have made , there is still a lot of disrespect , discrimination and violence aimed at us . And being a child or a teenager of any kind today is very difficult . "
= = = Tributes , vigils , and activism = = =
The day after Alcorn 's suicide note was published online , Chris Seelbach , the first openly gay councilman on Cincinnati City Council , shared it as part of a Facebook message in which he stated that her death showed how hard it was to be transgender in the U.S. His post was shared over 4 @,@ 700 times and raised increased public awareness of the incident . By December 30 , Alcorn 's death had attracted worldwide attention . News outlets across the world had picked up the story , and the hashtag # LeelahAlcorn had topped Twitter . According to British newspaper The Independent , the incident " triggered widespread anguish and raised a debate about the rights of transgender people " , while the U.S.-based Boston Globe stated that it " served as a flashpoint for transgender progress in 2014 " .
On January 1 , 2015 , the Cincinnati @-@ based LGBT rights group Support Marriage Equality Ohio hosted a vigil for Alcorn outside Kings High School . A candlelight vigil in Goodale Park , Columbus was held on January 2 by a group called Stand Up 4 Leelah . A further vigil was organized by both The Diverse City Youth Chorus in partnership with the Cincinnati chapter of the Gay , Lesbian and Straight Education Network at the Clifton Cultural Arts Center for January 10 . The vigil location at the Clifton Cultural Arts Center was moved to the Woodward Theater , to make way for a larger setting . The venue was attended by nearly 600 supporters .
A January 3 vigil was scheduled for Trafalgar Square in London ; an organizer was quoted as saying that " [ Alcorn 's ] death was a political death . When a member of our community is brutalised at the hands of oppression we must all fight back " . Those who spoke at the event included politician Sarah Brown and novelist and poet Roz Kaveney . Marches were carried out in honor of Alcorn in both Northwest , Washington , D.C. and Queen Street , Auckland on January 10 . The same day , a candlelight vigil was held in New York City 's Columbus Circle . A memorial protest against conversion therapy and in memory of Alcorn took place in Lynchburg , Virginia on January 24 , 2015 .
Among the transgender celebrities who publicly responded to the incident were Janet Mock , Andreja Pejić , and Laverne Cox , while the musician Ray Toro released a song , " For The Lost And Brave " , in dedication to Alcorn . Jill Soloway , the writer of television show Transparent , dedicated her Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series to Alcorn . During Diane Sawyer 's interview with Caitlyn Jenner ( then Bruce ) , which confirmed Jenner 's transgender identity , Alcorn was mentioned by name and the message " Fix society . Please " was broadcast .
The Ohio Department of Transportation put up signs on the interchange of Interstate 71 South and Ohio State Route 48 in Warren County , where Alcorn died , to show that a group adopted that part of the road in memory of Alcorn .
Carolyn Washburn , editor of the Ohio newspaper The Cincinnati Enquirer , stated that the incident " raises important issues we hope will prompt conversations in families throughout our region . " Washburn had also received letters that derided the newspaper 's use of Alcorn 's chosen name in covering her death . When contacted by The Cincinnati Enquirer , Shane Morgan , the founder and chair of transgender advocate group TransOhio , stated that while 2014 witnessed gains for the trans rights movement , Alcorn 's death illustrated how " trans people are still being victimized and still being disrespected " , highlighting the high rate of transgender people who had been murdered that year . Since the incident , TransOhio received letters from parents of transgender children describing how Leelah 's death had affected them . Morgan stated that while he understood the anger directed toward Leelah 's parents , " there 's no excuse for threats to the family . "
Allison Woolbert , executive director of the Transgender Human Rights Institute , informed The Independent that Leelah 's case was " not unique " ; the newspaper highlighted research from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicating that LGBT youth are about twice as likely to attempt suicide than heterosexual , cisgender teenagers . Newsweek similarly placed Alcorn 's suicide within its wider context of trans
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Orsini , the last descendant of the Epirote ruling dynasty . Synadenos was taken captive in the capital , Arta by the rebels , and remained a prisoner until 1340 , when Andronikos III and Kantakouzenos campaigned against the rebels and recovered the region . John Angelos , a relative of Kantakouzenos , was installed as the new governor , while Synadenos was moved to the governorship of Thessalonica .
= = = Renewed civil war and death = = =
In June 1341 , Andronikos III died suddenly , and a power struggle developed between Kantakouzenos , who initially assumed the powers of regency over Andronikos 's underage son John V Palaiologos , and a powerful faction around the Patriarch John XIV Kalekas , the Empress @-@ dowager Anna of Savoy and Alexios Apokaukos on the other . The dispute soon developed in outright conflict when the Patriarch , the Empress , and Apokaukos replaced Kantakouzenos as regent and imprisoned his family and supporters . In response , Kantakouzenos proclaimed himself emperor at Didymoteichon in October . The news of Kantakouzenos 's proclamation sparked a wave of popular resistance across Macedonia and Thrace . The common people , impoverished by an exploitative and over @-@ powerful aristocracy , viewed Kantakouzenos as a representative of the hated aristocrats and rallied behind the legitimate Palaiologos line and one by one , the cities were seized in the name of the Constantinopolitan regency . Thessalonica at first remained tranquil , and Synadenos contacted his old friend Kantakouzenos with the intention of surrendering the city to him . Such a move might well prove decisive , as possession of Thessalonica would enable Kantakouzenos to control Macedonia , Thessaly and Epirus , and in March 1342 , he set out from Didymoteichon with his army in the direction of the city . Before he arrived there , however , Synadenos was overthrown and driven from the city by a rebellion led by a radical popular faction , the Zealots . Apokaukos with a fleet came to reinforce the new regime , and one of his sons was installed as its new governor .
Driven from Thessalonica , with Kantakouzenos 's cause seemingly in ruins — he was soon forced to seek refuge in the court of the Serbian king , Stefan Dushan — and with his family back in Constantinople in the regency 's hands , Synadenos made terms with Apokaukos . He was rewarded with the high rank of protovestiarios , but soon after placed under virtual house arrest in Constantinople . There he died , deprived of his court rank and considerable wealth , in late 1345 or early 1346 . A year later , in February 1347 , Kantakouzenos entered Constantinople as the victor of the civil war , which had left the Byzantine state in ruins : its human and military resources exhausted , over half of its territory lost , bankrupt and indebted to foreigners , with a war @-@ weary and unenthusiastic populace .
= = = Family = = =
Some time before 1320 , Theodore married Eudokia Doukaina Komnene Palaiologina Synadene , and had two daughters :
Theodora Komnene Doukaina Raoulaina Palaiologina , who probably married a member of the Raoul family .
Anna Komnene Doukaina Palaiologina Asanina , who married John Kantakouzenos ' brother @-@ in @-@ law , Manuel Asen .
= Archaea =
The Archaea ( / ɑːrˈkiːə / or / ɑːrˈkeɪə / ar @-@ KEE @-@ ə or ar @-@ KAY @-@ ə ; singular archaeon ) constitute a domain and kingdom of single @-@ celled microorganisms . These microbes are prokaryotes , meaning that they have no cell nucleus or any other membrane @-@ bound organelles in their cells .
Archaea were initially classified as bacteria , receiving the name archaebacteria ( in the Archaebacteria kingdom ) , but this classification is outdated . Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them from the other two domains of life , Bacteria and Eukaryota . The Archaea are further divided into multiple recognized phyla . Classification is difficult because the majority have not been isolated in the laboratory and have only been detected by analysis of their nucleic acids in samples from their environment .
Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape , although a few archaea have very strange shapes , such as the flat and square @-@ shaped cells of Haloquadratum walsbyi . Despite this morphological similarity to bacteria , archaea possess genes and several metabolic pathways that are more closely related to those of eukaryotes , notably the enzymes involved in transcription and translation . Other aspects of archaeal biochemistry are unique , such as their reliance on ether lipids in their cell membranes , such as archaeols . Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes : these range from organic compounds , such as sugars , to ammonia , metal ions or even hydrogen gas . Salt @-@ tolerant archaea ( the Haloarchaea ) use sunlight as an energy source , and other species of archaea fix carbon ; however , unlike plants and cyanobacteria , no known species of archaea does both . Archaea reproduce asexually by binary fission , fragmentation , or budding ; unlike bacteria and eukaryotes , no known species forms spores .
Archaea were initially viewed as extremophiles living in harsh environments , such as hot springs and salt lakes , but they have since been found in a broad range of habitats , including soils , oceans , marshlands and the human colon , oral cavity , and skin . Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans , and the archaea in plankton may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet . Archaea are a major part of Earth 's life and may play roles in both the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle . No clear examples of archaeal pathogens or parasites are known , but they are often mutualists or commensals . One example is the methanogens that inhabit human and ruminant guts , where their vast numbers aid digestion . Methanogens are also used in biogas production and sewage treatment , and enzymes from extremophile archaea that can endure high temperatures and organic solvents are exploited in biotechnology .
= = Classification = =
= = = New domain = = =
For much of the 20th century , prokaryotes were regarded as a single group of organisms and classified based on their biochemistry , morphology and metabolism . For example , microbiologists tried to classify microorganisms based on the structures of their cell walls , their shapes , and the substances they consume . In 1965 , Linus Pauling and Emile Zuckerland proposed instead using the sequences of the genes in different prokaryotes to work out how they are related to each other . This approach , known as phylogenetics , is the main method used today .
Archaea were first classified as a separate group of prokaryotes in 1977 by Carl Woese and George E. Fox in phylogenetic trees based on the sequences of ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) genes . These two groups were originally named the Archaebacteria and Eubacteria and treated as kingdoms or subkingdoms , which Woese and Fox termed Urkingdoms . Woese argued that this group of prokaryotes is a fundamentally different sort of life . To emphasize this difference , Woese later proposed a new natural system of organisms with three separate Domains : the Eukarya , the Bacteria and the Archaea , in what is now known as " The Woesian Revolution " .
The word archaea comes from the Ancient Greek ἀρχαῖα , meaning " ancient things " , as the first representatives of the domain Archaea were methanogens and it was assumed that their metabolism reflected Earth 's primitive atmosphere and the organism 's antiquity . For a long time , archaea were seen as extremophiles that only exist in extreme habitats such as hot springs and salt lakes . However , as new habitats were studied , more organisms were discovered . Extreme halophilic and hyperthermophilic microbes were also included in the Archaea . By the end of the 20th century , archaea had been identified in non @-@ extreme environments as well . Today , they are known to be a large and diverse group of organisms that are widely distributed in nature and are common in all habitats . This new appreciation of the importance and ubiquity of archaea came from using polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) to detect prokaryotes from environmental samples ( such as water or soil ) by multiplying their ribosomal genes . This allows the detection and identification of organisms that have not been cultured in the laboratory .
= = = Current classification = = =
The classification of archaea , and of prokaryotes in general , is a rapidly moving and contentious field . Current classification systems aim to organize archaea into groups of organisms that share structural features and common ancestors . These classifications rely heavily on the use of the sequence of ribosomal RNA genes to reveal relationships between organisms ( molecular phylogenetics ) . Most of the culturable and well @-@ investigated species of archaea are members of two main phyla , the Euryarchaeota and Crenarchaeota . Other groups have been tentatively created . For example , the peculiar species Nanoarchaeum equitans , which was discovered in 2003 , has been given its own phylum , the Nanoarchaeota . A new phylum Korarchaeota has also been proposed . It contains a small group of unusual thermophilic species that shares features of both of the main phyla , but is most closely related to the Crenarchaeota . Other recently detected species of archaea are only distantly related to any of these groups , such as the Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms ( ARMAN ) , which were discovered in 2006 and are some of the smallest organisms known .
A superphylum - TACK - has been proposed that includes the Thaumarchaeota , Aigarchaeota , Crenarchaeota , and Korarchaeota . This superphylum may be related to the origin of eukaryotes .
= = = = Concept of species = = = =
The classification of archaea into species is also controversial . Biology defines a species as a group of related organisms . The familiar exclusive breeding criterion ( organisms that can breed with each other but not with others ) is of no help here because archaea reproduce asexually .
Archaea show high levels of horizontal gene transfer between lineages . Some researchers suggest that individuals can be grouped into species @-@ like populations given highly similar genomes and infrequent gene transfer to / from cells with less @-@ related genomes , as in the genus Ferroplasma . On the other hand , studies in Halorubrum found significant genetic transfer to / from less @-@ related populations , limiting the criterion 's applicability . A second concern is to what extent such species designations have practical meaning .
Current knowledge on genetic diversity is fragmentary and the total number of archaeal species cannot be estimated with any accuracy . Estimates of the number of phyla range from 18 to 23 , of which only 8 have representatives that have been cultured and studied directly . Many of these hypothesized groups are known from a single rRNA sequence , indicating that the diversity among these organisms remains obscure . The Bacteria also contain many uncultured microbes with similar implications for characterization .
= = Origin and evolution = =
The age of the Earth is about 4 @.@ 54 billion years old . Scientific evidence suggests that life began on Earth at least 3 @.@ 5 billion years ago . The earliest evidence for life on Earth is graphite found to be biogenic in 3 @.@ 7 billion @-@ year @-@ old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3 @.@ 48 billion @-@ year @-@ old sandstone discovered in Western Australia . More recently , in 2015 , " remains of biotic life " were found in 4 @.@ 1 billion @-@ year @-@ old rocks in Western Australia . An unrelated researcher , S. Blair Hedges , wrote in an email about the study saying , " If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe . "
Although probable prokaryotic cell fossils date to almost 3 @.@ 5 billion years ago , most prokaryotes do not have distinctive morphologies and fossil shapes cannot be used to identify them as archaea . Instead , chemical fossils of unique lipids are more informative because such compounds do not occur in other organisms . Some publications suggest that archaeal or eukaryotic lipid remains are present in shales dating from 2 @.@ 7 billion years ago ; such data have since been questioned . Such lipids have also been detected in even older rocks from west Greenland . The oldest such traces come from the Isua district , which include Earth 's oldest known sediments , formed 3 @.@ 8 billion years ago . The archaeal lineage may be the most
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ancient that exists on Earth .
Woese argued that the bacteria , archaea , and eukaryotes represent separate lines of descent that diverged early on from an ancestral colony of organisms . One possibility is that this occurred before the evolution of cells , when the lack of a typical cell membrane allowed unrestricted lateral gene transfer , and that the common ancestors of the three domains arose by fixation of specific subsets of genes . It is possible that the last common ancestor of the bacteria and archaea was a thermophile , which raises the possibility that lower temperatures are " extreme environments " in archaeal terms , and organisms that live in cooler environments appeared only later . Since the Archaea and Bacteria are no more related to each other than they are to eukaryotes , the term prokaryote 's only surviving meaning is " not a eukaryote " , limiting its value .
= = = Comparison to other domains = = =
The following table compares some major characteristics of the three domains , to illustrate their similarities and differences . Many of these characteristics are also discussed below .
Archaea were split off as a third domain because of the large differences in their ribosomal RNA structure . The particular RNA molecule sequenced , known as 16s rRNA , is present in all organisms and always has the same vital function , the production of proteins . Because this function is so central to life , organisms with mutations of its 16s rRNA are unlikely to survive , leading to great stability in the structure of this nucleotide over many generations . 16s rRNA is also large enough to retain organism @-@ specific information , but small enough to be sequenced in a manageable amount of time . In 1977 , Carl Woese , a microbiologist studying the genetic sequencing of organisms , developed a new sequencing method that involved splitting the RNA into fragments that could be sorted and compared to other fragments from other organisms . The more similar the patterns between species were , the more closely related the organisms .
Woese used his new rRNA comparison method to categorize and contrast different organisms . He sequenced a variety of different species and happened upon a group of methanogens that had vastly different patterns than any known prokaryotes or eukaryotes . These methanogens were much more similar to each other than they were to other organisms sequenced , leading Woese to propose the new domain of Archaea . One of the interesting results of his experiments was that the Archaea were more similar to eukaryotes than prokaryotes , even though they were more similar to prokaryotes in structure . This led to the conclusion that Archaea and Eukarya shared a more recent common ancestor than Eukarya and Bacteria in general . The development of the nucleus occurred after the split between Bacteria and this common ancestor . Although Archaea are prokaryotic , they are more closely related to Eukarya and thus cannot be placed within either the Bacteria or Eukarya domains .
One property unique to Archaea is the abundant use of ether @-@ linked lipids in their cell membranes . Ether linkages are more chemically stable than the ester linkages found in Bacteria and Eukarya , which may be a contributing factor to the ability of many Archaea to survive in extreme environments that place heavy stress on cell membranes , such as extreme heat and salinity . Another unique feature of Archaea is that no other known organisms are capable of methanogenesis ( the metabolic production of methane ) . Methanogenic Archaea play a pivotal role in ecosystems with organisms that derive energy from oxidation of methane , many of which are Bacteria , as they are often a major source of methane in such environments and can play a role as primary producers . Methanogens also play a critical role in the carbon cycle , breaking down organic carbon into methane , which is also a major greenhouse gas .
= = = Relationship to other prokaryotes = = =
The relationship between the three domains is of central importance for understanding the origin of life . Most of the metabolic pathways , which comprise the majority of an organism 's genes , are common between Archaea and Bacteria , while most genes involved in genome expression are common between Archaea and Eukarya . Within prokaryotes , archaeal cell structure is most similar to that of gram @-@ positive bacteria , largely because both have a single lipid bilayer and usually contain a thick sacculus ( exoskeleton ) of varying chemical composition . In some phylogenetic trees based upon different gene / protein sequences of prokaryotic homologs , the archaeal homologs are more closely related to those of gram @-@ positive bacteria . Archaea and gram @-@ positive bacteria also share conserved indels in a number of important proteins , such as Hsp70 and glutamine synthetase I ; however , the phylogeny of these genes was interpreted to reveal interdomain gene transfer , and might not reflect the organismal relationship ( s ) .
It has been proposed that the archaea evolved from gram @-@ positive bacteria in response to antibiotic selection pressure . This is suggested by the observation that archaea are resistant to a wide variety of antibiotics that are primarily produced by gram @-@ positive bacteria , and that these antibiotics primarily act on the genes that distinguish archaea from bacteria . The proposal is that the selective pressure towards resistance generated by the gram @-@ positive antibiotics was eventually sufficient to cause extensive changes in many of the antibiotics ' target genes , and that these strains represented the common ancestors of present @-@ day Archaea . The evolution of Archaea in response to antibiotic selection , or any other competitive selective pressure , could also explain their adaptation to extreme environments ( such as high temperature or acidity ) as the result of a search for unoccupied niches to escape from antibiotic @-@ producing organisms ; Cavalier @-@ Smith has made a similar suggestion . This proposal is also supported by other work investigating protein structural relationships and studies that suggest that gram @-@ positive bacteria may constitute the earliest branching lineages within the prokaryotes .
= = = Relation to eukaryotes = = =
The evolutionary relationship between archaea and eukaryotes remains unclear . Aside from the similarities in cell structure and function that are discussed below , many genetic trees group the two .
Complicating factors include claims that the relationship between eukaryotes and the archaeal phylum Crenarchaeota is closer than the relationship between the Euryarchaeota and the phylum Crenarchaeota and the presence of archaea @-@ like genes in certain bacteria , such as Thermotoga maritima , from horizontal gene transfer . The standard hypothesis states that the ancestor of the eukaryotes diverged early from the Archaea , and that eukaryotes arose through fusion of an archaean and eubacterium , which became the nucleus and cytoplasm ; this explains various genetic similarities but runs into difficulties explaining cell structure . An alternative hypothesis , the eocyte hypothesis , posits that Eukaryota emerged relatively late from the Archaea .
A recently discovered lineage of archaea , Lokiarchaeum , named for a hydrothermal vent called Loki 's Castle in the Arctic Ocean , has been found to be most closely related to eukaryotes . It has been called a transitional organism between prokaryotes and eukaryotes .
= = Morphology = =
Individual archaea range from 0 @.@ 1 micrometers ( μm ) to over 15 μm in diameter , and occur in various shapes , commonly as spheres , rods , spirals or plates . Other morphologies in the Crenarchaeota include irregularly shaped lobed cells in Sulfolobus , needle @-@ like filaments that are less than half a micrometer in diameter in Thermofilum , and almost perfectly rectangular rods in Thermoproteus and Pyrobaculum . Haloquadratum walsbyi are flat , square archaea that live in hypersaline pools . These unusual shapes are probably maintained both by their cell walls and a prokaryotic cytoskeleton . Proteins related to the cytoskeleton components of other organisms exist in archaea , and filaments form within their cells , but in contrast to other organisms , these cellular structures are poorly understood . In Thermoplasma and Ferroplasma the lack of a cell wall means that the cells have irregular shapes , and can resemble amoebae .
Some species form aggregates or filaments of cells up to 200 μm long . These organisms can be prominent in biofilms . Notably , aggregates of Thermococcus coalescens cells fuse together in culture , forming single giant cells . Archaea in the genus Pyrodictium produce an elaborate multicell colony involving arrays of long , thin hollow tubes called cannulae that stick out from the cells ' surfaces and connect them into a dense bush @-@ like agglomeration . The function of these cannulae is not settled , but they may allow communication or nutrient exchange with neighbors . Multi @-@ species colonies exist , such as the " string @-@ of @-@ pearls " community that was discovered in 2001 in a German swamp . Round whitish colonies of a novel Euryarchaeota species are spaced along thin filaments that can range up to 15 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long ; these filaments are made of a particular bacteria species .
= = Structure , composition development , and operation = =
Archaea and bacteria have generally similar cell structure , but cell composition and organization set the archaea apart . Like bacteria , archaea lack interior membranes and organelles . Like bacteria , archaea cell membranes are usually bounded by a cell wall and they swim using one or more flagella . Structurally , archaea are most similar to gram @-@ positive bacteria . Most have a single plasma membrane and cell wall , and lack a periplasmic space ; the exception to this general rule is Ignicoccus , which possess a particularly large periplasm that contains membrane @-@ bound vesicles and is enclosed by an outer membrane .
= = = Membranes = = =
Archaeal membranes are made of molecules that differ strongly from those in other life forms , showing that archaea are related only distantly to bacteria and eukaryotes . In all organisms , cell membranes are made of molecules known as phospholipids . These molecules possess both a polar part that dissolves in water ( the phosphate " head " ) , and a " greasy " non @-@ polar part that does not ( the lipid tail ) . These dissimilar parts are connected by a glycerol moiety . In water , phospholipids cluster , with the heads facing the water and the tails facing away from it . The major structure in cell membranes is a double layer of these phospholipids , which is called a lipid bilayer .
These phospholipids are unusual in four ways :
Bacteria and eukaryotes have membranes composed mainly of glycerol @-@ ester lipids , whereas archaea have membranes composed of glycerol @-@ ether lipids . The difference is the type of bond that joins the lipids to the glycerol moiety ; the two types are shown in yellow in the figure at the right . In ester lipids this is an ester bond , whereas in ether lipids this is an ether bond . Ether bonds are chemically more resistant than ester bonds . This stability might help archaea to survive extreme temperatures and very acidic or alkaline environments . Bacteria and eukaryotes do contain some ether lipids , but in contrast to archaea these lipids are not a major part of their membranes .
The stereochemistry of the glycerol moiety is the reverse of that found in other organisms . The glycerol moiety can occur in two forms that are mirror images of one another , called the right @-@ handed and left @-@ handed forms ; in chemistry these are called enantiomers . Just as a right hand does not fit easily into a left @-@ handed glove , a right @-@ handed phospholipid generally cannot be used or made by enzymes adapted for the left @-@ handed form . This suggests that archaea use entirely different enzymes for synthesizing phospholipids than do bacteria and eukaryotes . Such enzymes developed very early in life 's history , suggesting an early split from the other two domains .
Archaeal lipid tails are chemically different from other organisms . Archaeal lipids are based upon the isoprenoid sidechain and are long chains with multiple side @-@ branches and sometimes even cyclopropane or cyclohexane rings . This is in contrast to the fatty acids found in other organisms ' membranes , which have straight chains with no branches or rings . Although isoprenoids play an important role in the biochemistry of many organisms , only the archaea use them to make phospholipids . These branched chains may help prevent archaeal membranes from leaking at high temperatures .
In some archaea , the lipid bilayer is replaced by a monolayer . In effect , the archaea fuse the tails of two independent phospholipid molecules into a single molecule with two polar heads ( a bolaamphiphile ) ; this fusion may make their membranes more rigid and better able to resist harsh environments . For example , the lipids in Ferroplasma are of this type , which is thought to aid this organism 's survival in its highly acidic habitat .
= = = Cell wall and flagella = = =
Most archaea ( but not Thermoplasma and Ferroplasma ) possess a cell wall . In most archaea the wall is assembled from surface @-@ layer proteins , which form an S @-@ layer . An S @-@ layer is a rigid array of protein molecules that cover the outside of the cell ( like chain mail ) . This layer provides both chemical and physical protection , and can prevent macromolecules from contacting the cell membrane . Unlike bacteria , archaea lack peptidoglycan in their cell walls . Methanobacteriales do have cell walls containing pseudopeptidoglycan , which resembles eubacterial peptidoglycan in morphology , function , and physical structure , but pseudopeptidoglycan is distinct in chemical structure ; it lacks D @-@ amino acids and N @-@ acetylmuramic acid .
Archaea flagella operate like bacterial flagella — their long stalks are driven by rotatory motors at the base . These motors are powered by the proton gradient across the membrane . However , archaeal flagella are notably different in composition and development . The two types of flagella evolved from different ancestors . The bacterial flagellum shares a common ancestor with the type III secretion system , while archaeal flagella appear to have evolved from bacterial type IV pili . In contrast to the bacterial flagellum , which is hollow and is assembled by subunits moving up the central pore to the tip of the flagella , archaeal flagella are synthesized by adding subunits at the base .
= = Metabolism = =
Archaea exhibit a great variety of chemical reactions in their metabolism and use many sources of energy . These reactions are classified into nutritional groups , depending on energy and carbon sources . Some archaea obtain energy from inorganic compounds such as sulfur or ammonia ( they are lithotrophs ) . These include nitrifiers , methanogens and anaerobic methane oxidisers . In these reactions one compound passes electrons to another ( in a redox reaction ) , releasing energy to fuel the cell 's activities . One compound acts as an electron donor and one as an electron acceptor . The energy released generates adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) through chemiosmosis , in the same basic process that happens in the mitochondrion of eukaryotic cells .
Other groups of archaea use sunlight as a source of energy ( they are phototrophs ) . However , oxygen – generating photosynthesis does not occur in any of these organisms . Many basic metabolic pathways are shared between all forms of life ; for example , archaea use a modified form of glycolysis ( the Entner – Doudoroff pathway ) and either a complete or partial citric acid cycle . These similarities to other organisms probably reflect both early origins in the history of life and their high level of efficiency .
Some Euryarchaeota are methanogens living in anaerobic environments , such as swamps . This form of metabolism evolved early , and it is even possible that the first free @-@ living organism was a methanogen . A common reaction involves the use of carbon dioxide as an electron acceptor to oxidize hydrogen . Methanogenesis involves a range of coenzymes that are unique to these archaea , such as coenzyme M and methanofuran . Other organic compounds such as alcohols , acetic acid or formic acid are used as alternative electron acceptors by methanogens . These reactions are common in gut @-@ dwelling archaea . Acetic acid is also broken down into methane and carbon dioxide directly , by acetotrophic archaea . These acetotrophs are archaea in the order Methanosarcinales , and are a major part of the communities of microorganisms that produce biogas .
Other archaea use CO
2 in the atmosphere as a source of carbon , in a process called carbon fixation ( they are autotrophs ) . This process involves either a highly modified form of the Calvin cycle or a recently discovered metabolic pathway called the 3 @-@ hydroxypropionate / 4 @-@ hydroxybutyrate cycle . The Crenarchaeota also use the reverse Krebs cycle while the Euryarchaeota also use the reductive acetyl @-@ CoA pathway . Carbon – fixation is powered by inorganic energy sources . No known archaea carry out photosynthesis . Archaeal energy sources are extremely diverse , and range from the oxidation of ammonia by the Nitrosopumilales to the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide or elemental sulfur by species of Sulfolobus , using either oxygen or metal ions as electron acceptors .
Phototrophic archaea use light to produce chemical energy in the form of ATP . In the Halobacteria , light @-@ activated ion pumps like bacteriorhodopsin and halorhodopsin generate ion gradients by pumping ions out of the cell across the plasma membrane . The energy stored in these electrochemical gradients is then converted into ATP by ATP synthase . This process is a form of photophosphorylation . The ability of these light @-@ driven pumps to move ions across membranes depends on light @-@ driven changes in the structure of a retinol cofactor buried in the center of the protein .
= = Genetics = =
Archaea usually have a single circular chromosome , the size of which may be as great as 5 @,@ 751 @,@ 492 base pairs in Methanosarcina acetivorans , the largest known archaeal genome . The tiny 490 @,@ 885 base @-@ pair genome of Nanoarchaeum equitans is one @-@ tenth of this size and the smallest archaeal genome known ; it is estimated to contain only 537 protein @-@ encoding genes . Smaller independent pieces of DNA , called plasmids , are also found in archaea . Plasmids may be transferred between cells by physical contact , in a process that may be similar to bacterial conjugation .
Archaea can be infected by double @-@ stranded DNA viruses that are unrelated to any other form of virus and have a variety of unusual shapes , including bottles , hooked rods , or teardrops . These viruses have been studied in most detail in thermophilics , particularly the orders Sulfolobales and Thermoproteales . Two groups of single @-@ stranded DNA viruses that infect archaea have been recently isolated . One group is exemplified by the Halorubrum pleomorphic virus 1 ( " Pleolipoviridae " ) infecting halophilic archaea and the other one by the Aeropyrum coil @-@ shaped virus ( " Spiraviridae " ) infecting a hyperthermophilic ( optimal growth at 90 – 95 ° C ) host . Notably , the latter virus has the largest currently reported ssDNA genome . Defenses against these viruses may involve RNA interference from repetitive DNA sequences that are related to the genes of the viruses .
Archaea are genetically distinct from bacteria and eukaryotes , with up to 15 % of the proteins encoded by any one archaeal genome being unique to the domain , although most of these unique genes have no known function . Of the remainder of the unique proteins that have an identified function , most belong to the Euryarchaea and are involved in methanogenesis . The proteins that archaea , bacteria and eukaryotes share form a common core of cell function , relating mostly to transcription , translation , and nucleotide metabolism . Other characteristic archaeal features are the organization of genes of related function — such as enzymes that catalyze steps in the same metabolic pathway into novel operons , and large differences in tRNA genes and their aminoacyl tRNA synthetases .
Transcription in archaea more closely resembles eukaryotic than bacterial transcription , with the archaeal RNA polymerase being very close to its equivalent in eukaryotes ; while archaeal translation shows signs of both bacterial and eukaryal equivalents . Although archaea only have one type of RNA polymerase , its structure and function in transcription seems to be close to that of the eukaryotic RNA polymerase II , with similar protein assemblies ( the general transcription factors ) directing the binding of the RNA polymerase to a gene 's promoter . However , other archaeal transcription factors are closer to those found in bacteria . Post @-@ transcriptional modification is simpler than in eukaryotes , since most archaeal genes lack introns , although there are many introns in their transfer RNA and ribosomal RNA genes , and introns may occur in a few protein @-@ encoding genes .
= = = Gene transfer and genetic exchange = = =
Halobacterium volcanii , an extreme halophilic archaeon , forms cytoplasmic bridges between cells that appear to be used for transfer of DNA from one cell to another in either direction .
When the hyperthermophilic archaea Sulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius are exposed to the DNA damaging agents UV irradiation , bleomycin or mitomycin C , species @-@ specific cellular aggregation is induced . Aggregation in S. solfataricus could not be induced by other physical stressors , such as pH or temperature shift , suggesting that aggregation is induced specifically by DNA damage . Ajon et al. showed that UV @-@ induced cellular aggregation mediates chromosomal marker exchange with high frequency in S. acidocaldarius . Recombination rates exceeded those of uninduced cultures by up to three orders of magnitude . Frols et al. and Ajon et al. hypothesized that cellular aggregation enhances species specific DNA transfer between Sulfolobus cells in order to provide increased repair of damaged DNA by means of homologous recombination . This response may be a primitive form of sexual interaction similar to the more well @-@ studied bacterial transformation systems that are also associated with species specific DNA transfer between cells leading to homologous recombinational repair of DNA damage .
= = Reproduction = =
Archaea reproduce asexually by binary or multiple fission , fragmentation , or budding ; meiosis does not occur , so if a species of archaea exists in more than one form , all have the same genetic material . Cell division is controlled in a cell cycle ; after the cell 's chromosome is replicated and the two daughter chromosomes separate , the cell divides . In the genus Sulfolobus , the cycle has characteristics that are similar to both bacterial and eukaryotic systems . The chromosomes replicate from multiple starting @-@ points ( origins of replication ) using DNA polymerases that resemble the equivalent eukaryotic enzymes .
In euryarchaea the cell division protein FtsZ , which forms a contracting ring around the cell , and the components of the septum that is constructed across the center of the cell , are similar to their bacterial equivalents . In cren- and thaumarchaea , however , the cell division machinery Cdv fulfills a similar role . This machinery is related to the eukaryotic ESCRT @-@ III machinery which , while best known for its role in cell sorting , also has been seen to fulfill a role in separation between divided cell , suggesting an ancestral role in cell division .
Both bacteria and eukaryotes , but not archaea , make spores . Some species of Haloarchaea undergo phenotypic switching and grow as several different cell types , including thick @-@ walled structures that are resistant to osmotic shock and allow the archaea to survive in water at low salt concentrations , but these are not reproductive structures and may instead help them reach new habitats .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Habitats = = =
Archaea exist in a broad range of habitats , and as a major part of global ecosystems , may represent about 20 % of microbial cells in the oceans . The first @-@ discovered archaeans were extremophiles . Indeed , some archaea survive high temperatures , often above 100 ° C ( 212 ° F ) , as found in geysers , black smokers , and oil wells . Other common habitats include very cold habitats and highly saline , acidic , or alkaline water . However , archaea include mesophiles that grow in mild conditions , in swamps and marshland , sewage , the oceans , the intestinal tract of animals , and soils .
Extremophile archaea are members of four main physiological groups . These are the halophiles , thermophiles , alkaliphiles , and acidophiles . These groups are not comprehensive or phylum @-@ specific , nor are they mutually exclusive , since some archaea belong to several groups . Nonetheless , they are a useful starting point for classification .
Halophiles , including the genus Halobacterium , live in extremely saline environments such as salt lakes and outnumber their bacterial counterparts at salinities greater than 20 – 25 % . Thermophiles grow best at temperatures above 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) , in places such as hot springs ; hyperthermophilic archaea grow optimally at temperatures greater than 80 ° C ( 176 ° F ) . The archaeal Methanopyrus kandleri Strain 116 can even reproduce at 122 ° C ( 252 ° F ) , the highest recorded temperature of any organism .
Other archaea exist in very acidic or alkaline conditions . For example , one of the most extreme archaean acidophiles is Picrophilus torridus , which grows at pH 0 , which is equivalent to thriving in 1 @.@ 2 molar sulfuric acid .
This resistance to extreme environments has made archaea the focus of speculation about the possible properties of extraterrestrial life . Some extremophile habitats are not dissimilar to those on Mars , leading to the suggestion that viable microbes could be transferred between planets in meteorites .
Recently , several studies have shown that archaea exist not only in mesophilic and thermophilic environments but are also present , sometimes in high numbers , at low temperatures as well . For example , archaea are common in cold oceanic environments such as polar seas . Even more significant are the large numbers of archaea found throughout the world 's oceans in non @-@ extreme habitats among the plankton community ( as part of the picoplankton ) . Although these archaea can be present in extremely high numbers ( up to 40 % of the microbial biomass ) , almost none of these species have been isolated and studied in pure culture . Consequently , our understanding of the role of archaea in ocean ecology is rudimentary , so their full influence on global biogeochemical cycles remains largely unexplored . Some marine Crenarchaeota are capable of nitrification , suggesting these organisms may affect the oceanic nitrogen cycle , although these oceanic Crenarchaeota may also use other sources of energy . Vast numbers of archaea are also found in the sediments that cover the sea floor , with these organisms making up the majority of living cells at depths over 1 meter below the ocean bottom .
= = = Role in chemical cycling = = =
Archaea recycle elements such as carbon , nitrogen and sulfur through their various habitats . Although these activities are vital for normal ecosystem function , archaea can also contribute to human @-@ made changes , and even cause pollution .
Archaea carry out many steps in the nitrogen cycle . This includes both reactions that remove nitrogen from ecosystems ( such as nitrate @-@ based respiration and denitrification ) as well as processes that introduce nitrogen ( such as nitrate assimilation and nitrogen fixation ) . Researchers recently discovered archaeal involvement in ammonia oxidation reactions . These reactions are particularly important in the oceans . The archaea also appear crucial for ammonia oxidation in soils . They produce nitrite , which other microbes then oxidize to nitrate . Plants and other organisms consume the latter .
In the sulfur cycle , archaea that grow by oxidizing sulfur compounds release this element from rocks , making it available to other organisms . However , the archaea that do this , such as Sulfolobus , produce sulfuric acid as a waste product , and the growth of these organisms in abandoned mines can contribute to acid mine drainage and other environmental damage .
In the carbon cycle , methanogen archaea remove hydrogen and play an important role in the decay of organic matter by the populations of microorganisms that act as decomposers in anaerobic ecosystems , such as sediments , marshes and sewage @-@ treatment works .
Global methane levels in 2011 had increased by a factor of 2 @.@ 5 since pre @-@ industrial times : from 722 ppb to 1800 ppb , the highest value in at least 800 @,@ 000 years . Methane has an anthropogenic global warming potential ( AGWP ) of 29 , which means that it 's 29 times stronger in heat @-@ trapping than carbon dioxide is , over a 100 @-@ year time scale .
= = = Interactions with other organisms = = =
The well @-@ characterized interactions between archaea and other organisms are either mutual or commensal . There are no clear examples of known archaeal pathogens or parasites . However , some species of methanogens have been suggested to be involved in infections in the mouth , and Nanoarchaeum equitans may be a parasite of another species of archaea , since it only survives and reproduces within the cells of the Crenarchaeon Ignicoccus hospitalis , and appears to offer no benefit to its host . In contrast , Archaeal Richmond Mine Acidophilic Nanoorganisms ( ARMAN ) occasionally connect with other archaeal cells in acid mine drainage biofilms . The nature of this relationship is unknown . However , it is distinct from that of Nanarchaeaum – Ignicoccus in that the ultrasmall ARMAN cells are usually seen independent of the Thermoplasmatales cells .
= = = = Mutualism = = = =
One well @-@ understood example of mutualism is the interaction between protozoa and methanogenic archaea in the digestive tracts of animals that digest cellulose , such as ruminants and termites . In these anaerobic environments , protozoa break down plant cellulose to obtain energy . This process releases hydrogen as a waste product , but high levels of hydrogen reduce energy production . When methanogens convert hydrogen to methane , protozoa benefit from more energy .
In anaerobic protozoa , such as Plagiopyla frontata , archaea reside inside the protozoa and consume hydrogen produced in their hydrogenosomes . Archaea also associate with larger organisms . For example , the marine archaean Cenarchaeum symbiosum lives within ( is an endosymbiont of ) the sponge Axinella mexicana .
= = = = Commensalism = = = =
Archaea can also be commensals , benefiting from an association without helping or harming the other organism . For example , the methanogen Methanobrevibacter smithii is by far the most common archaean in the human flora , making up about one in ten of all the prokaryotes in the human gut . In termites and in humans , these methanogens may in fact be mutualists , interacting with other microbes in the gut to aid digestion . Archaean communities also associate with a range of other organisms , such as on the surface of corals , and in the region of soil that surrounds plant roots ( the rhizosphere ) .
= = Significance in technology and industry = =
Extremophile archaea , particularly those resistant either to heat or to extremes of acidity and alkalinity , are a source of enzymes that function under these harsh conditions . These enzymes have found many uses . For example , thermostable DNA polymerases , such as the Pfu DNA polymerase from Pyrococcus furiosus , revolutionized molecular biology by allowing the polymerase chain reaction to be used in research as a simple and rapid technique for cloning DNA . In industry , amylases , galactosidases and pullulanases in other species of Pyrococcus that function at over 100 ° C ( 212 ° F ) allow food processing at high temperatures , such as the production of low lactose milk and whey . Enzymes from these thermophilic archaea also tend to be very stable in organic solvents , allowing their use in environmentally friendly processes in green chemistry that synthesize organic compounds . This stability makes them easier to use in structural biology . Consequently , the counterparts of bacterial or eukaryotic enzymes from extremophile archaea are often used in structural studies .
In contrast to the range of applications of archaean enzymes , the use of the organisms themselves in biotechnology is less developed . Methanogenic archaea are a vital part of sewage treatment , since they are part of the community of microorganisms that carry out anaerobic digestion and produce biogas . In mineral processing , acidophilic archaea display promise for the extraction of metals from ores , including gold , cobalt and copper .
Archaea host a new class of potentially useful antibiotics . A few of these archaeocins have been characterized , but hundreds more are believed to exist , especially within Haloarchaea and Sulfolobus . These compounds differ in structure from bacterial antibiotics , so they may have novel modes of action . In addition , they may allow the creation of new selectable markers for use in archaeal molecular biology .
= 100th Infantry Division ( United States ) =
The 100th Division ( formerly the 100th Infantry Division ) is an infantry division of the United States Army headquartered at Fort Knox , Kentucky . It currently serves as a major training command of the United States Army Reserve .
Throughout its long history , the division has taken on numerous roles . Serving as the 100th Infantry Division until the 1950s
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, the division then briefly became the 100th Airborne Division before becoming the 100th Division ( Training ) . Since this transformation , the division has primarily taken on numerous training roles for other Army units .
It was activated in mid 1918 , too late to join the fighting in World War I. The division is best known for its exploits during World War II as the 100th Infantry Division . Fighting in the European Theater , the division advanced through France and Germany through the end of the war , fending off serious German counterattacks along the way . World War II would be the only war the division would fight in before taking on its role as a training unit .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
The 100th Division was first constituted on 12 July 1918 in the National Army . It was organized in October of that year at Camp Bowie , Texas . It was assigned the 199th Infantry Brigade commanding the 397th Infantry Regiment , the 398th Infantry Regiment and the 200th Infantry Brigade , commanding the 399th Infantry Regiment and the 400th Infantry Regiment . Each brigade commanded around 8 @,@ 000 soldiers .
The division then began preparations to deploy to Europe and join the American Expeditionary Forces in combating the Central Powers during World War I. Before the division could deploy , though , the war ended on 11 November 1918 , Armistice Day . The 100th Division then began demobilization as part of the post @-@ war drawdown of the U.S. Army .
It would remain on the U.S. Army 's roll until November 1919 , when it was completely demobilized . Only two years later , in June 1921 , the division was reconstituted with its headquarters in Wheeling , West Virginia . On 29 May 1923 , the division received its shoulder sleeve insignia .
Through its interwar years , the division saw little service . Its location was changed in 1924 to Huntington , West Virginia and was changed again in 1937 to Charleston , West Virginia .
In 1940 , the 199th and 200th Infantry Brigade headquarters were disbanded , and the division was placed in command of the 397th , 398th , and 399th Infantry Regiments directly ; the 400th Infantry Regiment was inactivated .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = Mobilization = = = =
The 100th Infantry Division was reactivated in the active duty force on 15 November 1942 at Fort Jackson , South Carolina . Enlisted personnel were primarily original members of the unit , fleshed out by fillers from the 76th Infantry Division . The Officers were mostly members of the unit , again fleshed out with fillers from the Organized Reserves . The commander of the 100th was Major General Withers A. Burress , one of only eleven generals who commanded their divisions for the entire war .
From late 1943 to early 1944 , the division trained in the mountains of Tennessee and was subsequently sent to Fort Bragg , North Carolina , for further training . While at Fort Bragg , Technical Sergeant Walter L. Bull earned the first Expert Infantryman 's Badge .
The division remained organized around the 397th , 398th and 399th Infantry Regiments , and was also assigned the 374th Artillery Battalion , the 375th Artillery Battalion , the 925th Artillery Battalion , and the 373rd Artillery Battalion for artillery support , as well as the 325th Engineer Combat Battalion , the 325th Medical Battalion , the 100th Military Police Company , the 100th Quartermaster Company , the 800th Ordnance Company , the 100th Reconnaissance Cavalry Troop and the 100th Signals Company .
The division sailed to Europe on 6 October of that year . The division arrived at Marseille , France on 20 October . It was made part of VI Corps of the Seventh United States Army , Sixth United States Army Group .
= = = = European Theater = = = =
As soon as the division was prepared for combat , it began moving into the Meurthe @-@ et @-@ Moselle region , and sent its first elements into combat at St. Remy in the Vosges Mountains on 1 November 1944 . The division as a whole began the relief of the 45th Infantry Division at Baccarat on 5 November , and assumed control of the sector on 9 November . The attack jumped off on 12 November , and the division drove against the German Winter Line in the Vosges Mountains . The 100th took Bertrichamps and Clairupt , pierced the German line , and seized Raon @-@ l 'Étape and Saint @-@ Blaise @-@ Moyenmoutier between 16 and 26 November . Later in November the division moved into the Vosges region , elements assisted in holding the Saverne Gap bridgehead while the bulk of the division went into reserve . The unit was relieved from assignment to VI Corps and transferred to the US XV Corps on 27 November 1944 . It then moved into the Moselle region .
In December 1944 , the division went on the offensive in the vicinity of Bitche , France . The division occupied the nearby areas of Wingen and Lemberg after fierce fighting on 6 – 10 December . The division then advanced to Reyersweiler , which fell after fighting on 11 – 13 December . Fort Schiesseck , a major defensive work in the region , capitulated after a heavy assault by the 100th on 20 December . The division was ordered to halt its attack and to hold defensive positions south of Bitche as part of the Seventh Army during the Battle of the Bulge . Thanks to a stout defense , the men of the 100th later became known as the " Sons of Bitche " . The German counterattacks of 1 and 8 – 10 January 1945 were repulsed , after heavy fighting at Bitche . After further attacks stalled and the Germans began to withdraw , the sector was generally quiet and the division prepared to resume its offensive east .
On 15 March 1945 , the attack jumped off and on 16 March , Bitche fell to the 100th Infantry Division . The unit was then relieved from assignment to XV Corps , and transferred to XXI Corps on 22 March 1945 . Taking Neustadt and Ludwigshafen , the division reached the Rhine River on 24 March . On 25 March 1945 , the unit was returned from XXI Corps back to VI Corps . On 31 March 1945 , the 100th Infantry Division crossed the Rhine and moved south in the wake of the 10th Armored Division and then east across the Neckar River , establishing and enlarging a bridgehead from 4 to 11 April . Heilbronn fell after nine days of house @-@ to @-@ house combat on 12 April and the division resumed its rapid pursuit of the enemy , reaching Stuttgart by 21 April . The 100th was mopping up along the Neckar , southeast of Stuttgart on 23 April , when it was removed from VI Corps and assigned directly to the Seventh United States Army as an Echelon Above Corps Asset . The division was then assigned primarily to patrolling the sector east of Stuttgart . Shifting to Göppingen on 30 April , the Division engaged in occupational duties as the war in Europe came to an end on V @-@ E Day .
The division spent 163 days in combat . During that time , it suffered 12 @,@ 215 casualties , including 933 killed in action , 3 @,@ 667 wounded in action , 589 missing in action , 1 prisoner of war , as well as 7 @,@ 425 non @-@ battle casualties . The division took 13 @,@ 351 prisoners of war on its own . Members of the division won three Medals of Honor , seven Distinguished Service Crosses , five Legions of Merit , 492 Silver Star Medals , 23 Soldier 's Medals , 5 @,@ 156 Bronze Star Medals , and 90 Air Medals . The division itself was awarded three campaign streamers for participation in the campaign .
100th Infantry Division returned to the United States via the Hampton Roads Port of Embarkation on 10 January 1946 , and was released from active duty at Camp Patrick Henry , Virginia that day . The division then began the process of demobilization , before inactivating on 26 January .
= = = Cold War = = =
In fall of 1946 , the division was reactivated in the U.S. Army Reserve as the 100th Airborne Division in Louisville , Kentucky . This distinction as one of the few airborne divisions within the U.S. Army was brief ; in 1952 the division was once again redesignated the 100th Infantry Division . It would change names again in 1955 , this time to 100th Division ( Replacement Training ) . It would once again be reorganized in 1959 to its present designation as 100th Division ( Institutional Training ) . Its mission became to teach basic , advanced , and common training skills to soldiers from the Army 's active , reserve , and National Guard components .
In 1961 , some 1 @,@ 500 soldiers from the 100th were activated and sent to Fort Chaffee , Arkansas , in order to provide support during the Berlin Crisis . During their time on active duty , the 100th successfully trained some 32 @,@ 000 soldiers after thoroughly rebuilding and fixing the old Army base . The unit was returned to reserve status again in August 1962 . In 1968 , the division received its distinctive unit insignia , which alluded to its history in World War II and as a Kentucky @-@ based unit .
With the Reorganization Objective Army Division plan in 1968 , the division ceased to be centered on regiments and instead was reorganized with brigades . However , with the 199th Infantry Brigade active as a separate brigade , the division 's new brigades were activated from units that had been under its command in World War II . The division 's headquarters element ( which had since been replaced by a Headquarters and Headquarters Company ) was redesignated the 1st Brigade , 100th Division responsible for basic armor school training . The 928th Field Artillery Battalion became the 2nd Brigade , 100th Division responsible for armored cavalry unit training . The 325th Engineer Battalion became the 3rd Brigade , 100th Division responsible for combat support training , and the 800th Ordnance Battalion became the 4th Brigade , 100th Division , responsible for combat service support training .
In 1978 , the 100th became the first Army Reserve formation to be equipped with its own squadrons of M1 Abrams tanks . With the arrival of the M3 Bradley infantry fighting vehicles , the division 's mission profile changed from individual combat training to armor and armor reconnaissance training . By 1986 , it was the largest reserve unit within the state of Kentucky , commanding fifty @-@ eight percent of instate reservists .
= = = Gulf War and beyond = = =
At the outbreak of Operation Desert Storm in 1991 , the 100th was assigned to armor training at Fort Knox , Kentucky for deploying armor units . Armor training was a responsibility that the division continued after the war .
In 1995 the division was reorganized to include Army Reserve schools , taking over the responsibilities for new programs . In 1996 the 100th Division 's 1st Brigade worked with Readiness Group Knox to pioneer the national training experiment to reserve combat units at crew and platoon levels . Later that year , the division added three additional divisional brigades ; the 5th Brigade , 100th Division in Memphis , Tennessee for health services training , the 6th Brigade , 100th Division in Louisville , Kentucky for professional development training , and the 7th Brigade , 100th Division at Fort Knox , formed from the 100th Training Command and responsible for training exercises . The 5th Brigade moved to Millington , Tennessee in 1997 , and the 7th Brigade deactivated in 2000 . The 8th Brigade , 100th Division was also activated as a unit overseeing ROTC training .
During 1997 , the division was tasked with partial responsibility for Operation Future Challenge at Fort Knox , a six @-@ week Reserve Officer 's Training Corps Basic Camp during each summer . By 2000 , the 100th has assumed full responsibility for running the camp . Later that same year , the 100th began deactivating many of its M1A1 Abrams tanks as part of a reduction in military expenditures .
After the September 11 attacks , the 100th Division began taking on the job of preparing Army National Guard units from Ohio and Kentucky as they began to prepare for deployment in support of the War on Terrorism .
By 2006 , the division had moved its headquarters from Louisville to Fort Knox , easing distance strains in administration and training . In line with Army Reserve transformations , the 100th Division restructured , eliminating all but four of its brigades . The division shifted its focus from initial entry training to providing military occupational specialty and non @-@ commissioned officer training for four army career fields across the United States . The new 100th Division ( Operational Support ) teaches soldiers subjects from military intelligence , signal corps , civil affairs / psychological operations and health services .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
During the Second World War many units within the division were awarded Distinguished Unit Citations , as well as Meritorious Unit Citations .
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= = Legacy = =
The division 's legacy in World War II has been honored several times . The Cross Island Parkway in Queens , New York was renamed the " 100th Infantry Division Parkway " in 2005 in honor of 2 @,@ 300 soldiers from New York that served with the division during the war . Three soldiers earned the Medal of Honor serving with the division in World War II . They were Edward A. Silk , Mike Colalillo , and Charles F. Carey , Jr .. A street in Bitche , France , is named for the 100th Infantry Division .
= John Boydell =
John Boydell ( / ˈbɔɪdəl / ; 19 January 1720 ( New Style ) – 12 December 1804 ) was an 18th @-@ century British publisher noted for his reproductions of engravings . He helped alter the trade imbalance between Britain and France in engravings and initiated a British tradition in the art form . A former engraver himself , Boydell promoted the interests of artists as well as patrons and as a result his business prospered .
The son of a land surveyor , Boydell apprenticed himself to William Henry Toms , an artist he admired , and learned engraving . He established his own business in 1746 and published his first book of engravings around the same time . Boydell did not think much of his own artistic efforts and eventually started buying the works of others , becoming a print dealer as well as an artist . He became a successful importer of French prints during the 1750s but was frustrated by their refusal to trade prints in kind . To spark reciprocal trade , he commissioned William Wollett 's spectacular engraving of Richard Wilson 's The Destruction of the Children of Niobe , which revolutionised the print trade . Ten years later , largely as a result of Boydell 's initiative , the trade imbalance had shifted , and he was named a fellow of the Royal Society for his efforts .
In the 1790s , Boydell began a large Shakespeare venture that included the establishment of a Shakespeare Gallery , the publication of an illustrated edition of Shakespeare 's plays , and the release of a folio of prints depicting scenes from Shakespeare 's works . Some of the most illustrious painters of the day contributed , such as Benjamin West and Henry Fuseli .
Throughout his life , Boydell dedicated time to civic projects : he donated art to government institutions and ran for public office . In 1790 he became Lord Mayor of London . The French Revolutionary Wars led to a cessation in Continental trade at the end of the 1790s and without this business , Boydell 's firm declined and he was nearly bankrupt at his death in 1804 .
= = Early years = =
Boydell was born , according to his monument in St Olave Old Jewry , London , ( later removed to St Margaret Lothbury after St Olave 's demolition ) at Dorrington , in the parish of Woore , Shropshire , to Josiah and Mary Boydell ( née Milnes ) and was educated at least partially at Merchant Taylors ' School . His father was a land surveyor and young Boydell , the oldest of seven children , was expected to follow in his footsteps . In 1731 , when Boydell was eleven , the family moved to Hawarden , Flintshire . In 1739 he became house steward to MP John Lawton and accompanied him to London . A year later , like many other enterprising young men of the time , Boydell resolved to sail to the East Indies in hopes of making his fortune , but he abandoned the scheme in favour of returning to Flintshire and Elizabeth Lloyd , the woman he was courting . Whether or not he intended to pursue land surveying at this time is unclear .
In either 1740 or 1741 , Boydell saw a print of Hawarden Castle by William Henry Toms and was so delighted with it that he immediately set out again for London to learn printmaking and Lloyd promised to wait for him . Boydell apprenticed himself to Toms and enrolled in St Martin 's Lane Academy to learn drawing . Each day he worked about fourteen hours for Toms and then attended drawing classes at night . After six years , Boydell 's diligence allowed him to buy out the last year of his apprenticeship , and in 1746 he set up an independent shop on the Strand that specialised in topographical prints that cost six pence for a cheap print or one shilling for an expensive print .
Boydell 's willingness to assume responsibility for his own business so early in his career indicates that he had ambition and an enterprising spirit . Independent shops were risky in the 1740s because no strict copyright laws , other than the Engraving Copyright Act of 1734 ( known as " Hogarth 's Act " ) , had yet been instituted . The pirating of published books and prints became a profession in its own right and greatly decreased the profits of publishers such as Boydell .
Around 1747 , Boydell published his first major work , The Bridge Book , for which he drew and cut each print himself . It cost one shilling and contained six landscapes in each of which , not surprisingly , a bridge featured prominently . A year later , in 1748 , Boydell , apparently financially secure , married Elizabeth Lloyd . The couple did not have any children and Elizabeth died in 1781 .
Boydell realised early in his career that his engravings had little artistic merit , saying later that they were collected by others " more to show the improvement of art in this country [ Britain ] , since the period of their publication , than from any idea of their own merits " . This may explain why in 1751 , when he became a member of the Stationers ' Company , he started buying other artists ' plates and publishing them in addition to his own . Ordinarily an engraver , such as William Hogarth , had his own shop or took his finished engravings to a publisher . In adopting the dual role of artist and print dealer , Boydell altered the traditional organisation of print shops . He was not subject to the whims of public taste : if his engraves did not sell well , he could supplement his earnings by trading in the prints of other artists . He also understood the concerns of both the engraver and the publisher . In fact , as a publisher , he did much to help raise the level of respect for engravers in addition to furnishing them with better paying commissions .
= = Success = =
In 1751 , with his large volume of prints , Boydell moved to larger premises at 90 Cheapside . By 1755 , he had published A Collection of One Hundred and Two Views , & C. in England and Wales . This cheap but successful book gave him capital to invest . He became increasingly immersed in the commercial side of the print business and like most print dealers began importing prints to sell . These included print reproductions of landscapes by artists such as Claude Lorrain and Salvator Rosa . The bulk of the imports came from the undisputed masters of engraving during the 18th century : the French . Boydell made a small fortune in the 1750s from these imported prints . His early success was acknowledged in 1760 when he was named a member of the Royal Society . Winifred Friedman , who has written extensively on Boydell , explains that despite this success , " [ w ] hat rankled Boydell was that the French would not extend credit , or exchange prints ; he was required to produce hard cash . Boydell took action , and this was the turning point . "
In 1761 , Boydell decided that he would attempt to trade with the French in kind — something they had refused in the past because of the poor quality of British engravings . To inaugurate this change , he had to have a truly spectacular print . To this end , he hired William Woollett , the foremost engraver in England , to engrave Richard Wilson 's Destruction of the Children of Niobe . Woollett had already successfully engraved Claude Lorrain 's 1663 painting The Father of Psyche Sacrificing at the Temple of Apollo for Boydell in 1760 . Boydell paid him approximately £ 100 for the Niobe engraving , a staggering amount compared to the usual rates . This single act of patronage raised engravers ' fees throughout London . The print was wildly successful , but more importantly , the French accepted it as payment in kind . In fact , it was the first British print actively desired on the Continent . By 1770 , the British were exporting far more prints than they were importing , largely due to Boydell .
Boydell 's business flourished and he soon hired his nephew , Josiah Boydell , to assist him . Boydell 's biographer , Sven Bruntjen , hypothesizes that one of the reasons for Boydell 's early and phenomenal success was his specialisation . Unlike " his competitors [ who sold manuals , atlases and other assorted books ] ... his [ business had an ] almost exclusive concentration on the sale of reproductive prints " . Bruntjen argues that " despite the extensive sales of varied types of reproductive prints , it was the contemporary history print which accounted for the major part of Boydell 's success as a print dealer " . Most notable among these was the Death of General Wolfe a 1770 painting by Benjamin West , engraved by Woollett for Boydell in 1776 . As early as 1767 , Boydell had stopped engraving prints himself and began exclusively relying on commissions and trades and it was from these that he profited .
Boydell had opened up a new market with Niobe and he quickly followed up this success . With a prospering business and capital in reserve , he embarked on several ambitious projects , often simultaneously . In 1769 , he began A Collection of Prints , Engraved after the Most Capital Paintings in England . Its last , and ninth volume , was finished in 1792 to great critical and financial success . In 1773 , he began A Set of Prints Engraved after the Most Capital Paintings in the Collection of Her Imperial Majesty the Empress of Russia , Lately in the Possession of the Earl of Orford at Houghton in Norfolk , which was finished in 1788 .
In addition to these projects and in the middle of his Shakespeare undertaking Boydell experimented with aquatint in An History of the River Thames , published in 1796 . Bruntjen writes , " although not the first colored aquatint book , [ it ] was the first major one , and it was to set an example for the type of illustration that was to enjoy widespread popularity in England for some forty years " . Boydell also published The Original Work of William Hogarth in 1790 and The Poetical Works of John Milton and The Life of the Poet ( i.e. , Milton ) in 1794 .
The productivity and profitability of Boydell 's firm spurred the British print industry in general . By 1785 , annual exports of British prints reached £ 200 @,@ 000 while imports fell to £ 100 . Boydell was acknowledged and praised throughout England as the agent of this stunning economic reversal . In 1773 he was awarded the Royal Academy Gold Medal for his services in advancing the print trade . In 1789 , at the Royal Academy dinner , the Prince of Wales toasted " an English tradesman who patronizes art better than the Grand Monarque , Alderman Boydell , the Commercial Maecenas " .
= = Shakespeare venture = =
Boydell 's crowning achievement was his Shakespeare project , which was to occupy much of the last two decades of his life . The project contained three parts : an illustrated edition of Shakespeare 's plays , a public gallery of paintings depicting scenes from the plays , and a folio of prints based on the paintings .
The idea of a grand Shakespeare edition was conceived at a dinner at Josiah Boydell ’ s home in November 1786 . The guest list itself is evidence of Boydell ’ s extensive connections in the artistic world : Benjamin West , painter to King George III ; George Romney , a renowned painter ; George Nicol , bookseller to the king and painter ; William Hayley , a poet ; John Hoole , a scholar and translator of Tasso and Aristotle ; and Daniel Braithwaite , an engineer . Most sources also list the painter Paul Sandby . Although the initial idea for the edition was probably not Boydell 's , he was the one to seize and pursue it . He wanted to use the edition to facilitate the development of a British school of history painting .
The " magnificent and accurate " Shakespeare edition which Boydell began in 1786 was the focus of the enterprise . The print folio and the gallery were simply offshoots of the main project . In an advertisement prefacing the first volume of the edition , Nicol wrote that " splendor and magnificence , united with correctness of text were the great objects of this Edition " . Boydell was responsible for the " splendor " , and George Steevens , a renowned Shakespearean editor , was responsible for the " correctness of text " . The volumes themselves were handsome , with gilded pages . Even the quality of the paper was extraordinarily high . The illustrations were printed independently and could be inserted and removed as the customer desired . The first volumes of the Dramatick Works were published in 1791 and the last in 1805 . The edition was financed through a subscription campaign in which the buyers would offer partial payment up front and then pay the remaining sum on delivery . This practice was necessitated by the fact that over £ 350 @,@ 000 — an enormous sum at the time — was eventually spent on the enterprise .
When it opened on 4 May 1789 at 52 Pall Mall , the Shakespeare Gallery contained 34 paintings and by the end of its run it had between 167 and 170 . The Gallery itself was a hit with the public and became a fashionable attraction . It took over the public 's imagination and became an end in and of itself .
To illustrate the edition and to provide images for the folio , Boydell obtained the assistance of the most eminent painters and engravers of the day . Artists included Richard Westall , Thomas Stothard , George Romney , Henry Fuseli , Benjamin West , Angelica Kauffman , Robert Smirke , John Opie , and Boydell 's nephew and business partner , Josiah Boydell . Among the engravers were Francesco Bartolozzi and Thomas Kirk . Boydell 's relationships with his artists , particularly his illustrators , was generally congenial . James Northcote praised Boydell 's liberal payments . He wrote in an 1821 letter that Boydell " did more for the advancement of the arts in England than the whole mass of the nobility put together ! He paid me more nobly than any other person has done ; and his memory I shall every hold in reverence " .
At the beginning of the enterprise , reactions were generally positive . Two reviews from the most influential newspapers in London at the time solidified and validated the public 's interest in the project and the artists ' efforts . However , there was also some criticism . In particular the satirical engraver James Gillray appears to have been peeved at not being commissioned to engrave any of the Shakespeare scenes and , in revenge , published Shakespeare Sacrificed : Or the Offering to Avarice just six weeks after the gallery opened . Gillray followed up with further cartoons such as Boydell sacrificing the Works of Shakespeare to the Devil of Money @-@ Bags . As the project dragged on , the criticism increased . Yet , Boydell 's project still inspired imitators . Thomas Macklin attempted to found a Poet 's Gallery similar to the Shakespeare Gallery and several histories of England on the scale of the Shakespeare edition were also started . However , like Boydell 's venture , they ultimately ended in financial disaster .
The folio , which collected together the engravings from the paintings , has been the most lasting legacy of the Boydell enterprise : it was reissued throughout the 19th century and scholars have described it as a precursor to the modern coffee table book .
= = Civic service = =
Amidst all of the work generated by these publishing enterprises , Boydell still found time to be alderman of Cheap ward in 1782 , master of the Stationers ' Company in 1783 , sheriff of London in 1785 , and Lord Mayor of London in 1790 . With both a dedicated civic spirit and an eye towards business promotion , Boydell took advantage of his public positions to advocate public and private patronage of the arts . He frequently donated paintings from his own collections to the Corporation of London to be hung in the Guildhall . He hoped that his donation might spur others to similar generosity . However , he remained a solitary contributor . A catalogue was published in 1794 listing all of the works Boydell had donated to the Guildhall . In the preface , he explained why he had made such large gifts :
It may be a matter of wonder to some , what enducements I could have to present the City of London with so many expensive Pictures ; the principal reasons that influence me were these : First : to show my respect for the Corporation , and my Fellow Citizens , Secondly : to give pleasure to the Public , and Foreigners in general , Thirdly : to be of service to the Artists , by shewing their works to the greatest advantage : and , Fourthly : for the mere purpose of pleasing myself .
In 1794 Boydell commissioned and donated Industry and Prudence by Robert Smirke . Most of the other works Boydell donated were similarly didactic . He was appealing to his fellow tradespeople and craftspeople with these gifts , a middle class which would have been only too pleased to see their values promoted by such a prominent figure .
In a speech before the Council to advocate the renovation of a building for the purpose of displaying public art , Boydell made the striking claim that if the rich could be persuaded to patronise art , they would forgo their wicked ways :
one might be found amongst the many spendthrifts of the present age , instead of ruining themselves by gaming , or laying snares to debauch young Females , by their false promises and many other bad vices ; would be rejoiced at such an opportunity , of reclaiming themselves by withdrawing from the snares laid for them by bad and designing Men and Women , who constantly lay wait to lead astray the young and unwary that are possessed of large property , such might here have the pleasure and satisfaction to make a real Paradise on earth , by illuminating a place that would for ever shine and display their generosity .
Boydell 's middle @-@ class consumers would have approved of his connection between morality and art .
= = Business decline , death , and legacy = =
In 1789 , the French revolution broke out and four years later war erupted between Britain and France . Throughout the next tumultuous decade , trade with Europe became increasingly difficult . As Boydell 's business relied heavily on foreign trade , especially French , his livelihood was threatened . When this market was cut off due to war in 1793 , Boydell 's business declined substantially . He was forced to sell the Shakespeare Gallery , via a lottery , in order for his business to remain solvent . He died in December 1804 before the lottery was drawn , but after all of its 22 @,@ 000 tickets had been sold .
According to Josiah , John Boydell caught a cold by going to the Old Bailey on a damp , foggy day to do his duty as an alderman . He died on 12 December 1804 almost bankrupt , but not without great public acclaim . He was buried on 19 December 1804 at the Church of St. Olave Old Jewry , his funeral attended by the Lord Mayor , aldermen , and several artists .
Boydell had , almost single @-@ handedly , made British prints a viable economic commodity and had demolished the French domination of the trade . In a letter to Sir John Anderson , asking Parliament for the private Lottery Act to sell off the Shakespeare Gallery , Boydell stated that it was " sufficient to say , that the whole course of that commerce [ print trade ] is changed " . The Times wrote on 7 May 1789 : " Historical painting and engraving are almost exclusively indebted to Mr. Boydell for their present advancement . " Boydell also played a part in changing the nature of art patronage in Britain . Until he advocated public patronage in his various civic posts , the government had little to do with British art . According to Bruntjen , " it was due to the enthusiasm of Boydell and others that the English government eventually provided funds for the establishment of the National Gallery in 1824 " . Boydell helped to make artists independent of aristocratic patronage by providing commercial opportunities for them . He " attempted to free artists from the traditional forms of
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that maximizes the logarithm of the geometric mean of sample spacings :
<formula>
By the inequality of arithmetic and geometric means , function Sn ( θ ) is bounded from above by − ln ( n + 1 ) , and thus the maximum has to exist at least in the supremum sense .
Note that some authors define the function Sn ( θ ) somewhat differently . In particular , Ranneby ( 1984 ) multiplies each Di by a factor of ( n + 1 ) , whereas Cheng & Stephens ( 1989 ) omit the 1 ⁄ n + 1 factor in front of the sum and add the “ − ” sign in order to turn the maximization into minimization . As these are constants with respect to θ , the modifications do not alter the location of the maximum of the function Sn .
= = Examples = =
This section presents two examples of calculating the maximum spacing estimator .
= = = Example 1 = = =
Suppose two values x ( 1 )
= 2 , x ( 2 ) =
4 were sampled from the exponential distribution F ( x ; λ )
= 1 − e − xλ , x ≥ 0 with unknown parameter λ > 0 . In order to construct the MSE we have to first find the spacings :
The process continues by finding the λ that maximizes the geometric mean of the “ difference ” column . Using the convention that ignores taking the ( n + 1 ) st root , this turns into the maximization of the following product : ( 1 − e − 2λ ) · ( e − 2λ − e − 4λ ) · ( e − 4λ ) . Letting μ =
e − 2λ , the problem becomes finding the maximum of μ5 − 2μ4 + μ3 . Differentiating , the μ has to satisfy 5μ4 − 8μ3 + 3μ2
= 0 . This equation has roots 0 , 0 @.@ 6 , and 1 . As μ is actually e − 2λ , it has to be greater than zero but less than one . Therefore , the only acceptable solution is
<formula>
which corresponds to an exponential distribution with a mean of 1 ⁄ λ ≈ 3 @.@ 915 . For comparison , the maximum likelihood estimate of λ is the inverse of the sample mean , 3 , so λMLE =
⅓ ≈ 0 @.@ 333 .
= = = Example 2 = = =
Suppose { x ( 1 ) , … , x ( n ) } is the ordered sample from a uniform distribution U ( a , b ) with unknown endpoints a and b . The cumulative distribution function is F ( x ; a , b ) = ( x − a ) / ( b − a ) when x ∈ [ a , b ] . Therefore individual spacings are given by
<formula>
Calculating the geometric mean and then taking the logarithm , statistic Sn will be equal to
<formula>
Here only the first three terms depend on the parameters a and b . Differentiating with respect to those parameters and solving the resulting linear system , the maximum spacing estimates will be
<formula>
These are known to be the uniformly minimum variance unbiased ( UMVU ) estimators for the continuous uniform distribution . In comparison , the maximum likelihood estimates for this problem <formula> and <formula> are biased and have higher mean @-@ squared error .
= = Properties = =
= = = Consistency and efficiency = = =
The maximum spacing estimator is a consistent estimator in that it converges in probability to the true value of the parameter , θ0 , as the sample size increases to infinity . The consistency of maximum spacing estimation holds under much more general conditions than for maximum likelihood estimators . In particular , in cases where the underlying distribution is J @-@ shaped , maximum likelihood will fail where MSE succeeds . An example of a J @-@ shaped density is the Weibull distribution , specifically a shifted Weibull , with a shape parameter less than 1 . The density will tend to infinity as x approaches the location parameter rendering estimates of the other parameters inconsistent .
Maximum spacing estimators are also at least as asymptotically efficient as maximum likelihood estimators , where the latter exist . However , MSEs may exist in cases where MLEs do not .
= = = Sensitivity = = =
Maximum spacing estimators are sensitive to closely spaced observations , and especially ties . Given
<formula>
we get
<formula>
When the ties are due to multiple observations , the repeated spacings ( those that would otherwise be zero ) should be replaced by the corresponding likelihood . That is , one should substitute <formula> for <formula> , as
<formula>
since <formula> .
When ties are due to rounding error , Cheng & Stephens ( 1989 ) suggest another method to remove the effects . Given r tied observations from xi to xi + r − 1 , let δ represent the round @-@ off error . All of the true values should then fall in the range <formula> . The corresponding points on the distribution should now fall between <formula> and <formula> . Cheng and Stephens suggest assuming that the rounded values are uniformly spaced in this interval , by defining
<formula>
The MSE method is also sensitive to secondary clustering . One example of this phenomenon is when a set of observations is thought to come from a single normal distribution , but in fact comes from a mixture normals with different means . A second example is when the data is thought to come from an exponential distribution , but actually comes from a gamma distribution . In the latter case , smaller spacings may occur in the lower tail . A high value of M ( θ ) would indicate this secondary clustering effect , and suggesting a closer look at the data is required .
= = Goodness of fit = =
The statistic Sn ( θ ) is also a form of Moran or Moran @-@ Darling statistic , M ( θ ) , which can be used to test goodness of fit . It has been shown that the statistic , when defined as
<formula>
is asymptotically normal , and that a chi @-@ squared approximation exists for small samples . In the case where we know the true parameter <formula> , Cheng & Stephens ( 1989 ) show that the statistic <formula> has a normal distribution with
<formula>
where γ is the Euler – Mascheroni constant which is approximately 0 @.@ 57722 .
The distribution can also be approximated by that of <formula> , where
<formula> ,
in which
<formula>
and where <formula> follows a chi @-@ squared distribution with <formula> degrees of freedom . Therefore , to test the hypothesis <formula> that a random sample of <formula> values comes from the distribution <formula> , the statistic <formula> can be calculated . Then <formula> should be rejected with significance <formula> if the value is greater than the critical value of the appropriate chi @-@ squared distribution .
Where θ0 is being estimated by <formula> , Cheng & Stephens ( 1989 ) showed that <formula> has the same asymptotic mean and variance as in the known case . However , the test statistic to be used requires the addition of a bias correction term and is :
<formula>
where <formula> is the number of parameters in the estimate .
= = Generalized maximum spacing = =
= = = Alternate measures and spacings = = =
Ranneby & Ekström ( 1997 ) generalized the MSE method to approximate other measures besides the Kullback – Leibler measure . Ekström ( 1997 ) further expanded the method to investigate properties of estimators using higher order spacings , where an m @-@ order spacing would be defined as <formula> .
= = = Multivariate distributions = = =
Ranneby & al . ( 2005 ) discuss extended maximum spacing methods to the multivariate case . As there is no natural order for <formula> , they discuss two alternative approaches : a geometric approach based on Dirichlet cells and a probabilistic approach based on a “ nearest neighbor ball ” metric .
= Joehana =
Akhmad Bassah ( also Bassakh ; [ axˈmad baˈsax ] ; fl . 1923 – 30 ) , best known by the pen name Joehana ( [ juˈhana ] ; Perfected Spelling : Yuhana ) , was an author of the Dutch East Indies who wrote in Sundanese . He worked for a time on the railroad before becoming an author by 1923 , and had a strong interest in social welfare ; this interest influenced his novels . He was also a productive translator , dramatist , and reporter , and operated a company which offered writing services . Sources disagree when Joehana died ; some offer 1930 , while others give 1942 – 45 .
During the seven years in which he was active , Joehana wrote a number of stories and articles , as well as several novels . The years of publication are generally unclear , as reprints included neither the year of first publication nor the printing number . Stylistically , Joehana has been classified as a realist owing to his use of the names of actual locations and products in his works , as well as the predominantly vernacular Sundanese in his novels . However , influences from traditional theatrical forms such as wayang and literature such as pantun are evident . Joehana 's works cover a wide range of themes , although in general they are oriented towards social criticism and promote modernization .
Though Joehana 's works were published independently , they were popular in the Bandung area where they were sold . Local businesses may have offered funds for product placement , and Joehana 's works were adapted to the stage and film . However , they received little academic attention until the 1960s , and critical consensus since then has been negative . Two of his works have been republished since the 1960s , and stage productions of his novel Rasiah nu Goreng Patut continued into the 1980s .
= = Biography = =
It is uncertain when Akhmad Bassah was born , though he is thought to have been raised in Bandung , western Java , where he graduated from a Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs . Bassah spent time working on the state @-@ operated railroad , apparently rising to a fairly high position , but was fired for organizing a strike of the Union of Train and Tramway Personnel . Although he left the company , Bassah remained active in social movements . He was an active member of the Sarekat Rakyat ( People 's Union ) , an organization with communist leanings , and helped that group in its mission of social service .
Through contemporary reports it is clear that by 1923 Bassah had begun to make a name as a writer , and that he had also become active in the theatre and as a journalist . Bassah signed his writings " Joehana " , taken from the name of his adoptive daughter ; he is best remembered by that pen name . Although he was married to a schoolteacher named Atikah , they had no biological children .
Throughout his writing career , Joehana wrote independently , unattached to any publishing house . At the time , Balai Pustaka , a publisher operated by the Dutch colonial government , was attracting numerous Sundanese @-@ language writers . His biographers Tini Kartini et al. suggest that Joehana rejected his contemporaries ' approach , choosing to work independently rather than again work for the government which had fired him and would certainly censor his works . This , they write , is shown through the themes common in the stories : where his contemporaries focused on escapist literature and entertainment , Joehana focused on social criticism . However , Ajip Rosidi , a scholar of Sundanese literature , suggests that Joehana 's refusal to use formal Sundanese meant that Balai Pustaka would not accept his works .
In 1928 , Joehana opened the Romans Bureau , which was advertised as offering a variety of services , including the writing and printing of advertisements , translations ( from or into English , Dutch , Malay , and Sundanese ) , and the preparation of story concepts for other writers . Joehana may have also opened a writing course , although apparently most of his income was derived from the royalties of his publications . These publications , particularly his novels , were generally inspired by the types of works that were popular at the time of writing . One of his students , Abdullah Syafi 'i Sukandi , recalled that Nangis Wibisana ( The Tears of Wibisana ) had been written when the dangding ( a traditional lyrical form ) Tjeurik Oma ( Oma 's Cry ) was popular , whereas Goenoeng Gelenjoe ( The Smiling Mountain ) had been written during a period of increased interest in humorous anecdotes .
Joehana died after helping put together a stage performance based on his novel Kalepatan Poetra Dosana Iboe Ramaa ( The Sins of the Son are the Sins of the Mother and Father ) in Tasikmalaya . His body is buried in Bandung . Sources disagree regarding the year of his death . Atikah dates it to c . 1930 , a year which Rosidi supports . Meanwhile , the publisher Kiwari , which reissued Rasiah nu Goreng Patut in 1963 , cites the author as having died during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies ( 1942 – 45 ) ; this estimate has also been reported by literary critic Jakob Soemardjo , who gives Joehana 's estimated age at time of his death as 35 .
= = Works = =
Joehana 's oeuvre consists of fourteen books , as well as numerous editorials and articles in the newspaper Soerapati . In their 1979 review of the author , Kartini et al. were able to find only six extant titles . It is difficult to determine the original year of publication for these works , for although Joehana 's books generally included a year of publication , the printing number was not recorded . As such , sources have works as having been published in different years ; for instance , Tjarios Agan Permas is variously dated 1923 , 1926 , and 1928 .
The following list is based on the one compiled by Kartini et al. in their 1979 study . It does not include any of Joehana 's work as a journalist , nor does it include works he published through his Romans Bureau .
Bambang Hendrasaputra ( in Sundanese ) . ( based on wayang stories )
Tjarios Agan Permas [ The Tale of Agan Permas ] ( in Sundanese ) . Bandung : Dakhlan Bekti . ( three volumes ; 148 pages total )
Tjarios Eulis Atjih [ The Tale of Eulis Atjih ] ( in Sundanese ) . Bandung : Dakhlan Bekti . ( three volumes )
Goenoeng Gelenjoe [ The Smiling Mountain ] ( in Sundanese ) . Bandung : Dakhlan Bekti . ( joke book ; 31 pages )
Kalepatan Poetra Dosana Iboe Rama [ The Sins of the Son are the Sins of the Mother and Father ] ( in Sundanese ) .
Kasoeat koe Doeriat [ Remembering Love ] ( in Sundanese ) . Bandung : Dakhlan Bekti . ( at least two volumes )
Lalampahan Pangeran Nampabaja sareng Pangerang Lirbaja [ The Tale of Prince Nampabaya and Prince Lirbaya ] ( in Sundanese ) . Bandung : Dakhlan Bekti . ( one volume ; 44 pages )
Moegiri ( in Sundanese ) . Bandung : Kusradie . ( two volumes ; 74 pages )
Nangis Wibisana [ The Tears of Wibisana ] ( in Sundanese ) . ( a dangding )
Neng Jaja [ Miss Yaya ] ( in Sundanese ) . Batavia : Krakatau . ( two volumes )
Nj . R. Tedjainten [ Mrs. Raden Tedjainten ] ( in Sundanese ) . ( unpublished )
Rasiah nu Goreng Patut [ Secret of the Ugly One ] ( in Sundanese ) . Bandung : Dakhlan Bekti . ( one volume ; with Soekria )
Roro Amis ( in Sundanese ) .
Sadjarah Pamidjahan [ History of Pamijahan ] ( in Sundanese ) .
= = Style = =
Joehana appears to have been familiar with the traditional literatures of Maritime Southeast Asia , drawing on the Ramayana for Nangis Wibisana . Wayang characters such as the clown Cepot are referred to in his writings , and he draws on traditional Sundanese storytelling techniques , such as the pantun form of poetry common in wayang golek performances . However , there are significant shifts . His writings depart from the traditional forms of literature such as wawacan , instead embracing the novel , a European literary form . Unlike the formal language used in traditional literature , Joehana wrote in everyday Sundanese . The grammar and structure shows evidence of influence from other languages , and the vocabulary is likewise not purely Sundanese ; some Dutch ( the language of the colonial government ) is mixed in .
The Sundanese author M. A. Salmoen classifies Joehana as a realist . Rosidi writes that a sense of realism was promoted in Joehana 's writings through the use of references to existing ( and often popular ) brands of products , including cigars , salted fish , and biscuits ( though , as Joehana wrote for persons in contemporary Bandung who were expected to know these products , they are not given any in @-@ text explanation ) . Joehana used real @-@ life Bandung locations in his novels , and local figures prominent in the news ( such as the pickpocket Salim ) are mentioned in passing . There is also the possibility that the use of such names are a form of product placement , in which Joehana was paid to include the names of the products in his novels ; this payment may not have been direct , but in the form of goods or services , or a donation to Sarekat Rakyat .
Joehana displayed a sense of humour which was well received by his contemporaries : for instance , the frog chaser Karnadi of Rasiah nu Goreng Patut describes his trips to the rice fields to catch frogs as " going to the office " and the stick with which he kills the frogs as his " pencil " , whereas the Dutchman Van der Zwak of Tjarios Agan Permas uses the most polite register of Sundanese while speaking to his dog . Some of these jokes have remained popular ; Rosidi records one , about how to speak Dutch , as having survived into the 1980s .
= = Themes = =
The dominant theme in Joehana 's work is social criticism , particularly regarding socioeconomic conditions . In Rasiah nu Goreng Patut , he criticised those who sought material wealth above all other things through the Eulis Awang and her family , who are so enraptured by their greed that they do not realize that the man asking for Eulis Awang 's hand in marriage is not who he claims to be . In Tjarios Eulis Atjih , the main characters Arsad and Eulis Atjih , while both exemplifying greed and its inevitable repercussions , further show that wealth is not eternal : both lose their wealth and societal positions , then must earn a living . In the novel , Johanna calls on the rich to support and defend the poor , not despise them . That both rich and poor should receive equal treatment is emphasised in Tjarios Agan Permas :
Of the minds of the poor or the commoners , there is no difference with those of the rich or the menak [ noblemen ] , so long as they have the same chance to learn . Beware , never forget , one 's mind should not only be used to make a living , but must also be used to meet the needs of the many .
Another traditionally respected group which Joehana criticizes is the hajjis , those Muslims who have been on the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca . The hajjis in Joehana 's stories are generally greedy and lustful , without any interest in the good of humanity . In Tjarios Agan Permas , for instance , Hajji Serbanna displays his hypocrisy by damning usury as haraam ( sinful ) while charging high interest rates for a loan , and refuses to complete the mandatory prayers because he is waiting on a guest bearing large gifts . The hajji is portrayed as wearing so much make @-@ up that , in the opinion of Kartini et al . , it is as if he is deliberately dressing as a clown .
Although Joehana rejects forced marriage , a common practice among the Sundanese in the early 20th century , and promotes the idea of marriage for love , he also warns against the dangers of overly free interactions between men and women . Through Kalepatan Poetra Dosana Iboe Rama he condemns forced marriage by depicting the marriage of a young woman to a wealthy man who is old enough to be her father ; this ultimately leaves the woman an outcast , reaping the " sins " of her parents . Both Moegiri and Neng Jaja , meanwhile , dealt with young women who were overly free in their interactions with men , and thus faced a sorrowful fate : divorce , abuse , and infidelity .
= = Legacy = =
Joehana 's works were commercially successful , and often adapted to the stage . His Rasiah nu Goreng Patut , for instance , was adapted into a variety of forms , including as a Malay @-@ language lenong , and a stage performance of Tjarios Eulis Atjih is recorded in Ciamis . Three films have been adapted from novels by Joehana , two from Tjarios Eulis Atjih and one from Rasiah nu Goreng Patut . The first , Eulis Atjih , was directed and produced by G. Krugers and released in 1927 to popular success . The second , generally referred to as Karnadi Anemer Bangkong , was adapted from Rasiah nu Goreng Patut by Krugers and released in the early 1930s ; it is known to have been a commercial failure , reportedly raising controversy for depicting a Muslim man eating frog meat . The third adaptation of a Joehana novel , also titled Eulis Atjih , was completed by Rd Ariffien in 1954 . Stage performances of Rasiah nu Goreng Patut continued as late as 1980 , though by that time the work was considered by the general public as part of folklore .
However , little academic discourse on Joehana was published until the 1960s ; according to Kartini et al . , this is attributable to Joehana 's use of non @-@ formal Sundanese . This renewal began with the republication of two of his works : Rasiah nu Goreng Patut in 1963 as a standalone book by Kiwari , and Moegiri as a serial beginning with the 15 October 1965 edition of Sunda magazine . Rosidi , that magazine 's editor , included discussion of Joehana in his 1966 book Kesusastraan Sunda Dewasa Ini ( Contemporary Sundanese Literature ) . Some more discussion , by authors such as Yus Rusyana and Rusman Sutiamarga , was published in magazines such as Wangsit or included in university lectures . Until 1979 Joehana 's works had not been taught in Sundanese @-@ language courses in schools .
Modern critical reception of Joehana 's output has generally been negative . Sumardjo writes that his greatest weakness was a lack of in @-@ depth exploration of characters ' psyches , as well as a tendency to include an unclear social background . Kartini et al. note Joehana 's productivity , but find a lack of characterisation in his works . They find that , at times , his attempt to convey a social message is so dominant that the works come across as propaganda . Rosidi gives a more positive view of Joehana 's writing , noting that , although the use of non @-@ formal Sundanese was contentious in the 1920s , it nonetheless meant the language in Joehana 's works was more dynamic and " alive " than in works published by Balai Pustaka .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Ron Saggers with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
Ron Saggers was a member of Donald Bradman 's famous Australian cricket team of 1948 , which toured England and went undefeated in their 34 matches . This unprecedented feat by a Test side touring England earned them the sobriquet The Invincibles .
The team 's reserve wicket @-@ keeper , Saggers played in only the Fourth of five Tests , due to an injury to first @-@ choice gloveman Don Tallon . The match was Saggers 's Test debut and he scored five in his only innings with the bat and took three catches . Despite being the second @-@ choice gloveman , Saggers conceded byes at a lower rate than Tallon did during the English summer . During the Fourth Test , Saggers conceded only six byes as England amassed a match total of 861 , the lowest percentage of byes conceded by Australia in a match during the tour . Despite this , Tallon remained the favoured gloveman , as Bradman deemed him to be faster and more athletic .
Bradman rotated the two glovemen during the tour , and Saggers played in 17 of the 31 first @-@ class matches , taking 23 catches and 20 stumpings . Due to Australia 's powerful batting line @-@ up
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) Morning Glory ? =
( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? is the second studio album by the English rock band Oasis , released on 2 October 1995 by Creation Records . It was produced by Owen Morris and the group 's guitarist Noel Gallagher . The structure and arrangement style of the album were a significant departure from the group 's previous record Definitely Maybe . Gallagher 's compositions were more focused in balladry and placed more emphasis on huge choruses , with the string arrangements and more varied instrumentation on the record contrasting with the rawness of the group 's debut album . ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? was the group 's first album with drummer Alan White , who replaced Tony McCarroll .
The record propelled Oasis from being a crossover indie act to a worldwide rock phenomenon , and according to various critics , was a significant record in the timeline of British indie music . The band 's most commercially successful release , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? sold a record @-@ breaking 347 @,@ 000 copies in its first week on sale , spent 10 weeks at number one on the UK Albums Chart , and reached number four in the US Billboard 200 . Singles from the album were successful in Britain , America and Australia : " Some Might Say " and " Don 't Look Back in Anger " reached number one in the UK ; " Champagne Supernova " and " Wonderwall " reached number one on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart ; and " Wonderwall " topped the Australian and New Zealand singles charts .
Although a commercial smash , the record received lukewarm reviews from mainstream music critics ; many contemporary reviewers deemed it inferior to Definitely Maybe , with the songwriting and production particular points of criticism . In the ensuing years , however , critical opinion towards the album reversed , and it is now generally considered a seminal record of both the Britpop era , and the 1990s in general . Over several months in 1995 and 1996 , the band performed an extensive world tour in support of the album . The most notable of the concerts were two Knebworth House performances in August to a combined crowd of 250 @,@ 000 people . At the 1996 Brit Awards , the album won Best British Album .
At the 2010 Brit Awards , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? was named the greatest British album since 1980 . It has sold over 16 million copies worldwide , and appears on several lists of the greatest albums in rock music .
= = Recording = =
In May 1995 , in the wake of the critical and commercial success of their 1994 debut album , Definitely Maybe , Oasis began recording Morning Glory at Rockfield Studios in Wales , with Owen Morris and Noel Gallagher producing . By the time they were finished in June 1995 , Oasis were on the brink of becoming one of the most popular bands in the UK : the August 1995 Battle of Britpop incident in which Oasis and Blur had a chart battle over their singles " Roll with It " , and " Country House " , would propel them to mainstream awareness .
The band recorded the album quickly : early on , averaging almost one song every twenty @-@ four hours . However , tension arose between songwriter Noel Gallagher and his younger brother , lead singer Liam , when Noel wanted to sing lead vocals on either " Wonderwall " or " Don 't Look Back in Anger " . The younger Gallagher considered this tantamount to a temporary exile from his own group . The issue dissipated momentarily as Noel was pleased with Liam 's vocal take of " Wonderwall " . However , tension returned due to Liam 's strained attempts to sing the high notes on " Champagne Supernova " . When Noel subsequently took his turn to record his vocals for " Don 't Look Back in Anger " , Liam went to a local pub and came back accompanied by a crowd of people , including music journalist John Robb who was producing the band Cable in nearby studio Monnow Valley whilst recording was still underway . After an altercation with Cable that infuriated his brother , the siblings then began fighting viciously , the session was abandoned and recording was suspended .
When the Gallagher brothers were reconciled three weeks later , the group spent another two weeks working on the album , followed by post @-@ production work in London . Despite the friction involved between the Gallagher brothers , Owen Morris reflected in 2010 that : " The sessions were the best , easiest , least fraught , most happily creative time I ’ ve ever had in a recording studio . I believe people can feel and hear when music is dishonest and motivated by the wrong reasons . Morning Glory , for all its imperfection and flaws , is dripping with love and happiness . " Paul Weller joined them in the studio and provided lead guitar and backing vocals for " Champagne Supernova " , and harmonica for the two untitled tracks known as " The Swamp Song " . Noel wrote the last song for the album , " Cast No Shadow " , on the train as he returned to the studio . Morris claimed the album was recorded in 15 days ; when it was finished he said it would " wipe the field with any competition ... It 's astonishing . It 's the Bollocks for this decade . "
The brickwall mastering technique utilised during the recording of the album has led to some journalists claiming that it was responsible for initiating the loudness war , as its heavy use of compression , first widely used by Morris on Definitely Maybe , was leaps and bounds beyond what any other album up until then had attempted . Music journalist Nick Southall , who has written extensively on the loudness war , commented , " If there 's a jump @-@ the @-@ shark moment as far as CD mastering goes then it 's probably Oasis . " In Britpop and the English Music Tradition Andy Bennet and John Stratton noted that as a result of this technique " the songs were especially loud . [ Liam ] Gallagher 's voice is foregrounded to the point that it appears to grow out of the mixes of the songs , exposing itself to execute a pseudo @-@ live quality . "
= = Composition = =
John Harris commented in his music history Britpop ! : Cool Britannia and the Spectacular Demise of English Rock that much of the music on ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? seemed to be " little more inspired than a string of musical hand @-@ me @-@ downs " . Among the musical cues Harris noted on the album were Gary Glitter 's " Hello , Hello I 'm Back Again " ( " Hello " , Glitter was an influence on Britpop ) , the theme to the 1970s children 's programme You and Me and The Beatles ' " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " ( " She 's Electric " ) , and the influence of R.E.M 's " The One I Love " on " Morning Glory " . One song , " Step Out " , bore such a close resemblance to the song " Uptight ( Everything 's Alright ) " by Stevie Wonder that it was removed from the album shortly before release due to the threat of legal action . In Britpop ... , Bennet and Stratton analysed Liam Gallagher 's vocal style in significant detail , stressing its importance to the songs of the album ; " [ Liam 's ] Mancunian accent blends into a register and timbre that works the gestural contours of the melody and lyrics . " Bennet and Stratton went on to conclude that Liam 's ' over @-@ personalized ' style on songs such as " Wonderwall " resulted in " a beautiful sense of sentimentality that bespeaks the despondency of a generation . This occurs through the narrative structure of the song , vocal production , and the conventions of the singer 's cultural context . "
Noel Gallagher summed up his own perspective on the album 's aesthetic in an interview with Rolling Stone in 1995 ; " Whilst [ Definitely Maybe ] is about dreaming of being a pop star in a band , What 's the Story is about actually being a pop star in a band . " The album has a notable anthemic theme to its songs , differing from the rawness and edged rock of Definitely Maybe . The use of string arrangements and more varied instrumentation in songs such as " Don 't Look Back in Anger " and " Champagne Supernova " was a significant departure from the band 's debut . This style had first been implemented by the band on their fifth single , " Whatever " , released in December 1994 . It was produced in conjunction with the London Symphony Orchestra , resulting in a much more pop @-@ oriented and mellower sound ; this would be the template that would come to define many of the songs on What 's the Story . In the BBC documentary Seven Ages of Rock , former NME chief editor Steve Sutherland noted that " with Morning Glory , [ Noel ] began to take seriously the notion of being the voice of a generation " .
= = Cover = =
The cover is a picture of two men passing each other on Berwick Street in London 's Soho . The two men are London DJ Sean Rowley and album sleeve designer Brian Cannon ( back to the camera ) . The album 's producer Owen Morris can be seen in the background , on the left footpath , holding the album 's master tape in front of his face . The location was chosen because the street was a popular location for record shops at the time .
= = Promotion = =
Whilst " Some Might Say " , a number one hit , had been released in April , the single chosen to directly precede the album 's release was " Roll with It " , planned for release on 14 August , six weeks before the album was due to hit the shelves . This was an unorthodox method for the time , contrasting the standard industry procedure of releasing the lead single three weeks before its parent album . Blur 's management had become worried that this would hinder the chances of the group 's forthcoming " Country House " single reaching number one the following week . As a reaction , Food Records pushed the release of " Country House " back a week and thus started what became known as ' The Battle of Britpop ' .
The event triggered an unprecedented amount of exposure for both bands in national newspapers and on television news bulletins , supposedly symbolising the battle between the middle class of the south and the working class of the north . In the midst of the battle a Guardian newspaper headline proclaimed " Working Class Heroes Lead Art School Trendies " . In the event " Country House " outsold " Roll with It " by 54 @,@ 000 , and topped the singles chart for a fortnight . Overall singles sales that week were up by 41 percent . In 2005 , John Harris reflected on the importance of the event in popularising Britpop ; " ( as ) Blur 's " Country House " raced Oasis ' " Roll with It " to the top of the charts , just about every voice in the media felt compelled to express an opinion on the freshly inaugurated age of Britpop . "
During a promotional interview in September , the month before the album was released , Noel spoke about the rivalry with Damon Albarn and Alex James from Blur , and was quoted in the 17 September edition of The Observer saying he hoped " the pair of them would catch AIDS and die because I fucking hate them two . " The quote caused a storm of controversy , with Noel having to write a letter of apology ; he later confessed that " my whole world came crashing down in on me then " . However , in an interview with The Guardian in 2005 , Blur 's guitarist Graham Coxon explained that he bore no malice towards Oasis . " At least they were outright about it . They weren 't pretending to like us and then slagging us off , which is what we 'd been used to . In that way , I quite appreciated them . "
= = Release = =
What 's the Story was released on 2 October 1995 . The album sold quickly ; the Daily Mirror reported the day after release that central London HMV stores were selling copies of the album at a rate of two per minute . At the end of the first week of sales , the album had sold a record @-@ breaking 347 @,@ 000 copies , making it ( at the time ) the second @-@ fastest @-@ selling album in British history , behind Michael Jackson 's Bad . After initially entering the UK charts at number one , it hovered around the top three for the rest of the year before initiating a six @-@ week stay at the top in mid January , followed by a further three weeks at number one in March . In total , the album didn 't leave the top three for an astonishing seven months .
After the fourth single from the album , " Wonderwall " , hit the top ten in several countries , including stays at number one in Australia , New Zealand and Spain , and a peak at number eight in the US , the album began to enjoy prolonged international success . Eventually the album had a five @-@ week run at the top of the Australian albums chart and an eight @-@ week run at the top of the New Zealand albums chart before topping charts in Canada , Ireland , Sweden and Switzerland . The album was also making significant waves in the US market as well , thanks in part to the success of the " Wonderwall " and " Champagne Supernova " singles on American modern rock radio . Both songs reached number one on the Modern Rock Chart and stayed there for ten and five weeks respectively . By early 1996 , What 's the Story was selling 200 @,@ 000 copies a week , eventually peaking at number four and being certified four times platinum by the end of the year for shipments of over four million units .
= = Tour = =
The band embarked on what would become a 103 show world tour in support of the album over a period of several months in 1995 and 1996 . The tour started on 22 June 1995 with a pre @-@ Glastonbury festival warm up gig at the 1 @,@ 400 capacity Bath Pavilion , which featured the debut of new drummer Alan White and several new songs off the album , and ended on 4 December 1996 at the 11 @,@ 800 capacity Mayo Civic Centre in Rochester , Minnesota , USA , and included concerts at Earls Court in November 1995 and Cardiff International Arena in March 1996 . The tour had many disruptions and cancellations due to Noel twice walking out of the group , and Liam pulling out of a US leg .
In September 1995 , bass player Paul McGuigan walked out on the group after a flurry of verbal abuse from Liam whilst doing interviews in Paris . ' Guigsy ' cited nervous exhaustion as the reason for his departure . Scott Mcleod of The Ya @-@ Yas was brought in as his replacement ; though , despite playing a string of gigs with the band and appearing in the video for the " Wonderwall " single , Mcleod was unable to adapt to the frenetic celebrity lifestyle , duly returning to Manchester halfway through an American promotional tour for the album . The band played a few dates , including an appearance on Late Show with David Letterman , as a four piece , before McGuigan was convinced to return for the group 's Earls Court shows in early November . When the band broke up for a brief time in late 1996 , several US tour dates and the entire Australia and New Zealand leg had to be cancelled .
As the band began to reach the peak of their popularity , several large open @-@ air concerts were organized in the UK during 1996 , including two gigs at Manchester City football stadium Maine Road , two nights at Loch Lomond in Scotland , and two nights at Knebworth House in front of a record 125 @,@ 000 people each night ; an event that would come to be acknowledged as the height of the Britpop phenomenon , with one journalist commenting ; " ( Knebworth ) could be seen as the last great Britpop performance ; nothing after would match its scale . " At the time , the concerts were the biggest gigs ever held for a single band on UK soil , and to date remain the largest demand ever for a British concert ; with reportedly over 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 applications for tickets . The Earl 's Court and Maine Road gigs were filmed and later released as the Oasis VHS / DVD ... There and Then .
= = Reception = =
What 's the Story was released to lukewarm reviews from the mainstream music press . Many contemporary reviewers expressed disappointment at the album 's inferiority to Definitely Maybe , taking aim at the ' banal lyrics ' and the unoriginal nature of the compositions . David Cavanagh of Q magazine said of the lyrics " They scan ; they fill a hole ; end of story . They [ say ] nothing much about anything . " Andy Gill of The Independent commented that " She 's Electric " is laddism of a tiresomely generic kind [ whilst ] " Roll With It " is drab and chummy . " Perhaps the most damning review came from David Stubbs of the now @-@ defunct Melody Maker . Despite stating that " Some Might Say " was " the best single of the year " , Stubbs went on to be critical of the album as a whole ; " What 's the Story [ sounds ] laboured and lazy . On this evidence , Oasis are a limited band ... they sound knackered . "
In a positive review , Rolling Stone 's Jon Weiderhorn wrote that " What 's the Story is more than a natural progression , it 's a bold leap forward that displays significant musical and personal growth . " Weiderhorn went on to note that the ' stormy ' relationship between Liam and Noel proved to be one of the album 's strengths ; " tension and instability have been inherent traits of great rock teams ... for Oasis , the addition of shared genes gives their songs extra impact and dimension . " NME said that the album shows Oasis pursuing " an altogether different direction ; away from the conscience @-@ free overloaded hedonism towards an understanding of its consequences " . The album finished 10th in the voting for The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics poll .
In his book Britpop ! , John Harris concluded that the initial negative reviews of the time missed the album 's universal strengths . " Those who fussed about the music 's more artful aspects were missing the point . The fact that [ Noel 's ] songs contained so many musical echoes seemed to couch the album in an air of homely reassurance . " Harris believed that the " ordinary " nature of some of the album 's songs " turned out to be part of its deeply populist appeal " . Rob Sheffield , writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , called the album " a triumph , full of bluster and bravado but also moments of surprising tenderness " . Robert Christgau was less enthusiastic in his retrospective review and gave it a two @-@ star honorable mention , indicating a " likable effort that consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy . " He cited " She 's Electric " and " Roll with It " as highlights and quipped " give them credit for wanting it all — and ( yet another Beatles connection ! ) playing guitars " .
= = Legacy = =
As of today the tide of critical opinion has generally turned , and ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? is considered to be a seminal record of the Britpop era and as one of the best albums of the nineties , and it appears in several charts as one of the greatest albums of all time . In 2010 , Rolling Stone commented that " the album is a triumph , full of bluster , bravado and surprising tenderness . Morning Glory capped a true golden age for Britpop . " The magazine ranked the album at 378 on its 2012 list of " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . The album 's enduring popularity within the UK was reflected when it won the BRITs Album of 30 years at the 2010 BRIT Awards . The award was voted by the public to decide the greatest ' Best Album ' winner in the history of the BRIT Awards . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
What 's the Story went on to become the second @-@ best @-@ selling album of 1995 and 1996 in the UK , as well being the best @-@ selling album of the decade . Its fourteen platinum certifications from the British Phonographic Industry were the highest ever awarded to a single record until Adele 's 21 , released in 2011 . The success of the album resulted in Oasis becoming one of the biggest bands in the United Kingdom , with substantial and considerable press coverage in the mainstream music press and frequent comparisons to the Beatles in the media . Liam and Noel Gallagher both featured prominently in gossip columns and daily tabloids throughout 1996 – 97 , their celebrity wives in Patsy Kensit and Meg Matthews only heightening their popularity with British paparazzi .
What 's the Story propelled Oasis from being a crossover indie act to a worldwide rock phenomenon after the momentum gained by the critically acclaimed Definitely Maybe . It has been pinpointed by music critics as a significant record in the timeline of British indie music , demonstrating just how far into the mainstream independent music had ventured . In 2005 , John Harris noted the significance of the album and " Wonderwall " in particular to Britpop 's legacy . " When ( Oasis ) released Wonderwall , the rules of British music were decisively changed . From hereon in , the lighter @-@ than @-@ air ballad became obligatory , and the leather @-@ trousers era of rock 'n'roll was over . " The success of the album in Britain resulted in Oasis becoming a cultural ubiquity for a brief period , featuring in tabloid newspapers on an almost daily basis and breaking sales records for live concerts .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Noel Gallagher , except where noted .
= = = Vinyl version = = =
All songs written and composed by Noel Gallagher , except where noted .
= = = Singles box set = = =
The ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? box set was released on 4 November 1996 , featuring four discs of singles , including B @-@ sides , and one disc of interviews . The album charted at number 24 on the UK Albums Chart .
All songs written by Noel Gallagher , except " Cum On Feel the Noize " by Noddy Holder and Jim Lea ; " Step Out " co @-@ written by Stevie Wonder , Henry Cosby and Sylvia Moy .
= = = 2014 reissue = = =
As part of a promotional campaign entitled " Chasing the Sun " , the album was re @-@ released on 29 September 2014 . The 3 @-@ disc deluxe edition includes remastered versions of the album and its associated b @-@ sides from the four UK singles . Bonus content includes 5 demo tracks , and live choices taken from the band 's iconic gigs at Earls Court , Knebworth Park and Maine Road .
= = Personnel = =
Oasis
Liam Gallagher – lead vocals , tambourine
Noel Gallagher – lead and acoustic guitar , vocals ( lead on " Don 't Look Back in Anger " and " Bonehead 's Bank Holiday " ) , bass guitar , piano , mellotron , e @-@ bow , production
Paul " Bonehead " Arthurs – rhythm and acoustic guitar , piano , mellotron , drunk vocals on " Bonehead 's Bank Holiday "
Paul McGuigan – bass guitar
Alan White – drums , percussion ( except on " Some Might Say " )
Tony McCarroll – drums on " Some Might Say "
Additional musician
Paul Weller – lead guitar and backing vocals on " Champagne Supernova " and harmonica on " Untitled " ( excerpt 1 and 2 ) .
Additional personnel
Owen Morris – production
Neil Dorfsman – multichannel mixing ( SACD version )
David Swope – assistant mixing ( SACD version )
Barry Grint – original audio mastering at Abbey Road Studios ( now at Alchemy Soho )
Vlado Meller – mastering ( SACD version )
Michael Spencer Jones – photography
Brian Cannon – artwork , design
Mathew Sankey – assistant design
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= I Need to Know ( Marc Anthony song ) =
" I Need to Know " is a song recorded by American recording artist Marc Anthony for his eponymous fourth studio album . It was released as the lead single from the album on August 15 , 1999 . Written and produced by Anthony and Cory Rooney , " I Need to Know " is a song about a man who longs to know how a woman feels about him . The song blends the musical styles of several genres , including R & B and Latin music ; the instruments used include violin , piano , timbales and congas . Anthony recorded a Spanish @-@ language version of the song , translated by Angie Chirino and Robert Blades , titled " Dímelo " .
Upon its release , " I Need to Know " received mostly positive reviews from music critics and was praised for its production and choice of musical styles . It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance in 2000 . The Spanish @-@ language version of the song won the Latin Grammy Award for Song of the Year in the same year . Both versions of the song won an American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers award in the pop category . Commercially , the song charted in the top five in Canada and the United States . It was certified gold in Australia and the U.S. " Dímelo " peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the U.S. The music video for the song , directed by Paula Walker , was filmed in Los Angeles .
In 2007 , American Idol runner @-@ up contestant Blake Lewis performed a cover of " I Need to Know " as part of the Latin round during the show 's sixth season . His performance was praised by the judges ; Simon Cowell called it the best presentation of the night . However , Lewis 's performance received a mixed response from critics ; some praised the choice of song while some criticized Lewis 's vocal delivery . Lewis recorded the song for his eponymous EP , which peaked at number 16 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles .
= = Background = =
News that Marc Anthony was recording an English @-@ language album began in 1996 when RMM executive Ralph Mercado mentioned the possibility following a joint @-@ venture between RMM ( Anthony 's former record label ) and MCA Records . Anthony said that he would not record in English until he felt he was ready to do so . After the release of his third studio album Contra la Corriente in 1997 , disputes over business practices arose between him and Mercado . Anthony suspected that he was not receiving full payment from his record label for his recordings . Mercado would not allow Anthony to leave the record label because his contract committed Anthony to record four more albums for RMM .
Columbia Records executive Tommy Mottola had approached Anthony to sign a contract with the company to record an album in English during the peak period of Latin artists crossing over the Anglophone market . Nonetheless , his contract with RMM denied Anthony the right to perform in Spanish for Colombia Records . This resulted in a lawsuit against Mercado because Anthony did not want to work under him anymore . As part of the settlement , RMM Records retained the rights to his earlier albums and to release a greatest hits collection from them while Anthony no longer had any obligations to RMM .
After being signed to Columbia Records , Mottola hired Cory Rooney , Rodney Jenkins , and Walter Afanasieff to produce Anthony 's next album . Anthony co @-@ wrote most of tracks on it with them . He described it as his most personal album to date and rebuffed the idea of being another Latin artist to cross over to the Anglophone market because he had already recorded an English @-@ language album titled When the Night is Over ( 1991 ) . " I Need to Know " was released on August 15 , 1999 , as the album 's lead single .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" I Need to Know " was written and produced by Anthony and Rooney . The song is about a man who longs for a woman 's attention and wants know how she feels about him . The song opens with a synthesized violin and piano riff , which is immediately followed by a mid @-@ tempo beat . It fuses the sound of contemporary R & B and incorporates Latin percussion instruments the timbales , congas , and the trumpet . " I Need to Know " was translated into Spanish by Angie Chirino and Robert Blades ; Anthony recorded it and titled it " Dímelo " .
= = Critical reception = =
In his review of the album Marc Anthony , Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic called " I Need to Know " a " catchy , mid @-@ tempo single " and said that the music was " gently danceable " . Chuck Taylor of Billboard magazine praised the track as " [ a ] bsolutely smashing " , commended the production and musical style of the record and said that Anthony " remains true to his salsa roots with a sexy , swaying cha @-@ cha number " . Barry Walters from Entertainment Weekly gave the song a B + rating , and said the music " flaunts — rather than disguises — its mambo moves " and called it " radical pop waiting to happen . " While reviewing songs that were nominated for Record of the Year at the 1st Annual Latin Grammy Awards , an editor for the Los Angeles Times said the track " is the aural scrapbook of an American artist with Latino roots who found the ideal middle ground to satisfy both Anglo and Latino fans " . Parry Gettelman of the Orlando Sentinel was more critical of the song , describing it as " hooky but disposable " , and he criticized the chorus as " so over @-@ produced " . Although Gettelman was more favorable towards " Dímelo " , he said the drums in the production are " still annoying as all get @-@ out " .
In 2000 , " I Need to Know " was nominated Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards , but lost to English musician Sting 's song " Brand New Day " . In the same year , " Dímelo " received two nominations at the inaugural Latin Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Best Male Pop Vocal Performance and won the award for Song of the Year . At the 12th Lo Nuestro Awards in 2000 , " Dímelo " was nominated in the category for Pop Song of the Year , but lost to " Livin ' la Vida Loca " by Ricky Martin . Anthony and Rooney received an American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) Pop Award for the commercial success of the song in 2001 and 2002 . " Dímelo " was also awarded in the Pop field at the 2001 ASCAP Latin Awards .
" I Need To Know " was included on the compilation albums NOW : That 's What I Call Music Vol . 4 and Grammy Nominees 2000 . Likewise , " Dímelo " was included on the compilation album 2000 Latin Grammy Nominees and featured on Anthony 's greatest hits album Sigo Siendo Yo : Grand
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es Exitos ( 2006 ) .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , the song debuted at number 77 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on the week of September 11 , 1999 . In its fourth week on the chart , it rose to number 10 . It peaked at number three on the week of November 27 , 1999 , and remained in that position for two weeks . It also peaked at number 21 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary , number seven on the Adult Pop Songs , number 12 on the Hot Dance Club Songs , and number five on the Pop Songs charts . " I Need to Know " ranked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 year @-@ end charts in 2000 . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America .
" Dímelo " became a success on the Latin record charts in the United States , where it peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart — making it Anthony 's third number one song on the chart . " Dímelo " also reached number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Tropical Songs charts . It was the eighth best @-@ performing Latin single of 2000 in the United States .
In Canada , " I Need to Know " peaked at number five on the RPM magazine chart and at number 11 on the Adult Contemporary chart . In Europe , the song performed moderately well and peaked at number eight in Finland and at number 11 in Norway . In Austria and Switzerland it peaked at number 16 . In Oceania , it peaked at number 20 in Australia and in New Zealand . It was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association .
= = Promotion = =
Marc Anthony first performed " I Need to Know " live on Good Morning America on July 23 , 1999 . He also performed the song — together with " That 's Okay " — on Saturday Night Live . He also sang it at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards show ; Tom Moon , editor of The Philadelphia Inquirer , called his performance a " sedate reading " . In 2009 , Anthony performed " I need to Know " during the " Fiesta Latina " event at the South Lawn in Washington , D.C. Chris Richards of The Washington Post said that the audience , which was " flat @-@ footed " during Anthony 's previous performances , " was now on its feet " . Anthony performed both " I Need to Know " and " Dímelo " on the promotion tour for the album , with the latter song serving as an encore . He performed the song at Madison Square Garden as an encore ; this performance was included on the video set The Concert from Madison Square Garden . The song was included on set lists for his Marc Anthony 2002 Tour , Nada Personal Tour , El Cantante Tour , Iconos World Tour , and the Vivir Mi Vida World Tour . " Dímelo " served as the main theme for the Colombian telenovela La Baby Sister .
The accompanying music video for " I Need to Know " was directed by Paula Walker and was filmed in Los Angeles , California . In the video , Anthony is seen performing the song along with five female dancers in front of an audience at a crowded club . Scenes of him performing the song next to a window and under a staircase to his love interest are interspersed throughout the video .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Marc Anthony liner notes .
= = Blake Lewis version = =
On the sixth season of American Idol , Blake Lewis performed a cover of " I Need to Know " on April 10 , 2007 , as part of the program 's Latin @-@ themed round . Anthony 's then @-@ wife Jennifer Lopez was the guest mentor for the contestants . Lewis 's cover of the song was well received by the judges — Paula Abdul , Simon Cowell , and Randy Jackson . However , it received mixed reactions from critics . Joey Guerra of Today called Lewis 's choice wise and said Blake " seems like an actual artist " . Craig Berman from Houston Chronicle wrote a positive review ; he said that the risks Lewis took with his vocals " paid off with the best effort of the night " . Michael Slezak of Entertainment Weekly questioned Cowell 's comment that Lewis 's was the best performance of the night . Slezak wrote that Anthony 's cover sounded almost exactly the same as Anthony 's original recording . Ann Powers from the Los Angeles Times said that Lewis " perspired and wiggled creepily " in contrast to Anthony 's confident performances . Jim Cantiello of MTV wrote that Lewis " finishes each line with an affected orgasmic sigh " and that his performance was " icky " .
The studio version of the song was later included on Lewis 's eponymous debut EP as part of the American Idol compilation series . His version peaked at number 19 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart .
= Traffic ( 2000 film ) =
Traffic is a 2000 American crime drama film directed by Steven Soderbergh and written by Stephen Gaghan . It explores the illegal drug trade from a number of perspectives : a user , an enforcer , a politician and a trafficker . Their stories are edited together throughout the film , although some of the characters do not meet each other . The film is an adaptation of the British Channel 4 television series Traffik .
20th Century Fox , the original financiers of the film , demanded Harrison Ford play a leading role and that significant changes to the screenplay be made . Soderbergh refused and proposed the script to other major Hollywood studios , but it was rejected because of the three @-@ hour running time and the subject matter — Traffic is more of a political film than most Hollywood productions . USA Films , however , liked the project from the start and offered the film @-@ makers more money than Fox . Soderbergh operated the camera himself and adopted a distinctive cinematography tint for each story so that audiences could tell them apart .
Traffic was critically acclaimed and earned numerous awards , including four Oscars : Best Director for Steven Soderbergh , Best Supporting Actor for Benicio del Toro , Best Adapted Screenplay for Stephen Gaghan and Best Film Editing for Stephen Mirrione . It was also a commercial success with a worldwide box @-@ office revenue total of $ 207 @.@ 5 million , well above its estimated $ 46 million budget .
In 2004 , USA Network ran a miniseries — also called Traffic — based on the American film and the earlier British television series .
= = Plot = =
= = = Mexico storyline = = =
In Mexico , police officer Javier Rodriguez ( del Toro ) and his partner Manolo Sanchez ( Vargas ) stop a drug transport and arrest the couriers . Their arrest is interrupted by General Salazar ( Milian ) , a high @-@ ranking Mexican official who decides to hire Javier . Salazar instructs him to apprehend Francisco Flores ( Collins ) , a hitman for the Tijuana Cartel , headed by the Obregón brothers .
Back in Tijuana , Flores , under torture , gives Salazar the names of important members of the Obregón cartel , who are arrested . Javier and Salazar 's efforts begin to cripple the Obregón brothers ' cocaine outfit , but Javier soon discovers Salazar is a pawn for the Juárez Cartel , the rival of the Obregón brothers . That entire portion of the Mexican anti @-@ drug campaign is a fraud , as Salazar is wiping out one cartel because he has aligned with another for profit .
Javier 's partner Sanchez attempts to sell the information of Salazar 's true affiliation to the DEA but is killed for his betrayal . Javier , who can no longer stomach working for Salazar , decides to make a deal with the DEA . In exchange for his testimony , Javier requests electricity in his neighborhood so the kids can play baseball at night rather than be tempted by street gangs and crime . Salazar 's secrets are revealed to the public and he is arrested and is seen suffering probable torture in prison .
Javier explains to the media about the widespread corruption in the police force and army . In Mexico , Javier watches as children play baseball at night in their new stadium .
= = = Wakefield storyline = = =
Meanwhile , Robert Wakefield ( Douglas ) , a conservative Ohio judge , is appointed to head the President 's Office of National Drug Control Policy , taking on the title drug czar . Robert is warned by his predecessor ( Brolin ) and several influential politicians that the War on Drugs is unwinnable . Robert 's daughter , Caroline ( Christensen ) , an honors student , has been using cocaine , methamphetamine and heroin which quickly develops into a drug addiction after her boyfriend Seth ( Grace ) introduces her to free @-@ base . Caroline , Seth and Vanessa are all arrested when a fellow student overdoses on drugs and they try to dump him anonymously at a hospital . As Robert and his wife Barbara ( Irving ) struggle to deal with the problem , he discovers that she has known about their daughter 's involvement with drugs for over six months .
Robert realizes his daughter Caroline is a drug addict and is caught between his demanding new position and difficult family life . On a visit to Mexico , he is encouraged by the successful efforts of Salazar in hurting the Obregón brothers . When he returns to Ohio , Robert learns his efforts to see Caroline rehabilitated have failed . She ran away to the city of Cincinnati , where no one knows her location . She steals from her parents to procure money for drugs .
Robert drags Seth along as he begins to search Cincinnati for his daughter . After a drug dealer who is prostituting Caroline refuses to reveal her whereabouts , Robert breaks into a seedy hotel room and finds a semi @-@ conscious Caroline in the company of an older man . He breaks down in tears as Seth quietly leaves . Robert returns to Washington , D.C. , to give his prepared speech on a " 10 @-@ point plan " to win the war on drugs . In the middle of the speech , he falters as he realizes how futile this all is , then tells the press that the War on Drugs implies a war even on some people 's own family members , which he cannot endorse . He then walks out of the press conference and takes a taxi to the airport . Robert and Barbara go to Narcotics Anonymous meetings with their daughter to support her and others .
= = = Ayala / DEA storyline = = =
A third story is set in San Diego , where an undercover DEA investigation led by Montel Gordon ( Cheadle ) and Ray Castro ( Guzmán ) leads to the arrest of Eduardo Ruiz ( Ferrer ) , a high @-@ stakes dealer posing as a fisherman . Ruiz decides to take the dangerous road to immunity by giving up his boss : drug lord Carl Ayala ( Bauer ) , the biggest distributor for the Obregón brothers in the United States . Ayala is indicted by a tough prosecutor , hand @-@ selected by Robert to send a message to the Mexican drug organizations .
As the trial against Carl Ayala begins , his pregnant wife Helena ( Zeta @-@ Jones ) learns of her husband 's true profession from his associate , Arnie Metzger ( Quaid ) . Facing the prospect of life imprisonment for her husband and death threats against her only child , Helena decides to hire Flores to assassinate Eduardo Ruiz ; she knows killing Ruiz will effectively end the trial nolle prosequi . Flores plants a car bomb on a DEA car in an assassination attempt against Ruiz . Shortly after planting the bomb , Flores is assassinated by a sniper in retaliation for his co @-@ operation with General Salazar ; the car bomb kills Castro , but Gordon and Ruiz survive .
Helena , knowing Ruiz is soon scheduled to testify , makes a deal with Juan Obregón ( Bratt ) , lord of the drug cartel , who forgives the debt of the Ayala family and has Ruiz poisoned . Ayala is released , much to the dissatisfaction of Gordon , who is still angry over the death of his partner . During a phone conversation between Ayala and Metzger , Carl has deduced that the person who originally informed on Ruiz was Metzger himself . Evidently in a bid for power with another drug cartel in Mexico , Metzger took $ 3 Million to inform on Ruiz to the FBI , and facilitate the downfall of the Ayala organization . Ayala said that Metzger was planning on taking over Ayala 's empire completely . As Ayala hangs up the phone , Metzger looks up to see two hit men entering his office . Soon after the release , Gordon bursts into the Ayala home during a celebration for Carl and surreptitiously plants a listening bug under his desk , all while struggling with the bodyguards .
= = Relationship to actual events = =
Some aspects of the plotline are based on actual people and events . The character General Arturo Salazar is closely modeled after Mexican General Jesús Gutiérrez Rebollo , who was secretly on the payroll of Amado Carrillo Fuentes , head of the Juarez Cartel . The character Porfirio Madrigal is modeled after Fuentes . The Obregón brothers are modeled after the Arellano Félix brothers . At one point in the film , an El Paso Intelligence Center agent tells Robert his position , official in charge of drug control , doesn 't exist in Mexico . As noted in the original script , a Director of the Instituto Nacional para el Combate a las Drogas was created by the Attorney General in 1996 .
= = Cast = =
= = Development = =
Steven Soderbergh had been interested in making a film about the drug wars for some time but did not want to make one about addicts . Producer Laura Bickford obtained the rights to the United Kingdom mini @-@ series Traffik and liked its structure . Soderbergh , who had seen the mini @-@ series in 1990 , started looking for a screenwriter to adapt it into a film . They read a script by Stephen Gaghan called Havoc about upper @-@ class white kids in Palisades High School doing drugs and getting involved with gangs . Soderbergh approached Gaghan to work on his film , but found he was already working for producer / director Edward Zwick . Bickford and Soderbergh approached Zwick , who agreed to merge the two projects and come aboard as a producer .
Traffic was originally going to be distributed by 20th Century Fox , but it was put into turnaround unless actor Harrison Ford agreed to star . Soderbergh began shopping the film to other studios , but when Ford suddenly showed interest in Traffic , Fox 's interest in the film was renewed and the studio took it out of turnaround . Fox CEO Bill Mechanic championed the film , but he departed from the studio by the time the first draft was finished . It went back into turnaround . Mechanic had also wanted to make some changes to the script , but Soderbergh disagreed and decided to shop the film to other major studios . They all turned him down because they were not confident in the prospects of a three @-@ hour film about drugs , according to Gaghan . USA Films , however , had wanted to take on the movie from the first time Soderbergh approached them . They provided the filmmakers with a $ 46 million budget , a considerable increase from the $ 25 million which Fox offered .
= = = Screenplay = = =
Soderbergh had " conceptual discussions " with Gaghan while he was shooting The Limey in October 1998 , and they finished the outline before he went off to shoot Erin Brockovich . After Soderbergh was finished with that film , Gaghan had written a first draft in six weeks that was 165 pages long . After the film was approved for production , Soderbergh and Gaghan met two separate times for three days to reformat the script . The draft they shot with had 163 pages with 135 speaking parts and featured seven cities . The film shortens the storyline of the original mini @-@ series ; a major character arc , that of a farmer , is taken out , and the Pakistani plotline is replaced with one set in Mexico .
= = = Casting = = =
Harrison Ford was initially considered for the role of Robert Wakefield in January 2000 , but would have had to take a significant cut in his usual $ 20 million salary . Ford met with Soderbergh to flesh out the character . Gaghan agreed to rework the role , adding several scenes that ended up in the finished film . On February 20 , Ford turned down the role and the filmmakers brought it back to Michael Douglas , who had turned down an earlier draft . He liked the changes made and agreed to star , which helped greenlight the project . Gaghan believes Ford turned down the role because he wanted to " reconnect with his action fans . "
The filmmakers sent out letters to many politicians , both Democrat and Republican , asking them to make cameo appearances in the film . Several of the scenes had already been shot using actors in these roles , but the filmmakers went back and re @-@ shot those scenes when real politicians agreed to be in the film . Those who agreed , including U.S. Senators Harry Reid , Barbara Boxer , Orrin Hatch , Charles Grassley , and Don Nickles , and Massachusetts governor Bill Weld , were filmed in a scene that was entirely improvised .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
The project was obtained from Fox by Initial Entertainment Group , and was sold to USA Films by IEG for North American rights only . Stephen Soderbergh never approached USA Films , and the film was fully funded by Initial Entertainment Group .
After Fox dropped the film in early 2000 and before USA Films expressed interest soon after , Soderbergh paid for pre @-@ production with his own money . USA Films agreed to give him final cut on Traffic and also agreed to his term that all the Mexican characters would speak Spanish while talking to each other . This meant that almost all of Benicio del Toro 's dialogue would be subtitled . Once the studio realized this , they suggested that his scenes be shot in both English and Spanish , but Soderbergh and del Toro rejected the suggestion . Del Toro , a native of Puerto Rico , was worried that another actor would be brought in and re @-@ record his dialogue in English after he had worked hard to master Mexican inflections and improve his Spanish vocabulary . Del Toro remembers , " Can you imagine ? You do the whole movie , bust your butt to get it as realistic as possible , and someone dubs your voice ? I said , ' No way . Over my dead body . ' Steven was like , ' Don 't worry . It 's not gonna happen . ' " The director fought for subtitles for the Mexico scenes , arguing that if the characters did not speak Spanish , the film would have no integrity and would not convincingly portray what he described as the " impenetrability of another culture " .
The filmmakers went to the Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) and U.S. Customs early on with the script and told them that they were trying to present as detailed and accurate a picture of the current drug war as possible . The DEA and Customs pointed out inaccuracies in the script . In addition , they gave the production team access to the border checkpoint to Mexico , as shown in the film during the scene in which Wakefield and his people talk with border officials . Despite the assistance , the DEA did not try to influence the content of the script . Soderbergh said Traffic had influences from the films of Richard Lester and Jean @-@ Luc Godard . He also spent time analyzing The Battle of Algiers and Z , which , according to the director , had the feeling that the footage was " caught " and not staged . Another inspiration was Alan J. Pakula 's film All the President 's Men because of its ability to tackle serious issues while being entertaining . In the opening credits of his film , Soderbergh tried to replicate the typeface from All the President 's Men and the placement on @-@ screen at the bottom left @-@ hand corner . Analyzing this film helped the director deal with the large cast and working in many different locations for Traffic .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Half of the first day 's footage came out overexposed and unusable . Before the financiers or studio bosses knew about the problem , Soderbergh was already doing reshoots . The insurers made him agree that any further mishaps resulting in additional filming would come out of the director 's own pocket . Soderbergh shot in various cities in California , Ohio and Texas , on a 54 @-@ day schedule and came in $ 2 million under budget . The director operated the camera himself in an effort to " get as close to the movie as I can , " and to eliminate the distance between the actors and himself . Soderbergh drew inspiration from the cinema verite style of Ken Loach 's films , studying the framing of scenes , the distance of the camera to the actors , lens length , and the tightness of eyelines depending on the position of a character . Soderbergh remembers , " I noticed that there 's a space that 's inviolate , that if you get within something , you cross the edge into a more theatrical aesthetic as opposed to a documentary aesthetic " . Most of the day was spent shooting because a lot of the film was shot with available light .
For the hand @-@ held camera footage , Soderbergh used Panavision Millennium XLs that were smaller and lighter than previous cameras and allowed him to move freely . In order to tell the three stories apart , he adopted a distinctive look for each . For Robert Wakefield 's story , Soderbergh used tungsten film with no filter for a cold , monochrome blue feel . For Helena Ayala 's story , Soderbergh used diffusion filters , flashing the film , overexposing it for a warmer feel . For Javier Rodriguez 's story , the director used tobacco filters and a 45 @-@ degree shutter angle whenever possible to produce a strobe @-@ like sharp feel . Then , he took the entire film through an Ektachrome step , which increased the contrast and grain significantly . He wanted to have different looks for each story because the audience had to keep track of many characters and absorb a lot of information and he did not want them to have to figure out which story they were watching .
Benicio del Toro had significant input into certain parts of the film ; for example , he suggested a simpler , more concise way of depicting his character kidnapping Francisco Flores that Soderbergh ended up using . The director cut a scene in which Robert Wakefield smokes crack after finding it in his daughter 's bedroom . After rehearsing said scene with the actors , he felt that the character would not do it ; after consulting with Gaghan , the screenwriter agreed and the filmmakers cut the scene shortly before it was scheduled to be shot .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
The first cut of Traffic ran three hours and ten minutes . Soderbergh cut it down to two hours and twenty minutes . Early on , there were concerns that the film might get an NC @-@ 17 rating and he was prepared to release it with that rating , but the MPAA gave it an R.
= = Release = =
= = = Box office performance = = =
Traffic was given a limited release on December 27 , 2000 in four theaters where it grossed USD $ 184 @,@ 725 on its opening weekend . It was given a wide release on January 5 , 2001 in 1 @,@ 510 theaters where it grossed $ 15 @.@ 5 million on its opening weekend . The film made $ 124 @.@ 1 million in North America and $ 83 @.@ 4 million in foreign markets for a worldwide total of $ 207 @.@ 5 million , well above its estimated $ 48 million budget .
= = = Critical response = = =
Rotten Tomatoes reported that 92 % of critics gave the film positive write @-@ ups , based on a sample of 154 , with an average score of 8 / 10 , with del Toro receiving widespread acclaim , and the consensus being " Soderbergh successfully pulls off the highly ambitious Traffic , a movie with three different stories and a very large cast . The issues of ethics are gray rather than black @-@ and @-@ white , with no clear @-@ cut good guys . Terrific acting all around . " At Metacritic the film has received an average score of 86 , based on 34 reviews . Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film four out of four stars and wrote , " The movie is powerful precisely because it doesn 't preach . It is so restrained that at one moment — the judge 's final speech — I wanted one more sentence , making a point , but the movie lets us supply that thought for ourselves " . Stephen Holden , in his review for The New York Times , wrote , " Traffic is an utterly gripping , edge @-@ of @-@ your @-@ seat thriller . Or rather it is several interwoven thrillers , each with its own tense rhythm and explosive payoff " . In his review for The New York Observer , Andrew Sarris wrote , " Traffic marks [ Soderbergh ] definitively as an enormous talent , one who never lets us guess what he 's going to do next . The promise of Sex , Lies , and Videotape has been fulfilled " .
Entertainment Weekly gave the film an " A " rating and praised Benicio del Toro 's performance , which critic Owen Gleiberman called , " haunting in his understatement , [ it ] becomes the film 's quietly awakening moral center " . Desson Howe , in his review for the Washington Post , wrote , " Soderbergh and screenwriter Stephen Gaghan , who based this on a British television miniseries of the same name , have created an often exhilarating , soup @-@ to @-@ nuts exposé of the world 's most lucrative trade " . In his review for Rolling Stone , Peter Travers wrote , " The hand @-@ held camerawork – Soderbergh himself did the holding — provides a documentary feel that rivets attention " . However , Richard Schickel , in his review for Time , wrote , " there is a possibly predictable downside to this multiplicity of story lines : they keep interrupting one another . Just as you get interested in one , Stephen Gaghan 's script , inspired by a British mini @-@ series , jerks you away to another " .
= = = Top ten lists = = =
Traffic appeared on several critics ' top ten lists for 2000 . Some of the notable top @-@ ten list appearances are :
2nd : A. O. Scott , The New York Times
2nd : Jami Bernard , New York Daily News
2nd : Bruce Kirkland , The Toronto Sun
3rd : Stephen Holden , The New York Times
3rd : Owen Gleiberman , Entertainment Weekly
3rd : Peter Travers , Rolling Stone
4th : Roger Ebert , Chicago Sun @-@ Times
4th : Jack Mathews , New York Daily News
= = = Accolades = = =
The film won Academy Awards in the categories Best Director ( Soderbergh ) , Best Supporting Actor ( Benicio del Toro ) , Best Film Editing ( Mirrione ) , and Best Adapted Screenplay ( Gaghan ) . It was also nominated for Best Picture , alongside another Soderbergh film , Erin Brockovich , but lost to Gladiator . Traffic was nominated for five Golden Globe Awards including Best Motion Picture – Drama , Soderbergh for Best Director , del Toro for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture , Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture , and Stephen Gaghan for Best Screenplay . Both del Toro and Gaghan won in their respective categories . In addition , del Toro won Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role . He went on to win BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role along with Gaghan , who won for Best Adapted Screenplay .
New York Film Critics Circle named Traffic as the Best Film , Soderbergh as Best Director , and del Toro as Best Supporting Actor . Los Angeles Film Critics Association awarded Soderbergh Best Director . Members of the Toronto Film Critics Association voted Soderbergh as Best Director and del Toro as Best Actor . National Society of Film Critics also voted Soderbergh and del Toro as Best Director and Best Supporting Actor , respectively .
= History of Minneapolis =
Minneapolis is the largest city by population in the U.S. state of Minnesota , and the county seat of Hennepin County . The origin and growth of the city was spurred by the proximity of Fort Snelling , the first major United States military presence in the area , and by its location on Saint Anthony Falls , which provided power for sawmills and flour mills .
Fort Snelling was established in 1819 , at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers , and soldiers began using the falls for waterpower . When land became available for settlement , two towns were founded on either side of the falls : Saint Anthony , on the east side , and Minneapolis , on the west side . The two towns later merged into one city in 1872 . Early development focused on sawmills , but flour mills eventually became the dominant industry . This industrial development fueled the development of railroads and banks , as well as the foundation of the Minneapolis Grain Exchange . Through innovations in milling techniques , Minneapolis became a world @-@ leading center of flour production , earning the name " Mill City " . As the city grew , the culture developed through its churches , arts institutions , the University of Minnesota , and a famous park system designed by Theodore Wirth .
Although the sawmills and the flour mills are long gone , Minneapolis remains a regional center in banking and industry . The two largest milling companies , General Mills and the Pillsbury Company , now merged under the General Mills name , still remain prominent in the Twin Cities area . The city has rediscovered the riverfront , which now hosts parkland , the Mill City Museum , and the Guthrie Theater .
= = Early European exploration = =
Minneapolis grew up around Saint Anthony Falls , the only waterfall on the Mississippi River and the end of the commercially navigable section of the river until locks were installed in the 1960s .
French explorer Daniel Greysolon , Sieur du Lhut explored the Minnesota area in 1680 on a mission to extend French dominance over the area . While exploring the St. Croix River area , he got word that some other explorers had been held captive . He arranged for their release . The prisoners included Michel Aco , Antoine Auguelle , and Father Louis Hennepin , a Catholic priest and missionary . On that expedition , Father Hennepin explored the falls and named them after his patron saint , Anthony of Padua . He published a book in 1683 entitled Description of Louisiana , describing the area to interested Europeans . As time went on , he developed a tendency to exaggerate . A 1691 edition of the book described the falls as having a drop of fifty or sixty feet , when they only had a drop of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 8 m ) . Hennepin may have been including nearby rapids in his estimate , as the current total drop in river level over the series of dams is 76 ft ( 23 m ) .
The city 's land was acquired by the United States in a series of treaties and purchases negotiated with the Mdewakanton band of the Dakota and separately with European nations . England claimed the land east of the Mississippi and France , then Spain , and again France claimed the land west of the river . In 1787 land on the east side of the river became part of the Northwest Territory and in 1803 the west side became part of the Louisiana Purchase , both claimed by the United States . In 1805 , Zebulon Pike purchased two tracts of land from the Dakota Indians . One tract was located at the mouth of the St. Croix
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River , while a second , larger tract ran from the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers to St. Anthony Falls , with a width of nine miles ( 14 km ) east and west of the river . In return , he distributed about $ 200 in trading goods and sixty gallons of liquor , and promised a further payment from the United States government . The United States Senate eventually approved a payment of $ 2 @,@ 000 .
= = Fort Snelling and St. Anthony Falls = =
Fort Snelling was established in 1819 to extend United States jurisdiction over the area and to allay concerns about British fur traders in the area . The soldiers initially camped at a site on the south side of the Minnesota River , but conditions were hard there and nearly a fifth of the soldiers died of scurvy in the winter of 1819 – 1820 . They later moved their camp to Camp Coldwater in May 1820 . Much of the military 's activity was conducted there while the fort was built . Camp Coldwater , the site of a cold , clear , flowing spring , was also considered sacred by the native Dakota .
The soldiers needed to supply the fort , so they built roads and planted vegetables , wheat , and hay , and raised cattle . They also made the first weather recordings in the area . A lumber mill and a grist mill were built on the falls in 1822 to supply the fort .
A settlement on the east bank of the Mississippi near St. Anthony Falls was envisioned in the 1830s by Joseph Plympton , who became commander of Fort Snelling in 1837 . He made a more accurate survey of the reservation lands and transmitted a map to the War Department delimiting about 34 @,@ 000 acres ( 140 km ² ) within the reservation . He cleverly drew the boundary line to exclude certain parts of the east bank that had been part of the 1805 cession to Zebulon Pike . His plan was to stake a pre @-@ emption claim at the falls . However , Franklin Steele also had plans to stake a claim . On July 15 , 1838 , word reached Fort Snelling that a treaty between the United States and the Dakota and Ojibwa had been ratified , ceding land between the St. Croix River and the Mississippi Rivers . Steele rushed off to the falls , built a shanty , and marked off boundary lines . Plympton 's party arrived the next morning , but they were too late to claim the most desirable land . Plympton claimed some less desirable land near Steele 's claim , as did other settlers such as Pierre Bottineau , Joseph Rondo , Samuel Findley , and Baptiste Turpin . Steele went on to build a dam at the falls and built a sawmill that cut logs from the Rum River area .
The Dakota were hunters and gatherers and soon found themselves in debt to fur traders . Pressed by a whooping cough outbreak , loss of buffalo , deer , and bear , and loss of forests to logging , in 1851 in the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux , the Mdewakanton sold the remaining land west of the river , allowing settlement in 1852 .
Franklin Steele also had a clever plan to obtain land on the west side of the falls . He suggested to his associated Colonel John H. Stevens that he should bargain with the War Department to obtain some land . Stevens agreed to operate a ferry service across the Mississippi in exchange for a claim of 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 6 km2 ) just above the government mills . The government approved this bargain , and Stevens built his house in the winter of 1849 – 1850 . The house was the first permanent dwelling on the west bank in the area that became Minneapolis . A few years later , the amount of land controlled by the fort was reduced with an order from U.S. President Millard Fillmore , and rapid settlement followed . The village of Minneapolis soon sprung up on the southwest bank of the river .
= = City pioneers = =
= = = St. Anthony = = =
After Franklin Steele obtained proper title to his land , he turned his energies to building a sawmill at St. Anthony Falls . He obtained financing and built a dam on the east channel of the river between Hennepin Island and Nicollet Island , along with a sawmill equipped with two up @-@ and @-@ down saws . His partner Daniel Stanchfield , a lumberman who had moved to Minnesota , dispatched crews up the Mississippi River to begin cutting lumber . The sawmill began cutting lumber in September 1848 . In October 1848 , Steele enlisted Ard Godfrey to supervise the mill at a salary of $ 1500 per year . Steele platted a townsite in 1849 and gave it the name " St. Anthony " . The town quickly grew with workers . In addition to the first sawmill and several others that followed , a grist mill was built in 1851 . By 1855 , the town had approximately 3000 people , and it was incorporated as a city . Godfrey 's house , built in 1848 , was purchased by the Hennepin County Territorial Pioneers ' Association and moved to Chute Square . The house was surveyed in 1934 by the Historic American Buildings Survey .
= = = Minneapolis = = =
On the west side of the river , John H. Stevens platted a townsite in 1854 . He laid out Washington Avenue parallel to the river , with other streets running parallel to and perpendicular to Washington . He later questioned his decision , thinking he should have run the streets directly east @-@ west and north @-@ south , but it ended up aligning nicely with the plat of St. Anthony . The wide , straight streets , with Washington and Hennepin Avenue being 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide and the others being 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide , contrasted with Saint Paul 's streets that were 60 feet ( 18 m ) wide .
Early on the community tried several names , rejecting Albion , All Saints , Lowell , Brooklyn , Addiseville and Winona . The twenty four small lakes that are now within the city limits led Charles Hoag , Minneapolis 's first schoolmaster , to suggest Minnehapolis , derived from Minnehaha and mni , the Dakota word for water , and polis , the Greek word for city .
The Minnesota Territorial Legislature recognized Saint Anthony as a town in 1855 and Minneapolis in 1856 . Boundaries were changed and Minneapolis was incorporated as a city in 1867 . Minneapolis and Saint Anthony joined in 1872 . Minneapolis changed more than 100 road names in 1873 , including deduplication of names between it and the former Saint Anthony .
= = = Transportation = = =
The Hennepin Avenue Bridge , a suspension bridge that was the first bridge built over the full width of the Mississippi River , was built in 1854 and dedicated on January 23 , 1855 . The bridge had a span of 620 feet ( 189 m ) , a roadway of 17 feet ( 5 m ) , and was built at a cost of $ 36 @,@ 000 . The toll was five cents for pedestrians and twenty @-@ five cents for horsedrawn wagons .
The early settlers of Minnesota were anxiously seeking railroad transportation , but insufficient capital was available after the Panic of 1857 . Rails were finally built in Minnesota in 1862 , when the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad built its first ten miles ( 16 km ) of track from the Phalen Creek area in St. Paul to a stop just short of St. Anthony Falls . The railroad continued building track from Minneapolis to Elk River in 1864 and to St. Cloud in 1866 , and from Minneapolis west to Howard Lake in 1867 and Willmar in 1869 . Meanwhile , the Minnesota Central , an early predecessor of the Milwaukee Road , built a line from Minneapolis to Fort Snelling in 1865 . The railroad gradually extended to Faribault , Owatonna , and Austin . It crossed the Iowa border and met up with the McGregor & Western line . This connection gave Minneapolis rail service to Milwaukee via Prairie du Chien , Wisconsin , with through service beginning on October 14 , 1867 .
A streetcar system in the Minneapolis area took shape in 1875 , when the Minneapolis Street Railway company began service with horse @-@ drawn cars . Under the leadership of Thomas Lowry , the company merged with the St. Paul Railway Company and took the name Twin City Rapid Transit . By 1889 , when electrification began , the system had grown to 115 miles ( 185 km ) .
= = Business and industry = =
Most of the early industrial development in Minneapolis was tied to St. Anthony Falls and the power it provided . Between 1848 and 1887 , Minneapolis led the nation in sawmilling . In 1856 , the mills produced 12 million board feet ( 28 @,@ 000 m ³ ) of lumber . That total had risen to about 91 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 board feet ( 215 @,@ 000 m ³ ) in 1869 , and 960 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 board feet ( 2 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 m ³ ) in 1899 . During the peak of this activity , at least 13 sawmills were operating on the falls . The sawmills also supported related industries such as mills that planed and smoothed the lumber ; factories that built sashes , doors , and windows ; and manufacturers of shingles and wooden buckets .
The flour milling industry , dating back to the Fort Snelling government mill , later eclipsed the lumber industry in the value of its finished product . Flour production stood at 30 @,@ 000 barrels ( 4 @,@ 800 m3 ) in 1860 , rising to 256 @,@ 100 barrels ( 40 @,@ 720 m3 ) in 1869 . Cadwallader C. Washburn 's imposing mill , built in 1866 , was six stories high and promoted as the largest mill west of Buffalo , New York . Other prominent industries at the falls included foundries , machine shops , and textile mills .
During this time , St. Anthony , on the east side , was separate from Minneapolis , on the west side . As a result of inferior management of the water power , St. Anthony found its manufacturing district declining . Some people and organizations started to talk about merging the two cities . A citizens ' committee recommended merging the two cities in 1866 , but a vote on this issue was rejected in 1867 . Minneapolis incorporated as a city in 1867 . The two cities found themselves competing with St. Paul , which had a larger population , the head of navigation of the Mississippi River , and more access to railroads .
= = = Threatened collapse of St. Anthony Falls = = =
The two cities were later pushed toward merger by a disaster that nearly wiped out the falls . The geological formation of the area consisted of a hard , thin layer of limestone overlaying a soft sandstone formation . As the sandstone eroded away , large blocks of limestone would fall off . The expansion of milling and industry at the falls accelerated the process of erosion . If the fragile limestone cap ever eroded away completely , the falls would turn into a rapids that would no longer provide water power . This process came to a head on October 4 , 1869 , when a tunnel under Hennepin Island and Nicollet Island collapsed and filled with water . With the limestone cap breached , the tunnel quickly created a torrent of water that blasted Hennepin Island and threatened to destroy the falls . The falls were shored up quickly , and over the next several years , the falls were repaired by building a wooden apron , sealing the tunnel , and building low dams above the falls to avoid exposing the limestone to the weather . This work was assisted by the federal government , and was eventually completed in 1884 . The federal government spent $ 615 @,@ 000 on this effort , while the two cities spent $ 334 @,@ 500 . Possibly as a result of the bonding needed to rehabilitate the falls , the cities of St. Anthony and Minneapolis merged on April 9 , 1872 .
= = = Development of flour milling = = =
The St. Anthony Express newspaper predicted in 1855 that , " The time is not distant when Minnesota , with the superiority of her soil and seasons for wheat culture , and her unparalleled water power for manufacturing flour , will export largely of this article . ... our mills will turn out wheat , superior in quality and appearance to any now manufactured in the West . " By 1876 , eighteen flour mills had been built on the west side of the river below the falls . The first mills used traditional technology of millstones that would pulverize the grain and grind as much flour as possible in one pass . This system worked best for winter wheat , which was sown in the fall and resumed its growth in the spring . However , the harsh winter conditions of the upper Midwest did not lend themselves to the production of winter wheat , since the deep frosts and lack of snow cover killed the crop . Spring wheat , which could be sown in the spring and reaped in the summer , was a more dependable crop . However , conventional milling techniques did not produce a desirable product , since the harder husks of spring wheat kernels fractured between the grindstones . The gluten and starch in the flour could not be mixed completely , either , and the flour would turn rancid . Minneapolis milling companies solved this problem by inventing the middlings purifier , which made it possible to separate the husks from the flour earlier in the milling process . They also developed a gradual @-@ reduction process , where grain was pulverized between a series of rollers made of porcelain , iron , or steel . This process resulted in " patent " flour , which commanded almost double the price of " bakers " or " clear " flour , which it replaced . The Washburn mill attempted to monopolize these techniques , but Pillsbury and other companies lured employees away from Washburn and were able to duplicate the process .
Although the flour industry grew steadily , one major event caused a disturbance in the production of flour . On May 2 , 1878 , the Washburn " A " Mill exploded when grain dust ignited . The explosion killed eighteen workers and destroyed one @-@ third of the capacity of the milling district , as well as other nearby businesses and residences . By the end of the year , though , seventeen mills were back in operation , including the rebuilt Washburn " A " Mill and others that had been completely rebuilt . The millers also took the opportunity to rebuild with new technology such as dust collection systems . The largest mill on the east side of the river was the Pillsbury " A " Mill , built in 1880 – 1881 and designed by local architect LeRoy S. Buffington . The Pillsbury Company wanted a building that was beautiful as well as functional . The seven @-@ story building had stone walls six feet thick at the base tapering to eighteen inches at the top . With improvements and additions over the years , it became the world 's largest flour mill . The Pillsbury " A " Mill is now a National Historic Landmark , along with the Washburn " A " Mill .
In 1891 , Northwestern Consolidated Milling Company was formed , consolidating many of the smaller mills into one corporate entity . Between 1880 and 1930 , Minneapolis led the nation in flour production , earning it the nickname " Mill City " . Minneapolis surpassed Budapest as the world 's leading flour miller in 1884 , and production stood at about 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US dry barrels ( 810 @,@ 000 m3 ) annually in 1890 . In 1900 , Minneapolis mills were grinding 14 @.@ 1 percent of the nation 's grain , and in 1915 – 16 , flour production hit its peak at 20 @,@ 443 @,@ 000 US dry barrels ( 2 @,@ 363 @,@ 800 m3 ) annually .
= = = Hydroelectric power = = =
In 1882 , the first hydroelectric power plant in the United States was built at the falls on Upton Island . The Brush Electric Company , headed by Charles F. Brush , supplied the equipment , which included five generators . The electricity was transmitted via four circuits to shops on Washington Avenue . The power plant turned on the lights on September 5 , 1882 , just ahead of the Vulcan Street Plant in Appleton , Wisconsin , which started generating electricity on September 30 . The company competed with the Minneapolis Gas Light Company , which later became Minnegasco and is now part of CenterPoint Energy .
In 1895 , William de la Barre began building a dam at Meeker Island , 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 571 m ) downriver from the falls . His objective was to build a hydroelectric plant that would sell energy to Twin City Rapid Transit , which was then using steam power to generate electricity . The dam was completed on March 20 , 1897 . Later , in 1906 , he began construction of the Hennepin Island Hydroelectric Plant . The plant was leased to Minneapolis General Electric , which sublet the plant to Twin City Rapid Transit . Minneapolis General Electric later became Northern States Power Company , which is now known as Xcel Energy .
= = = Railroads = = =
The development of sawmills and flour mills at the falls spurred demand for railroad service to Minneapolis . In 1868 , Minneapolis was only served by a spur from St. Paul , from the Chicago , Milwaukee , St. Paul and Pacific Railroad , and by the fledgling St. Paul and Pacific Railroad . Minneapolis millers found that railroads based in Milwaukee and Chicago were favoring their cities by diverting wheat from Minneapolis mills . In response , the owners of several Minneapolis mills chartered the Minneapolis and St. Louis Railway , which would connect the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad through Minneapolis to the Iowa border . Meanwhile , Jay Cooke took control of the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad in 1871 with the goal of aggregating it into the Northern Pacific Railway . Bad economic conditions caused the Panic of 1873 , and the Northern Pacific had to relinquish control of the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad and the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad .
James J. Hill eventually reorganized the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad as the St. Paul , Minneapolis and Manitoba Railroad , which later became the Great Northern Railway . The Manitoba line had two lines leading to the Red River Valley , giving it access to wheat @-@ growing regions , and it served several mills in Minneapolis . The Manitoba 's small passenger station at Minneapolis had become inadequate , so Hill decided to build a new depot that he expected to share with other railroads . Since the Manitoba 's mainline ran on the east side of the Mississippi , a new bridge across the river was needed to reach the station . The result was the Stone Arch Bridge , completed in 1883 . The Minneapolis Union Depot was opened for passenger service on April 25 , 1885 .
Meanwhile , the Milwaukee Road expanded their presence in Minneapolis with a " Short Line " connection from St. Paul to Minneapolis in 1880 and through the acquisition of the Hastings and Dakota Railroad , which had a line going west from Minneapolis to Montevideo , Ortonville , and into Aberdeen , South Dakota . They also built a large railyard and shops on Hiawatha Avenue just north of Lake Street , and a large depot on Washington Avenue .
The Minneapolis , Sault Ste . Marie & Atlantic Railway got its start in 1883 , with a goal of serving Atlantic ports via Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan and bypassing Chicago altogether .
= = = Other businesses = = =
The Minneapolis Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1881 as a market to trade grain . It helped farmers by ensuring that they got the best prices possible for their wheat , oats , and corn , since the usual supply and demand curves were skewed by similar harvest times across the region . In 1883 , they introduced its first futures contract for hard red spring wheat . In 1947 , the organization was renamed the Minneapolis Grain Exchange , since the term " chamber of commerce " had become synonymous with
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's popularity beyond New York City . They appeared in Wild Style and Beat Street — 1980s films about hip @-@ hop culture — as well as in the movie Flashdance . They also performed at the Ritz , at the Kennedy Center , and on the Jerry Lewis Telethon . In 1981 , the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts hosted a breaking battle between Dynamic Rockers and Rock Steady Crew . The Daily News and National Geographic covered this event . In 1982 , their manager Ruza " Kool Lady " Blue organized the New York City Rap Tour , which featured Rock Steady Crew , Afrika Bambaataa , Cold Crush Brothers , the Double Dutch Girls , and Fab 5 Freddy . This tour traveled to England and France , which spread hip @-@ hop culture to these countries . In 1983 , they performed for Queen Elizabeth II at the Royal Variety Performance . The following year , they recorded a song titled " ( Hey You ) The Rock Steady Crew " , which was commercially released . RSC now has satellite crews based in Japan , the United Kingdom , and Italy .
= = = Capoeira debate = = =
Capoeira is an Afro @-@ Brazilian martial art , described by Pabon as " a form of self defense disguised as a dance . " Its influence on breaking is disputed and debated ; one side believes that breaking came from capoeira , while the other side denies this . Capoeira is hundreds of years older than breaking , and uprock is similar in purpose to capoeira in that both translate aggressive combat movements into stylized dance . Both breaking and capoeira are performed to music and , since both art forms are acrobatic , some moves look similar to each other . However , capoeira is more rule @-@ oriented . One rule in capoeira is that a capoeirista 's back can never touch the ground . In contrast , a breaker 's back is almost always on the ground , and the only rule in breaking is that you do not touch your opponent during a battle .
Jelon Vieira and Lorel Machado brought capoeira to the United States in the 1970s . Throughout this decade Vieira taught capoeira workshops in New York City and started a capoeira performance company called Dance Brazil that toured across the United States . In Gerard Taylor 's Capoeira : The Jogo de Angola from Luanda to Cyberspace ( 2005 ) , master capoeira teacher Mestre Acordeon is quoted as saying : " Demonstrations by Maestre Jelon [ Vieira ] and Leromil Machado are considered by many to be responsible for the incorporation of capoeira movements into breakdancing . " Former Village Voice reporter Sally Banes and her colleague , photographer Martha Cooper , witnessed breaking in 1980 while covering Henry Chalfant 's photography exhibit of subway graffiti . She wrote of the dance : " Its spatial level called to mind capoeira , the spectacular Brazilian dance cum martial art form that incorporates kartwheels , kicks , and feints low to the ground , but the two were dissimilar enough in shape and timing that capoeira seemed at most only a distant relative , and certainly one the breakdancers weren 't acquainted with — at least on a conscious level . " In his book Hip Hop Had a Dream ( 2008 ) , Damien Morgan states : " Breakdancing can have its origins in capoeira , because it does not focus on injuring the opponent ; it rather emphasizes skill towards your opponent , to express yourself away from violence ... in most cases , it is blatantly obvious to see some of Breakdancing 's foundations in Capoeira . "
Several breaking practitioners and pioneers tend to side with the camp that does not believe breaking came from capoeira . B @-@ boy Crazy Legs states : " We didn 't know what the f @-@ ck no capoeira was , man . We were in the ghetto ! " According to Pabon , " Unlike the popularity of the martial arts films , capoeira was not seen in the Bronx jams until the 1990s . Top rockin ' seems to have developed gradually and unintentionally , leaving space for growth and new additions , until it evolved into a codified form . " B @-@ boy crew Spartanic Rockers adds : " Despite of [ sic ] many rumours and opinions Breaking didn 't originate from Capoeira but during the last few years many moves , steps and freezes of this Brazilian ( fight- ) dance have inspired more and more B @-@ Girls and B @-@ Boys who integrated them into their dance . " B @-@ boy Ken Swift was breaking long before he saw capoeria : " In ' 78 I started [ breaking ] and I didn 't see it [ capoeira ] til ' 92 ... I was around , too — I was in Brooklyn , Bronx , Queens , I went around and I didn 't see it . What we saw was Kung Fu — we saw Kung Fu from the 42nd Street theaters . So those were our inspirations ... when we did the Kung Fu sh @-@ t we switched it up and we put this B @-@ boy flavor into it ... "
= = Funk styles = =
While breaking was developing in New York , other styles of dance were developing in California . Unlike breaking , the funk styles — which originated in the 1970s in California — were not originally hip @-@ hop dance styles : they were danced to funk music rather than hip @-@ hop music , and they were not associated with the other cultural pillars of hip @-@ hop ( DJing , graffiti writing , and MCing ) . The funk styles are actually slightly older than breaking due to fact that boogaloo and locking were developed in the late 1960s .
= = = Locking and roboting = = =
Like breaking , the different moves within the funk styles occurred due to the formation of crews . Don " Campbellock " Campbell created locking , and in 1973 founded The Lockers ( originally called The Cambellock Dancers ) in Los Angeles . Locking is characterized by consistently freezing or " locking " in place while dancing . Campbell developed locking accidentally while pausing in between dance moves when trying to remember how to do the Funky Chicken . He developed routines based on his new style using these pauses or " locks " . Chang lists some of the other dance moves performed in locking , including " ... points , skeeters , scooby doos , stop ' n go , which @-@ away , and the fancies . "
The Lockers made several appearances on Soul Train — the song @-@ and @-@ dance television program featuring funk music , soul music , disco , R & B , and social dancing . They also appeared on The Carol Burnett Show , The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson , The Dick Van Dyke Show , and Saturday Night Live . Three original members of The Lockers were Toni Basil , who doubled as the group 's manager ; Charles " Charles Robot " Washington , a pioneer of roboting ; and Fred " Mr. Penguin " Berry , who played the character of Rerun on the television show What 's Happening ! ! . Berry left the group in 1976 to be on the show and was replaced by street dancer Tony " Go @-@ Go " Lewis . After The Lockers disbanded , Tony Go @-@ Go went on to open a locking school in Japan in 1985 .
Roboting comes from Richmond , California . Before joining The Lockers , Charles Robot had his own dance crew called The Robot Brothers . He was inspired in 1969 by a mime artist named Robert Shields , who would pantomime in front of the Hollywood Wax Museum where he worked . On October 27 , 1973 , The Jackson 5 performed " Dancing Machine " on Soul Train , which popularized roboting , but this was not the first time the dance had been performed on the show . Charles Robot had performed roboting on Soul Train two years earlier with his dance partner Angela Johnson .
= = = Boogaloo and popping = = =
The Electric Boogaloos are another funk styles crew founded in Fresno in 1977 by Sam " Boogaloo Sam " Solomon , Nate " Slide " Johnson , and Joe " Robot Joe " Thomas . Their name was originally The Electric Boogaloo Lockers , but they dropped " Lockers " the following year at the urging of their manager Jeff Kutash after the group moved from Fresno to Long Beach . Boogaloo Sam is widely credited with developing popping and boogaloo . However , there is disagreement as to whether he created the dances himself or borrowed moves from other street dancers . What is not contested is how influential he and his crew were in exposing popping and boogaloo to mainstream audiences .
Boogaloo is both a style of dance and a style of music . It started out as a fad dance , and several songs were released in the 1960s celebrating it including " Boogaloo Down Broadway " , " My Baby Likes to Boogaloo " , " Hey You ! Boo @-@ Ga @-@ Loo " , " Do the Boogaloo " , " Boogaloo # 3 " , and " Sock Boogaloo " . In response to this song @-@ and @-@ dance craze , Puerto Rican artists in New York City created a style of music called Bugalú ( or Latin boogaloo ) that combined mambo , soul , and R & B. Singer Joe Cuba was a pioneer of this style .
Although boogaloo was already a fad dance and a music genre in the 1960s , it did not become a dance style until Boogaloo Sam learned it , expanded it , and started performing it in public venues . He was influenced to expand boogaloo by cartoons ; the 1960s social dances the Twist , the Popcorn , and the Jerk ; and the movements of everyday people . As a dance style , it is characterized by rolling hip , knee , and head movements as if the body has no bones . Electric boogaloo is the signature dance style of The Electric Boogaloos . It is a combination of boogaloo and popping .
Popping is based on the technique of quickly contracting and relaxing muscles to cause a jerk in the dancer 's body , referred to as a pop or a hit . Popping is also an inadvertent umbrella term that includes several other illusory dance styles such as ticking , liquid , tutting , waving , gliding , twisto @-@ flex , and sliding . Most of these cannot be traced to a specific person or group and may have influences earlier than hip @-@ hop . Earl " Snake Hips " Tucker was a professional dancer in the 1920s who appeared in the film Symphony in Black and performed at the Cotton Club in Harlem . Since hip @-@ hop did not exist in the 1920s his style was considered jazz , but his " slithering , writhing " movement foreshadowed waving and sliding .
The most recognizable popping move is the moonwalk . In 1983 , Michael Jackson performed the moonwalk — called the backslide in popping context — on ABC 's Motown 25 television special . This performance popularized the moonwalk all over the world . However , it was not the first time the backslide had been performed on television or on film . Cab Calloway performed the backslide in 1932 , and Bill Bailey performed it in the movies Cabin in the Sky ( 1943 ) and Rhythm and Blues Revue ( 1955 ) . In 1982 , during a performance in London on Top of the Pops , street dancer Jeffrey Daniel performed the backslide during the song " A Night to Remember " .
In the 1970s , while Los Angeles was known for locking and Fresno was known for popping , several other cities in Northern California had their own local funk styles . Sacramento was known for a style called sac @-@ ing , San Jose for dime stopping , and Oakland for snake hitting . The San Francisco crew Granny and Robotroid incorporated stepping moves and JROTC rifle drill movements in their dancing to make a unique funk style called Fillmore strutting . This dance was named after the Fillmore district in San Francisco where Granny and Robotroid were from . Granny and Robotroid performed on the Gong Show in 1976 . Although strutting had exposure on national television , it ( and the rest of the localized funk styles ) faded and never became mainstream .
= = Terminology = =
When the movies Breakin ' and Breakin ' 2 : Electric Boogaloo were released , all the styles of dance performed in those films were put under the " breakdance " label . In addition , Breakin was released outside the United States as Breakdance : The Movie . The media followed suit by calling all represented styles " breakdancing " , which caused a naming confusion among the general public . This was problematic for two reasons .
The first reason is that " breakdancing " became an inadvertent umbrella term among the general public for both breaking and the funk styles . The funk styles were created in California independent from breaking , which was created in New York . They are called funk styles because they were originally danced to funk music . This name gives them a separate identity from breaking , which is traditionally danced to break beats .
The second reason this was problematic is that " breakdancing " was originally called b @-@ boying or breaking by the street dancers who created it . A break is a musical interlude during a song — the section on a musical recording where the singing stops and the percussive rhythms are the most aggressive . When 1970s hip @-@ hop DJs played break beats , dancers reacted to those breaks with their most impressive dance moves . DJ Kool Herc coined the terms " b @-@ boys " and " b @-@ girls " , which stands for " break @-@ boys " and " break @-@ girls . " To describe the movement , the suffix " ing " was added after the word identifying the dancer ( b @-@ boying ) or the music beat ( breaking ) . According to Timothy " Popin Pete " Solomon , one of the original members of the Electric Boogaloos , and Raquel Rivera , author of the book New York Ricans from the Hip Hop Zone ( 2003 ) , " breakdancing " is a media @-@ coined term and incorrect .
= = Dance crews = =
A dance crew is a team of street dancers who come together to develop new moves and battle other crews . As hip @-@ hop culture spread throughout New York City , the more often breaking crews got together to battle against each other . It was during this time that the different dance moves within breaking developed organically . All styles of hip @-@ hop are rooted in battling , and being a part of a crew was the only way to learn when these styles began because they were not taught in studios : they all started out as social dances . Forming and participating in a crew is how street dancers practiced , improved , made friends , and built relationships . In breaking in particular , battling is how b @-@ boys / b @-@ girls improved their skill .
Aside from Rock Steady Crew , several breaking crews were active in the 1970s such as Mighty Zulu Kings , Dynamic Rockers , New York City Breakers , SalSoul , Air Force Crew , Crazy Commanders Crew , Starchild La Rock , and Rockwell Association . In the same way b @-@ boy crews were active on the east coast of the United States spreading breaking throughout New York , funk crews were also active on the west coast spreading the funk styles throughout California . Aside from The Lockers and The Electric Boogaloos , other funk styles crews such as Medea Sirkas / Demons of the Mind , Black Messengers , The Robot Brothers , The Go @-@ Go Brothers , Granny and Robotroid , and Chain Reaction were active during the 1970s performing on stage .
Chain Reaction was a four @-@ man dance crew from Reseda , California whose members included Thomas " T @-@ Bopper " Guzman @-@ Sanchez , Paul " Cool Pockets " Guzman @-@ Sanchez , Robert " Bosco " Winters , and Mike " Deuce " Donley . Just like The Electric Boogaloos had their own signature dance style called electric boogaloo , Chain Reaction also had their own signature dance style called crossover locking . They performed on the talk show Thicke of the Night and in the movie Xanadu . Xanadu premiered in 1980 , four years earlier than the hip @-@ hop dance classics Beat Street and Breakin ' . Xanadu was the first time boogaloo , popping , and crossover locking were performed on film . In 1984 , T @-@ Bopper created a new dance crew called United Street Force . By invitation , this crew performed at the White House for President Ronald Reagan .
Crews still form based on friendships and neighborhoods . For example , dance crew Diversity — formed in 2007 — consists of brothers and friends from Essex and London . Crews also form for other reasons such as theme ( Jabbawockeez ) , gender ( ReQuest Dance Crew ) , ethnicity ( Kaba Modern ) , dance style ( Massive Monkeys ) , and age ( Hip Op @-@ eration ) . In 2013 , Hip Op @-@ eration performed an exhibition routine at the World Hip Hop Dance Championships in Las Vegas . At the time , their youngest member was 66 .
In the 1970s , b @-@ boy crews were neighborhood @-@ based and would engage in battles held at local block parties called " jams " . Today crews can battle in organized competitions with other crews from around the world . New Zealand crew ReQuest won the Australian @-@ based competition World Supremacy Battlegrounds in 2009 and the American @-@ based competition Hip Hop International in 2009 and 2010 . On October 12 , 2010 , the Vietnamese Ministry of Culture , Sport , and Tourism presented the Certificate of Merit to dance crew Big Toe for winning a variety of international dance competitions . Dance crews are more prevalent in hip @-@ hop , but hip @-@ hop dance companies do exist . Examples include Zoo Nation ( UK ) , Culture Shock ( USA ) , Lux Aeterna ( USA ) , Boy Blue Entertainment ( UK ) , Unity UK ( UK ) , Bounce Streetdance Company ( Sweden ) , and Funkbrella Dance Company ( USA ) .
= = Social dancing = =
Hip @-@ hop social dancing ( party dancing ) began when hip @-@ hop musical artists started to release songs with an accompanying dance . In 1990 , rapper MC Hammer created the Hammer dance and popularized it in his music video " U Can 't Touch This " . The Hammer dance was a social dance that became wildly popular and then faded as the album it was associated with , Please Hammer , Don 't Hurt ' Em , lost popularity . Most social dances are short @-@ lived fad dances , some are line dances , and others spawn new dance styles that stay relevant even after the life of the songs they came from come to an end . The development of hip @-@ hop social dancing extends further back than the 1990s with the Charleston , a jazz dance ; Chubby Checker 's Twist , which was considered rock & roll ; several 1970s fad dances made popular by James Brown ; and the influence of the television show Soul Train .
The Charleston was created in the 1920s by African @-@ Americans in Charleston , South Carolina as a rebellion against prohibition . It gained popularity once it was embraced by Caucasians , but it was still considered an immoral dance due to its association with alcohol . This dance relied on partnering and eventually led to the creation of Lindy Hop . Lindy Hop and the Charleston fall under the swing dance genre ; however , there is a dance move used in breaking that is taken from the Charleston called the Charlie rock . Singer @-@ songwriter Chubby Checker released the song " The Twist " with an accompanying dance of the same name in 1960 . He performed the dance on the television show American Bandstand , and the song reached number one in 1960 and 1962 . The Twist was the most popular dance craze of the 1960s because it broke away from the trend of partner dancing enabling people to perform on their own .
James Brown was a major contributor to social dance . He popularized several fad dances in the 1970s such as the Mashed Potato , the Boogaloo , and the Good Foot . His accompanying songs to these dances include " ( Do the ) Mashed Potatoes " , " Do the Boogaloo " , and " Get on the Good Foot " . The song " Do the Boogaloo " influenced Boogaloo Sam when he created the boogaloo dance style , and the Good Foot triggered the creation of breaking . In addition , James Brown also popularized the Funky Chicken , which was a major influence to Don Campbell when he created locking . In an interview with NPR , Lockers ' member Adolpho " Shabba Doo " Quiñones stated " We 're all children of James Brown ... And you know , if James Brown was our father then you 'd have to say Don Cornelius was our great uncle . "
In 1970 , Don Cornelius created Soul Train . Before officially becoming a crew , members of The Lockers made several appearances on this show . They introduced different dance moves such as the Robot , Which @-@ Aways , and the Stop @-@ and @-@ Go during the " Dance of the Week " segment of the broadcast . Disco was very popular during the 1970s , so some dance styles at that time such as waacking and hustle stemmed from disco music rather than funk . Hip @-@ hop became more mainstream in the 1980s , and this surge in interest combined with the popularity of Soul Train kick @-@ started the rise of hip @-@ hop social dancing .
One of the more popular social dances created during the 1980s was the Cabbage Patch . The rap group Gucci Crew II created the dance and introduced it in their 1987 song of the same name , " The Cabbage Patch " . Another popular social dance was the Roger Rabbit . This dance imitates the floppy movements of the lead cartoon character as seen in the 1988 film Who Framed Roger Rabbit . The rap duo Kid ' n Play created the Kid ' n Play kick @-@ step and performed it in their 1990 movie House Party . It is a variation on the Charleston with elements of the Roger Rabbit and the Running Man . The Running Man is one of the most recognizable hip @-@ hop social dances . According to Essence magazine , Paula Abdul created the Running Man and taught the dance to Janet Jackson when she was working as her choreographer during Jackson 's Control era . Jackson further popularized the dance when she performed it in her 1989 music video " Rhythm Nation " , and rapper MC Hammer kept the fervor going when he started to do the Running Man in his performances . The pop duo LMFAO brought the Running Man back into the mainstream with their song " Party Rock Anthem " , which was named the 2011 song of the summer by Billboard.com. The accompanying dance in the song called The Shuffle combines three social dances : the Running Man , the ( half ) Charleston , and the T @-@ step .
DJ Troy " Webstar " Ryan and Bianca " Young B " Dupree released the song " Chicken Noodle Soup " in 2006 . The dance was so popular , at one point YouTube had over 2 @,@ 000 video clips of kids performing it . The song sold 335 @,@ 000 ringtones , but it was not strong enough to sustain momentum for the full length album " Webstar Presents : Caught in the Web " , which was not successful . For this reason , the Chicken Noodle Soup song and dance faded . The Dougie comes from Dallas , Texas . The dance was named after the 1980s rapper Doug E. Fresh and popularized in the 2010 song " Teach Me How to Dougie " by the rap group Cali Swag District . According to the Wall Street Journal , the Dougie has been particularly popular as a celebratory dance among professional athletes . In 2010 , CNN news anchor Wolf Blitzer performed the Dougie at the Soul Train Music Awards .
= = = Line dances = = =
The Cha Cha Slide , the Cupid Shuffle , and the Soulja Boy are examples of urban line dances that were created from hip @-@ hop songs of the same name . These line dances have the same premise as the more widely know Electric Slide . There are variations to the Electric Slide , but the dance is always performed to the song " Electric Boogie " by Marcia Griffiths . In keeping with this tradition , the Cha Cha Slide , the Cupid Shuffle , and the Soulja Boy are always performed to their respective songs .
DJ Willie " Casper " Perry created the song " Cha Cha Slide " in 1996 for a personal trainer in his hometown Chicago . It did not get commercial airplay until 2000 when Chicago radio station WGCI @-@ FM started playing the song as part of its rotation . Soon after , other radio stations across the United States also started playing the song , and this increase in popularity led to a record deal with Universal Music Group . After securing a deal , the label began producing and distributing instructional videos of the dance to nightclubs , which helped spread its popularity . On February 20 , 2011 , dancers in Anaheim , California set a Guinness world record when 2 @,@ 387 people performed the dance at the Anaheim Convention Center .
The song " Cupid Shuffle " was released in February 2007 by singer Bryson " Cupid " Bernard from Lafayette , Louisiana . In August 2007 , 17 @,@ 000 people set a world record when they performed the Cupid Shuffle ( dance ) to his song in Atlanta . The Soulja Boy dance became popular through MySpace when rapper DeAndre " Soulja Boy " Way posted his song " Crank That " to his MySpace page and uploaded an accompanying instructional video showing viewers how to perform the dance . After amassing more than 16 million page views , he was signed to Interscope Records .
= A Catholic Statement on Pluralism and Abortion =
A Catholic Statement on Pluralism and Abortion , alternatively referred to by its pull quote " A Diversity of Opinions Regarding Abortion Exists Among Committed Catholics " or simply " The New York Times ad " , was a full @-@ page advertisement placed on October 7 , 1984 in The New York Times by Catholics for a Free Choice ( CFFC ) . Its publication brought to a head the conflict between the Vatican and those American Catholics who were pro @-@ choice . The publicity and controversy which followed its publication helped to make the CFFC an important element of the pro @-@ choice movement .
Before mid @-@ 1984 , a Catholic position paper was signed by about 80 reform @-@ minded theologians and members of religious institutes who were sympathetic to choice in abortion . This position paper was used by CFFC as the basis for the New York Times ad . CFFC 's statement said that the Catholic Church 's doctrine condemning abortion as " morally wrong in all instances " was " not the only legitimate Catholic position . " It said that " a large number " of Catholic theologians considered abortion to be a moral choice in some cases and cited a recent survey which found that only 11 % of Catholics believed that abortion was wrong under all circumstances . It called for value pluralism and discussion within the Church on the subject . More signatures were added , bringing the total to 97 prominent Catholics including theologians , nuns , priests and lay persons .
The advertisement was intended to help 1984 vice @-@ presidential candidate Geraldine Ferraro , a pro @-@ choice Catholic , to resist the sharp criticism directed at her by Archbishop of New York John Joseph O 'Connor during the 1984 U.S. presidential election . Following the ad 's publication , the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops denounced it and called it contrary to " the clear and consistent teaching of the church that deliberately chosen abortion is objectively immoral . " Subsequently , the Vatican pursued recantings by or reprimands of the signers who were directly subject to Church authority , including 24 nuns who became known as the " Vatican 24 " . Some signers recanted their affiliation with CFFC ; most were said by their superiors to be in line with Catholic teaching . Two nuns resisted , publicly embraced a pro @-@ choice position and eventually left their order .
= = Background = =
In 1982 , CFFC invited members of Congress to a briefing titled " The Abortion Issue in the Political Process " describing the problems facing Catholic politicians and to show that there was a range of personal and political responses to the issue of abortion . Geraldine Ferraro , then a member of the United States House of Representatives , wrote the introduction to the briefing . She wrote , " As Catholics we deal each day , both personally and politically , with the wrenching abortion issue ... the Catholic position on abortion is not monolithic and there can be a range of personal and political responses to the issue . " Other endorsers of the briefing included fellow Democratic politicians Leon Panetta and Tom Daschle .
Catholic ethicist Daniel C. Maguire co @-@ authored a position paper on abortion and religious pluralism with feminist Frances Kissling , the president of CFFC , and Maguire 's wife Marjorie Reily Maguire , a theologian and CFFC activist . The position paper , titled " A Catholic Statement on Abortion " , was circulated among several groups of theologians including the College Theology Society , of which Marjorie Maguire was a member , and the Catholic Theological Society of America . Those who were sympathetic to moral pluralism and the possibility of nuanced abortion positions in the Catholic Church signed the statement and formed the Catholic Committee on Pluralism and Abortion .
When Ferraro was named Walter Mondale 's running mate for the Democratic Party in the 1984 election , Archbishop O 'Connor and Archbishop of Boston Bernard Francis Law issued statements denouncing her position on abortion . It is likely that O 'Connor targeted Ferraro because of her association with CFFC . O 'Connor said that Catholic voters should not vote for pro @-@ choice politicians . O 'Connor said Ferraro " has given the world to understand that Catholic teaching is divided on the subject of abortion " , which he said was wrong . Ferraro said that her personal pro @-@ choice views were not something she would force on the nation ; she said she would follow the law of the land as interpreted by the Supreme Court . After receiving more criticism from O 'Connor , Ferraro acknowledged that the Church 's position on abortion was indeed " monolithic " , but said many Catholics " do not share the view of the Catholic Church . "
= = Publication = =
CFFC wanted to make clear the church 's hierarchy did not speak for them . The CFFC turned the Maguire / Maguire / Kissling position paper holding about 80 signatures from leading Catholic reformers into a statement suitable for the public , and in August – September 1984 they sought further signatures from such groups as the Women Church Convergence , a group working to increase women 's roles in the Church . A total of 97 signatures was gathered , including 26 nuns , two priests , and two lay brothers . The CFFC paid $ 30 @,@ 000 for an advertisement in The New York Times , to run on a day that was the annual " Respect Life Sunday " celebrated by American bishops . The timing was intended to help Ferraro retain support in her campaign .
On October 7 , 1984 , one full page of The New York Times carried the combined statement of the CFFC and the other signers . At the top of the page were the bold @-@ type words : " A Diversity of Opinions Regarding Abortion Exists Among Committed Catholics " . Underneath that was the title " A Catholic Statement on Pluralism and Abortion " . Following this was a citation to a poll showing only 11 % of American Catholics surveyed opposed abortion in all circumstance , and an endorsement of " candid and respectful discussion " within the Church of a " diversity of opinion " held by Catholics on the issue . The bottom of the page included 97 names divided into two groups : 15 members of the Catholic Committee on Pluralism and Abortion , and 82 others in a group marked " Other Signers " . The advertisement concluded by saying the list of signers was only partial — that 75 priests , members of religious institutes , and theologians had written in support " but cannot sign because they fear losing their jobs . "
The second paragraph read as follows :
" Statements of recent Popes and of the Catholic hierarchy have condemned the direct termination of pre @-@ natal life as morally wrong in all instances . There is the mistaken belief in American society that this is the only legitimate Catholic position . In fact , a diversity of opinions regarding abortion exists among committed Catholics . "
= = Reaction = =
On November 14 , 1984 , following the election ( which Mondale and Ferraro lost ) , the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops issued a statement saying the text of the
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advertisement could only represent the personal opinions of the signers because they were in contradiction to " the clear and consistent teaching of the church that deliberately chosen abortion is objectively immoral . " Cardinal Jean Jerome Hamer , author of the 1974 reaffirmation against procured abortion and the prefect of the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life , requested on November 30 , 1984 , that the signers who were subject to Church authority be required to publicly retract their position or be dismissed . This elicited a good deal of international press coverage . Of the 26 nuns , two were taken off the Vatican 's list , one for unknown reasons and the other because her missionary order was not under Hamer 's supervision . The remaining 24 nuns were labeled the " Vatican 24 " by the press .
Some 35 of the signers met at the St. Charles Hotel in Washington , D.C. on December 19 , 1984 , to determine a course of action . The meeting included 18 nuns of the Vatican 24 . They said the Vatican , in its stern reaction , " seeks to stifle freedom of speech and public discussion in the Roman Catholic Church and create the appearance of a consensus where none exists . " The group issed a statement describing the current Church stance as not in the spirit of the Vatican II which said , " Let there be unity in what is necessary , freedom in what is unsettled and charity in any case . " Sister Donna Quinn , a past president of the National Coalition of American Nuns , said , " We believe we have a right to speak out when we have a differing opinion , and this is something European men do not understand . "
The four male members of institutes who signed — two priests and two lay brothers — recanted in published statements , the last on January 17 , 1985 . The Vatican announced that many of the nuns had also recanted .
In seeking to discipline the nuns , the Vatican did not contact any one of them personally , and did not respond to direct individual communication . Rather , the superiors of the nuns were asked to write letters verifying whether or not the nuns were in line with Catholic teaching on abortion , and a variety of responses were received from the superiors . A few nuns disavowed their position on abortion and the cases were quickly closed . Most nuns held to their earlier conviction , although their superiors sent letters saying that they accepted Church teaching . Once a nun 's superior had sent a letter to the Vatican , the case was closed , without any further attempt to prevent the nun from speaking out on the issues .
Two Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur , Patricia Hussey and Barbara Ferraro ( no relation to Geraldine Ferraro ) , did not recant from their pro @-@ choice positions . Hussey and Ferraro , directors of the Covenant House in Charleston , West Virginia — a shelter for homeless and abused women and children — were supported by CFFC in their dispute with the Church . By March 1986 , Hussey and Ferraro were no longer calling for " dialogue " but were publicly demanding recognition of " a woman 's right to choose . " In July 1986 when the two nuns were pressured more strongly with expulsion , 11 of the other nuns who signed came forward with a statement in solidarity with them , denying a recent Vatican announcement that all nuns but Hussey and Ferraro were now aligned with the Church 's position on abortion . The eleven complained of the Church 's divisive tactics , which they said were intended to isolate Hussey and Ferraro . Signer Maureen Fiedler said , " I have never retracted or recanted one syllable of the Catholic Statement on Abortion and Pluralism . I continue to stand behind every word of it without the slightest reservation . " After nearly four years of dispute , Hussey and Ferraro were informed by their order 's leadership in June 1988 that they would not be dismissed from the order . However , the leadership of the School Sisters of Notre Dame distanced the order from Hussey and Ferraro , calling them " intransigent " and stating that they " have in practice placed themselves outside the life and mission of the congregation . " The two nuns subsequently held a press conference and announced that a woman " can be publicly pro @-@ choice and still be a nun . " In July 1988 , the two resigned from the Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur .
Signer Judith Vaughan , a resident of Los Angeles and a nun with the Sisters of St. Joseph of Carondelet , said , " We didn 't commit a crime . All we did was say , ' Hey , there 's a diversity of opinion among people [ of our faith ] and we need to talk about freedom of conscience . ' I don 't see myself as defiant . " In January 1985 , Monsignor John P. Languille sent a memo to all Los Angeles social service directors , ordering them to cease referring homeless women to the shelter Vaughan supervised " because of [ her ] pro @-@ abortion position " . Vaughan was reportedly expelled in February 1985 but in April 1986 she spoke to the Los Angeles Times to say that the Church had closed the case without requiring her to retract her statement . With the help of her superior , Sister Miriam Therese Larkin of St. Louis , Missouri , she retained her position in the order , and Languille 's memo was overturned .
Yale Divinity School ethics professor Sister Margaret Farley said that her signing of the 1984 advertisement came up in early 1986 when she was to be honored with an award given by John Carroll University , a Catholic institution in Cleveland , Ohio . The Cleveland archdiocese wrote to the Vatican to determine Farley 's status , and the Vatican responded that Farley " has retracted her signature from the ' Catholic Statement on Pluralism and Abortion . ' " Sister Helen Amos , the president of Farley 's order , the Sisters of Mercy , was quoted by the Vatican : " Sister Margaret 's position is in accord with the teaching of the Church . " This statement had been accepted as a recantation by Cardinal Hamer in December 1985 . After learning of the Vatican response , Farley said Hamer 's assumption was in error , that she had never recanted or asked that her signature be removed . She said , " What I did ... was to clarify my position . And that was accepted as sufficient . "
= = Later events = =
Several nuns were given a platform to air their views including activist nuns such as Marjorie Tuite , Margaret Traxler , and six nuns of the order Sisters of Loretto , an order known for its work on pacifism and social justice . In some cases , signers of the statement grew more radical in their beliefs after being reprimanded by church authority . In the publicity surrounding the dispute with the nuns and the theologians , the statistics showing that most American Catholics disagreed with church teachings about abortion were repeated many times . Traxler appeared in a television spot with a tube of toothpaste , saying that you cannot put the toothpaste back in the tube . The various responses to the 1984 advertisement and its aftermath remained in the news through 1986 .
On March 2 , 1986 , a follow @-@ up advertisement was placed by the Committee of Concerned Catholics , signed by more than 1 @,@ 000 Catholics supportive of the right to speak dissenting views on abortion and other controversial subjects . This advertisement was intended to show solidarity for the 97 signers of the 1984 advertisement who were threatened by the Church . It began , " We affirm our solidarity with all Catholics whose right to free speech is under attack . " Committee member Kissling said that , though seven nuns had " clarified " their positions , " There have been no retractions ; there have been no withdrawals . " She said the Church 's assertion that many nuns had disavowed their 1984 signing was " a lot of wishful thinking " . Nine conservative Catholic lay group leaders responded with a letter to Hamer asking for quick disciplinary action against dissenting nuns . They warned that " the revolt is spreading " against the church 's position on abortion , and chided the Vatican for failing to react decisively against signers of the first ad .
Some Catholic theologians who signed the statement reported being threatened with stagnation in their careers , and found that speaking engagements were canceled because of the controversy . Theologians Daniel Maguire , Rosemary Radford Ruether , Giles Milhaven , Elizabeth Jane Via , Mary I. Buckley , Kathleen M. O 'Connor and Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza all saw their careers limited after October 1984 . Sister Anne Carr felt pressured to quit the women 's advisory committee assigned to assist U.S. bishops write a pastoral on women . One of the 1 @,@ 000 signers of the March 1986 statement , Mary Ann Sorrentino , was told by her local church hierarchy that in signing she had " excommunicated herself " .
In August 1992 , filmmakers Sylvia Morales and Jean Victor presented their PBS POV documentary about three nuns , including one of the Vatican 24 . Titled " Faith Even to the Fire " , the program followed statement signer Sister Judith Vaughan , who faced difficulty in Los Angeles then moved to Chicago to lead the National Assembly of Religious Women . Also featured were Sisters Marie de Pores Taylor of Oakland , California , and Rosa Marta Zarate of San Bernardino , California .
= = Signers = =
Signers of the statement whose names appeared in the advertisement include :
= = = Catholic Committee on Pluralism and Abortion = = =
Anthony Battaglia , Ph.D. , Associate Professor , Religious Studies , California State University , Long Beach
Roddy O 'Neil Cleary , D.Min. , University of Vermont
Joseph Fahey , Ph.D. , Professor , Manhattan College
Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza , Ph.D. , Professor , University of Notre Dame
Mary Gordon , M.A. , author of Final Payments and Company of Women
Patricia Hennessy , J.D. , New York City
Mary E. Hunt , Ph.D. , Women 's Alliance for Theology , Ethics and Ritual
Frances Kissling , Executive Director , Catholics for a Free Choice
Justus George Lawler , Executive Editor , Academic Bookline , Winston @-@ Seabury Press
Daniel C. Maguire , S.T.D. , theologian , widely published Catholic ethicist .
Marjorie Reiley Maguire , Ph.D. , theologian , an early and active member of CFFC .
J. Giles Milhaven , Ph.D. , Professor , Brown University
Rosemary Radford Ruether , Ph.D. Professor , Garrett – Evangelical Theological Seminary
Thomas Shannon , Ph.D. , Professor , Worcester Polytechnic Institute
James F. Smurl , Ph.D. , Professor at Indiana University
= = = Other signers = = =
Ronald Burke , Ph.D. , University of Nebraska at Omaha , co @-@ founder of The Journal of Religion & Film .
Anne Carr , nun and theologian at the University of Chicago Divinity School .
Patty Crowley , long @-@ term co @-@ leader of the Christian Family Movement .
Margaret Farley , Ph.D. , Yale Divinity School
Barbara Ferraro , nun with Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur
Maureen Fiedler , Ph.D. , S.L. , nun , pacifist , and activist for the Equal Rights Amendment 1978 to 1982 . Fiedler attended the first Women 's Ordination Conference in Detroit in 1975 .
Christine E. Gudorf , Ph.D. , Xavier University
Patricia Hussey , nun with Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur
Paul F. Knitter , Th.D. , Xavier University
Agnes Mary Mansour , former nun , director of the Michigan Department of Social Services , former president of the University of Detroit Mercy .
Kathleen E. McVey , Ph.D. , Princeton Theological Seminary
Jeanne L. Noble , Ph.D. , New York University
Dolly Pomerleau , co @-@ founder of the Quixote Center
Donna Quinn , nun , past president of the National Coalition of American Nuns .
Jill Raitt , Ph.D. , University of Missouri
Jane Schaberg , Ph.D. , University of Detroit
Margaret Ellen Traxler , nun with the School Sisters of Notre Dame , co @-@ founder of the National Coalition of American Nuns
Marjorie Tuite , Dominican nun , native New Yorker , feminist
Judith Vaughan , nun , director of the House of Ruth shelter for women , Los Angeles
Elizabeth Jane Via , district attorney , female priest , professor at University of San Diego
Mary Jo Weaver , author
Arthur E. Zannoni , Ph.D. , University of Notre Dame
= Scuttling of the German fleet in Scapa Flow =
The scuttling of the German fleet took place at the Royal Navy 's base at Scapa Flow , in Scotland , after the end of the First World War . The High Seas Fleet was interned there under the terms of the Armistice whilst negotiations took place over the fate of the ships . Fearing that all of the ships would be seized and divided amongst the allied powers , the German commander , Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , decided to scuttle the fleet .
The scuttling was carried out on 21 June 1919 . Intervening British guard ships were able to beach a number of the ships , but 52 of the 74 interned vessels sank . Many of the wrecks were salvaged over the next two decades and were towed away for scrapping . Those that remain are popular diving sites .
= = Background = =
The signing of the Armistice on 11 November 1918 , at Compiègne , France , effectively ended the First World War . The Allied powers agreed that Germany 's U @-@ boat fleet should be surrendered without the possibility of return , but were unable to agree upon a course of action regarding the German surface fleet . The Americans suggested that the ships be interned in a neutral port until a final decision was reached , but the two countries that were approached – Norway and Spain – both refused . Admiral Rosslyn Wemyss suggested that the fleet be interned at Scapa Flow with a skeleton crew of German sailors , and guarded in the interim by the Grand Fleet .
The terms were transmitted to Germany on 12 November 1918 , instructing them to make the High Seas Fleet ready to sail by 18 November , or the Allies would occupy Heligoland .
On the night of 15 November , Rear @-@ Admiral Hugo Meurer , the representative of Admiral Franz von Hipper , met Admiral David Beatty aboard Beatty 's flagship , HMS Queen Elizabeth . Beatty presented Meurer with the terms , which were expanded at a second meeting the following day . The U @-@ boats were to surrender to Rear @-@ Admiral Reginald Tyrwhitt at Harwich , under the supervision of the Harwich Force . The surface fleet was to sail to the Firth of Forth and surrender to Beatty . They would then be led to Scapa Flow and interned , pending the outcome of the peace negotiations . Meurer asked for an extension to the deadline , aware that the sailors were still in a mutinous mood ( which earlier led to the Wilhelmshaven mutiny ) , and that the officers might have difficulty in getting them to obey orders . Meurer eventually signed the terms after midnight .
= = Surrender of the fleet = =
The first craft to be surrendered were the U @-@ boats , which began to arrive at Harwich on 20 November 1918 ; 176 were eventually handed over . Hipper refused to lead his fleet to the surrender , delegating the task to Rear @-@ Admiral Ludwig von Reuter . The German fleet was met by the light cruiser Cardiff on the morning of 21 November , and led to the rendezvous with over 370 ships of the Grand Fleet and other allied navies . There were 70 German ships in total ; the battleship König and the light cruiser Dresden had engine trouble and had to be left behind . The destroyer V30 struck a mine while crossing , and sank .
The German ships were escorted into the Firth of Forth , where they anchored . Beatty signalled them :
The German flag will be hauled down at sunset today and will not be hoisted again without permission .
This order was broken twice on 31 May as there was anniversary of Battle of Jutland and on the day of scuttling of the German fleet . The fleet was then moved between 25 and 27 November to Scapa Flow ; the destroyers to Gutter Sound and the battleships and cruisers to the north and west of the island of Cava . Eventually a total of 74 ships were interned there , König and Dresden having arrived on 6 December accompanied by the destroyer V129 , which replaced the sunken V30 . The last ship to arrive was the battleship Baden on 9 January 1919 . Initially the interned ships were guarded by the Battle Cruiser Force ( later reduced to the Battle Cruiser Squadron ) , commanded in succession by Vice @-@ Admiral Pakenham , Rear @-@ Admiral Oliver and Rear @-@ Admiral Keyes . On 1 May 1919 Vice @-@ Admiral Leveson and the Second Battle Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet took over guard duties , and were succeeded on 18 May by Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Sydney Fremantle and the First Battle Squadron .
= = In captivity = =
The naval historian Arthur Marder described the state of affairs in the German ships during the internment as " one of complete demoralization " . He identified four reasons that exacerbated the situation : lack of discipline , standard of food , lack of recreation and slow postal service . The cumulative result of these problems created " indescribable filth in some of the ships " . On 29 November the Second @-@ in @-@ Command of the Grand Fleet , Admiral Sir Charles Madden , wrote to his brother @-@ in @-@ law and former superior Lord Jellicoe that , " All proposed orders are considered and counter @-@ signed by the men 's committee before they are executed and then they are carried out as convenient " . When visiting an interned ship the German officers were reported to have been " dumb with shame " . Food was sent from Germany twice a month but was monotonous and not of good quality . Catching fish and seagulls provided a dietary supplement and some recreation . A large amount of brandy was also sent over . Recreation for the men was limited to their ships , as the British refused to allow any of the interned sailors to go ashore or visit any other German ships . British officers and men were only allowed to visit on official business . Outgoing post to Germany was censored from the beginning , and later incoming post also . German seamen were granted 300 cigarettes a month or 75 cigars . There were German doctors in the interned fleet but no dentists , and the British refused to provide dental care .
Command of the interned ships was exercised through Rear @-@ Admiral von Reuter , flying his flag in the battleship Friedrich der Grosse . He had a British drifter at his disposal for visiting ships and issuing written orders on urgent business , and his staff was occasionally allowed to visit other ships to arrange repatriation of officers and men . Von Reuter , whose health was poor , requested that his flag be transferred to the light cruiser Emden on 25 March after he was repeatedly prevented from sleeping by the stomping on his cabin roof by a group of revolutionary sailors called the " Red Guard " . Over seven months the number of men in his command was continually reduced from the 20 @,@ 000 men who had sailed the ships over in November . 4 @,@ 000 returned to Germany on 3 December , 6 @,@ 000 on 6 December and 5 @,@ 000 on 12 December , leaving 4 @,@ 815 , of whom approximately
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100 were repatriated a month .
Negotiations over the fate of the ships were under way at the Paris Peace Conference . The French and Italians each wanted a quarter of the ships . The British wanted them destroyed , since they knew that any redistribution would be detrimental to the proportional advantage in numbers they had compared to other navies . Under Article XXXI of the Armistice the Germans were not permitted to destroy their ships . Both Admirals Beatty and Madden had approved plans to seize the German ships in case scuttling was attempted ; Admirals Keyes and Leveson recommended that the ships be seized anyway and the crews interned ashore at Nigg Island , but their suggestions were not taken up . Their concern was not without justification , for as early as January 1919 , von Reuter mentioned the possibility of scuttling the fleet to his chief of staff . Having learned of the possible terms of the Treaty of Versailles in May 1919 , he began to prepare detailed plans to scuttle his ships . Admiral Erich Raeder later wrote that von Reuter was informed that the fleet was to be scuttled at all costs . A further reduction of crews with the departure of two transports to Germany on 18 June 1919 meant that von Reuter was left with reliable men to carry out preparations . On that day he sent out orders , paragraph 11 of which stated : " It is my intention to sink the ships only if the enemy should attempt to obtain possession of them without the assent of our government . Should our government agree in the peace to terms to the surrender of the ships , then the ships will be handed over , to the lasting disgrace of those who have placed us in this position . " His orders were sent to the interned ships on 18 June .
In the meantime the signing of the Treaty of Versailles was scheduled for noon on 21 June 1919 . The First Battle Squadron prepared to board the German ships in force to check for signs that the fleet was preparing to scuttle . On 13 June Admiral Madden requested in person at the Admiralty a daily political appreciation from 17 June onwards so as to be prepared to take action , but as Madden related to Beatty shortly afterwards , " they had no reliable indication of the German attitude towards the peace terms " . Admiral Fremantle submitted to Madden on 16 June a scheme for seizing the German ships at midnight of 21 / 22 June , after the treaty was meant to be signed . Madden approved the plan on 19 June , but only after he was informed that the deadline for signing the treaty was extended to 19 : 00 on 23 June and he neglected to officially inform Fremantle . News of the extension was seen by Fremantle in a newspaper on the same day and he assumed it to be true . He had been under orders from Madden for some time to exercise his battleships against torpedo attacks , which required good weather in order to recover the torpedoes . The weather on the night of 20 June was favourable so Fremantle ordered the First Battle Squadron to sea at 09 : 00 the next morning , 21 June . The operation to seize the German ships was postponed until the night of his squadron 's return to Scapa Flow on 23 June , after the deadline to sign the treaty had expired . Fremantle later claimed that before he left Scapa he had unofficially informed von Reuter that the armistice was still in effect .
= = The fleet is scuttled = =
Around 10 : 00 a.m. on 21 June 1919 , von Reuter sent a flag signal ordering the fleet to stand by for the signal to scuttle . At about 11 : 20 the flag signal was sent : " To all Commanding Officers and the Leader of the Torpedo Boats . Paragraph Eleven of to @-@ day 's date . Acknowledge . Chief of the Interned Squadron . " The signal was repeated by semaphore and searchlights . Scuttling began immediately : seacocks and flood valves were opened and internal water pipes smashed . Portholes had already been loosened , watertight doors and condenser covers left open , and in some ships holes had been bored through bulkheads , all to facilitate the spread of water once scuttling began . One German ship commander recorded that prior to 21 June , seacocks had been set on a hair turning and heavily lubricated , while large hammers had been placed besides valves .
There was no noticeable effect until noon , when Friedrich der Grosse began to list heavily to starboard and all the ships hoisted the Imperial German Ensign at their mainmasts . The crews then began to abandon ship . The British naval forces left at Scapa Flow comprised three destroyers , one of which was under repair , seven trawlers and a number of drifters . Fremantle started receiving news of the scuttling at 12 : 20 and cancelled his squadron 's exercise at 12 : 35 , steaming at full speed back to Scapa Flow . He and a division of ships arrived at 14 : 30 in time to see only the large ships still afloat . He had radioed ahead to order all available craft to prevent the German ships sinking or beach them . The last German ship to sink was the battlecruiser Hindenburg at 17 : 00 , by which time fifteen capital ships were sunk , and only Baden survived . Four light cruisers and thirty @-@ two destroyers were sunk . Nine Germans were shot and killed and about sixteen wounded aboard their lifeboats rowing towards land .
During the afternoon , 1 @,@ 774 Germans were picked up and transported by battleships of the First Battle Squadron to Invergordon . Fremantle had sent out a general order declaring that the Germans were to be treated as prisoners @-@ of @-@ war for having broken the armistice and they were destined for the prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps at Nigg . Von Reuter and a number of his officers were brought onto the quarterdeck of HMS Revenge , where Fremantle – through an interpreter – denounced their actions as dishonourable while von Reuter and his men looked on " with expressionless faces . " Admiral Fremantle subsequently remarked privately , " I could not resist feeling some sympathy for von Reuter , who had preserved his dignity when placed against his will in a highly unpleasant and invidious position . "
= = Reactions = =
The French were disappointed that the German fleet was gone , having hoped to acquire at least some of the ships . The British Admiral Wemyss privately remarked :
German Admiral Reinhard Scheer declared :
= = Aftermath = =
Of the 74 German ships in Scapa Flow , 15 of the 16 capital ships , 5 of the 8 cruisers , and 32 of the 50 destroyers were sunk . The remainder either remained afloat , or were towed to shallower waters and beached . The beached ships were later dispersed to the allied navies , but most of the sunken ships were initially left at the bottom of Scapa Flow , the cost of salvaging them being deemed to be not worth the potential returns , owing to the glut of scrap metal left after the end of the war , with plenty of obsolete warships having been broken up . After complaints from locals that the wrecks were a hazard to navigation , a salvage company was formed in 1923 , which raised four of the sunken destroyers .
At about this time , the entrepreneur Ernest Cox became involved . He bought 26 destroyers from the Admiralty for £ 250 , as well as Seydlitz and Hindenburg . He began operations to refloat the destroyers using an old German dry dock he purchased and subsequently modified . He was able to lift 24 of his 26 destroyers over the next year and a half , after which he began work on the larger vessels . He developed a new salvage technique whereby divers patched the holes in the submerged hulls , and then pumped air into them so they would rise to the surface , where they could then be towed to the breakers . Using this technique , he refloated several of the ships . His methods were costly , however , and the final cost of raising Hindenburg ran to some £ 30 @,@ 000 . Industrial action and a coal strike in 1926 nearly brought operations to a halt , but Cox instead dug out the coal in the submerged Seydlitz , using it to power his machines until the end of the strike . Salvaging Seydlitz also proved difficult , as the ship sank again during the first attempt to raise her , wrecking most of the salvage equipment . Undaunted , Cox tried again , ordering that when she was next raised , news cameras would be there to capture him witnessing the moment . The plan nearly backfired when Seydlitz was accidentally refloated while Cox was holidaying in Switzerland . Cox told the workers to sink her again , then returned to Britain to be present as Seydlitz was duly refloated a second time . Cox 's company eventually raised 26 destroyers , two battlecruisers and five battleships .
Cox sold his remaining interests to the Alloa Shipbuilding Company , ( later Metal Industries Group ) and retired as the " man who bought a navy " . The latter company went on to raise a further five cruisers , battlecruisers , and battleships , before the outbreak of the Second World War brought operations to a halt . The remaining wrecks lie in deeper waters , in depths up to 47 metres ( 154 ft ) , and there has been no economic incentive to attempt to raise them since . Minor salvage is still carried out to recover small pieces of steel . This low @-@ background steel is used in the manufacture of radiation @-@ sensitive devices , such as Geiger counters , as it is not contaminated with radioisotopes , having been produced prior to any chance of nuclear contamination .
The seven wrecks that remain are scheduled under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979 . Divers are allowed to visit them but need a permit to do so .
While the rebuilding of the German Army in the 1930s was based upon the combined myths of " invincibility on the battlefield " and the " stab in the back " , the attitude and actions of the High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow became a symbol of defiance for the new recruits and officers of the Kriegsmarine .
The last living military witness to the scuttling of the fleet was Claude Choules , who died on 5 May 2011 aged 110 . Choules was the last known living combat veteran of the First World War . However a new eyewitness account of the scuttling and the subsequent angry meeting between von Reuter and Fremantle was published by the family of Hugh David in June 2015 .
= = List of the German ships and their fate = =
= Arise ( Sepultura album ) =
Arise is the fourth studio album by Brazilian heavy metal band Sepultura , released in 1991 by Roadrunner Records . Upon its release , the album received top reviews from heavy metal magazines such as Rock Hard , Kerrang ! and Metal Forces . Arise is considered Sepultura 's finest hour among longtime fans . While the music on Arise was mostly in the same death / thrash style as their previous album , Beneath the Remains , it was clear that the Sepultura sound was acquiring an experimental edge .
The album presented their first incursions with industrial music , hardcore punk and Latin percussion . The tour ( 1991 – 1992 ) that supported the album was the group 's longest at that time , totalling 220 shows in 39 different countries . During this trek , the album went gold in Indonesia — the band 's first music industry certification . By the tour 's end , Arise had achieved platinum sales worldwide .
= = Production = =
In August 1990 , the band travelled to Florida to work on the album . Scott Burns reprised his role as producer and audio engineer , and now with a major advantage : Sepultura were at his home studio , Morrisound , a studio properly equipped to record their music style . Their label Roadrunner granted a $ 40 @,@ 000 budget , which helped explain the album 's improved production values . That allowed Igor and Burns , for example , to spend a whole week just testing the drum kit 's tunings and experimenting with microphone practice .
= = Musical style = =
Although lead guitarist Andreas Kisser stated that Arise " took a lot of the same direction " as their previous LP , Beneath the Remains , it was clear that their music had somehow changed . Sepultura 's usual breakneck pace became toned down a bit ; drummer Igor Cavalera started using groove @-@ laden rhythms . According to metal specialist Don Kaye , the album " represented the band taking their initial death / thrash sound to its logical conclusion . "
Arise also found the band opening up to non @-@ metal influences . Bands such as Einstürzende Neubauten , The Young Gods and Ministry were already part of Sepultura 's listening habits , and slight touches of industrial music can be traced through the use of samples and sound effects . A trademark of a later phase — Latin percussion and " tribal " drumming — made its first appearance on the song " Altered State " . The band 's old love for hardcore punk is evident on " Subtraction " and " Desperate Cry " .
= = Touring and promotion = =
Just one day after finishing the recording of Arise , the band embarked on a small headlining tour with extreme metallers Obituary and Sadus . That was the start of the longest promotional tour of Sepultura 's career , a worldwide affair that would span two full years . In January 1991 they were invited to play for at the Brazilian music festival Rock in Rio 2 where their performance was watched by a 70 @,@ 000 @-@ strong crowd .
Before heading out of Brazil on a mid @-@ 1991 European tour , Sepultura performed one more concert in São Paulo , the country 's largest city . It took place at Praça Charles Miller ( in front of Estádio do Pacaembu ) , on May 11 . Local military police expected 10 @,@ 000 to attend . 30 @,@ 000 showed up instead , making crowd management nearly impossible . Six people were hurt , 18 were arrested and one was shot dead . A week before , a young man was stabbed to death at a Ramones concert in São Paulo , during a brawl between headbangers and skinheads . These events were followed by a huge mainstream media backlash throughout the country against rock music .
Sepultura 's three @-@ month tour with thrash metal groups Sacred Reich and Heathen was a critical success . For the first time they appeared on the cover of best @-@ selling British heavy metal magazine Kerrang ! and major pop weeklies such as Melody Maker and NME published long feature articles on the group . While in Spain Sepultura recorded their Under Siege video , which included their Barcelona concert and interview footage with all four members of the band . After Europe , they toured North America with grindcore pioneers Napalm Death , New York City hardcore punk group Sick of It All and Sacred Reich . Sepultura wrapped up the year doing a brief German tour with NWOBHM legends Mötorhead and Florida death metal group Morbid Angel in December .
Sepultura then managed to secure a slot in two of the most sought after rock tours of 1992 . One was done with ex @-@ Black Sabbath singer Ozzy Osbourne , who was promoting his multi @-@ platinum solo album No More Tears while the second tour was with industrial metal stalwarts Ministry and influential Alternative Metal / noise rock unit Helmet . Both of these American acts had just released the most successful records of their careers - namely Psalm 69 and Meantime .
A remastered version of Arise was released by Roadrunner in 1997 , with added notes by music critic Don Kaye and four bonus tracks , previously released on the compilation The Roots Of Sepultura : a cover version of Motörhead 's " Orgasmatron " , a rough mix of " Desperate Cry " and two previously unreleased songs . A previously unavailable photo shoot from the Arise period was also included in the expanded CD booklet .
= = Reception = =
Arise garnered praise from a wide variety of sources . By the time of its release , major Brazilian newspapers were already aware of the band 's existence , and advance copies sent to them were generally met with positive reviews . Artur G. Couto Duarte , writing for O Estado de Minas , described Sepultura 's soundscapes as " stories describing barren worlds where disease , hunger , torture and death reign supreme " . Folha de S.Paulo 's Sérgio Sá Leitão pointed out Sepultura 's increasing compositional skills , drawing attention to how the band 's occasional use of restraint benefited their songs as a whole .
The international pop press also took notice of Brazil 's premiere metal group . Top British weeklies such as the Melody Maker and NME wrote lengthy articles on the band , praising them . A Melody Maker journalist wrote : " Sepultura is [ ... ] a Brazilian metal band which seems to be in the verge of getting big - maybe even bigger than Slayer , their only true rival . " Genre @-@ specific magazines also reacted positively to the group . Germany 's Thrash elected Sepultura the best band in the world , defeating major contenders Metallica and Slayer . Sepultura were also prominently featured on the biggest metal publications of the time , such as Kerrang ! , Rock Hard and Metal Forces . Select gave the album a five out of five rating , referring to it as a " a classic example of rock music as pure cathartic release " and that " few metal LPs released this year , if any , will triumph over Arise . "
Arise was the first Sepultura record to enter the Billboard charts , at number 119 . It was also the first to gain a music certification — Arise went gold in 1992 for selling 25 @,@ 000 copies in Indonesia . By 1993 , the album had sold 1 million units around the globe . In 2001 , it won a second certification : silver in the United Kingdom , for selling in excess of 60 @,@ 000 copies .
Throughout the years , Arise has been continuously praised by the music press , not only as a landmark release of Sepultura 's career , but of extreme metal in general . In November 1996 , Q magazine stated that " Arise remains their thrash high water mark , sounding like an angry man throwing tools at a urinal while reading the Book of Revelations [ sic ] . " AllMusic contributor Eduardo Rivadavia considered Arise as " a classic of the death metal genre . " The album also appeared in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die ( 2006 ) , edited by writer Robert Dimery .
= = Track listing = =
All music composed by Sepultura , except where noted .
= = Chart performance = =
Album - Billboard ( North America )
= = Credits = =
Sepultura
Max Cavalera – vocals , rhythm guitar
Igor Cavalera – drums , percussion
Paulo Jr . – bass guitar
Andreas Kisser – lead guitar
Production
= M @-@ class cruiser =
The M @-@ class cruisers were a class of light cruisers planned , but never built , by Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine before World War II . The ships were designed for commerce raiding in the Atlantic Ocean . The design for the first four ships suffered from a number of problems , and so the fifth and sixth ships were substantially redesigned .
The name of the class is taken from the letter designating the first projected unit . As long as the ships were not named , they were referred to by letters assigned in the chronological order of their planned construction . The first planned unit would have been the thirteenth German cruiser and was therefore listed as cruiser M in the navy 's documents . Had any of the ships been built , the class would have been named after the first completed unit .
= = Development and cancellation = =
The M class was intended for use as a scout for the commerce raiding squadrons envisioned under Plan Z. The ships design process started in 1936 ; the ships were intended for long @-@ range commerce raiding . They were an improvement over previous designs , which suffered from insufficient range to be effective commerce raiders . However , the requirements placed on the design — high maximum and cruising speeds , long range , heavy armament , and armor sufficient to withstand 15 cm shells , all on a displacement no more than 8 @,@ 000 metric tons — were deemed impossible by the design staff . In July 1937 , the Oberbefehlhaber der Marine ( commander in chief of the navy ) requested proposals from both the naval design staff as well as private dockyards . None of the designs by the dockyards were practical , and so the official design , which only met some of the requirements , was chosen .
During further development of the design , serious flaws became apparent , including the weakness of both the main battery and anti @-@ aircraft armament , as well as the insufficiently thick armor protection . The stepped arrangement of the deck armor wasted space and was therefore impractical . The layout of the propulsion system was also problematic ; both turbines were in the same engine room , and therefore each were vulnerable to disabling if the other was damaged . Their crew spaces were also insufficient for long @-@ range cruises . As a result , the design was heavily modified for the last two ships of the class , Q and R. The initial design borrowed on contemporary British and French ships , the Southampton class and La Galissonnière class , respectively . The distribution of the M @-@ class ships ' side armor was the most obvious influence of the Southampton @-@ class design .
The contract for M was assigned to Deutsche Werke in Kiel under the construction number 263 . N followed at the Kriegsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven , as number 129 . O — construction number 606 — was assigned to Germaniawerft in Kiel , but on 8 August 1939 , the contract was transferred to the Kriegsmarinewerft . P was also assigned to Germaniawerft , under number 607 . Q was assigned to Schichau in Danzig , and the contract for R was awarded to the Deutsche Werke . Only the keels for M and N were laid — in 1938 — but construction was halted on 19 and 21 September
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1939 , respectively . Both hulls were broken up on the stocks shortly thereafter .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The first four M @-@ class ships — M , N , O , and P — were 178 meters long at the waterline , and 183 meters long overall . They had a beam of 17 meters and a draft of 5 @.@ 42 meters standard , 7 @.@ 25 meters forward , and 6 @.@ 03 meters aft . The ships had a designed displacement of 8 @,@ 500 metric tons , but displaced 7 @,@ 800 tons at standard load and 10 @,@ 400 tons fully laden . The ships had a crew of 28 officers and 892 men . They were designed to carry one picket boat , a barge , a launch , and two cutters .
The last two ships — Q and R — were enlarged versions : 188 meters long at the waterline and 196 m overall . Their beams were 1 meter wider , at 18 meters . The ships ' draft was lower at 5 @.@ 4 meters . The ships were designed to displace 9 @,@ 300 tons , and displaced 8 @,@ 568 tons standard . All six ships were to have steel @-@ made , and up to 85 % welded construction . The design called for fifteen watertight compartments and a double bottom for 78 % of the length of the hull .
All six ships were intended to use two sets of Brown , Boveri , & Co. and Wagner turbines or Marine @-@ type turbines built by Germaniawerft and four MAN double @-@ acting 12 @-@ cylinder two @-@ stroke diesels . Q and R however , was equipped with an additional four diesels , for a total of eight . The turbines were powered by four Wagner ultra @-@ high pressure boilers , designed to put out 58 atmospheres of pressure . The propulsion system drove three screws , although four were considered for Q and R. The ships ' electrical power was supplied by four generators that produced 2 @,@ 400 kW at 220 volts .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
All six ships were armed with the same set of weaponry . The primary armament consisted of eight 15 cm L / 55 quick @-@ firing guns mounted in four twin turrets , in superfiring pairs fore and aft . The guns had a total of 960 shells , for 120 rounds per gun . The 15 cm twin turrets were Drh L. C / 34 mounts — the same type as those fitted to the Bismarck- and Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships , as well as a number of other designs . The turrets allowed depression to -10 degrees and elevation to 40 degrees , which enabled a maximum range of 22 @,@ 000 m ( 24 @,@ 000 yd ) . The 15 cm guns had a rate of fire of between 6 and 8 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 100 lb ) rounds per minute , at a muzzle velocity of 875 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 871 ft / s ) . The guns used two propellant charges : a 14 @.@ 15 kg ( 31 @.@ 2 lb ) RPC / 38 fore charge and a 23 @.@ 5 kg ( 52 lb ) main charge in a brass cartridge .
The ships carried four 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 76 anti @-@ aircraft guns in two twin turrets , aft of the main superstructure . The 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were supplied with 1 @,@ 600 shells , for 400 rounds per gun . These guns fired 19 @.@ 8 kg ( 44 lb ) high explosive shells at a rate of fire of 15 to 20 rounds per minute and a muzzle velocity of 950 m / s ( 3 @,@ 117 ft / s ) . The guns could elevate to 80 degrees , which allowed them to hit targets flying at 12 @,@ 400 m ( 40 @,@ 700 ft ) . The M @-@ class ships were also equipped with eight 3 @.@ 7 cm AA guns in twin mounts centered on the superstructure . They had a total of 9 @,@ 600 shells . The anti @-@ aircraft weaponry was supplemented with four 2 cm guns , each of which had 2 @,@ 000 rounds . The ships were also armed with eight deck @-@ mounted torpedo tubes and approximately 60 mines .
The ships were to have been protected with Krupp and Wotan , Hart ( " Wotan " , Hard ) armor plating . The class decks were 20 mm thick , with 35 mm thick sloped deck . The conning tower had a roof that was 50 mm thick and sides 100 mm thick . The inner layer of the armor belt was 50 mm thick in critical areas amidships , and tapered down to zero protection at the stern and bow . The outer layer was 30 mm amidships ; it too tapered down to nothing at both ends of the ships . The gun turrets had the same armor protection as the preceding light cruiser Nürnberg : the sides were 35 mm thick , the faces were 80 mm thick , the roofs ranged in thickness from 20 – 35 mm . The armor protecting the turret barbettes was 60 mm thick .
= Argentodites =
Argentodites is a possible multituberculate mammal from the Cretaceous of Argentina . The single species , Argentodites coloniensis , is known from a single blade @-@ like fourth lower premolar ( p4 ) from the La Colonia Formation , which is mostly or entirely Maastrichtian ( latest Cretaceous ) in age . The p4 is 4 @.@ 15 mm long and bears eight cusps on its upper margin and long associated ridges on both sides . The enamel consists of prisms that are completely or partly surrounded by a sheath and that are on average 6 @.@ 57 μm apart . Zofia Kielan @-@ Jaworowska , who described and named the fossil in 2007 , regarded it as a multituberculate , perhaps a cimolodontan — and thus , a member of a mostly Laurasian ( northern ) group and an immigrant to Argentina from North America — on the basis of the shape of the tooth and features of its enamel . In 2009 , however , two teams argued that Argentodites may in fact be close to or identical with Ferugliotherium , a member of the small Gondwanan ( southern ) group Gondwanatheria ; although their relationships are disputed , gondwanatheres may themselves be multituberculates .
= = Discovery and context = =
Argentodites is known from a single premolar tooth , MPEF 604 , in the collections of the Museo Paleontológico " Egidio Feruglio " in Trelew , Argentina . It is from the middle part of the La Colonia Formation of Chubut Province , Argentina , which is Late Cretaceous ( Maastrichtian and perhaps partly Campanian ) in age . The premolar was described in 2007 by Zofia Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and colleagues as a new genus and species , Argentodites coloniensis . The generic name , Argentodites , combines " Argentina " with the Ancient Greek hodites " traveler " , in reference to the animal 's presumed migration from North America to Argentina , and the specific name , coloniensis , refers to the La Colonia Formation .
= = Description = =
The single known example of Argentodites is a blade @-@ like fourth lower premolar ( p4 ) . It has a length of 4 @.@ 15 mm , height of 2 @.@ 10 mm , and width of 1 @.@ 35 mm . The crown is nearly complete , but the roots are largely missing . Kielan @-@ Jaworowska considered two possible orientations of the tooth — one with the back margin nearly vertically , and the other with the margin inclined backwards — but preferred the former , which made for a more natural placement of the roots . Although the left and right sides of the tooth are almost identical , they believed the tooth is most likely a left p4 , as this would make the lingual ( inner ) side the more convex one , as is usual in the p4 of cimolodontan multituberculates with a large p4 .
The front root is larger than the back one . In side view , the upper and back margins are straight , but the front margin is convex . There are eight cusps arranged in a row on the upper margin , the first of which is located about one third of the tooth 's length from the front margin . Only the last is slightly worn , indicating that the tooth is from a young animal . Long ridges extend from the cusps diagonally toward the front on both the lingual and labial ( outer ) sides of the tooth . The first seven ridges on both sides are connected to the respective cusps , but the eighth ridges do not quite reach their cusp . On both sides of the tooth , there is also a small ridge behind the eighth ridge that extends to the back margin ; these ridges are called the posterolabial and posterolingual ridge . An even smaller ridge is located below the ridge on the lingual side .
The tooth enamel is well preserved over most of the tooth . It consists of prisms — bundles of hydroxyapatite crystalls — with an average diameter of 3 @.@ 8 μm . Most are entirely surrounded by a sheath , but in some the sheath is open . The prisms are slightly curved toward the outer surface of the tooth . Between the prisms , and oriented at an angle of about 45 ° to them , are crystals of interprismatic material . On average , the prisms are 6 @.@ 57 μm apart , so that there are about 27 @,@ 247 per mm2 .
= = Identity = =
Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and colleagues identified Argentodites as a multituberculate , a diverse fossil group from the northern continents ( Laurasia ) that is also known from a few questionable or fragmentary records from the southern continents ( Gondwana ) . They tentatively allocated it to the multituberculate subgroup Cimolodonta on the basis of its enamel microstructure , which particularly recalls Ptilodontoidea ( one of the subgroups of Cimolodonta ) , and the convex front margin of the tooth . On the other hand , the straight back margin resembles the condition in the other major subgroup of multituberculates , the " plagiaulacidans " , and it does not have the highly vaulted upper margin of p4 that is characteristic of Ptilodontoidea . They regarded Argentodites as distinct from MACN @-@ RN 975 , a fragmentary fossil mandible ( lower jaw ) with p4 from the Late Cretaceous Los Alamitos Formation of Argentina , which they identified as a " plagiaulacidan " multituberculate , because the p4 of MACN @-@ RN 975 is rectangular in shape and has fewer cusps . They believed Argentodites to represent an immigrant from North America , but could not determine precisely in which part of the Cretaceous it reached South America .
In a 2009 paper on the affinities of Gondwanatheria , Yamila Gurovich and Robin Beck argue that the difference in shape between MACN @-@ RN 975 and Argentodites is due to extensive wear on the former specimen ; they write that the parts of the p4 that are not worn are virtually identical to the
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Yusef married Zainab Masood ( Nina Wadia ) in an arranged marriage in Pakistan at the age of 17 . Zainab brought shame upon their respective families when she had an affair with Masood Ahmed ( Nitin Ganatra ) . As punishment , Yusef set Zainab on fire , though he claimed it to be his family 's doing and that he tried to save her . Masood rescued Zainab and she divorced Yusef to marry Masood , moving with him to the UK . Yusef later remarried and had a daughter , Afia ( Meryl Fernandes ) .
= = = 2010 – 11 = = =
Yusef first appears when Afia introduces him to her boyfriend Tamwar Masood ( Himesh Patel ) . Tamwar feels he is not good enough for Afia in Yusef 's eyes as he is from a poor background , but Yusef says that does not matter and approves of Tamwar . After Tamwar mentions his mother Zainab Masood 's name , Yusef visits the Masood home and finds the door open . When Zainab sees him , she screams and orders him out . It is revealed they were husband and wife from an arranged marriage when Yusef was 17 , and Yusef 's family had poured oil on her and set her on fire . Yusef says it was his family , not him , and he attempted to save her , revealing bad scarring on his body . Tamwar 's father Masood Ahmed , Tamwar and Afia return home , and Masood attacks Yusef , punching him twice . After Yusef returns , Tamwar asks Masood to speak to Yusef , and when he visits , he finds out Tamwar and Afia are still seeing each other . He gives his blessing for them to be married .
Yusef becomes the local general practitioner for Walford and takes an interest in Denise Fox ( Diane Parish ) . He is later pickpocketed by Janine Malloy ( Charlie Brooks ) . Denise tells Yusef that there have been rumours about him going round , Dot Branning ( June Brown ) is responsible so he goes and talks to Dot ; she ignores him . Zainab tells Yusef that Afia will be welcome to the family but he will not . Yusef reminisces about the past leading to Zainab telling Masood they must stop the wedding . Yusef starts a relationship with Denise .
Yusef encourages Zainab and Masood 's estranged son Syed Masood ( Marc Elliott ) to take the first step in making amends as he is gay , and Syed goes to Tamwar and Afia 's mangni ( engagement party ) . The roof collapses and Syed is hospitalised and Yusef lies to Zainab that Syed could die so she visits him , but his injuries were not serious noticing that Yusef tricked her . Yusef makes out that he is sleeping with Zainab so Masood and Phil Mitchell ( Steve McFadden ) then kidnap Yusef in an attempt to scare him away . Masood threatens to pour petrol over Yusef , though it is only water and leaves him unharmed . When Masood returns home , Yusef has cuts on his face and blames it on Masood . Everyone believes Yusef and Masood is rejected from his home . Yusef convinces Tamwar , Afia and Zainab that Masood should not be at the mehndi . At the wedding , Masood turns up to try to stop it but Tamwar reveals that he and Afia already married . Yusef 's cousin Tariq ( Antony Bunsee ) arrives and he reveals that Yusef started the fire that burnt Zainab .
After hearing news that Syed is trying to find his wife Amira Shah ( Preeya Kalidas ) , Yusef visits her father , Qadim ( Ramon Tikaram ) at his office and offers to avenge his family for causing Amira pain . When Zainab and Yusef attend an event together , people assume they are married and Zainab does not correct them . Afterwards , Yusef admits to Zainab that he has great feelings for her but they should maintain some distance as she is married . Yusef continues to manipulate Zainab and ply her with pills , but she says she wishes to stop taking them , so Yusef crushes up a bottle of pills and conceals them in Zainab 's food . Zainab passes out and is hospitalised , with her family believing she took a deliberate overdose , as was Yusef 's plan . Concerned that he himself is causing Zainab 's worries , Masood divorces Zainab by saying the triple talaq .
Yusef learns that Amira gave birth to Syed 's daughter Yasmin , so persuades Zainab to take a holiday with him and Kamil in Pakistan . While there , he suggests that they move there permanently as a family . On their return to Walford , Yusef learns that Amira has been seeing Syed , so tells Amira that she is not wanted by the Masood family . Amira ignores him and Zainab meets Yasmin , and informs Yusef that she cannot leave Walford after becoming a grandmother . Yusef then puts doubt into the mind of Syed 's boyfriend , Christian Clarke ( John Partridge ) , about Syed 's paternity of Yasmin . Christian then asks Yusef to perform a secret paternity test on Yasmin , however Yusef uses his own DNA for the test , creating a false result . However , his falsification is exposed , leaving the Masood family hostile towards him , and Zainab devastated . Later , Yusef tells Zainab that he told the lies to protect her . She is sceptical , but when Yusef revives Amy Mitchell ( Natalia and Kamil Lipka @-@ Kozanka ) who has almost drowned , Zainab is impressed with Yusef 's caring attitude , but says it does not change things .
Amira goes to Yusef for help , saying she needs him on her side , threatening to tell Zainab that Yusef bought her a plane ticket if he does not help her get Syed back . She convinces Zainab to talk to Yusef , and when Yusef sees 15 @-@ year @-@ old Ben Mitchell ( Joshua Pascoe ) , who has recently come out as homosexual , running out of Christian 's flat , he asks if Christian acted inappropriately . At first Ben says nothing happened but later Ben tells Yusef that Christian touched him , and they tell Ben 's father , Phil . This turns out to be untrue , but leads to Christian leaving Syed and Walford .
Yusef continues to manipulate Zainab , to the point of becoming violent with her . Yusef then tries to encourage Zainab to move to Pakistan , and recruits Amira to manipulate Syed with the same idea . As Zainab starts to disrespect his wishes , Yusef slaps her and apologises as he thought he was going to lose her . Yusef meets up with Tariq and offers him his daughter 's restaurant . Upon discovering that the restaurant doesn 't belong to Yusef , he reveals to Afia that Yusef started the fire involving Zainab . Afia then tells Yusef she knows he started the fire and threatens to tell Zainab if he does not do so first . Yusef admits to Zainab that he started the fire and kicks him out of the house , she later forgives Yusef however . Yusef and Zainab then marry .
After Zainab and Jane argue in the street Zainab and Yusef return home . Zainab slaps Yusef after he says Kamil will be an outcast to him but Yusef slaps Zainab back . Yusef then hastily arranges a flight for himself , Zainab and Kamil to Pakistan , but Zainab purposefully discards her passport to prevent the trip . Yusef then kidnaps Kamil , telling Zainab that he is being kept in a safe place and refuses to let Zainab see him . After about four days of not knowing , Yusef takes Zainab to a café in the High Street , where a relative returns Kamil to Zainab . During the visit , it emerges that Yusef told Bushra 's family that Zainab had a nervous breakdown , which is why he needed to have Kamil looked after . When Yusef takes a call outside the café , Zainab tries to escape with Kamil through an emergency exit in the back of the shop . However , Yusef guessed her plan and was waiting for her outside the exit . As she tried to escape , Yusef warned her that he knows everything , and if she leaves him , he will kill Tamwar and Kamil . Masood races to the restaurant and secretly promises that he 'll do whatever it takes to get her out of her marriage to Yusef . Zainab finally stands up to Yusef and refuses to leave for Pakistan . Yusef attacks her and after learning that Masood has Kamil , retaliates towards Yusef . Yusef drugs Zainab , and the family return to the house . Masood punches Yusef before calling the police . Afia confronts Yusef and orders him to leave . Yusef is later found by Masood at the bed and breakfast with a match and some petrol . Yusef attacks Masood and lights a fire leaving Masood for dead . Shirley Carter ( Linda Henry ) and Christian put the fire out but the fire is later reignited trapping Masood , Phil and Denise inside . Yusef taunts Zainab outside . Zainab lies and tells him that Afia is in the building and he runs in followed by Tamwar . Masood is later rescued and as Yusef remains upstairs he realises that Afia is in fact outside . Realising Zainab tricked him , he briefly smiles , and the floor collapses beneath him and he succumbs to the flames , killing him . The following day , firefighters retrieve his body . He leaves everything to Zainab in his will .
= = Creation and development = =
= = = Casting , introduction and departure = = =
Bhatti was already known to EastEnders executive producer Bryan Kirkwood when he auditioned for the part , as Kirkwood and Bhatti worked on Coronation Street at the same time . Bhatti was the only actor who auditioned for the part of Yusef . In fact , Wadia recommended Bhatti to Kirkwood to play Yusef , as she " thought that he definitely had the quality that Yusef would need — which is a very ambiguous but charming quality ! " Bhatti explained to Digital Spy that the EastEnders cast are very welcoming . He explained : " They 're so welcoming . There 's a lot of joking about .
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I 'm having a great time at EastEnders - it 's a real privilege to be here . I 've known Nitin and Nina Wadia , who plays Zainab , for a very long time and we 've always got on very well . Nitin and I play tense scenes together so it 's nice that we can have a laugh afterwards . "
Yusef is introduced as part of a storyline involving the Masood family . Tamwar dates Afia and when Yusef is introduced to Tamwar 's parents Masood and Zainab , Masood " explodes " with anger at the sight of him , recognising him as a man from their past . Ganatra explained that although Yusef allegedly tried to save Zainab from the fire , all Masood saw was Zainab locked in a burning kitchen : " we are only playing it from each person 's point of view . Yusef is playing it from his point of view that he did try and save her . Masood is saying , ' All I know is that I went back to get her and she had been locked in this kitchen and it was on fire ' . " Patel said the storyline is a shocking one with a clever twist . In March 2011 , Bhatti said he was staying with EastEnders until around June 2011 , and would " see from there " . He made his first appearance on 23 November 2010 . Ganatra spoke at the British Soap Awards 2011 to Digital Spy and praised the impact of Yusef saying , " He 's very much an arch @-@ villain - he 's a great character who 's there to put jeopardy into the Masoods ' relationship . Zainab and Masood have been married for 28 years and they 're mad about each other - for someone to come and destroy that slightly , it 's exciting . It 's exciting for us to play . "
Bhatti 's departure was not announced . When a fire was reported to be happening around Christmas 2011 , rumours emerged from an alleged EastEnders insider that " Yusef has long been tipped as a possible fatality " . The insider added " This is the biggest fire EastEnders has ever seen and there will be casualties . It is such a huge disaster that it will affect most of the families on the show in one way or another . There is a great tradition at EastEnders of captivating Christmas Day storylines and this year is no different . " Yusef 's death aired on 26 December 2011 concluding his storyline .
= = = Personality = = =
On the EastEnders website , Yusef is described as calm , collected , strong @-@ willed , mysterious , loyal to Afia and regretful of his past . Daniel Maier from The Guardian said that Yusef " is clearly a wrong ' un but it 's hard to tell exactly what his game is . You suspect he 's not sure himself . A Baddie Without Portfolio , most of his time seems taken up with malicious glances and general inveigling . " Susan Hill from the Daily Star called Yusef " twisted " , while Tony Stewart from the Daily Mirror called him " smug , deceitful and dangerous " . Wadia opined that Yusef is not evil but much more complex than that , and his personality would be explored during his storyline . Bhatti told Inside Soap that Yusef has " more bad qualities than good " but is insecure because when Zainab left him , it brought shame on his family .
= = = Storyline development = = =
In an interview with Digital Spy , Bhatti described his relationship with his daughter Afia , explaining that they have a " strong bond " and that Yusef would die for his daughter . He said that " it definitely hurts " when he finds out that Tamwar and Afia are already married as he is so close to Afia and she has betrayed him . In an interview with Inside Soap , Bhatti admits that he is sympathetic for his character , Yusef . He said that Yusef is very insecure and that he can understand his behaviour in some ways . Meanwhile , discussing the fan reaction to his character , Bhatti admitted that women have told him that he 's a " bad man " . Bhatti also hinted that Yusef will become more firmly established as a Walford villain over the next few weeks , stating that Yusef does have more bad qualities than good and that fans call him " Dr. Evil " .
Yusef is wrongly accused of having an affair with Zainab , due to his sister @-@ in @-@ law overhearing them speaking . A source said that the whole day turns into a disaster . When Shameem sees Yusef and Zainab together she automatically thinks they 're having an affair and everyone struggles to come to terms with what they have heard . Bhatti has admitted that he is surprised by his status as a heartthrob . Interviewed by Will Payne of the Sunday Mirror , he said that it 's a great compliment however , it was a complete surprise . Bhatti hinted that perhaps women love the character , but he prefer trainers and jeans to smart suits .
= = = = Kidnap = = = =
In April 2011 , it was reported that Masood would kidnap Yusef , pour petrol on him and threaten to set him on fire . Yusef will then go to the Masood 's house and tell Zainab what Masood has done . An EastEnders insider told the News of the World , " Masood has never got over that . Tension has been simmering for a while and leads to an outpouring of violence from Masood that leaves Yusef seriously injured . But Yusef will get his own back . It is a twisted love triangle that will also show the sometimes brutal side of arranged marriages . It 's not clear if their marriage will survive Yusef 's meddling . [ ... ] Yusef obviously wants [ Zainab ] back and will do anything he can to drive a wedge between Masood and Zainab . " Ganatra said that Yusef will turn " very manipulative and very nasty " and Masood finds him as a big threat saying , " He throws a real spanner in the works for Masood . [ ... ] He is doing everything he can to wreck Masood 's life , really , and the way you do that is to get to his family . It 's a very clever way of doing things — it 's not about destroying his family , it 's about winning his family and turning them against him , so that Masood is left isolated and on his own . " Ganatra spoke of the storyline saying , " I think there 's rumours of revenge ! Yusef is a really nice catalyst - he 's a very exciting character to throw into the mix . If it goes that way , it 's more drama for us to play . " The scenes were broadcast on 2 June 2011 with Phil Mitchell also taking revenge alongside Masood .
= = = = Domestic violence = = = =
In late 2011 , Yusef manages to win his former wife back . They later make plans to get married . Nina Wadia explains why Zainab is willing to forgive Yusef . Wadia said to Inside Soap : " He tells Zainab that he was forced to start the fire by his family . Yusef goes on to explain that he knew it was wrong the minute he lit the match , and that he ran into the house to save her . And by the end of this conversation , she finds herself saying to him , ' Let 's get married ' - regardless ! Obviously , it was something I struggled to get my head around . But being burnt in that fire is what they both have in common - and that experience connects them so deeply . She recognises that he made a mistake but also decides that the whole thing was probably her fault , because she walked out on their marriage . " Wadia continued : " It doesn 't look like Zainab 's going to listen . But as Denise leaves , it 's clear she 's torn about what to do . " A short time before their wedding day arrives , Yusef starts to abuse Zainab both physically and mentally . He forbids Zainab to leave the house and later starts using her son , Kamil , to control her . Wadia explains that she wants the storyline to have a positive impact against real @-@ life violence . She told BBC News : " I think the idea behind showing a strong woman like Zainab changing like this is to show that it can happen to even the strongest of women . They can change and they can be manipulated - especially if they 're isolated from their friends and family . The manipulator can take advantage , so it 's to prove that it can even happen to people like her . To be honest , if even one woman rings that Action Line at the end of the show and there 's some difference made to her life , I 'll feel like we 've done our job , " she continued . " It is a serious issue and I 'm glad it 's being highlighted . I hope that it wakes anyone up - not just women , I know that there are abused men out there as well . So if it gives anyone the strength to leave a relationship like that , we 'll have done our job . " The scenes where Yusef refused to let Zainab see Kamil pulled in 8.69m viewers at 7.30pm. BBC Three 's repeat of the episode later secured 994k viewers at 10pm .
Wadia admitted to feeling " emotionally drained " after her scenes with Ace Bhatti . She explained to The People : " It 's very draining . I 'm putting myself into this very dark place which I know sadly is a reality for so many women . Zainab 's confidence has been steadily eroded . She 's feeling isolated and has fallen under Yusef 's control . He wants revenge . She is totally in his power . I had to show this can happen to any woman , no matter how strong she seems . Zainab was strong and not naive , but a woman is vulnerable if the man hits the right psychological weak spots . But both Ace and I have found it hard to do . I 've known Ace for a long time and we 're good friends . He has been wonderful to work with on this and very concerned about me all the way through . " Wadia has been given advice on the storyline from the Roshni refuge in Birmingham , which specializes in abuse within Asian families .
Wadia warns that Yusef will ultimately get worse as time progresses . She said to Inside Soap : " I was filming out on location recently with Ace and a bunch of women came over to him and said , ' God , you 're such a horrible man ! ' It 's funny because Ace is such a sweet man - and you haven 't even seen the worst of Yusef yet ! " Wadia continued : " Let 's just say that what happens is the complete opposite of what you want to see . Zainab and Yusef share a dark and twisted love , and she definitely has feelings for him . It 's not true and pure like what she used to have with Masood - and if Yusef manages to get her back to Pakistan , it will be the end for her . I wouldn 't be surprised if Zainab ends up in some sort of home to recover from everything that 's going to happen . "
Nitin Ganatra who plays Masood Ahmed explains to Digital Spy Masood 's reactions when he discovers that Yusef has taken Kamil away . " Masood goes crazy over this ! " Nitin replies . " I 've got kids myself , and I know I 'd react the same way if I found out that some other guy had taken my child to somebody 's house who the child doesn 't even know . Masood is still the only person who can see Yusef for what he really is , so he goes into a blind panic over the situation . Masood calls in the police , and they make sure that Kamil is safe , but we 're left to wonder if he will stay that way . The police say that they can 't get involved in domestic disputes , so Masood says , ' Well , what about the father 's rights ? If a mother reported this , you 'd see it as kidnap ' . I thought that was a great line and really interesting - I think in that moment , Masood 's representing a lot of fathers who have separated or divorced and don 't have access to their children in the same way . "
Asked what Masood 's reactions are over Zainab 's abuse , Nitin says : " Masood tells Denise , ' It 's just another one of Zainab 's dramas ' , but then there comes a point where he sees bruises on Zainab . Then Masood becomes very concerned for Zainab in a very genuine way . It also might reignite something between the two of them as well , as they have to work together to solve these problems . " The scenes showing Masood and Denise race to the café where Kamil was raised 8 @.@ 26 million viewers . BBC Three 's repeat screening later secured 781k viewers at 10pm .
= = Reception = =
Bhatti revealed that since appearing in EastEnders , people have come up to him in the street and called him a " bad man " , and that fans call him " Dr Evil " . In May 2011 , Bhatti was nominated in the Best Newcomer category at the TV Quick Awards and the storyline where he tries to destroy the Masoods ' marriage was nomated for Best Storyline . Bhatti was surprised to hear that Yusef is liked mainly by women , but in an interview with the Daily Mirror , he admits that he is nothing like Yusef in real life . BBC News branded Yusef as " Zainab 's sinister first husband " , elsewhere , Metro.co.uk described Yusef as a " deceptive doctor " . Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror said that Zainab sending Yusef into the blazing building was a " stroke of genius " . Simon also said that it 's unknown what Yusef is hoping to achieve with his " one @-@ man reign of terror . Being married to a woman he can ’ t stand , with a son he doesn ’ t want . " She added : " It doesn ’ t sound like much of a game @-@ plan . "
= Gilbert Thomas Carter =
Sir Gilbert Thomas Carter KCMG ( 14 January 1848 – 18 January 1927 ) was an administrative officer in the Royal Navy and a colonial official for the British Empire .
Starting as a Collector of Customs for the Gold Coast , he then became a Treasurer of the Gold Coast and the Gambia . Moving on to colonial administration , he started as the Administrator for the Gambia , where he dealt with the aggression of the native king of Gambia .
His next post was as Governor for the Lagos Colony where he negotiated treaties with the local chiefs which protected Christian missionaries and ending human sacrifies . He later served as the Governor for The Bahamas and Barbados and finally as the Governor for Trinidad and Tobago .
= = Early life and Naval career = =
Carter was born in Topsham , Devon in 1848 . He was the only son of Commander Thomas Gilbert Carter ( R.N. ) . He was educated at the Royal Hospital School in Greenwich . Carter joined the Royal Navy in 1864 , serving as an Assistant Clerk on the HMS Frederick William , being transferred in 1866 to HMS Malacca . On 5 July 1866 , Carter was promoted to Clerk , while still serving on HMS Malacca . Between 1867 and 1869 , he served on a variety of ships as a clerk , until 1 December 1869 ( while serving on HMS Pembroke ) , when he was promoted to Assistant Paymaster ( being added to the Navy List ) .
Following a posting to HMS Royal Adelaide for the first 9 months of 1870 , Carter 's final posting was to the Colonial steamer Sherbro from August 1870 . During his time on the Sherbro , he was involved with the Third Anglo – Ashanto War on the Gold Coast . When Elmina was sold to the British by the Dutch Government , he was a commissioner , responsible for valuing the stores and ordnance left behind by the Dutch . He married Susan Laura Hocker in 1874 ( later having 3 sons and 2 daughters — his son Humphrey was Director of the Cambridge University Botanic Garden ) . He retired from the Navy on 21 July 1875 .
= = Leeward Islands , the Gold Coast and the Gambia = =
Carter became the private secretary to Sir George Berkeley , Governor of the Leeward Islands , in 1875 . In August 1879 , he was appointed Collector of Customs and Treasurer of the Gold Coast , an appointment he kept until 1882 . From 1882 until December 1888 , Carter administered the Settlement on the Gambia as a Treasurer and Postmaster . From 1886 , he was acting Administrator of the Colony of the Gambia , and on 1 December 1888 he was appointed Administrator on that colony 's separation from Sierra Leone . While working in the Gambia , he was appointed Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George ( CMG ) on 1 January 1890 .
In 1891 , the native King of Gambia had been organising abusive acts towards the British colonists . Carter ( from his official residence in Bathurst ) sent an envoy with a message that if the abuses continued , " he might expect a visit of a disciplinary nature from the marine forces of the Queen of England . " The King sent the envoy back mutilated , with a message : " This is the King 's answer . " In response , Carter sent three British gunboats to avenge the outrage upon the envoy .
= = Lagos ( Nigeria ) = =
Carter was appointed Governor and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Colony of Lagos on 3 February 1891 . Carter ordered an attack on the Ijebu " in the interest of civilization " in 1892 . Afterwards , he continued to justify this attack as a war to end slavery and promote civilization .
Carter travelled to various parts of Yorubaland , accompanied by soldiers , in an attempt to demonstrate the might of the British . Carter was not well received at Oyo , and the Egba chiefs advised him not to interfere with slavery , while the Ibadan chiefs said they were afraid that their slaves would " assert their freedom by running to the Resident " – and they refused to sign a treaty with Carter that would impose a Resident on the city .
However , in January 1893 the Egba chiefs signed a Treaty of Independence with the British Government . It was agreed that freedom of trade between the Egba Nation and Lagos was to be guaranteed by the British Government , in return for which no road would be closed without the approval of the Governor . They further agreed that complete protection and " every assistance and encouragement " would be afforded to all Christian ministers . The Crown agreed that " no annexation on any portion of Egba Nation shall be made by her Majesty 's Government without the consent of the lawful authorities of the nation , no aggressive action shall be taken against the said nation and its independence shall be fully recognized . " The Egba chiefs further promised to abolish human sacrifices .
He was promoted Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George ( KCMG ) on 3 June 1893 , " in recognition of his services in conducting a mission to the Yoruba country which resulted in the negotiation of important treaties and brought to an end a long @-@ standing war . "
Carter was given Ife works of art in 1896 by the recently crowned King of Ife , Adelekan , in the hopes that a decision in his favour would be made about the resettlement of Modakeke residents outside the city . These works ( including three known as the Ife marbles ) , were sent by Carter to Europe .
= = Later life , retirement and death = =
Carter was transferred to Bahamas as Governor and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief in 1898 , and after a temporary transfer to Trinidad , in July 1904 he was transferred to the Barbados as Governor and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief .
Carter met Gertrude Codman Parker ( born 6 February 1875 ) in the spring of 1903 when she was travelling in the Bahamas with her parents . She became his second wife on 25 August 1903 , when they were married in the Church of the Advent in Boston .
Carter continued working in senior colonial positions — being appointed the Governor and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Island of Barbados and its Dependencies in 1904 , and as Administrator of the Government of the Colony of Trinidad and Tobago , and its Dependencies in the absence of the Governor from 1907 until 1910 , whereupon he retired .
In 1919 , he changed his surname to Gilbert @-@ Carter . In the early 1920s , he moved back to Barbados , and lived at Ilaro Court , which had been designed and built by Lady Gilbert Carter . He died there on 18 January 1927 . When his will was probated on 22 March of that year , the total value of his effects was £ 6859 9s 11d .
= BLT cocktail =
A BLT cocktail is a cocktail made out of the contents of a BLT sandwich , ( bacon , lettuce and tomato ) , blended together with vodka . Variants on the drink include utilizing bacon vodka instead of traditional vodka , substituting liquor for lettuce , incorporating bacon salt , or including cucumber flavored vodka .
The drink gained popularity in the United States in 2009 . Varieties of the beverage were served in regions including Colorado , Florida , Maine , Massachusetts , Missouri , Oregon , and Virginia . It has also achieved notice in Canada and the United Kingdom .
Frank Bruni , the chief restaurant critic for The New York Times , gave a favorable review in 2007 to a BLT cocktail made by chef Gordon Ramsay . An Associated Press review in 2009 of the BLT cocktail made by mixologist Todd Thrasher of Alexandria , Virginia described it as " a drink full of mind @-@ bending , taste bud @-@ tingling turns " . Food critics have given the beverage favorable reviews in The Boston Globe , The Times of London , and the Toronto , Canada @-@ based newspaper The Globe and Mail .
= = History = =
In 2007 , Frank Bruni , the chief restaurant critic for The New York Times , favorably reviewed a BLT cocktail made by chef Gordon Ramsay . The Oregonian reported in July 2009 that in an establishment in Oregon called the Gilt Club , mixologists coated the rim of the glass the BLT cocktail is served in with salt combined with crushed bacon . A variety of the BLT cocktail was invented in Aspen , Colorado and gained notice in August 2009 . A different version was invented in Alexandria , Virginia and was popularized through coverage in August 2009 in the Associated Press . A 2010 report by the Omaha World @-@ Herald noted that a version of the drink made in Omaha , Nebraska substituted liquor in the acronym " BLT " instead of lettuce .
The Bulletin noted that a 2011 edition of the drink produced in Oregon was made with bacon vodka manufactured on site at the restaurant The Blacksmith . A report by The Sarasota Herald @-@ Tribune in April 2012 observed that a variety on the cocktail made by mixologist Paul Yeomans in Florida was concocted utilizing bacon salt and tomato water , infused with cucumber vodka . This version was a favorite selection among customers at The Table Creekside in Sarasota , Florida . The Food Network recommended additional ingredients including lemon juice , bourbon , Worcestershire sauce , and horseradish .
= = Analysis = =
In an August 2009 article for The Globe and Mail , Sarah Boesveld noted it was too difficult for individuals to make bacon vodka at home , and instead recommended they utilize bacon salt to make their own BLT cocktails or Blood Mary drinks with bacon . In a 2009 restaurant review by the Associated Press , they described the BLT cocktail made by mixologist Todd Thrasher of Alexandria , Virginia as , " a drink full of mind @-@ bending , taste bud @-@ tingling turns . A huge ice cube , made with lettuce water , anchors a glass rimmed with bacon salt . Clear tomato water and bacon @-@ infused vodka are mixed and poured over the lettuce cube . " Metromix called this edition of the beverage , " a zesty mix of bacon @-@ infused vodka , tomato water and iceberg lettuce ice " . Woman 's Day magazine featured the concoction by Todd Thrasher in its article on " the most outrageous drinks " in the United States .
The drink was served in 2010 as part " Gastro art event " recommended by The Times . The newspaper compared the beverage to " the minimalism of Rothko " . The Willamette Week reviewed the Gilt Club in Portland , Oregon in 2011 , and chose the BLT cocktail as part of its " Ideal Meal " feature . Bintliff 's in Ogunquit , Maine served the beverage in 2012 to Amy K. Anderson of Maine Magazine , who commented , " The BLT cocktail has a wood smoke flavor that makes for very easy sipping . " In October 2012 , Nilina Mason @-@ Campbell of Société Perrier characterized the BLT cocktail served at the establishment Wildwood in northwest Portland ,
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Oregon as one of the highlights of its menu . The Daily Mail highlighted the beverage in a March 2013 article about increased use of garnish and featured it in a list of " Top Five Craziest Cocktails " .
= New York State Route 23 =
New York State Route 23 ( NY 23 ) is an east – west state highway in the eastern portion of New York in the United States . It extends for 156 @.@ 15 miles ( 251 @.@ 30 km ) from an intersection with NY 26 in the Central New York town of Cincinnatus to the Massachusetts state line in the Berkshire Mountains , where it continues east as that state 's Route 23 . Along the way , it passes through many communities , including the cities of Norwich and Oneonta . Outside of the communities , the route serves largely rural areas of the state and traverses the Catskill Mountains in the state 's Central New York Region . NY 23 crosses the Hudson River at Catskill via the Rip Van Winkle Bridge .
Sections of what is now NY 23 were part of unsigned legislative routes as early as 1908 ; however , NY 23 itself was not assigned until 1924 . At the time , the route extended from Oneonta to Massachusetts and followed a slightly different alignment from Cairo to Claverack via Hudson that took the route along modern County Route 23B ( CR 23B ) in eastern Greene County . NY 23 was extended west to Norwich in the mid @-@ 1920s and to NY 26 in northwestern Chenango County in 1930 . The route was gradually moved onto its current alignment between Cairo and Claverack in the 1950s and 1960s , and realigned on its western end in 1984 to serve Cortland County .
= = Route description = =
NY 23 has three distinct sections : its western third in Central New York and the Central New York Region ( formerly Leatherstocking ) , the middle in the Catskills , and east of the Hudson River . Most of the route is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) ; however , some sections are either locally maintained or owned by other agencies . In the city of Norwich , NY 23 is entirely city @-@ owned and maintained . Farther east in the city of Oneonta , the route is city @-@ maintained from the western city line to James F. Lettis Highway . Finally , the Rip Van Winkle Bridge and its approaches are maintained by the New York State Bridge Authority ( NYSBA ) .
= = = Central New York = = =
The highway begins at a junction with NY 26 in Cincinnatus , a town in eastern Cortland County . It heads east across the Otselic River and through the hamlet of Lower Cincinnatus before curving to the northeast and crossing into Chenango County very soon afterward . Across the county line , it continues northeast through a lightly developed valley surrounding Brakel Creek to the Pharsalia State Wildlife Management Area , where it connects with CR 42 , a highway that was once part of NY 23 . From here , the route heads southeastward along another valley , this one surrounding Canasawacta Creek , to the city of Norwich , the county seat of Chenango County . It heads east – west across the city on Pleasant and Rexford streets , passing through mostly residential areas and intersecting with NY 12 at Broad Street .
On the eastern fringe of Norwich , NY 23 passes over the Chenango River and leaves the valley holding the river and the city , utilizing a gap in the valley wall formed by Ransford Creek . The waterway ends shortly afterward ; however , the route continues on , winding its way eastward into the town of New Berlin and the small hamlet of South New Berlin , situated in another valley surrounding the Unadilla River . Here , it connects to NY 8 , another major north – south route . The route crosses the river just east of South New Berlin , putting it into the equally hilly and rural Otsego County . After 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) of isolated areas , NY 23 encounters the village of Morris , the first of several villages along the route . In the village center , it briefly joins NY 51 along Morris ' main street .
Beyond Morris , the route continues in an easterly direction with a generally southern trend through rolling farmland until its turns south again at the Laurens hamlet of West Laurens . A brief easterly turn 5 miles ( 8 km ) later at West Oneonta takes it across Otego Creek to a junction with NY 205 on the eastern side of the creek 's valley . NY 23 joins NY 205 here , and the two highways enter the western outskirts of the nearby city of Oneonta . At Chestnut Street , the first intersection that the route has in the city 's vicinity , NY 23 leaves NY 205 to follow Chestnut Street . While NY 205 continues south toward the National Soccer Hall of Fame , NY 23 heads east toward downtown Oneonta . Just one block later , however , it meets NY 7 , which comes in from the southwest on Oneida Street . NY 7 turns east at this point to follow NY 23 into the city limits .
The two routes serve as Oneonta 's main street , following Chestnut and Main streets across the city 's western and central areas . Along the way , NY 7 and NY 23 pass Hartwick College and serve Oneonta 's central business district . NY 23 breaks from NY 7 just northeast of downtown to follow James F. Lettis Highway , a four @-@ lane divided highway , south into the southern half of the city . As it heads south on the arterial , it connects to Interstate 88 ( I @-@ 88 ) at an interchange on the northern bank of the Susquehanna River . NY 28 — which overlaps with I @-@ 88 from Oneonta to exit 17 northeast of the city — leaves the freeway here , following NY 23 across the river to a large commercial district on the south bank . NY 28 leaves NY 23 here to proceed to the southwest while NY 23 goes eastward past several large strip malls and big @-@ box retailers on its way out of both Oneonta and Otsego County .
= = = Catskills = = =
In the adjacent Delaware County , NY 23 initially follows a generally easterly routing through the Charlotte Creek valley . Here , the land gets more forested and the amount of houses decrease as it crosses the county . After Davenport , a hamlet 8 miles ( 13 km ) east of Oneonta , the road begins to climb onto the Catskill Plateau . By the time it intersects NY 10 at the village of Stamford , it has already reached an elevation of 1 @,@ 820 feet ( 555 m ) above sea level . Not far to the east of the NY 10 junction , it crosses the West Branch of the Delaware River , by this point a small brook as the river 's source is located just 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the north . It maintains this elevation during a brief , 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) foray into Schoharie County that leads the route around a pair of 3 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 914 m ) mountains situated south of the county line .
Elevation drops slightly upon reaching the hamlet of Grand Gorge within the town of Roxbury , located just above a small pond alongside NY 30 that gives rise to the Delaware 's East Branch . NY 23 intersects NY 30 in the hamlet 's center before making a sharp bend to the south as it approaches the Schoharie Reservoir , located 3 miles ( 5 km ) southeast of Grand Gorge . The route passes by the reservoir 's southern tip before it enters Greene County and the town of Prattsville . Just inside the county , a bridge carries the highway over Schoharie Creek and into the next community , the hamlet of Prattsville . Pratt Rock , a series of rock carvings depicting the life of Zadock Pratt — the tanner and politician who lent his name to the town — is located just east of the hamlet .
Southeast of Prattsville hamlet , NY 23A splits off from NY 23 to continue along Schoharie Creek while the latter climbs in elevation again along Batavia Kill . Shortly past Red Falls , all crossings of the creek come to mark the Blue Line that delineates the Catskill Park . The route remains to the north of the creek even as it passes the Windham Mountain ski area and NY 296 comes in from the south . However , it crosses it several times and is within the park as it reaches its highest point , 1 @,@ 940 feet ( 591 m ) at the pass next to Windham High Peak where the Long Path crosses the road . From here , NY 23 begins a long descent down the Catskill Escarpment , losing most of the elevation it had gained since leaving Oneonta . As it does so , the route provides sweeping , panoramic views of the Capital District and points north , east and west . Along this stretch is Five State Lookout , a vista providing views of five states and four mountain ranges , including the Adirondack foothills and Green Mountains in Vermont .
Having reached the floor of the Hudson Valley , NY 23 assumes a southeast @-@ trending route through the town of Cairo . It comes close to the hamlet of Cairo , but bypasses it on a four @-@ lane divided highway that takes it around the northern fringe of the community . As it runs around Cairo , the route connects to NY 145 and briefly overlaps NY 32 , the major north – south state route on the west side of the Hudson River . NY 23 continues as a divided highway through mostly forested areas to the town of Catskill , where it crosses Catskill Creek and has an indirect intersection with the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 87 ) . Not far to the southeast is the village of Catskill , the county seat of Greene County . NY 23 bypasses this community as well , connecting to U.S. Route 9W ( US 9W ) and NY 385 at junctions in lightly populated areas north of the village prior to crossing the Hudson River on the Rip Van Winkle Bridge .
= = = East of the Hudson = = =
Once across the bridge and into Columbia County , the highway encounters NY 9G near the Olana State Historic Site in western Greenport . The two highways briefly overlap until NY 9G continues north with NY 23B to follow NY 23 's old course into and through the city of Hudson . NY 23 continues to the southeast , bypassing Hudson well to the south and serving Columbia – Greene Community College , located in an otherwise forested area of Greenport . After 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , the route meets US 9 at an isolated junction due south of Hudson . US 9 and NY 23 overlap for 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) across more open but still largely undeveloped areas to a small , unnamed community on the western edge of Bell Pond , a small waterbody in the northeast corner of the town of Livingston .
In the center of the hamlet , US 9 and NY 23 encounter a complex intersection that features a total of four routes . At the junction , US 9 continues to the southwest while NY 82 continues southeast along NY 23 's course . NY 23 , meanwhile , picks up US 9 's routing , overlapping with NY 9H in a northerly direction that takes both highways across Taghkanic Creek and into the equally rural town of Claverack . The routes remain overlapped into the hamlet of Claverack , where NY 23B comes in from the west and finishes its alternate loop of NY 23 . At the same junction , NY 23 leaves the north – south NY 9H to resume an east – west alignment toward the Massachusetts state line .
Shortly after the NY 9H junction , NY 217 splits off to the northeast toward Philmont . The road continues southeastward from NY 217 , crossing over Claverack Creek and leaving the built @-@ up hamlet of Claverack for countryside more open and less rugged than that in the Catskills . It proceeds generally easterly across mostly undeveloped fields to Martindale , a small community at the interchange linking NY 23 to the Taconic State Parkway . From here , NY 23 follows a creek valley southeast and east into Hillsdale , where the route connects to NY 22 , a north – south highway that closely parallels New York 's eastern state line for most of its length . Almost 3 miles ( 5 km ) to the east , NY 23 reaches the state line , where it becomes Massachusetts Route 23 as it serves the bi @-@ state Catamount Ski Area .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and designation = = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 5 , an unsigned legislative route that extended from Kingston in the south to Mohawk in the north . From Oneonta to Grand Gorge , Route 5 utilized modern NY 23 . The portion of what is now NY 23 from Grand Gorge to Prattsville was designated as part of Route 38 in 1909 while the segment between the Delaware – Greene County line and Catskill ( via modern CR 23B ) became Route 5 @-@ a in 1911 . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 38 was realigned to enter Grand Gorge from the northeast on modern NY 30 while Route 5 @-@ a was renumbered to Route 47 and extended northwest to Grand Gorge over the former routing of Route 38 .
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the Oneonta – Grand Gorge segment of legislative Route 5 and all of Route 47 became part of NY 23 , which continued east from Catskill to the Massachusetts state line southwest of Great Barrington , Massachusetts . It initially overlapped with NY 10 ( later US 9W ) northward along modern NY 385 to Athens , where it crossed the Hudson River via a ferry to Hudson . It continued east from Hudson on what is now NY 23B to Claverack , where it joined its modern alignment to Massachusetts . NY 23 was extended westward to NY 12 in Norwich in the mid @-@ 1920s . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 23 was extended west along a previously unnumbered roadway to NY 26 in northwest Chenango County . From Norwich to North Pharsalia , NY 23 followed its modern alignment ; between North Pharsalia and NY 26 , NY 23 was routed on modern CR 42 .
= = = Realignments = = =
On July 2 , 1935 , the Rip Van Winkle Bridge over the Hudson River between Catskill and Greenport was opened to traffic . It became part of a realigned NY 23 after the Athens – Hudson ferry shut down in the late 1940s . NY 23 utilized modern NY 23B between the bridge and Hudson . Plans were made in the early 1950s to construct a southern bypass of the city of Hudson between the Rip Van Winkle Bridge and NY 23 midway between Claverack and Hollowville . Construction on the portion of the highway between the bridge and US 9 south of Hudson began in the mid @-@ 1950s and was completed in the late 1950s as a realignment of NY 23 . Ultimately , this was the only section that was built ; as a result , NY 23 overlapped with US 9 and NY 9H to reach its former alignment in Claverack .
NY 145 was extended eastward along NY 23 from Cairo to Catskill c . 1940 . Both routes were realigned in the 1960s to follow a new arterial between Cairo and the Rip Van Winkle Bridge in Catskill . The first segment of the highway , a northerly bypass of the hamlet of Cairo , opened c . 1961 . The remainder of the arterial was completed in the mid @-@ 1960s . NY 145 was truncated back to Cairo on January 1 , 1970 . Much of NY 23 's former routing between Cairo and the Catskill village line is now CR 23B ; however , a 0 @.@ 63 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 01 km ) segment in Jefferson Heights between exit 21 of the New York State Thruway and a town road named Austin Acres is state @-@ maintained as NY 911V , an unsigned reference route .
In July 1984 , NY 23 was realigned west of North Pharsalia to follow a new highway between NY 26 in Cincinnatus and North Pharsalia . The length of the Chenango County portion of the new alignment was 8 @.@ 40 miles ( 13 @.@ 52 km ) , roughly double that of NY 23 's old routing ( 4 @.@ 39 miles or 7 @.@ 07 kilometres ) . The 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) of state highway mileage for the new road in Chenango County came from NY 23 's former routing and NY 319 near Norwich , both of which were transferred to Chenango County after the new highway was completed .
= = Suffixed routes = =
NY 23A ( 34 @.@ 56 miles or 55 @.@ 62 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 23 through Greene County . The route separates from NY 23 near Prattsville , passes through the northern portion of Catskill State Park , and ends at US 9W in Catskill south of where US 9W meets NY 23 . It was assigned in the mid @-@ 1920s .
NY 23B ( 6 @.@ 71 miles or 10 @.@ 80 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 23 in western Columbia County . The route separates from NY 23 south of Hudson and rejoins its parent east of the village in Claverack . It was assigned in the late 1950s .
= = Major intersections = =
= Special Project =
" Special Project " is the fourteenth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 166th episode overall . The episode aired on NBC in the United States on February 9 , 2012 . It was written by Amelie Gillette and was directed by David Rogers .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) returns from her maternity leave , and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) must select employees to accompany Dwight to Tallahassee after he is sent on an assignment . Meanwhile , Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) receives a beanie from warehouse worker Val ( Ameenah Kaplan ) and is unsure if she intended it as a romantic gift or simply one of friendship .
" Special Project " introduced a six @-@ episode arc which featured several of the office workers working on a special project for Sabre in Tallahassee , Florida . The episode received largely positive reviews from critics , with many reviewers looking forward to the " special projects " storyline . The ending scene featuring Cathy 's phone conversation about Jim and Pam 's marriage has also received significant attention from critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Special Project " drew 5 @.@ 16 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 5 rating / 6 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , marking a three @-@ tenths drop in ratings from the previous episode , " Jury Duty , " and becoming one of the lowest @-@ rated episodes of the series . Despite this , it was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Just as Pam Halpert 's ( Jenna Fischer ) maternity leave ends and Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) also returns , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) is assigned with the task of forming a team and traveling down to Florida for three weeks to help Sabre launch a chain of retail stores . He and Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) must select employees to accompany Dwight to Tallahassee . At first Dwight chooses Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) , Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) , Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) , Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) , and Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) , but Andy refuses to let so many essential employees leave for three weeks . While letting Dwight have Darryl and Phyllis , Andy chooses Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) , Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) and Cathy Simms ( Lindsey Broad ) to join the team instead , upsetting Dwight . Dwight then prematurely announces the picks and deliberately riles up the employees , hoping to change the team . Andy decides to let people convince him why they should go before making his final decision .
Meanwhile Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) receives a text from Robert California inviting him on the trip to Tallahassee . After unsuccessfully trying to back out via text , Jim and Pam both agree Jim should just go . During Jim 's request session with Andy and Dwight , Jim shows the texts from California , shocking both Andy and Dwight , making it all but official that Jim will be going to Tallahassee . The final team includes Cathy , Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) , Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) and Jim , infuriating Dwight . At first he tries to convince the members to change their minds , but after realizing they all have excellent ideas for the project , he is content with the team .
Erin expresses frustration that Andy is still with Jessica . After Andy and Dwight jointly choose her for the project team , she relates in a talking head that she is not going to return to Scranton once she arrives in Florida . At the end of the episode , it is revealed that Cathy has ulterior motives for the trip , intending to seduce Jim while the two are in Florida together , stating , during a cell phone conversation to an unidentified friend , that " ... Definitely we will . It 's three weeks in Tallahassee . What else is there to do ? "
Darryl discovers warehouse worker Val ( Ameenah Kaplan ) has knitted him a beanie . Unsure if she intended it as a romantic gift or simply one of friendship , Darryl decides to find out by giving her a Valentine 's Day gift of an expensive pair of cashmere ladies ' gloves with a romantic card . Upon discovering that Val had knitted a beanie for everyone
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filters may be constructed to have any of the bandforms possible with lumped elements ( low @-@ pass , band @-@ pass , etc . ) with the exception of high @-@ pass , which is usually only approximated . All filter classes used in lumped element designs ( Butterworth , Chebyshev , etc . ) can be implemented using a distributed element approach .
There are many component forms used to construct distributed element filters , but all have the common property of causing a discontinuity on the transmission line . These discontinuities present a reactive impedance to a wavefront travelling down the line , and these reactances can be chosen by design to serve as approximations for lumped inductors , capacitors or resonators , as required by the filter .
The development of distributed element filters was spurred on by the military need for radar and electronic counter measures during World War II . Lumped element analogue filters had long before been developed but these new military systems operated at microwave frequencies and new filter designs were required . When the war ended , the technology found applications in the microwave links used by telephone companies and other organisations with large fixed @-@ communication networks , such as television broadcasters . Nowadays the technology can be found in several mass @-@ produced consumer items , such as the converters ( figure 1 shows an example ) used with satellite television dishes .
= = General comments = =
The symbol λ is used to mean the wavelength of the signal being transmitted on the line or a section of line of that electrical length .
Distributed element filters are mostly used at frequencies above the VHF ( Very High Frequency ) band ( 30 to 300 MHz ) . At these frequencies , the physical length of passive components is a significant fraction of the wavelength of the operating frequency , and it becomes difficult to use the conventional lumped element model . The exact point at which distributed element modelling becomes necessary depends on the particular design under consideration . A common rule of thumb is to apply distributed element modelling when component dimensions are larger than 0.1λ. The increasing miniaturisation of electronics has meant that circuit designs are becoming ever smaller compared to λ . The frequencies beyond which a distributed element approach to filter design becomes necessary are becoming ever higher as a result of these advances . On the other hand , antenna structure dimensions are usually comparable to λ in all frequency bands and require the distributed element model .
The most noticeable difference in behaviour between a distributed element filter and its lumped @-@ element approximation is that the former will have multiple passband replicas of the lumped @-@ element prototype passband , because transmission line transfer characteristics repeat at harmonic intervals . These spurious passbands are undesirable in most cases .
For clarity of presentation , the diagrams in this article are drawn with the components implemented in stripline format . This does not imply an industry preference , although planar formats ( that is , formats where conductors consist of flat strips ) are popular because they can be implemented using established printed circuit board manufacturing techniques . The structures shown can also be implemented using microstrip or buried stripline techniques ( with suitable adjustments to dimensions ) and can be adapted to coaxial cables , twin leads and waveguides , although some structures are more suitable for some implementations than others . The open wire implementations , for instance , of a number of structures are shown in the second column of figure 3 and open wire equivalents can be found for most other stripline structures . Planar transmission lines are also used in integrated circuit designs .
= = History = =
Development of distributed element filters began in the years before World War II . A major paper on the subject was published by Mason and Sykes in 1937 . Mason had filed a patent much earlier , in 1927 , and that patent may contain the first published design which moves away from a lumped element analysis . Mason and Sykes ' work was focused on the formats of coaxial cable and balanced pairs of wires – the planar technologies were not yet in use . Much development was carried out during the war years driven by the filtering needs of radar and electronic counter @-@ measures . A good deal of this was at the MIT Radiation Laboratory , but other laboratories in the US and the UK were also involved .
Some important advances in network theory were needed before filters could be advanced beyond wartime designs . One of these was the commensurate line theory of Paul Richards . Commensurate lines are networks in which all the elements are the same length ( or in some cases multiples of the unit length ) , although they may differ in other dimensions to give different characteristic impedances . Richards ' transformation allows a lumped element design to be taken " as is " and transformed directly into a distributed element design using a very simple transform equation .
The difficulty with Richards ' transformation from the point of view of building practical filters was that the resulting distributed element design invariably included series connected elements . This was not possible to implement in planar technologies and was often inconvenient in other technologies . This problem was solved by K. Kuroda who used impedance transformers to eliminate the series elements . He published a set of transformations known as Kuroda 's identities in 1955 , but his work was written in Japanese and it was several years before his ideas were incorporated into the English @-@ language literature .
Following the war , one important research avenue was trying to increase the design bandwidth of wide @-@ band filters . The approach used at the time ( and still in use today ) was to start with a lumped element prototype filter and through various transformations arrive at the desired filter in a distributed element form . This approach appeared to be stuck at a minimum Q of five ( see Band @-@ pass filters below for an explanation of Q ) . In 1957 , Leo Young at Stanford Research Institute published a method for designing filters which started with a distributed element prototype . This prototype was based on quarter wave impedance transformers and was able to produce designs with bandwidths up to an octave , corresponding to a Q of about 1 @.@ 3 . Some of Young 's procedures in that paper were empirical , but later , exact solutions were published . Young 's paper specifically addresses directly coupled cavity resonators , but the procedure can equally be applied to other directly coupled resonator types , such as those found in modern planar technologies and illustrated in this article . The capacitive gap filter ( figure 8 ) and the parallel @-@ coupled lines filter ( figure 9 ) are examples of directly coupled resonators .
The introduction of printed planar technologies greatly simplified the manufacture of many microwave components including filters , and microwave integrated circuits then became possible . It is not known when planar transmission lines originated , but experiments using them were recorded as early as in 1936 . The inventor of printed stripline , however , is known ; this was Robert M. Barrett who published the idea in 1951 . This caught on rapidly , and Barrett 's stripline soon had fierce commercial competition from rival planar formats , especially triplate and microstrip . The generic term stripline in modern usage usually refers to the form then known as triplate .
Early stripline directly coupled resonator filters were end @-@ coupled , but the length was reduced and the compactness successively increased with the introduction of parallel @-@ coupled line filters , interdigital filters , and comb @-@ line filters . Much of this work was published by the group at Stanford led by George Matthaei , and also including Leo Young mentioned above , in a landmark book which still today serves as a reference for circuit designers . The hairpin filter was first described in 1972 . By the 1970s , most of the filter topologies in common use today had been described . More recent research has concentrated on new or variant mathematical classes of the filters , such as pseudo @-@ elliptic , while still using the same basic topologies , or with alternative implementation technologies such as suspended stripline and finline .
The initial non @-@ military application of distributed element filters was in the microwave links used by telecommunications companies to provide the backbone of their networks . These links were also used by other industries with large , fixed networks , notably television broadcasters . Such applications were part of large capital investment programs . However , mass @-@ production manufacturing made the technology cheap enough to incorporate in domestic satellite television systems . An emerging application is in superconducting filters for use in the cellular base stations operated by mobile phone companies .
= = Basic components = =
The simplest structure that can be implemented is a step in the characteristic impedance of the line , which introduces a discontinuity in the transmission characteristics . This is done in planar technologies by a change in the width of the transmission line . Figure 4 ( a ) shows a step up in impedance ( narrower lines have higher impedance ) . A step down in impedance would be the mirror image of figure 4 ( a ) . The discontinuity can be represented approximately as a series inductor , or more exactly , as a low @-@ pass T circuit as shown in figure 4 ( a ) . Multiple discontinuities are often coupled together with impedance transformers to produce a filter of higher order . These impedance transformers can be just a short ( often λ / 4 ) length of transmission line . These composite structures can implement any of the filter families ( Butterworth , Chebyshev , etc . ) by approximating the rational transfer function of the corresponding lumped element filter . This correspondence is not exact since distributed element circuits cannot be rational and is the root reason for the divergence of lumped element and distributed element behaviour . Impedance transformers are also used in hybrid mixtures of lumped and distributed element filters ( the so @-@ called semi @-@ lumped structures ) .
Another very common component of distributed element filters is the stub . Over a narrow range of frequencies , a stub can be used as a capacitor or an inductor ( its impedance is determined by its length ) but over a wide band it behaves as a resonator . Short @-@ circuit , nominally quarter @-@ wavelength stubs ( figure 3 ( a ) ) behave as shunt LC antiresonators , and an open @-@ circuit nominally quarter @-@ wavelength stub ( figure 3 ( b ) ) behaves as a series LC resonator . Stubs can also be used in conjunction with impedance transformers to build more complex filters and , as would be expected from their resonant nature , are most useful in band @-@ pass applications . While open @-@ circuit stubs are easier to manufacture in planar technologies , they have the drawback that the termination deviates significantly from an ideal open circuit ( see figure 4 ( b ) ) , often leading to a preference for short @-@ circuit stubs ( one can always be used in place of the other by adding or subtracting λ / 4 to or from the length ) .
A helical resonator is similar to a stub , in that it requires a distributed element model to represent it , but is actually built using lumped elements . They are built in a non @-@ planar format and consist of a coil of wire , on a former and core , and connected only at one end . The device is usually in a shielded can with a hole in the top for adjusting the core . It will often look physically very similar to the lumped LC resonators used for a similar purpose . They are most useful in the upper VHF and lower UHF bands whereas stubs are more often applied in the higher UHF and SHF bands .
Coupled lines ( figures 3 ( c @-@ e ) ) can also be used as filter elements ; like stubs , they can act as resonators and likewise be terminated short @-@ circuit or open @-@ circuit . Coupled lines tend to be preferred in planar technologies , where they are easy to implement , whereas stubs tend to be preferred elsewhere . Implementing a true open circuit in planar technology is not feasible because of the dielectric effect of the substrate which will always ensure that the equivalent circuit contains a shunt capacitance . Despite this , open circuits are often used in planar formats in preference to short circuits because they are easier to implement . Numerous element types can be classified as coupled lines and a selection of the more common ones is shown in the figures .
Some common structures are shown in figures 3 and 4 , along with their lumped @-@ element counterparts . These lumped @-@ element approximations are not to be taken as equivalent circuits but rather as a guide to the behaviour of the distributed elements over a certain frequency range . Figures 3 ( a ) and 3 ( b ) show a short @-@ circuit and open @-@ circuit stub , respectively . When the stub length is λ / 4 , these behave , respectively , as anti @-@ resonators and resonators and are therefore useful , respectively , as elements in band @-@ pass and band @-@ stop filters . Figure 3 ( c ) shows a short @-@ circuited line coupled to the main line . This also behaves as a resonator , but is commonly used in low @-@ pass filter applications with the resonant frequency well outside the band of interest . Figures 3 ( d ) and 3 ( e ) show coupled line structures which are both useful in band @-@ pass filters . The structures of figures 3 ( c ) and 3 ( e ) have equivalent circuits involving stubs placed in series with the line . Such a topology is straightforward to implement in open @-@ wire circuits but not with a planar technology . These two structures are therefore useful for implementing an equivalent series element .
= = Low @-@ pass filters = =
A low @-@ pass filter can be implemented quite directly from a ladder topology lumped @-@ element prototype with the stepped impedance filter shown in figure 5 . The filter consists of alternating sections of high @-@ impedance and low @-@ impedance lines which correspond to the series inductors and shunt capacitors in the lumped @-@ element implementation . Low @-@ pass filters are commonly used to feed direct current ( DC ) bias to active components . Filters intended for this application are sometimes referred to as chokes . In such cases , each element of the filter is λ / 4 in length ( where λ is the wavelength of the main @-@ line signal to be blocked from transmission into the DC source ) and the high @-@ impedance sections of the line are made as narrow as the manufacturing technology will allow in order to maximise the inductance . Additional sections may be added as required for the performance of the filter just as they would for the lumped @-@ element counterpart . As well as the planar form shown , this structure is particularly well suited for coaxial implementations with alternating discs of metal and insulator being threaded on to the central conductor .
A more complex example of stepped impedance design is presented in figure 6 . Again , narrow lines are used to implement inductors and wide lines correspond to capacitors , but in this case , the lumped @-@ element counterpart has resonators connected in shunt across the main line . This topology can be used to design elliptical filters or Chebyshev filters with poles of attenuation in the stopband . However , calculating component values for these structures is an involved process and has led to designers often choosing to implement them as m @-@ derived filters instead , which perform well and are much easier to calculate . The purpose of incorporating resonators is to improve the stopband rejection . However , beyond the resonant frequency of the highest frequency resonator , the stopband rejection starts to deteriorate as the resonators are moving towards open @-@ circuit . For this reason , filters built to this design often have an additional single stepped @-@ impedance capacitor as the final element of the filter . This also ensures good rejection at high frequency .
Another common low @-@ pass design technique is to implement the shunt capacitors as stubs with the resonant frequency set above the operating frequency so that the stub impedance is capacitive in the passband . This implementation has a lumped @-@ element counterpart of a general form similar to the filter of figure 6 . Where space allows , the stubs may be set on alternate sides of the main line as shown in figure 7 ( a ) . The purpose of this is to prevent coupling between adjacent stubs which detracts from the filter performance by altering the frequency response . However , a structure with all the stubs on the same side is still a valid design . If the stub is required to be a very low impedance line , the stub may be inconveniently wide . In these cases , a possible solution is to connect two narrower stubs in parallel . That is , each stub position has a stub on both sides of the line . A drawback of this topology is that additional transverse resonant modes are possible along the λ / 2 length of line formed by the two stubs together . For a choke design , the requirement is simply to make the capacitance as large as possible , for which the maximum stub width of λ / 4 may be used with stubs in parallel on both sides of the main line . The resulting filter looks rather similar to the stepped impedance filter of figure 5 , but has been designed on completely different principles . A difficulty with using stubs this wide is that the point at which they are connected to the main line is ill defined . A stub that is narrow in comparison to λ can be taken as being connected on its centre @-@ line and calculations based on that assumption will accurately predict filter response . For a wide stub , however , calculations that assume the side branch is connected at a definite point on the main line leads to inaccuracies as this is no longer a good model of the transmission pattern . One solution to this difficulty is to use radial stubs instead of linear stubs . A pair of radial stubs in parallel ( one on either side of the main line ) is called a butterfly stub ( see figure 7 ( b ) ) . A group of three radial stubs in parallel , which can be achieved at the end of a line , is called a clover @-@ leaf stub .
= = Band @-@ pass filters = =
A band @-@ pass filter can be constructed using any elements that can resonate . Filters using stubs can clearly be made band @-@ pass ; numerous other structures are possible and some are presented below .
An important parameter when discussing band @-@ pass filters is the fractional bandwidth . This is defined as the ratio of the bandwidth to the geometric centre frequency . The inverse of this quantity is called the Q @-@ factor , Q. If ω1 and ω2 are the frequencies of the passband edges , then :
bandwidth <formula> ,
geometric centre frequency <formula> and
<formula>
= = = Capacitive gap filter = = =
The capacitive gap structure consists of sections of line about λ / 2 in length which act as resonators and are coupled " end @-@ on " by gaps in the transmission line . It is particularly suitable for planar formats , is easily implemented with printed circuit technology and has the advantage of taking up no more space than a plain transmission line would . The limitation of this topology is that performance ( particularly insertion loss ) deteriorates with increasing fractional bandwidth , and acceptable results are not obtained with a Q less than about 5 . A further difficulty with producing low @-@ Q designs is that the gap width is required to be smaller for wider fractional bandwidths . The minimum width of gaps , like the minimum width of tracks , is limited by the resolution of the printing technology .
= = = Parallel @-@ coupled lines filter = = =
Parallel @-@ coupled lines is another popular topology for printed boards , for which open @-@ circuit lines are the simplest to implement since the manufacturing consists of nothing more than the printed track . The design consists of a row of parallel λ / 2 resonators , but coupling over only λ / 4 to each of the neighbouring resonators , so forming a staggered line as shown in figure 9 . Wider fractional bandwidths are possible with this filter than with the capacitive gap filter , but a similar problem arises on printed boards as dielectric loss reduces the Q. Lower @-@ Q lines require tighter coupling and smaller gaps between them which is limited by the accuracy of the printing process . One solution to this problem is to print the track on multiple layers with adjacent lines overlapping but not in contact because they are on different layers . In this way , the lines can be coupled across their width , which results in much stronger coupling than when they are edge @-@ to @-@ edge , and a larger gap becomes possible for the same performance . For other ( non @-@ printed ) technologies , short @-@ circuit lines may be preferred since the short @-@ circuit provides a mechanical attachment point for the line and Q @-@ reducing dielectric insulators are not required for mechanical support . Other than for mechanical and assembly reasons , there is little preference for open @-@ circuit over short @-@ circuit coupled lines . Both structures can realize the same range of filter implementations with the same electrical performance . Both types of parallel @-@ coupled filters , in theory , do not have spurious passbands at twice the centre frequency as seen in many other filter topologies ( e.g. , stubs ) . However , suppression of this spurious passband requires perfect tuning of the coupled lines which is not realized in practice , so there is inevitably some residual spurious passband at this frequency .
The hairpin filter is another structure that uses parallel @-@ coupled lines . In this case , each pair of parallel @-@ coupled lines is connected to the next pair by a short link . The " U " shapes so formed give rise to the name hairpin filter . In some designs the link can be longer , giving a wide hairpin with λ / 4 impedance transformer action between sections . The angled bends seen in figure 10 are common to stripline designs and represent a compromise between a sharp right angle , which produces a large discontinuity , and a smooth bend , which takes up more board area which can be severely limited in some products . Such bends are often seen in long stubs where they could not otherwise be fitted into the space available . The lumped @-@ element equivalent circuit of this kind of discontinuity is similar to a stepped @-@ impedance discontinuity . Examples of such stubs can be seen on the bias inputs to several components in the photograph at the top of the article .
= = = Interdigital filter = = =
Interdigital filters are another form of coupled @-@ line filter . Each section of line is about λ / 4 in length and is terminated in a short @-@ circuit at one end only , the other end being left open @-@ circuit . The end which is short @-@ circuited alternates on each line section . This topology is straightforward to implement in planar technologies , but also particularly lends itself to a mechanical assembly of lines fixed inside a metal case . The lines can be either circular rods or rectangular bars , and interfacing to a coaxial format line is easy . As with the parallel @-@ coupled line filter , the advantage of a mechanical arrangement that does not require insulators for support is that dielectric losses are eliminated . The spacing requirement between lines is not as stringent as in the parallel line structure ; as such , higher fractional bandwidths can be achieved , and Q values as low as 1 @.@ 4 are possible .
The comb @-@ line filter is similar to the interdigital filter in that it lends itself to mechanical assembly in a metal case without dielectric support . In the case of the comb @-@ line , all the lines are short @-@ circuited at the same end rather than alternate ends . The other ends are terminated in capacitors to ground , and the design is consequently classified as semi @-@ lumped . The chief advantage of this design is that the upper stopband can be made very wide , that is , free of spurious passbands at all frequencies of interest .
= = = Stub band @-@ pass filters = = =
As mentioned above , stubs lend themselves to band @-@ pass designs . General forms of these are similar to stub low @-@ pass filters except that the main line is no longer a narrow high impedance line . Designers have many different topologies of stub filters to choose from , some of which produce identical responses . An example stub filter is shown in figure 12 ; it consists of a row of λ / 4 short @-@ circuit stubs coupled together by λ / 4 impedance transformers . The stubs in the body of the filter are double paralleled stubs while the stubs on the end sections are only singles , an arrangement that has impedance matching advantages . The impedance transformers have the effect of transforming the row of shunt anti @-@ resonators into a ladder of series resonators and shunt anti @-@ resonators . A filter with similar properties can be constructed with λ / 4 open @-@ circuit stubs placed in series with the line and coupled together with λ / 4 impedance transformers , although this structure is not possible in planar technologies .
Yet another structure available is λ / 2 open @-@ circuit stubs across the line coupled with λ / 4 impedance transformers . This topology has both low @-@ pass and band @-@ pass characteristics . Because it will pass DC , it is possible to transmit biasing voltages to active components without the need for blocking capacitors . Also , since short @-@ circuit links are not required , no assembly operations other than the board printing are required when implemented as stripline . The disadvantages are ( i ) the filter will take up more board real estate than the corresponding λ / 4 stub filter , since the stubs are all twice as long ; ( ii ) the first spurious passband is at 2ω0 , as opposed to 3ω0 for the λ / 4 stub filter .
Konishi describes a wideband 12 GHz band @-@ pass filter , which uses 60 ° butterfly stubs and also has a low @-@ pass response ( short @-@ circuit stubs are required to prevent such a response ) . As is often the case with distributed element filters , the bandform into which the filter is classified largely depends on which bands are desired and which are considered to be spurious .
= = High @-@ pass filters = =
Genuine high @-@ pass filters are difficult , if not impossible , to implement with distributed elements . The usual design approach is to start with a band @-@ pass design , but make the upper stopband occur at a frequency that is so high as to be of no interest . Such filters are described as pseudo @-@ high @-@ pass and the upper stopband is described as a vestigial stopband . Even structures that seem to have an " obvious " high @-@ pass topology , such as the capacitive gap filter of figure 8 , turn out to be band @-@ pass when their behaviour for very short wavelengths is considered .
= Harold Larwood =
Harold Larwood ( 14 November 1904 – 22 July 1995 ) was a professional cricketer for Nottinghamshire and England between 1924 and 1938 . A right @-@ arm fast bowler who combined unusual speed with great accuracy , he was considered by many commentators to be the finest bowler of his generation . He was the main exponent of the bowling style known as " bodyline " , the use of which during the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) tour of Australia in 1932 – 33 caused a furore that brought about a premature and acrimonious end to his international career .
A coal miner 's son who began working in the mines at the age of 14 , Larwood was recommended to Nottinghamshire on the basis of his performances in club cricket , and rapidly acquired a place among the country 's leading bowlers . He made his Test debut in 1926 , in only his second season in first @-@ class cricket , and was a member of the 1928 – 29 touring side that retained the Ashes in Australia . The advent of the Australian batsman Don Bradman ended a period of English cricket supremacy ; Larwood and other bowlers were completely dominated by Bradman during Australia 's victorious tour of 1930 . Thereafter , under the guidance of England 's combative captain Douglas Jardine , the fast leg theory or bodyline bowling attack was developed . With Larwood as its spearhead the tactic was used with considerable success in the 1932 – 33 Test series in Australia . The Australians ' description of the method as " unsportsmanlike " soured cricketing relations between the two countries ; during subsequent efforts to heal the breach , Larwood refused to apologise for his bowling , since he was carrying out his captain 's instructions . He never played for England after the 1932 – 33 tour , but continued his county career with considerable success for several more seasons .
In 1949 , after years out of the limelight , Larwood was elected to honorary membership of the MCC . The following year he and his family were encouraged by former opponent Jack Fingleton to emigrate and settle in Australia , where he was warmly welcomed , in contrast to the reception accorded him in his cricketing days . He worked for a soft drinks firm , and as an occasional reporter and commentator on Tests against visiting England sides . He paid several visits to England , and was honoured at his old county ground , Trent Bridge , where a stand was named after him . In 1993 , at the age of 88 , he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in a delayed recognition of his services to cricket . He died two years later .
= = Early life = =
Harold Larwood was born on 14 November 1904 in the Nottinghamshire village of Nuncargate , near the coal mining town of Kirkby @-@ in @-@ Ashfield . He was the fourth of five sons born to Robert Larwood , a miner , and his wife Mary , née Sharman . Robert was a man of rigid principles , a disciplinarian teetotaller who was treasurer of the local Methodist chapel . His chief pastime was playing cricket for the village team , which he captained . Harold Larwood 's biographer Duncan Hamilton writes that for Robert , cricket represented , " along with his dedication to God ... the core of his life " .
From the age of five , Harold attended Kirkby Woodhouse school . Over the years this small village school produced , besides Larwood , four other international cricketers who became his contemporaries in the Nottinghamshire county side : William " Dodge " Whysall , Sam Staples , Bill Voce and Joe Hardstaff junior . On leaving the school in 1917 , when he was 13 , Harold was employed at the local miners ' cooperative store , before beginning work the following year at Annesley Colliery in charge of a team of pit ponies . He had shown an early talent for cricket , and began to play for Nuncargate 's second team in 1918 . Playing against experienced adults , in his first season he took 76 wickets at an average of 4 @.@ 9 . By 1920 he was in the first team , alongside his father , playing in plimsolls because the family could not afford to buy him proper cricket boots .
= = Cricket career = =
= = = County recruit = = =
Despite his short stature ( at 18 he was only 5 feet 4 inches tall ) , Larwood had acquired considerable stamina and upper body strength from his long shifts at the mine and could bowl at a disconcertingly fast speed . Among those who watched his rising prowess as a fast bowler was Joe Hardstaff senior , the Nottinghamshire and England cricketer who lived in Nuncargate . Hardstaff , who had worked with Robert Larwood at the mine , suggested to the youthful bowler that he should attend a trial at the county ground . In April 1923 father and son made the journey to Trent Bridge .
In the practice nets , the county players towered over Larwood ; the veteran Test batsman George Gunn thought he looked more like a jockey than a cricketer . At first he bowled badly , and his efforts were unimpressive . As his confidence increased his bowling improved , and committee members began to revise their initial dismissive judgement ; when the session ended , Larwood was offered a playing contract . He accepted instantly ; the terms were 32 shillings ( £ 1 @.@ 60 ) per week — the same as his mining wages — and he was expected , when not playing , to carry out ground staff duties . Robert Larwood was angry that his son had not asked for more generous terms , but according to Hamilton , Harold would have agreed to anything to escape from the mine , even for a single summer .
In the 1923 season , under the eye of the county 's coach , James Iremonger , Larwood concentrated on building his physique and on learning bowling skills . He grew a few inches in height , although he remained short for a fast bowler , and under Iremonger 's regime of diet and exercise he gained weight . Besides his physical development , he learned by incessant practice various bowling arts , among them accuracy in line and length , variation of pace and grip , and deviating the ball in the air to produce swing . That year he played intermittently for the county 's Second XI , and in a match against Lancashire Seconds took 8 wickets for 44 runs .
Larwood was first called for full county duty on 20 August 1924 , against Northamptonshire , at Trent Bridge . He bowled 26 overs in all , conceded 71 runs and took the wicket of Vallance Jupp , an experienced Test all @-@ rounder . His assessment of his performance was negative : " I wasn 't ready " . Iremonger was much more positive , assuring Larwood that his bowling required only fine tuning . Larwood had also gained the support of the county captain , Arthur Carr , a powerful personality who decided that the new recruit had the makings of a future Test match bowler . " The best way to deal with him " , Carr said later , " was as if he was my own son " . Carr played a major part in encouraging and developing the young bowler 's talents , and acted as Larwood 's guiding spirit throughout the latter 's career .
Larwood had to wait until June 1925 for his next county match , which was against Yorkshire at Bramall Lane in Sheffield . Although Nottinghamshire lost the game , Larwood took three wickets , including that of Yorkshire 's leading batsman Herbert Sutcliffe . From that point he became a regular member of the county side ; he finished the season with 73 wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 01 , with best match figures of 11 for 41 against Worcestershire . From time to time he showed good form as a batsman , his best score being 70 against Northamptonshire .
= = = Test cricketer = = =
Larwood began the 1926 county season in good form ; during a drawn match against Surrey , he twice took the wicket of Jack Hobbs , England 's premier batsman and an influential voice with the national selectors . The Australians were in England , to defend the Ashes in a five @-@ match Test series , and Carr had been appointed to captain England . Hobbs was convinced that Larwood was good enough to play for his country ; this recommendation may have prompted the young bowler 's inclusion in a " Test Trial " match at Lord 's , early in June . Larwood took five wickets in the match , but was not selected for the first Test , which in any event was ruined by rain after barely an hour 's play . For the second Test , due to begin at Lord 's on 26 June , the selectors took a gamble and selected the youthful Larwood . His reaction when told by Carr was to protest that he was not good enough ; Carr assured him that he was .
The Lord 's Test was drawn , with neither side coming near to winning . Larwood took three high @-@ profile wickets — Charlie Macartney , Jack Gregory and the Australian captain H.L. Collins — while conceding 136 runs . He thought his performance " wasn 't great ... I wasted a lot of energy " . He was not selected for the Third or Fourth Tests , both of which ended in draws ; after the fourth match Carr , whose leadership had been criticised and whose batting form was poor , was replaced as England 's captain by Percy Chapman for the series ' decisive match at the Oval . Primarily at the urging of Hobbs , Larwood was recalled for this critical game . On a tumultuous final day the Australians , needing 415 to win , were bowled out for 125 , the main bowling honours being shared between Larwood ( 3 wickets for 34 ) and the 49 @-@ year @-@ old veteran Wilfred Rhodes ( 4 for 44 ) , who had first appeared for England in 1899 , five years before Larwood was born . The victory meant that England had secured the Ashes for the first time since 1912 . Among many tributes recognising Larwood 's performance was one from the former England captain Pelham Warner , who predicted a big future , but noted that " he must guard against bowling just short of a length " .
In the 1926 season as a whole , Larwood took 137 wickets at 18 @.@ 31 ; with the bat he scored 451 runs at 12 @.@ 88 . No Tests were played in 1927 ; Larwood 's performances for Nottinghamshire , however , lifted him to the top of the national bowling averages — 100 wickets at 16 @.@ 95 — and he was chosen as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year . His efforts could not quite secure the County Championship title for Nottinghamshire ; they finished second after losing their final match to Glamorgan . The
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leverage our VFX expertise to transform the director ’ s vision onto the big screen and offer larger @-@ than @-@ life experiences to all our viewers . ”
= = Soundtrack = =
Music rights were acquired by T @-@ Series ; the film 's music was composed by Vishal Khurana , with lyrics by Prasoon Joshi . The first song from the film , titled " Jeete Hain Chal , " was released on January 26 , 2016 .
= = = Reception = = =
The soundtrack received a positive critical response . Mohar Basu of The Times of India gave the music a 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 rating , saying that it " is beautiful , pensive , touching and all of it sans melodrama , " and that it " is straight from the soul . " Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama said that " the songs of the film heard are strictly functional and won 't really be into play once the film is through . " He added that the songs " Aankhein Milayenge Darr Se " and " Gehra Ishq " would make the most impression . A critic of The Quint praised the music album and said , " The brilliance of this album is that it features songs which will not hijack and / or disrupt the flow of the narrative . The sound is delicate , fearless , vulnerable and always intimate . "
= = Release = =
The film had a special screening on 16 February 2016 in Mumbai , which was attended by celebrities , including filmmaker Karan Johar ; Subhash Ghai ; Kapoor ’ s father , Anil Kapoor ; Sachin Tendulkar ; Yuvraj Singh ; Sunil Gavaskar ; Ayushmann Khurrana ; and Amit Sadh . The film received a positive response from many Bollywood celebrities , with Tendulkar calling Neerja Bhanot a " Braveheart " and saying that " the people should definitely watch the film . "
The film was released worldwide , in approximately 671 theatres , on 19 February 2016 . Upon release , Neerja received positive reviews , with praise directed to Kapoor 's performance , and was a moderate box office success . The film was also praised by Delhi 's Chief Minister , Arvind Kejriwal , who tweeted that the film 's message was , " Live for others , die for others . " The film emerged as one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films featuring a female protagonist .
Neerja was banned in Pakistan since the film shows Pakistan in a negative light . The Central Board of Film Certification ( CBFC ) maintained that the film should not be considered " banned " in Pakistan because it was not submitted to them .
= = = Tax @-@ free = = =
The film was declared tax @-@ free by Government of Maharashtra and the Government of Madhya Pradesh .
The Finance Minister , Jayant Kumar Malaiya , said , " The movies Neerja and Jai Gangaajal will be free from entertainment tax in Madhya Pradesh on account of International Women 's Day which was celebrated yesterday . " Producer Kasbekar , replied on Twitter , " Big thank you to MP Poonam Mahajan and the Hon CM Devendra Fadnavis in declaring Neerja tax free in Maharashtra . Quick and decisive decision . "
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , Neerja , as well as Kapoor 's performance , won acclaim from film critics around the world .
= = = India = = =
Shubha Shetty @-@ Saha of Mid Day gave the film 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , calling it " a deeply moving experience " , and writing for Kapoor deemed it as " her best performance till date " . Meena Iyer of The Times of India gave Neerja 4 out of 5 stars and said , " Neerja raises a toast to the daunting spirit of India 's daughters ; every one of us must salute Neerja . " Bollywood Hungama gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and said , " As a movie watching experience , Neerja is flawless . There 's not a single false note . " Writing for Hindustan Times , Anupama Chopra awarded 4 out of 5 stars , saying that " Neerja is a truly inspiring story that will grip you from the first frame till the last . " Sarita Tanwar from Daily News and Analysis gave 4 out of 5 stars , writing , " Neerja is quite easily the finest film in recent times ( on par with Talvar ) based on a true story . " Raja Sen from Rediff.com gave 4 out of 5 stars as well and called it " an absolute must @-@ watch , " adding that " Sonam Kapoor is exceptional as Neerja Bhanot . " Suahni Singh of India Today rated the film as a 3 @.@ 5 stars and stated , " Sonam Kapoor delivered her career @-@ best performance as she assuredly plays an abused wife , a beloved daughter and a flight attendant caught in her worst nightmare . "
Rummana of Yahoo ! gave it 4 out of 5 stars , stating , " Neerja deserves loud applause because not only is it an exceptional story of courage but because it is an ode to the undying spirit of humanity " and called Kapoor as " the star of the film " . The Economic Times also gave a 4 out of 5 star rating : " Neerja is a must @-@ see , not just for its cinematic value , but also as a reminder to salute Neerja 's spirit . " Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ News18 gave a 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 rating and said , " Neerja is " a well @-@ intentioned , heartfelt film that pays tribute to a real hero . " Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express also gave the film 3 stars out of 5 , writing that " Minus the songs and the excessive schmaltz , Neerja could have been outstanding . But still , the film holds , and hold us with it . "
= = = Overseas = = =
Manjusha Radhakrishnan of Gulf News rated the film 4 out of 5 stars ; while he criticized the terrorists ' lack of depth and weak points in Neerja 's second half , he wrote that " the climax of the film is powerful and makes up for that blip . " Don Groves of Forbes wrote that " the film fetched $ 626 @,@ 000 on 73 screens in the U.S. , an estimated $ 500 @,@ 000 at 41 locations in the U.A.E. and $ A117,000 ( $ 84 @,@ 000 ) on just 15 screens in Australia , posting healthy per @-@ screen averages . " Jason Klein of Variety declared that DAR @-@ Film Leaderboard was notably absent of Oscar @-@ nominated films , but part of the gap was filled by Neerja . Sonali Kokra of The National praised the film : " Neerja is a great story told well . Mitesh Mirchandani ’ s jerky camerawork does a great job of using the claustrophobic confines of the aircraft to showcase the oppressiveness of the situation and the terror of the hostages . "
= = Box office = =
= = = India = = =
On its first day , the film earned about ₹ 47 million ( US $ 700 @,@ 000 ) net , much of it from Mumbai , Delhi NCR . It collected ₹ 76 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) net on Saturday and ₹ 97 @.@ 1 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 4 million ) on Sunday , with a weekend total of ₹ 210 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 1 million ) .
On Monday , the film netted around ₹ 37 million ( US $ 550 @,@ 000 ) , with only around a 20 % drop in revenue compared to first day . On Tuesday , the film earned around ₹ 34 @.@ 1 million ( US $ 510 @,@ 000 ) . The film 's Wednesday , Thursday and Friday earnings were ₹ 31 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 470 @,@ 000 ) , ₹ 36 million ( US $ 530 @,@ 000 ) , and ₹ 31 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 470 @,@ 000 ) , respectively . On Saturday and Sunday , Neerja had a massive jump and earned ₹ 50 million ( US $ 740 @,@ 000 ) and ₹ 66 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 990 @,@ 000 ) respectively , for a total collection of ₹ 501 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 4 million ) at the box office .
On the 11th day ( Monday ) , Neerja collected ₹ 21 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 320 @,@ 000 ) ; ₹ 19 million ( US $ 280 @,@ 000 ) on Tuesday ; ₹ 18 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 270 @,@ 000 ) on Wednesday ; and ₹ 17 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 260 @,@ 000 ) on Thursday . By the end of its 38 @-@ day run , the film had grossed an estimated ₹ 108 crore ( US $ 16 million ) domestically and ₹ 25 @.@ 9 crore ( US $ 3 @.@ 8 million ) internationally , for an approximate worldwide total of ₹ 135 crore ( US $ 20 million ) .
= = = Overseas = = =
Neerja opened strong , collecting ₹ 1 @.@ 56 million ( US $ 23 @,@ 000 ) in foreign theaters . The film had the highest opening weekend for a female @-@ led film in the U.S. and Middle East ; in the UK , it had the second @-@ highest opening weekend of 2016 .
= = Accolades = =
= Rise of Neville Chamberlain =
The early life , business career and political rise of Neville Chamberlain culminated on 28 May 1937 , when he was summoned to Buckingham Palace to " kiss hands " and accept the office of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . Chamberlain had long been regarded as Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin 's political heir , and when Baldwin announced his retirement , Chamberlain was seen as the only possible successor .
Chamberlain was born in 1869 ; his father was the politician and future Cabinet minister , Joseph Chamberlain . He was educated at Rugby School and Mason College ( now Birmingham University ) ; at neither institution was he particularly successful . After a period in a firm of chartered accountants , the younger Chamberlain spent six years in the Bahamas managing a sisal plantation in a failed attempt to recoup the family fortunes .
After returning to England in 1897 , Chamberlain became a successful businessman in his home city of Birmingham . He was interested in social affairs , and successfully stood for Birmingham City Council in 1911 . He became Lord Mayor of Birmingham in 1915 . His second term was interrupted in December 1916 when Prime Minister David Lloyd George asked him to become Director of National Service . Chamberlain received little support from Lloyd George in the post , and his eight @-@ month tenure sparked a hatred between the two which lasted Chamberlain 's lifetime .
In 1918 , Chamberlain was elected to the House of Commons , at age 49 the oldest man to enter Parliament and later become Prime Minister . After four years on the backbenches , Chamberlain saw rapid promotion , briefly becoming Chancellor of the Exchequer after less than a year as a minister . Chamberlain subsequently spent five years as Minister of Health , securing the passage of many reforming acts . After two years in opposition , Chamberlain became part of Ramsay MacDonald 's National Government , and spent five and a half years as Chancellor , directing Britain 's financial policies as the nation emerged from the Depression . When Baldwin ( who had replaced MacDonald as Prime Minister in 1935 ) retired in 1937 , Chamberlain succeeded him .
= = Early life = =
Chamberlain was born in a house called Southbourne , in the Edgbaston district of Birmingham , England , as the only son of the second marriage of Joseph Chamberlain , who later became Mayor of Birmingham , and who also served as a Cabinet minister . Joseph Chamberlain had fathered two children by his first marriage , Beatrice and Austen . Joseph 's first wife , Harriet , died giving birth to Austen ; Neville 's mother , the former Florence Kenrick , also died in childbirth in 1875 , when Neville was six years old . Florence Chamberlain left three daughters in addition to Neville and her stepchildren . Joseph Chamberlain , in the midst of a highly successful parliamentary career , was often away , leaving the household in the hands of his sister . Young Neville was sent away to school at age eight .
Chamberlain attended Rugby School . Unhappy during his school years , he made no lasting friendships there . Although he did reasonably well in his classes , he was not outstanding academically or athletically , and his father withdrew him from the school four months short of his eighteenth birthday . In later years , as Chamberlain rose to the heights of British politics , he seldom visited the school , did not enrol his own son , and rarely spoke of his time there . Joseph Chamberlain then sent Neville to Mason College ( which later developed into the University of Birmingham ) , which both emphasised the politician 's connection to Birmingham and catered to the interest in science which Neville had shown at Rugby . Neville Chamberlain studied metallurgy and engineering for two years , but had little interest in the subjects . In 1889 his father apprenticed him to a firm of accountants . Within six months , he became a salaried employee .
= = Businessman ( 1890 – 1911 ) = =
Joseph Chamberlain had difficulty living within his means , a problem exacerbated by investment losses in the late 1880s . In 1890 , Sir Ambrose Shea , Governor of the Bahamas , advised him that growing sisal in the Bahamas could restore the family fortunes . Joseph Chamberlain sent his two sons to the Bahamas to investigate in November 1890 , and they recommended the venture . Neville Chamberlain was assigned to manage the undertaking , and in early 1891 , the 22 @-@ year @-@ old took out a lease on 26 @,@ 000 acres ( 110 km2 ) on the island of Andros . He spent most of the next six years on Andros . The soil proved to be unsuitable for growing sisal , and the venture failed . Joseph Chamberlain lost £ 50 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 4 @.@ 2 million today ) . Neville Chamberlain returned to Britain in early 1897 .
Neville Chamberlain resided in his father 's Birmingham house , Highbury , a large part of which was shut up to save on expenses . His father and half @-@ brother spent much of their time in London , where they were serving in the Lord Salisbury Government . Through a family connection , Neville Chamberlain was made a director of Elliot 's Metal Company , which was located within a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of Highbury . Chamberlain took a hands @-@ on approach , exploring all aspects of the business . In November 1897 , he purchased ( with assistance from his family ) Hoskins & Company , a manufacturer of metal ship berths . Chamberlain served as managing director of Hoskins for 17 years , during which time the company prospered . Chamberlain introduced a profit @-@
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sharing scheme at Hoskins which he credited with ensuring industrial peace , and opened a medical clinic for the workers . His business acumen raised him in the eyes of his father , who told a friend that of his two sons , " Neville is really the clever one " and but for his lack of interest in politics , " I would back him to be Prime Minister " .
Chamberlain 's business interests did not completely fill his time , and he indulged his love of natural history and other outdoor pursuits . He spent many Sundays working in the gardens and greenhouses at Highbury . He enjoyed long walks in the countryside , and developed a passion for hunting and fishing . Even as he approached the heights of his political career , he would contribute articles to journals such as The Countryman . In 1931 , he stated , " I really can 't consent to die until they arrange some fishing in the next world . " Chamberlain travelled extensively in Europe and North Africa , made a five @-@ month tour to India , Ceylon and Burma in 1904 – 05 , and according to his biographer , Robert Self , was one of the more travelled Prime Ministers .
Chamberlain also involved himself in civic activities in Birmingham . In 1906 , Chamberlain was a founding member of the University House Committee at Birmingham University , the president of which was his aunt , Mrs Charles Beale , wife of the University 's first Vice @-@ Chancellor . He became an Official Visitor and then a director of the Birmingham General Hospital . He advocated a larger facility for the hospital , a cause in which he was eventually successful , though building did not commence until 1934 and he was still fundraising as Prime Minister . Stating that he was painfully aware of the defects of his own education , he played a part in the establishment of the University of Birmingham , of which Mason Science College became a part . Joseph Chamberlain became the University 's first chancellor ; Neville Chamberlain was appointed to its Council and later to its Board of Governors .
Though he declared himself uninterested in politics , Chamberlain supported his father 's views loyally . He made speeches in support of British policy towards the Boers and when the Boer War broke out , supported the British war effort . During the " Khaki election " of 1900 he made speeches in support of Joseph Chamberlain 's Liberal Unionists , which were allied with the Conservatives and later merged with them . In 1903 , Chamberlain fell in love with Rosalind Sellor , a London professional singer , and repeatedly journeyed to the capital to be with her . The following year , she decided she preferred another man , leaving Chamberlain distraught . In 1910 , he fell in love with Anne Cole , a distant relative by marriage , and the following year married her . Anne Chamberlain proved to be a loyal supporter of her husband and got along well with his maiden sisters . The two had a son and a daughter , with Neville Chamberlain involving himself deeply in the children 's upbringing .
When he became Prime Minister in 1937 Chamberlain paid tribute to his wife :
I never should have become P.M. if I hadn 't had Annie to help me . It isn 't only that she charms every one into good humour & makes them think that a man can 't be so bad who has a wife like that ... But besides all this she has softened & smoothed my natural impatience and dislike of anything with a whiff of humbug about it and I know she has saved me from making an impression of hardness that was not intended . "
= = Early political career ( 1911 – 1922 ) = =
= = = Birmingham politician = = =
While Chamberlain had continued to give speeches at general elections , his entry into politics at age 42 in 1911 stemmed from interest in local politics and the opportunities they offered for social improvement . In 1910 , Chamberlain appeared before a Parliamentary committee , testifying in favour of a bill to merge Birmingham with its suburbs . The bill passed , tripling the size of the city and greatly increasing its population . Chamberlain was very interested in city planning for Birmingham . In November 1911 , standing as a Liberal Unionist , he was elected to Birmingham City Council for All Saints ' Ward , located within his father 's parliamentary constituency . Chamberlain 's party merged with the Conservatives the following year , forming the Unionist Party , which was given its present formal name of the Conservative and Unionist Party in 1925 .
Upon his election , Chamberlain was made chairman of the Town Planning Committee , which sketched out four development schemes covering 15 @,@ 000 acres ( 61 km2 ) in the city , allowing for suburban development while preserving green space . In 1913 , he led a committee looking at housing conditions in Birmingham . It was a forerunner to the parliamentary Unhealthy Areas Committee ( 1919 – 21 ) , of which he was chairman . Chamberlain found that over 100 @,@ 000 housing units lacked toilet facilities , with nearly half of those not even having running water . He advocated gradual reorganisation to abate the problem , and warned that the city government must be ready to take over property if the private sector failed . Under Chamberlain 's direction , Birmingham soon adopted one of the first town planning schemes in Britain which would , in time , be mirrored by other large industrial cities such as Liverpool and Leeds . However , the start of war in 1914 prevented implementation of his plans in Birmingham .
With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Chamberlain became deeply involved in the war effort . In addition to his duties as councillor , Chamberlain helped recruit men for the Royal Warwickshire Regiment and set up funds for injured soldiers . Late in 1914 , he became an alderman of Birmingham , and the following year , became Lord Mayor . Chamberlain 's biographer , Robert Self , suggested that as Joseph Chamberlain had died the previous year , the honour was due to Neville Chamberlain 's hard work rather than to any family influence . As a Lord Mayor in wartime , Chamberlain had a tremendous burden of work , and he insisted that his councillors and officials work equally hard . He set up crèches for workers , stockpiled coal to be distributed to the poor at cost in time of shortage , and reinvigorated Birmingham 's various committees , which were ineffective and engaged in wasteful rivalries . He also chaired the local committee evaluating exemptions from conscription , and stated that he was more lenient than were other members of the tribunal . He halved the Lord Mayor 's expense allowance , and cut back on the number of civic functions expected of the incumbent .
Under Chamberlain , the group which became the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra was initiated . The Lord Mayor persuaded Sir Thomas Beecham to conduct a series of events in Birmingham . The concerts caused Birmingham to be regarded as a cultural centre , and in 1919 , the Orchestra was formally founded . Chamberlain established the Birmingham Municipal Bank , the only one of its type in the country , which aimed to encourage savings to pay for the war loan . The bank proved highly successful and lasted until 1976 , when it was taken over by Lloyds Bank . Chamberlain was re @-@ elected Lord Mayor in 1916 , but he did not complete his term .
= = = Director of National Service = = =
Conscription for the Army , but not for civilian industry , had been brought in in the first half of 1916 . Towards the end of Asquith ’ s Government in 1916 a Manpower Distribution Board had been set up under Neville ’ s brother Austen , but it had no executive powers . After Edwin Montagu had refused the new position of Director of National Service , as he thought the task of building up a new ministry was beyond him , Chamberlain , who was already nationally known , was proposed for the job by his brother Austen . In December 1916 , the new Prime Minister David Lloyd George offered him the job , with responsibility for co @-@ ordinating conscription and ensuring that essential war industries were able to function with sufficient workforces . Though reluctant to leave his post in Birmingham , Chamberlain accepted and resigned as Lord Mayor .
To a great extent Chamberlain 's actual responsibilities were left vague by Lloyd George . On his appointment Lloyd George implied in the House of Commons that " compulsion " ( the industrial equivalent of conscription ) was to be extended to industry and that Chamberlain would soon produce a system of industrial enrolment . But Chamberlain found his work to be handicapped by the Prime Minister 's political manoeuvres . As Chamberlain sought to maximise the number of workers subject to both conscription and compulsion , Lloyd George pledged to the unions that he would oppose any sort of " industrial conscription " . Although Chamberlain repeatedly made proposals for mandatory service , they were turned down by Lloyd George and his War Cabinet . The Army still controlled its own recruitment at this stage , whilst Chamberlain met with resistance from the Ministries of Munitions and Labour . Chamberlain ’ s proposal that all men under 21 be drafted from industry into the Army was blocked by Minister of Munitions Addison ( 19 January 1917 ) , as it would have meant conscripting skilled young men who had already spent time in apprenticeships .
Chamberlain was not made a Privy Councillor . He also spurned advice from Lloyd George about his choice of advisors ( apart from James Stevenson from the Ministry of Munitions who was briefly Deputy for Civil Recruiting ) , instead appointing cronies from Birmingham who were as out of their depth as he was . Chamberlain nearly resigned in June 1917 when , having not been told or consulted , he read in the newspapers that he had been given a new Parliamentary Secretary .
Denied the use of compulsion , Chamberlain had to persuade Britons to volunteer for essential war work , and fit young workers to leave the factories and enter the Army . He had to address mass meetings and issue posters . He found that workers were reluctant to exchange the comforts of home and wartime salaries for the uncertainties of the trenches and a wage of one shilling a day . Chamberlain had little confidence in voluntary schemes and they indeed proved unsuccessful , with only 9 @,@ 000 workers freed to be drafted into the Army at a time when Britain was sustaining huge casualties .
Chamberlain finally resigned on 8 August 1917 . He was thanked warmly by the staff at St Ermin ’ s Hotel where the Ministry was housed . Lloyd George wrote to his family ( in Welsh ) that " Neville Chamberlain has resigned and thank God for that . " He met with considerable sympathy from members of parliament after his resignation . John Dillon , an Irish Nationalist MP , stated that " if Mr. Chamberlain were an archangel , or if he were Hindenburg and Bismarck and all the great men of the world rolled into one , his task would be wholly beyond his powers " . Unionist Party leader Andrew Bonar Law spoke of the " absolutely impossible task " Chamberlain had faced . Auckland Geddes , Chamberlain 's successor , was made a Privy Councillor and had more power and more support from the War Cabinet than he had had .
The relationship between Chamberlain and Lloyd George was thenceforth one of hatred , with Chamberlain calling Lloyd George " that dirty little Welsh Attorney " and being implacably opposed to Lloyd George joining the National Government in the 1930s . Austen Chamberlain , the brother of one opponent and , for a time , the political ally of the other , regretted the enmity , " More 's the pity , for together if they were together they might do a great deal . " Lloyd George would later paint a most unflattering portrait of Chamberlain in his 1935 War Memoirs , claiming that “ Mr Chamberlain is a man of rigid competency . Such men have their uses in conventional times … and are indispensable for filling subordinate posts at all times . But they are lost in an emergency or in creative tasks at any time . ” HIs dislike of Chamberlain is sometimes said to have been based on phrenology , although little contemporary evidence has been found to confirm this . Lloyd George would also have the last laugh in May 1940 , when his speech in the Norway Debate helped bring down Chamberlain ’ s government .
= = = Candidate and backbencher = = =
Having resigned as Director , Chamberlain returned to Birmingham , embittered by his experience in London . He wrote that the experience " reminds me of the Bahamas when the plants didn 't grow " . He had retained his seat on the City Council and busied himself with his civic duties , as well as his business interests and family life . In February 1918 , having declined a third term as Lord Mayor , he was appointed Deputy Mayor .
Chamberlain had formed a close friendship with his cousin , Norman Chamberlain , who had also served on the City Council and who shared the future Prime Minister 's social ideals . In December 1917 , Norman Chamberlain was reported missing in action during the Battle of Cambrai , and in February 1918 , Norman 's body was found — a great blow to Neville Chamberlain , who described Norman as " the most intimate friend I had " . Through the rest of his career , Neville Chamberlain laboured to further the ideals of his cousin , and wrote his biography — the only book he ever wrote . Some historians relate Norman 's death to a hatred of war on his cousin 's part which led to appeasement ; according to Chamberlain 's biographer Nick Smart , the death did not cause Chamberlain to hate World War I , and any influence on his later positions is far from certain .
After some hesitation as to his future career , Chamberlain determined to enter Parliament , though , after his experience with National Service , he feared that he would only have a brief , unsatisfying parliamentary career . Wishing to stand for a Birmingham constituency , he initially had some difficulty in finding one . The Representation of the People Act 1918 gave Birmingham five additional seats , and Chamberlain was adopted as candidate for one of the new seats , Birmingham Ladywood . With the election on hold until the conclusion of the war , he continued his work in Birmingham . Shortly after the Armistice , his sister Beatrice died in the influenza pandemic , and Chamberlain mourned her , " She had the warmest heart . " With the war ended , a general election was called almost immediately . Chamberlain stood as a Unionist ( as the Conservative Party was known from 1912 to 1925 ) and was given the " coupon " or letter of endorsement granted by Coalition party leaders Lloyd George and Andrew Bonar Law to approved candidates , though he declined to make any use of it . He was elected with almost 70 % of the vote and a majority of 6 @,@ 833 . At age 49 , he remains the oldest man to enter Parliament for the first time and later become Prime Minister .
Chamberlain threw himself into Parliamentary work , begrudging the times when he was unable to attend debates and spending much time on committee work . When Austen Chamberlain , Chancellor of the Exchequer in the continued coalition government led by the Liberal Prime Minister , Lloyd George , tried to recruit him to serve on an additional committee , Neville Chamberlain informed his half @-@ brother that he could only serve if it met between midnight and 7 : 30 am . Chamberlain took time to assure the future of the Birmingham Savings Bank , and Parliament passed an act which removed onerous restrictions from the bank . In March 1920 , he was offered a junior post at the Ministry of Health by Bonar Law on behalf of the Prime Minister , but was unwilling to serve under Lloyd George despite Bonar Law 's warnings that Chamberlain , now past fifty , might never be offered another chance to serve in government , as Lloyd George was likely to remain premier for a very long time . Chamberlain was offered no further posts during Lloyd George 's premiership , and when Bonar Law resigned as party leader , Austen Chamberlain took his place as head of the Unionists in Parliament .
Unionist backbenchers had long been restive as Lloyd George granted the Liberals in the Coalition more than their proportionate share of offices . In October 1922 , discontent among Unionists against the Lloyd George Coalition Government erupted . When Unionist MPs were summoned to the Carlton Club for a meeting to receive their instructions for the forthcoming election , which , as in 1918 was to be fought in coalition with the Lloyd George Liberals , they instead rebelled and voted to fight the election as a single party . Lloyd George resigned as Prime Minister . Most Unionist leaders , including Austen Chamberlain , had supported the Coalition and advocated its continuation . They resigned from their government and party offices , with Austen Chamberlain writing , " The meeting today rejected our advice . Other men who have given other counsels must inherit our burden " . Bonar Law was recalled from retirement to lead the Unionists as Prime Minister . Neville Chamberlain was in Canada at the time of the meeting and so was not forced to choose between supporting his brother 's leadership and bringing down a man he despised .
= = Minister ( 1922 – 1937 ) = =
= = = Bonar Law Government ; early ministerial office = = =
Many frontbench Unionists refused to serve under Bonar Law , who was forced to form his Cabinet from lower @-@ ranking party members . Liberal MP Winston Churchill , who would lose his seat in the upcoming election , dubbed Bonar Law 's ministry " a government of the second eleven " . The conflict amongst the Unionists greatly benefited Neville Chamberlain , who rose , over the course of ten months , from backbencher to Chancellor of the Exchequer .
Bonar Law appointed Chamberlain as Postmaster General , a ministerial post below Cabinet level . Bonar Law called an election shortly after his accession , which the Unionists won , and Chamberlain was re @-@ elected , though his prediction that his seat was " safe as houses " proved dubious — his majority was reduced to 2 @,@ 443 . In January 1923 , Chamberlain granted the first operating licence to the British Broadcasting Company , though he opposed its request to broadcast the King 's Speech setting forth the Government 's programme in opening Parliament . Chamberlain feared that allowing the speech to be aired would lead to broadcast of parliamentary debates over the radio , " a prospect which makes one shudder " .
Sir Arthur Griffith @-@ Boscawen , the Minister of Health , had lost his seat in the 1922 General Election and failed to win a by @-@ election in March 1923 . Housing fell within the remit of the Minister of Health . As Chamberlain had experience in developing housing programmes in Birmingham , Bonar Law offered the Health Ministry , within the Cabinet , to him . Chamberlain was initially reluctant , feeling that he should not leave the Post Office before he " had a chance of doing something there " , but decided that " it would not be playing the game " to refuse Bonar Law 's request . There was a great shortage of housing in Britain as a result of pent @-@ up demand from the war years , and almost all housing was rent controlled , giving builders little incentive to build more . Any removal of rent restrictions would be wildly unpopular . Chamberlain introduced a Housing Act in April 1923 that provided subsidies for private companies , and extended rent control until 1925 . He expected rent control to be gradually abolished as the housing supply increased , but the restrictions remained in force until 1933 , when a new scheme was enacted .
In May 1923 , Bonar Law was diagnosed with advanced terminal throat cancer . He immediately resigned , and King George V sent for the Chancellor of the Exchequer , Stanley Baldwin , to form a government . Baldwin served as his own Chancellor for three months while he sought a successor and then promoted Chamberlain to the position . Chamberlain had little time for any policy changes , as he served only five months in the office and did not present a budget . Though the Unionists had an ample majority in the House of Commons and the current Parliament had four years to run , Baldwin decided that a general election was needed and that the Unionists should fight it on the issue of tariff reform . He hoped to gain both a personal mandate as Prime Minister and a policy mandate for his tariff proposals . He miscalculated badly : in the general election held in December 1923 the Unionists remained the largest party in the House of Commons , but were outnumbered by the combined Liberal and Labour MPs . The Baldwin Government retained office until it was defeated when Parliament assembled in January 1924 , and Ramsay MacDonald became the first Labour Prime Minister . Chamberlain 's majority in Birmingham Ladywood was cut yet again , this time to 1 @,@ 500 votes .
With the Unionists in opposition , Chamberlain managed to broker a reconciliation between his brother ( and the other Coalitionists ) and the new leadership , and Austen Chamberlain resumed his place on the front benches . The Labour government fell within months , necessitating another general election . Neville Chamberlain was challenged by Labour candidate Oswald Mosley , who later led the British Union of Fascists . Mosley campaigned aggressively in Ladywood ; and accused Chamberlain of being a " landlords ' hireling " . The outraged Chamberlain demanded that Mosley retract the claim " as a gentleman " . Mosley , whom Baldwin described as " a cad and a wrong ' un " , refused to retract the allegation . It took several recounts before Chamberlain was declared the winner by 77 votes and Mosley blamed poor weather for the result . Chamberlain had not wanted to desert Ladywood , but now deemed the seat impossible to hold and was adopted for Birmingham Edgbaston for the next election ( held in 1929 ) , at which Ladywood fell to Labour by eleven votes . The Unionists won the 1924 election , their last under that name . Baldwin formed a new government , in which Austen was Foreign Secretary and Neville Chamberlain declined to serve again as Chancellor , preferring his former position as Minister of Health .
= = = Minister of Health = = =
Within two weeks of his appointment as Minister of Health , Chamberlain presented the Cabinet with an agenda containing 25 pieces of legislation he hoped to see enacted . Before he left office in 1929 , 21 of the 25 had passed into law . An early , very popular piece of legislation was the Widows , Orphans , and Old Age Pensions Act 1925 , passed after the Chancellor of the Exchequer , Winston Churchill , had agreed to find whatever money was needed to fund the Act . Churchill , recently returned to the Conservative ranks after fifteen years as a Liberal , expressed envy at Chamberlain 's receiving the credit for the Act , and the Minister of Health described his colleague as " a man of tremendous drive & vivid imagination but obsessed with the glory of doing something spectacular which should erect monuments to him " . The Act lowered the age for receiving the government old age pension from 70 to 65 , as well as providing for dependents of deceased workers . Though the pension sum , ten shillings ( today about £ 20 ) per week , was not enough for a pensioner to make ends meet , Chamberlain stated that it was not intended to replace private thrift and that the sum was the maximum financially feasible .
Chamberlain sought the abolition of the elected Poor Law Boards of Guardians , which administered relief and which in some areas were responsible for rates . Many of the Boards were controlled by Labour , and had defied the Government by distributing relief funds to the able @-@ bodied unemployed . Chamberlain 's first step in the direction of abolition was the Rating and Valuation Act 1925 , which greatly reduced the number of authorities which administered rates , as well as imposing uniform standards for assessment . Despite policy differences Chamberlain continued to work with Churchill , who showed him the manuscript of a volume of his heavily autobiographical The World Crisis . Churchill confided that he would have wished for two more years to revise the manuscript ; Chamberlain wrote to his sisters that he could have done the job in two hours — with a pair of scissors .
Though Chamberlain struck a conciliatory note during the 1926 General Strike , in general he had poor relations with the Labour opposition . Future Labour Prime Minister Clement Attlee complained that Chamberlain " always treated us like dirt " , and Chamberlain wrote in April 1927 , " More and more do I feel an utter contempt for their lamentable stupidity . " One Labour MP referred to Chamberlain as " a miniature Mussolini " , and others claimed that Chamberlain 's policies had allowed entire communities to starve , dubbing him the " Minister of Death " . His poor relations with the Labour Party eventually played a major part in his downfall as Prime Minister .
With many mining communities suffering high levels of unemployment following the General Strike , some Poor Law boards granted relief to unemployed workers by misusing provisions intended for exceptional circumstances . These boards used the provisions to give benefits to nearly all applicants . With the system thrown into crisis , Chamberlain sought legislation to permit the Minister of Health to dismiss recalcitrant boards , and later got Parliament to pass further legislation to prescribe criminal penalties to members of such boards . Though no board members were prosecuted , Chamberlain dismissed three boards , replacing their members with his own appointees . Finally , in 1929 , Chamberlain brought in legislation to abolish the Poor Law boards entirely , replacing them with bodies appointed by local authorities . Chamberlain spoke in the Commons for two and a half hours on the second reading of the Bill , and when he concluded , he was applauded by all parties . The Local Government Act 1929 passed by an ample majority , and the Morning Post commented that ( despite Labour attacks ) , it had been found to be impossible to make it unpopular .
= = = Return to opposition = = =
Baldwin called a general election for 30 May 1929 . Chamberlain expected the Conservatives to easily triumph , and thought he would be moved either to the Exchequer or be asked to serve at the Colonial Office , where Joseph Chamberlain had made his mark . Chamberlain easily won in Edgbaston , which he represented for the rest of his life , but the general election resulted in a hung parliament , with Labour holding the most seats . Baldwin and his Government resigned , and Labour leader Ramsay MacDonald took office .
Chamberlain anticipated that Labour would legislate for two years , then seek a general election and be returned with a majority of the seats . Were this to occur , he would be 67 when that term expired , and according to him perhaps too old to hold office . With no ministerial responsibilities , he departed on a three @-@ month tour of East Africa , hoping it might be useful were he to serve in future as Colonial Secretary . As the minority Labour Government attempted to grapple with the onset of the Depression , the Conservative Party indulged in a period of internecine warfare , with Baldwin under attack in the Parliamentary Party and in the press for losing the election , and for being too moderate . Chamberlain attempted to mediate between the press lords and Baldwin , only to learn that the newspaper owners had been trying to influence local constituency organisations behind his back . During the leadership crisis , Chamberlain persuaded Conservative Party chairman John Davidson to resign to relieve the pressure on Baldwin . Chamberlain took the vacant chair himself .
The campaign by the press lords , notably Lord Beaverbrook and Lord Rothermere for " Empire Free Trade " , the removal of tariffs within the Empire , culminated in a crucial by @-@ election at which the press lords ran their own candidate under the banner of the United Empire Party . Robert Topping , the General Director at Conservative Central Office , produced a memorandum showing that Baldwin 's support had eroded tremendously . Chamberlain confronted Baldwin with the memorandum . Baldwin was badly shaken , and told Chamberlain he would resign . After a day , Baldwin reconsidered , and even considered giving up his seat and standing in the by @-@ election himself . When Chamberlain told Baldwin that if he stood and lost , his successor would be badly damaged , Baldwin replied , " I don 't give a damn about my successor , Neville . " Chamberlain resigned as party chairman , though he continued as head of the Conservative Research Department , which he had founded , until his death . Baldwin did not stand in the by @-@ election , but he retained his position and attacked the press barons as wanting " power without responsibility , the prerogative of the harlot through the ages " , and the Conservatives won the election . Baldwin and Chamberlain healed their breach , and Chamberlain helped negotiate the return of the press lords to the Conservative fold . Baldwin led the Conservative Party for another six years . In January 1931 , Churchill , one of Chamberlain 's leadership rivals , left the Conservative front bench in a dispute over policy on India .
In 1931 , the MacDonald Government faced a serious crisis , as the May Report revealed that the budget was unbalanced , with an expected shortfall of £ 120 million . As this information became public , there was a run on the pound , depleting the nation 's gold reserves . The Labour Party refused to consider the massive cuts in unemployment compensation which would be needed to balance the budget , and Prime Minister MacDonald sought support from outside his party . With Baldwin on holiday in France , Chamberlain negotiated for the Conservatives . Chamberlain told MacDonald that the Conservatives would only join a coalition if the full recommended cuts in unemployment compensation were made . Finally , on 24 August 1931 , the Labour Government resigned and MacDonald formed a National Government , supported by most Conservative and Liberal MPs and a minority of the Labour Party . Chamberlain once more returned to the Ministry of Health .
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The National Government was intended as only a temporary expedient , but governed Britain until Chamberlain 's fall in 1940 . In the ensuing General Election , the National Government won 554 of the 615 seats in the House of Commons , with 473 of its supporters Conservative MPs .
= = = Chancellor and Conservative heir apparent = = =
After the election , MacDonald wanted to designate Liberal National Walter Runciman , an advocate of free trade , as Chancellor . Conservatives insisted that a member of their party who favoured tariffs be given the office . Reluctantly , MacDonald designated Chamberlain as Chancellor , and Runciman was made President of the Board of Trade . Chamberlain proposed a 10 % tariff on foreign goods , with lower or no tariffs on goods from the colonies and the Dominions . Joseph Chamberlain had advocated a similar policy , " Imperial Preference " ; his sons found it pleasing and appropriate that Chamberlain could now promote his father 's policies , and Sir Austen Chamberlain wrote to his brother in November 1931 , " Father 's great work will be completed in his children . "
The tariff issue bitterly divided the Cabinet , and threatened to end the National Government . The Cabinet accepted a proposal by Lord Hailsham , Secretary of State for War , that they agree publicly to disagree , a rare suspension of the doctrine of Cabinet collective responsibility . Chamberlain prepared his tariff bill , which exempted the Dominions pending the Ottawa Conference , set for later that year . On 4 February 1932 , he laid it before the Commons . Addressing a packed House , with the Prince of Wales , the Duke of York and Joseph Chamberlain 's third wife in the gallery , and with his brother seated behind him , Chamberlain concluded by referring to his father 's inability to get a similar proposal adopted ,
I think he would have found consolation for the bitterness of his disappointments , if he could have seen that these proposals , which are the direct and legitimate descendants of his own conception , would be laid before the House of Commons , which he loved , in the presence of one and by the lips of another of the two immediate successors to his name and blood .
At the end of the speech , Sir Austen Chamberlain walked down and shook his brother 's hand . The Import Duties Act 1932 passed Parliament easily . The Ottawa Conference that August produced little result , with Chamberlain bringing home several minor bilateral trade agreements , and no general agreement .
In the interim between the Import Duties Act and the Ottawa Conference , Chamberlain presented his first budget , in April 1932 . The gold standard had been abandoned in the early days of the National Government ; the Bank of England sought its restoration . Chamberlain , on advice from his officials , declined to restore the gold standard , realising that a devalued pound would improve the balance of trade . Otherwise , Chamberlain maintained the severe budget cuts that had been agreed to at the inception of the National Government : Chamberlain cut means @-@ tested benefits and public sector wages , which proved to be an unpopular move . He also cut interest rates , which led to a house @-@ building boom in the south of England and supported plans to clear slums . Interest on the war debt had been a major cost in each budget . Chamberlain was able to reduce the interest rate on most of Britain 's war debt from 5 % to 3 @.@ 5 % . Between 1932 and 1938 , Chamberlain halved the percentage of the budget devoted to payment of interest on the war debt .
Chamberlain hoped that a cancellation of the war debt owed to the United States could be negotiated . In June 1933 , Britain hosted the World Monetary and Economic Conference . Describing the event as the " most crucial gathering since Versailles " , Time magazine featured Chamberlain on its cover , referring to him as " that mighty mover behind British Cabinet scenes , lean , taciturn , iron @-@ willed ... It is no secret that Scot MacDonald remains Prime Minister by Prime Mover Chamberlain 's leave . " The Conference came to nothing , when US President Franklin Roosevelt sent word that he would not consider any war debt cancellation . After the US Congress passed the Johnson Act , forbidding loans to nations in default on their debts , Chamberlain felt that Britain could not pay the entire debt , and , as the Act made no distinction between a partial and complete default , the Chancellor entirely suspended Britain 's war debt payments to the US .
In 1934 , Chamberlain was able to declare a budget surplus , and restore many of the cuts in unemployment compensation and civil servant 's salaries he had made after taking office . He told the Commons , " We have now finished the story of Bleak House and are sitting down this afternoon to enjoy the first chapter of Great Expectations . " With MacDonald in decline and Conservative Party leader Baldwin exhibiting his customary lethargy , Chamberlain increasingly became the workhorse of the National Government .
Defence spending had been heavily cut in Chamberlain 's early budgets . By 1935 , faced with a resurgent Germany under Hitler 's leadership , he was convinced of the need for rearmament , and was the driving force behind Defence White Papers advocating rearmament in 1936 and 1937 . Chamberlain especially urged the strengthening of the Royal Air Force , realising that Britain 's traditional bulwark , the English Channel was no defence against air power . Rearmament was an unpopular policy in Britain , and Labour attacked Chamberlain as a warmonger . Labour leader and Leader of the Opposition Clement Attlee spoke against the 1936 Budget as tremendously overspending on defence : " Everything was devoted to piling up the instruments of death . " Churchill also criticised the National Government 's defence plans , though he called for an even faster buildup . Despite the sniping from both sides , Chamberlain was very concerned about the expense of rearmament , " What a frightful bill we do owe to Master Hitler , damn him ! If it only wasn 't for Germany , we should be having such a wonderful time just now . "
In 1935 , MacDonald stood down as Prime Minister , taking Baldwin 's post as Lord President of the Council , and Baldwin became Prime Minister for the third time . Chamberlain remained at the Treasury , almost the only Cabinet member not to be moved in the subsequent reshuffle . Chamberlain was still spoken of as heir apparent , but feared being eclipsed by a younger man . To be seen more as the second man of the Government , he insisted on moving into Number 11 Downing Street , the Chancellor 's traditional residence , which had been occupied by Baldwin during MacDonald 's premiership . Baldwin indicated his desire to remain in office until his 70th birthday in August 1937 , but Chamberlain doubted he would last that long . In the 1935 General Election , the Conservative @-@ dominated National Government lost 90 seats from the massive majority of 1931 , but still retained an overwhelming majority of 255 in the House of Commons . During the campaign , deputy Labour leader Arthur Greenwood attacked Chamberlain for spending money on rearmament , stating that the rearmament policy was " the merest scaremongering , disgraceful in a statesman of Mr. Chamberlain 's responsible position , to suggest that more millions of money needed to be spent on armaments " .
In January 1936 , Edward VIII became king on the death of his father , George V. Chamberlain supported Baldwin 's stance that King Edward must abdicate if he wished to marry the woman he loved , Wallis Warfield Simpson . After the conclusion of the Abdication Crisis , Baldwin announced that he would remain until shortly after the Coronation of King Edward 's successor George VI . King George was crowned on 12 May 1937 ; Baldwin resigned on 28 May , advising the King to send for Chamberlain . Sir Austen did not live to see his brother 's final " climb ... to the top of the greasy pole " , having died two months earlier .
= = Appraisal = =
Polemics such as Guilty Men , which helped demolish Chamberlain 's reputation for his foreign policy as premier , also touched on his record as minister . These books blamed the National Government , in which Chamberlain had taken a leading role , for a failure to rearm . Historian David Dutton suggested in his book on Chamberlain that the damage to his reputation , both as Prime Minister and as a Cabinet minister , could have been contained had the Conservative Party defended his policies , but for 23 years after Chamberlain 's death , the party leaders ( Churchill , Anthony Eden , and Harold Macmillan ) had made reputations as opponents of appeasement , and who were little minded to defend Chamberlain 's record as a minister . The Labour landslide in the 1945 General Election cemented this inclination , with Macmillan stating that it was not " Churchill who had brought the Conservative party so low . On the contrary it was the recent history of the Party , with its pre @-@ war record of unemployment and its failure to preserve peace . "
The adoption of policies using Keynesian economics led to other criticisms of Chamberlain 's ministerial record . Popular wisdom then held that governments could keep unemployment at a low level through spending . Chamberlain 's acceptance of unemployment as an inevitable part of the business cycle was seen as outdated . In 1958 , as Prime Minister , Macmillan described a report advocating limits on public investment as " a very bad paper . Indeed a disgraceful paper . It might have been written by Mr. Neville Chamberlain 's Government . "
In 1961 , a controversial biography of Chamberlain by Conservative Party chairman Iain Macleod defended Chamberlain 's ministerial record . Macleod pointed out that Chamberlain had been a " most valiant " champion of rearmament as Chancellor as early as 1934 , but that little was done . According to Time magazine , Macleod saw Chamberlain as a " humanitarian industrialist , [ a ] progressive Lord Mayor of Birmingham and a dedicated Minister of Health who was damned as a ' Tory socialist ' [ . ] Chamberlain had worked tirelessly in the ' 20s and ' 30s for the ' noble and fascinating ideal ' of fashioning a better life for Britain 's workingman . "
The 1960s and 1970s saw a further reassessment of Chamberlain as a Cabinet minister . Historians such as A. J. P. Taylor pointed out that while the 1930s were a decade of misery for some , for most Britons , it was a time of rising living @-@ standards , with unemployment concentrated in only a few regions of the country . As economists and historians came to question the assumption that the National Government could have spent its way out of unemployment , Chamberlain 's tenure as Chancellor was to an extent rehabilitated . American social historian Bentley Gilbert stated that Chamberlain was " the most successful social reformer in the seventeen years between 1922 and 1939 ... after 1922 no one else is really of any significance . " According to Taylor , writing in 1965 , Chamberlain did more to improve local government while serving as Health Minister than did anyone else in the 20th century .
In the 1980s Margaret Thatcher instituted economic policies reminiscent of Chamberlain 's as Chancellor — control of inflation ( even at the expense of unemployment ) , minimisation of budget deficits , and low rates of direct taxation . This was a point not lost on the Labour Party , and the Trades Union Congress adopted a slogan of " Forwards to the Eighties not Backwards to the Thirties " . Thatcher 's critics denigrated both her policies and those of the 1930s in such comparisons , but she did not care to defend those of the 1930s . Thatcher stated that the historical justifications for her economic positions were the policies of the Victorian era .
Dutton , who traced the progress of Chamberlain 's reputation through the years , wrote in 2001 that Chamberlain 's accomplishments at the Ministry of Health were " considerable achievements by any standards " and stated that they should not be seen in isolation , but as part of " the authentic Chamberlain , a man who was throughout his life on the progressive left of the Conservative party , a committed believer in social progress and in the power of government at both the national and local level , to do good . " Five years later , Chamberlain biographer Graham Macklin quoted Dutton in noting the eclipse of Chamberlain 's earlier accomplishments by his later policy of appeasement :
As [ Chamberlain 's ] entry in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography observed , " Had Chamberlain retired in 1937 , he would not have risked anything . He would have been a considerable figure in British political history , his career a study in success . " But Chamberlain did not retire . He accepted the premiership imagining it to be his crowning glory . As it transpired it was his most bitter personal and political defeat . Thus was the " authentic Chamberlain " — the sincere social reformer — almost entirely obliterated from the popular consciousness by subsequent history and historiography .
= = Parliamentary election results = =
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= = = Books = = =
Craig , F.W.S. ( 1977 ) . British Parliamentary Election Results 1918 – 1949 ( revised ed . ) . The Macmillan Press Ltd .
Dilks , David ( 1984 ) . Neville Chamberlain , Volume 1 : Pioneering and Reform , 1869 – 1929 . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 89401 @-@ 2 .
Dutton , David ( 2001 ) . Neville Chamberlain . Hodder Arnold . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 340 @-@ 70627 @-@ 5 .
Englefield , Dermot ( 1995 ) . Facts About the British Prime Ministers . H. W. Wilson Co . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8242 @-@ 0863 @-@ 9 .
Grigg , John ( 2002 ) . Lloyd George : War Leader . Allen Lane , London . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 5712 @-@ 7749 @-@ 0 .
Macklin , Graham ( 2006 ) . Chamberlain . Haus Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 904950 @-@ 62 @-@ 2 .
Meynell , Wilfrid ( 1903 ) . Benjamin Disraeli : an unconventional biography 1 . Hutchinson & Co .
Self , Robert ( 2006 ) . Neville Chamberlain : A Biography . Ashgate . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7546 @-@ 5615 @-@ 9 .
Smart , Nick ( 1999 ) . The National Government . St. Martin 's Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 22329 @-@ 8 .
Smart , Nick ( 2010 ) . Neville Chamberlain . Routledge . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 45865 @-@ 8 .
Taylor , A.J.P. ( 1965 ) . English History , 1914 – 1945 . Oxford University Press .
Wrigley , Chris ( 2003 ) . A Companion to Early Twentieth @-@ Century Britain . Wiley @-@ Blackwell . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 631 @-@ 21790 @-@ 9 .
= = = Journals = = =
" The World Confers " . Time . 19 June 1933 . Retrieved 26 August 2007 .
" Historical Notes : Requiem for a lightweight " . Time . 8 December 1961 . Retrieved 19 November 2009 .
= = = Online sources = = =
Crozier , Andrew J. ( September 2004 ) . " Chamberlain , ( Arthur ) Neville ( 1869
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got to protect our players . " Gooden charged the mound and tackled Combs . Phillies catcher Darren Daulton followed Gooden and landed a series of punches on the back of Gooden 's head . Darryl Strawberry had been in the Mets clubhouse and rushed the field after Daulton but was himself blindsided by Hayes . Of Daulton , Gooden later said , " Daulton was the guy we wanted most . He 's a cheap @-@ shot artist . We learned that about him last year " , referring to the September 1989 fight . Six players and Phillies coach Mike Ryan were ejected from the game . Eight players were later fined , including the Mets ' Tim Teufel , who said , " It was money well spent . Sometimes you just have to defend yourself and your teammates . "
= = = 1991 – 1994 = = =
The tone of baseball rivalries changed in the early 1990s ; fraternization between players who had moved to different teams or knew each other from various ventures kept baseball rivalries to a " friendly " level . However , Major League Baseball 's 1994 divisional re @-@ alignment solidified the rivalry between the Phillies and Mets . The Pittsburgh Pirates , former members of the National League East and in @-@ state rivals of the Phillies , moved into the newly created National League Central Division , and the Atlanta Braves , former members of the National League West , entered the division . Prior to the switch , the East Division contained seven teams , spread out over a wider geographical area , including the St. Louis Cardinals and the Chicago Cubs , as well as the expansion Florida Marlins . Members of all 28 teams , including the Phillies and Mets , drew together during the 1994 labor stoppage , but players from both teams were on opposite sides of the argument even then . Dykstra claimed that he was losing $ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 46 @,@ 589 in current dollars ) per day for every day he did not work during the strike . While other players chastised Dykstra for his comments , Mets pitcher and player representative John Franco intimated that if someone crossed the picket line , as Dykstra suggested , " ' once we get back in I 'll be the first to kick his [ butt ] [ sic ] ' " .
= = = 1995 – 2000 = = =
The division @-@ rival Braves defeated the Cleveland Indians in the 1995 World Series ; on the way to doing so , they left the rest of the division behind them . The Mets and Phillies finished in second and third places in the division , respectively , with identical 69 – 75 records ; the Braves were the only National League East team to finish above .500 . The Mets and Phillies staged a close battle for second place , with New York coming out ahead , taking 7 victories from the 13 @-@ game season series . Both the Mets and Phillies finished near the bottom of the division in 1996 : the Mets ended the season in fourth place , with a 71 – 91 record , while the Phillies finished last ( 67 – 95 ) . The Mets took a second consecutive close season series from the Phillies , with an identical 7 – 6 record to the prior year . The 1997 Mets improved to 88 – 74 , but that record was only good for third place in the division , as the Braves finished with 101 wins and the Marlins , with a record of 92 – 70 , took the National League wild card and won the 1997 World Series . The Phillies , meanwhile , languished in last place behind the Expos , with a 68 – 94 record , and only managed to take 5 of 12 games from the Mets that season , including a September 9 game at Shea Stadium that was a moment of peace in the rivalry to remember former Phillies player and broadcaster and original Met Richie Ashburn , who died that morning .
The 1998 Mets finished in second place , with the Phillies right behind them in third . The Braves finished with the best record in the National League ( 106 wins ) , but were unable to make it to the World Series . The Mets finished over .500 for the second straight year , aided by their 8 – 4 record against the Phillies . The standings were identical the next season , as the Mets faced the Braves in the 1999 National League Championship Series ; they were defeated , and the Braves lost to the New York Yankees in the ensuing World Series . The Phillies and Mets split the season series , six games each ; the Phillies finished under .500 for the sixth consecutive season with a 77 – 85 record . The Mets won the wild card again in 2000 , finishing one game behind the Braves in the division and defeating the Cardinals in the League Championship Series to face the Yankees in the 2000 World Series . Though the Phillies finished in last place in the division with a 65 – 97 record , they defeated the Mets in the season series , 7 – 6 .
= = 21st century = =
= = = 2001 – 2003 : Unbalanced schedule = = =
Major League Baseball changed its scheduling format in 2001 , further intensifying division matchups throughout the league . The new " unbalanced schedule " allowed for additional games each season between divisional rivals , replacing additional series with teams outside the division . Due to the change , the Phillies and Mets now played each other 17 or more times each season ( 19 times in 2001 ) . Early on , the unbalanced schedule favored the Mets , who had a winning percentage of .540 ( 27 – 23 ) against the division in the 2000 season , while the Phillies managed a .451 mark ( 23 – 28 ) ; the trend held true in 2001 , when the Mets won the season series over the Phillies , 11 – 8 . The scheduling drew criticism both when it was enacted and after the fact , with some analysts even positing that the unbalanced schedule hurt intra @-@ divisional play . This , however , did not affect the Phillies and Mets , as they drew an average of 27 @,@ 926 fans to their games in 2001 . Attendance for the rivalry games increased in 2002 , to 29 @,@ 403 fans per game , as the Phillies bested the Mets in the season series , 10 – 9 , and was strong in 2003 , when they drew nearly 28 @,@ 000 fans per game and the Phillies took their second consecutive season series , 12 – 7 .
= = = 2005 – 2006 : The rivalry intensifies = = =
The signing of former Phillies closer Billy Wagner by the Mets between the 2005 and 2006 seasons was a factor in the intensification of the rivalry . Pat Burrell and Wagner became embroiled in heated media discussions after Wagner departed the Phillies . For the first time in 2006 , both franchises fielded contenders until deep into the season . The Mets steadily led the NL East ( finally supplanting the decade @-@ long division champions , the Atlanta Braves ) , while the Phillies maintained pace as a wild card contender until the very end of the season . The Mets won the head @-@ to @-@ head season matchup , beating the Phillies 11 out of 18 times . The Mets won the division , but lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2006 National League Championship Series .
= = = 2007 : Rollins calls out the Mets = = =
On January 23 , 2007 , Phillies shortstop Jimmy Rollins made a statement that may have set the rivalry in a dead heat : " I think we are the team to beat in the NL East … but that 's only on paper . " Many Mets fans and players laughed at the prediction , especially once the Phillies stumbled out of the gate in April , starting the season at 1 – 6 and posting an 11 – 14 record for the month . The Mets , meanwhile , sat firmly in the NL East lead for almost all of the season .
As the season wore on , Philadelphia developed momentum as a wild @-@ card contender . The Phillies dominated the Mets in head @-@ to @-@ head play , posting three separate series sweeps , including a pivotal sweep of a four @-@ game series at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia during late August which included two walk @-@ off hits by Chase Utley and Ryan Howard and comeback victories for the Phillies in three of the four games . During the season , Burrell also hit two home runs off Wagner , resulting in two blown saves . By the time Philadelphia swept the Mets at Shea Stadium in mid @-@ September , the Phillies were threatening to move from wild @-@ card contender to division leader . With 17 games left to play , the Mets led the Phillies by seven games ; during that final stretch , the Mets won only five games and lost twelve , while the Phillies went 13 – 4 . On the final day of the season , the Phillies won the division , backing up Rollins ' quote . Mets starter Tom Glavine gave up seven runs in the first inning to the Florida Marlins , while the Phillies beat the Washington Nationals behind Philadelphian Jamie Moyer to win the division . Rollins capped his prediction by adding his first career Most Valuable Player award . According to Baseball Prospectus , the Mets ' collapse over the end of the season ranked statistically as the second @-@ worst in baseball history . After the 2007 season , Wagner also said that " [ the ] collapse didn 't come because the Phillies beat us , the collapse came because we played bad " .
= = = 2008 : Beltran fires back , Phillies win Series = = =
On February 16 , 2008 , Mets center fielder Carlos Beltrán made a statement regarding the upcoming season . He stated that " [ without ] Santana , we felt , as a team , that we had a chance to win in our division . With him now , I have no doubt that we 're going to win in our division . I have no doubt in that . We 've got what it takes . To Jimmy Rollins : We are the team to beat . " Inasmuch as Beltran had imitated Rollins ' 2007 preseason prediction , Rollins arrived in camp for Spring training and responded :
" There isn 't a team in the National League that 's better than us . The pressure 's back on them if you ask me . They were on paper the best team in the division last year and they were supposed to win , and they didn ’ t . One , there are four other teams in our division who are going to make sure that doesn 't happen , and two , has anyone ever heard of plagiarism ? That was pretty good , especially coming from him . He 's a quiet guy , so it was probably shocking when he said it . Not shocking in a bad way , like ' Wow , I can 't believe he said that . ' More like , ' Wow , he finally said something because he 's a leader on that team and you definitely need to be a vocal leader . "
Throughout most of the season , the Phillies and Mets battled each other for the NL East lead , along with the Florida Marlins . Going into the final season series between the two teams , former Phillie and special hitting instructor Mike Schmidt fanned the flames of the rivalry with an e @-@ mail to manager Charlie Manuel , later posted for the entire team in the clubhouse .
" One pitch , one at bat , one play , one situation , think ‘ small ’ and ‘ big ’ things result , tough at @-@ bats , lots of walks , stay up the middle with men on base , whatever it takes to ‘ keep the line moving ’ on offense , 27 outs on defense , the Mets know you ’ re better than they are … They remember last year . You guys are never out of a game . Welcome the challenge that confronts you this weekend . You are the stars . Good luck . # 20 . "
Mets players reacted quickly ; David Wright replied , " To each his own . He 's obviously biased in his e @-@ mails or letters . I see a starting pitcher that goes out there and throws like Brett Myers – that works much better than a rally cry from a former player . " This response came a day after Myers defeated the Mets 3 – 0 , throwing eight shutout innings and striking out ten . The Mets won the season series 11 – 7 .
After the final season series , the Mets held onto first place until September 16 , when a September surge moved the Phillies into first place . On September 19 , however , the Phillies lost to the Florida Marlins while the Mets beat the Atlanta Braves to put New York back into the division lead . The results were reversed the following night , and the Phillies regained the top spot , where they would ultimately finish . The Phillies won the National League East on September 27 , while the Mets were eliminated from postseason contention the next day with a 4 – 2 loss to the Florida Marlins in the final game at Shea Stadium . The Milwaukee Brewers defeated the Chicago Cubs that day to clinch the National League wild card . This marked the second year in a row the Mets were eliminated from the playoffs on the last regular @-@ season game . It also marked the first time in baseball history that a team had lost the last game of the season to miss the playoffs after holding a three @-@ game lead in two consecutive seasons . After victories over the Brewers and the Los Angeles Dodgers in the postseason , the Phillies went on to win the World Series over the Tampa Bay Rays .
= = = = 2008 – 2009 offseason = = = =
During the team 's post @-@ parade celebration on October 31 at Citizens Bank Park , Jimmy Rollins took verbal shots at the Mets organization . " A lot of things were made in the offseason " , Rollins said . " We can talk about the New York Mets . They brought in that great pitcher , Johan Santana , but they forgot that it takes more than one player to bring home a championship . "
Nearing the end of 2008 and the thick of the offseason , World Series MVP Cole Hamels was asked by WFAN radio hosts whether he considered the Mets " choke artists " . Hamels replied , " For the past two years they 've been choke artists . " He explained that he considered Mets shortstop José Reyes a showboater for his post @-@ home run displays and that the Phillies had mocked their center fielder Shane Victorino for similar antics during the National League Division Series .
On December 13 , newly signed Mets closer Francisco Rodríguez added his sentiments to the fray . " Of course we 're going to be the frontrunner . Of course we 're going to be the team to beat " , Rodriguez told reporters . " I don 't want there to be a controversy . I don 't want the other team to take it personally , or take it in a bad way . But I 'm a really competitive guy . I like to win . If they ask me , ' Oh , which ballclub is going to win the National League East ? ' It 's going to be the Mets . Easy question . "
= = = 2009 – 2010 = = =
Throughout the first few months of the 2009 season the Mets and Phillies looked as though they would make this year into another close playoff race . By the end of May the Mets had won three out of the four games they played against each other ; however , the Phillies retained a half game lead . Both clubs struggled in June as the Phillies slumped and the New York became plagued with injuries . By the end of June the Phillies had increased their division lead , but only to two and a half games .
This closeness would not continue , however , as the Phillies went on to finish with a 93 – 69 record , winning the division and securing the second seed in the playoffs . The Mets , on the other hand , went 33
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successful application of the cavity magnetron to produce short wavelength pulsed radar . The National Defense Research Committee , established only months earlier by President Franklin Roosevelt , created a central national laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) for the purpose of developing military applications of microwave radar . Lawrence immediately recruited his best " cyclotroneers " , among them Alvarez , who joined this new laboratory , known as the Radiation Laboratory , on November 11 , 1940 . Alvarez contributed to a number of radar projects , from early improvements to Identification Friend or Foe ( IFF ) radar beacons , now called transponders , to a system known as VIXEN for preventing enemy submarines from realizing that they had been found by the new airborne microwave radars .
One of the first projects was to build equipment to transition from the British long @-@ wave radar to the new microwave centimeter @-@ band radar made possible by the cavity magnetron . In working on the Microwave Early Warning system ( MEW ) , Alvarez invented a linear dipole array antenna that not only suppressed the unwanted side lobes of the radiation field , but also could be electronically scanned without the need for mechanical scanning . This was the first microwave phased @-@ array antenna , and Alvarez used it not only in MEW but in two additional radar systems . The antenna enabled the Eagle precision bombing radar to support precision bombing in bad weather or through clouds . It was completed rather late in the war ; although a number of B @-@ 29s were equipped with Eagle and it worked well , it came too late to make much difference .
The radar system for which Alvarez is best known and which has played a major role in aviation , most particularly in the post war Berlin airlift , was Ground Controlled Approach ( GCA ) . Using Alvarez 's dipole antenna to achieve a very high angular resolution , GCA allows ground @-@ based radar operators watching special precision displays to guide a landing airplane to the runway by transmitting verbal commands to the pilot . The system was simple , direct , and worked well , even with previously untrained pilots . It was so successful that the military continued to use it for many years after the war , and it was still in use in some countries in the 1980s . Alvarez was awarded the National Aeronautic Association 's Collier Trophy in 1945 " for his conspicuous and outstanding initiative in the concept and development of the Ground Control Approach system for safe landing of aircraft under all weather and traffic conditions " .
Alvarez spent the summer of 1943 in England testing GCA , landing planes returning from battle in bad weather , and also training the British in the use of the system . While there he encountered the young Arthur C. Clarke , who was an RAF radar technician . Clarke subsequently used his experiences at the radar research station as the basis for his novel Glide Path , which contains a thinly disguised version of Alvarez . Clarke and Alvarez developed a long @-@ term friendship .
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
In the fall of 1943 , Alvarez returned to the United States with an offer from Robert Oppenheimer to work at Los Alamos on the Manhattan project . But Oppenheimer suggested that he first spend a few months at the University of Chicago working with Enrico Fermi before coming to Los Alamos . During these months , General Leslie Groves asked Alvarez to think of a way that the US could find out if the Germans were operating any nuclear reactors , and , if so , where they were . Alvarez suggested that an airplane could carry a system to detect the radioactive gases that a reactor produces , particularly xenon 133 . The equipment did fly over Germany , but detected no radioactive xenon because the Germans had not built a reactor capable of a chain reaction . This was the first idea of monitoring fission products for intelligence gathering . It would become extremely important after the war .
As a result of his radar work and the few months spent with Fermi , Alvarez arrived at Los Alamos in the spring of 1944 , later than many of his contemporaries . The work on the " Little Boy " ( a uranium bomb ) was far along so Alvarez became involved in the design of the " Fat Man " ( a plutonium bomb ) . The technique used for uranium , that of forcing the two sub @-@ critical masses together using a type of gun , would not work with plutonium because the high level of background spontaneous neutrons would cause fissions as soon as the two parts approached each other , so heat and expansion would force the system apart before much energy has been released . It was decided to use a nearly critical sphere of plutonium and compress it quickly by explosives into a much smaller and denser core , a technical challenge at the time .
To create the symmetrical implosion required to compress the plutonium core to the required density , thirty two explosive charges were to be simultaneously detonated around the spherical core . Using conventional explosive techniques with blasting caps , progress towards achieving simultaneity to within a small fraction of a microsecond was discouraging . Alvarez directed his graduate student , Lawrence H. Johnston , to use a large capacitor to deliver a high voltage charge directly to each explosive lens , replacing blasting caps with exploding @-@ bridgewire detonators . The exploding wire detonated the thirty two charges to within a few tenths of a microsecond . The invention was critical to the success of the implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . He also supervised the RaLa Experiments . Alvarez later wrote that :
With modern weapons @-@ grade uranium , the background neutron rate is so low that terrorists , if they had such material , would have a good chance of setting off a high @-@ yield explosion simply by dropping one half of the material onto the other half . Most people seem unaware that if separated U @-@ 235 is at hand , it 's a trivial job to set off a nuclear explosion , whereas if only plutonium is available , making it explode is the most difficult technical job I know .
Again working with Johnston , Alvarez 's last task for the Manhattan Project was to develop a set of calibrated microphone / transmitters to be parachuted from an aircraft to measure the strength of the blast wave from the atomic explosion , so as to allow the scientists to calculate the bomb 's energy . He observed the Trinity nuclear test from a B @-@ 29 Superfortress that also carried fellow Project Alberta members Harold Agnew and Deak Parsons .
Flying in the B @-@ 29 Superfortress The Great Artiste in formation with the Enola Gay , Alvarez and Johnston measured the blast effect of the Little Boy bomb which was dropped on Hiroshima . A few days later , again flying in The Great Artiste , Johnston used the same equipment to measure the strength of the Nagasaki explosion .
= = Bubble chamber = =
Returning to the University of California as a full professor , Alvarez had many ideas about how to use his wartime radar knowledge to improve particle accelerators . Though some of these were to bear fruit , the " big idea " of this time would come from Edwin McMillan with his concept of phase stability which led to the synchrocyclotron . Refining and extending this concept , the Lawrence team would build the world 's then @-@ largest proton accelerator , the Bevatron , which began operating in 1954 . Though the Bevatron could produce copious amounts of interesting particles , particularly in secondary collisions , these complex interactions were hard to detect and analyze at the time .
Seizing upon a new development to visualize particle tracks , created by Donald Glaser and known as a bubble chamber , Alvarez realized the device was just what was needed , if only it could be made to function with liquid hydrogen . Hydrogen nuclei , which are protons , made the simplest and most desirable target for interactions with the particles produced by the Bevatron . He began a development program to build a series of small chambers , and championed the device to Ernest Lawrence .
The Glaser device was a small glass cylinder ( 1 cm × 2 cm ) filled with ether . By suddenly reducing the pressure in the device , the liquid could be placed into a temporary superheated state , which would boil along the disturbed track of a particle passing through . Glaser was able to maintain the superheated state for a few seconds before spontaneous boiling took place . The Alvarez team built chambers of 1 @.@ 5 in , 2 @.@ 5 in , 4 in , 10 in , and 15 in using liquid hydrogen , and constructed of metal with glass windows , so that the tracks could be photographed . The chamber could be cycled in synchronization with the accelerator beam , a picture could be taken , and the chamber recompressed in time for the next beam cycle .
This program built a liquid hydrogen bubble chamber almost 7 feet ( 2 meters ) long , employed dozens of physicists and graduate students together with hundreds of engineers and technicians , took millions of photographs of particle interactions , developed computer systems to measure and analyze the interactions , and discovered families of new particles and resonance states . This work resulted in the Nobel Prize in Physics for Alvarez in 1968 , " For his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics , in particular the discovery of a large number of resonant states , made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chambers and data analysis . "
= = Scientific detective = =
In 1964 Alvarez proposed what became known as the High Altitude Particle Physics Experiment ( HAPPE ) , originally conceived as a large superconducting magnet carried to high altitude by a balloon in order to study extremely high @-@ energy particle interactions . In time the focus of the experiment changed toward the study of cosmology and the role of both particles and radiation in the early universe . This work was a large effort , carrying detectors aloft with high @-@ altitude balloon flights and high @-@ flying U @-@ 2 aircraft , and an early precursor of the COBE satellite @-@ born experiments on the cosmic background radiation ( which resulted in the award of the 2006 Nobel Prize , shared by George Smoot and John Mather . )
Alvarez proposed in 1965 to search the Egyptian pyramids for unknown chambers . Using naturally occurring cosmic rays , his scheme was to place spark chambers , standard equipment in the high @-@ energy particle physics of this time , beneath the second pyramid of Chephren in a known chamber . By measuring the counting rate of the cosmic rays in different directions the detector would reveal the existence of any void in the overlaying rock structure .
Alvarez assembled a team of physicists and archeologists from the United States and Egypt , the recording equipment was constructed and the experiment carried out , though it was interrupted by the 1967 Six @-@ Day War . Restarted after the war , the effort continued , recording and analyzing the penetrating cosmic rays until 1969 when Alvarez reported to the American Physical Society that no chambers had been found in the 19 % of the pyramid surveyed .
In November 1966 Life published a series of photographs from the film that Abraham Zapruder took of the Kennedy assassination . Alvarez , an expert in optics and photoanalysis , became intrigued by the pictures and began to study what could be learned from the film . Alvarez demonstrated both in theory and experiment that the backward snap of the President 's head was fully consistent with his being shot from behind . He also investigated the timing of the gunshots and the shockwave which disturbed the camera , and the speed of the camera , pointing out a number of things which the FBI photoanalysts either overlooked or got wrong . He produced a paper intended as a tutorial , with informal advice for the physicist intent on arriving at the truth .
= = Dinosaur extinction = =
In 1980 Alvarez and his son , geologist Walter Alvarez , along with nuclear chemists Frank Asaro and Helen Michel , " uncovered a calamity that literally shook the Earth and is one of the great discoveries about Earth 's history " .
Walter Alvarez was doing geologic research in central Italy during the 1970s on the walls of a gorge whose limestone layers included strata both above and below the Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary , also called the K @-@ T boundary , the boundary between those two geologic periods . Exactly at the boundary is a layer of clay . Walter told his father that the layer marked where the dinosaurs and much else became extinct and that nobody knew why , or what the clay was about — it was a big mystery and he intended to solve it .
Alvarez had access to the nuclear chemists at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and was able to work with Frank Asaro and Helen Michel , who used the technique of neutron activation analysis . In 1980 , Alvarez , Alvarez , Asaro , and Michel published a seminal paper proposing an extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous @-@ Paleogene extinction ( then called the Cretaceous @-@ Tertiary extinction ) . In the years following the publication of their article , the clay was also found to contain soot , glassy spherules , shocked quartz crystals , microscopic diamonds , and rare minerals formed only under conditions of great temperature and pressure .
Publication of the 1980 paper brought criticism from the geologic community , and an often acrimonious scientific debate ensued . Ten years later , and after Alvarez 's death , evidence of a large impact crater called Chicxulub was found off the coast of Mexico , providing support for the theory . Other researchers later found that the end @-@ Cretaceous extinction of the dinosaurs may have occurred rapidly in geologic terms , over thousands of years , rather than millions of years as had previously been supposed . Others continue to study alternative extinction causes such as increased volcanism , particularly the massive Deccan Traps eruptions that occurred around the same time , and climate change , checking against the fossil record . However , on March 4 , 2010 , a panel of 41 scientists agreed that the Chicxulub asteroid impact triggered the mass extinction .
= = Aviation = =
In his autobiography , Alvarez said , " I think of myself as having had two separate careers , one in science and one in aviation . I 've found the two almost equally rewarding . " An important contributor to this was his enjoyment of flying . He learned to fly in 1933 , later earning instrument and multi @-@ engine ratings . Over the next 50 years he accumulated over 1000 hours of flight time , most of it as pilot in command . He said , " I found few activities as satisfying as being pilot in command with responsibility for my passengers ' lives . "
Alvarez made numerous professional contributions to aviation . During World War II he led the development of multiple aviation @-@ related technologies . Several of his projects are described above , including Ground Controlled Approach ( GCA ) for which he was awarded the Collier Trophy in 1945 . He also held the basic patent for the radar transponder , for which he assigned rights to the U.S. government for $ 1 .
Later in his career Alvarez served on multiple high level advisory committees related to civilian and military aviation . These included a Federal Aviation Administration task group on future air navigation and air traffic control systems , the President 's Science Advisory Committee Military Aircraft Panel , and a committee studying how the scientific community could help improve the United States ' capabilities for fighting a nonnuclear war .
Alvarez 's aviation responsibilities led to many adventures . For example , while working on GCA he became the first civilian to fly a low approach with his view outside the cockpit obstructed . He also flew many military aircraft from the co @-@ pilot 's seat , including a B @-@ 29 Superfortress and a Lockheed F @-@ 104 Starfighter . In addition , he survived a crash during World War II as a passenger in a Miles Master .
= = Death = =
Alvarez died of cancer on September 1 , 1988 . Alvarez died of complications from a succession of recent operations for cancer of the esophagus . He was cremated , and his ashes were scattered over Monterey Bay . His papers are in The Bancroft Library at the University of California , Berkeley .
= = Awards and honors = =
Fellow of the American Physical Society ( 1939 ) and President ( 1969 )
Collier Trophy of the National Aeronautics Association ( 1946 )
Member of the National Academy of Science ( 1947 )
Medal for Merit ( 1947 )
Fellow of the American Philosophical Society ( 1953 )
Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences ( 1958 )
California Scientist of the Year ( 1960 )
Albert Einstein Award ( 1961 )
National Medal of Science ( 1963 )
Michelson Award ( 1965 )
Nobel Prize in Physics ( 1968 )
Member of the National Academy of Engineering ( 1969 )
University of Chicago Alumni Medal ( 1978 )
National Inventors Hall of Fame ( 1978 )
Enrico Fermi award of the US Department of Energy ( 1987 )
IEEE Honorary Membership ( 1988 )
The Boy Scouts of America named their Cub Scout SUPERNOVA award for Alvarez ( 2012 )
= = Selected publications = =
" Berkeley Proton Linear Accelerator , " Radiation Laboratory , University of California , Berkeley ( October 13 , 1953 ) .
" High @-@ energy Physics with Hydrogen Bubble Chambers , " Radiation Laboratory , University of California , Berkeley ( March 7 , 1958 ) .
" LRL 25 @-@ inch Bubble Chamber , " Lawrence Radiation Laboratory , University of California , Berkeley ( July 8 , 1964 ) .
" Two @-@ element variable @-@ power spherical lens , " Patent US3305294A ( December 1964 )
" Early Days of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry , " Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory ( May 1981 ) .
" The Hydrogen Bubble Chamber and the Strange Resonances , " Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( June 1985 ) .
" History of Proton Linear Accelerators , " Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory ( Jan. 1987 ) .
= = Patents = =
Golf training device
Electronuclear Reactor
Optical range finder with variable angle exponential prism
Two @-@ element variable @-@ power spherical lens
Variable @-@ power lens and system
Subatomic particle detector with liquid electron multiplication medium
Method of making Fresnelled optical element matrix
Optical element of reduced thickness
Method of forming an optical element of reduced thickness
= Long Ya Men =
Long Ya Men ( Chinese : 龙牙门 ; pinyin : lóngyámén ) or Dragon 's Teeth Gate , is the name given to a craggy granite outcrop that formerly stood at the gateway to Keppel Harbour in Singapore . The rocky outcrop served as navigational aids to ancient mariners sailing through the swift waters of the narrow channel between them , but was subsequently destroyed by the British in 1848 to widen the channel for larger vessels to sail through . In 2005 , a symbolic replica was erected by the Singapore government near its original site to mark the role it played in Singapore 's maritime history .
Long Ya Men was documented in Wang Dayuan 's travelogue Daoyi Zhilüe , and in the Mao Kun navigational map historical maritime annal Wubei Zhi said to date from the voyages of Ming dynasty 's Admiral Zheng He . Long Ya Men in the map was also used to refer to the strait between Sentosa island and Labrador Point , and named after a pinnacle of stone that was called Batu Berlayar , which means “ Sail Rock ” in Malay . Another suggestion is that it refers to the Singapore Main Strait south of Pulau Satumu . The Long Ya Men 's unique features was said to have assisted Zheng He in navigating the waters around Singapore during his seven maritime voyages to the west between 1405 and 1433 AD .
= = History = =
Historically the rocky outcrop was known locally by the Malays in earlier times as " Batu Berlayar " ( " Sailing Rock " ) near the present site of Labrador Park , off Pasir Panjang Road . Another rock outcrop used to stand on the opposite shore of Tanjong Rimau on Sentosa Island . These two rock outcrops once formed a gateway at the western entrance to Keppel Harbour . British sailors named the more prominent Batu Berlayar , " Lot 's Wife " in reference to the biblical story of the wife of Abraham 's nephew . She was transformed into a pillar of salt when she disobeyed divine orders not to look back at the destruction of Sodom while fleeing from the city .
In the 14th century , the ancient mariner and trader Wang Dayuan , is said to have sailed through this passageway . In his travelogue , he recorded that the Fujian mariners knew about these two rock outcrops as Long Ya Men , because they reminded them of the two pegs at the bow of their ships . These two pegs were known to the mariners as " Dragon 's Teeth " .
The Keppel passageway was used by Asian and early European sailors and traders for hundreds of years to sail past Singapore . Between 1405 and 1433 , Zheng He made seven voyages to more than 30 countries , travelling in fleets of up to 300 ships to the South Pacific , Indian Ocean , Persian Gulf and Africa . The admiral travelled on the order of the Chinese Emperor to establish trade relations with countries west of China . He is believed to have sailed through the waters off Labrador Park in Pasir Panjang , though whether he landed in Singapore is uncertain . In the 17th century , the passageway was abandoned in favour of the wider and more open Main Straits , that lies south of Pulau Satamu , where Raffles Lighthouse stands today .
Sir Stamford Raffles of the British East India Company did not know of the " Lot 's Wife " , or the deep water harbour it led to when he landed in Singapore in January , 1819 . William Farquhar , the first British Resident and Commandant of Singapore , wrote to Raffles on 2 September 1819 that he had founded a new harbour west of the settlement . The two rock outcrops were subsequently blown up by the Straits Settlements Surveyor , John Thomson , in August 1848 in order to widen the entrance to the new harbour .
= = = Commemoration = = =
In July 2005 , a 6m high stone replica of Long Ya Men was put up near its original site by a joint collaboration involving the Singapore Tourism Board , the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore and the National Parks Board . This was part of a three @-@ month @-@ long celebration of the 600th anniversary of Zheng He 's maiden voyage , which began in Nanjing , China . A storyboard telling Long Ya Men 's significance to Singapore and Zheng He 's story , was also put up next to the replica .
The authorities had initially planned for the replica to replace the red Berlayer Beacon , but the Singapore Heritage Society was against the decision , saying the beacon was itself a heritage site and should not be destroyed because the beacon has been at Labrador Park since the end of World War II . The replica was finally built just meters away from the beacon . The authorities hope the symbolic replica can serve to preserve the memory of Long Ya Men , which is an important part of Singapore ’ s maritime history , for future generations and visitors familiar with the historical voyages of Zheng He .
= 2011 Astana season =
The 2011 season for the Astana cycling team began in January at the Tour Down Under and ended in October at the Tour of Hainan . As a UCI ProTeam , they were automatically invited and obligated to send a squad to every event in the UCI World Tour . In a change from the 2010 season , the team 's manager was Giuseppe Martinelli , replacing Yvon Sanquer . There was also a major change in ridership , as three @-@ time Tour de France champion Alberto Contador departed for Saxo Bank – SunGard , while his doping case remains unresolved . Three Spanish domestiques followed Contador to Saxo Bank – SunGard , while two climbing talents who spent the previous season with Liquigas – Doimo , Roman Kreuziger and Robert Kišerlovski , were notable additions to the team for 2011 .
Alexander Vinokourov was the team 's leader alongside Kreuziger . Vinokourov stated before the season that 2011 would likely be his last year as a professional rider . He sustained a serious crash at the Tour de France . He broke his right femur and retired from the sport for a time , but he eventually went back on this decision and his decision from before the season , opting instead to return for the 2012 season .
True to their longtime identity as a stage racing team , all of Astana 's 2011 victories came in stage races . They had a much lesser presence at the Grand Tours than they did when Contador rode for them , achieving just one stage win and sixth overall as their best placing , both from the Giro d 'Italia . They also took stage wins at seven other races .
= = 2011 roster = =
Ages as of January 1 , 2011 .
= = One @-@ day races = =
= = = Spring classics = = =
The squad was not competitive at the first three monument races in the spring season , coming just 66th in Milan – San Remo , 35th at the Tour of Flanders , and 18th at Paris – Roubaix . Kišerlovski and Clarke took seventh places at two early @-@ season classics , respectively the Classica Sarda and the Giro del Friuli , the latter a race run in such difficult conditions that only 25 riders finished .
The team 's two leaders Vinokourov and Kreuziger rode strongly at the Ardennes classics . Vinokourov took fourth in La Flèche Wallonne , six seconds back of winner Philippe Gilbert . Kreuziger was also fourth , at the fourth monument Liège – Bastogne – Liège , and also back of Gilbert as race winner . The team also sent squads to the E3 Prijs Vlaanderen – Harelbeke , Gent @-@ Wevelgem , and the Amstel Gold Race , but finished distantly in each , 16th , 66th , and 17th respectively .
= = = Fall races = = =
Gasparotto turned in a fourth place ride at Tre Valli Varesine , which matched the team 's best single @-@ day result of the season , along with the performances of Kreuziger and Vinokourov from earlier in the season . Clarke provided two of the team 's highest finishes in the later @-@ season single day races , coming fifth at the Coppa Ugo Agostoni and seventh at Vattenfall Cyclassics . Clarke also turned in a good ride at the Grand Prix Cycliste de Québec , finishing tenth .
The team also sent squads to the Clásica de San Sebastián , the GP Ouest @-@ France , the Grand Prix Cycliste de Montréal , the Coppa Sabatini , the Giro dell 'Emilia , the GP Bruno Beghelli , the Giro di Lombardia , the Chrono des Nations , and the Japan Cup , but finished no higher than 17th in any of these races .
= = Stage races = =
Di Gregorio took the team 's first win of the season , at Paris – Nice , winning a windy , rainy stage 7 into Sophia Antipolis . Vinokourov had targeted this stage , since it fell on the anniversary of the death of his friend Andrei Kivilev in the 2003 race . It was also during this stage that Kiserlovski slid and crashed on a slippery downhill , and skidded underneath a parked truck . It took several minutes to safely extricate him , and after needing eight stitches to sew up his wounds , he did not start the final stage . Vinokourov won stage 3 of the Tour of the Basque Country with a 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) long solo attack . Kreuziger took his first win of the season at the Giro del Trentino , winning the fourth and final stage . He also was first over the day 's last two climbs , which gave him enough points to win the mountains classification . The squad also won the teams classification .
Later in April , the team took two wins at two concurrent events . In stage 2 at the Presidential Cycling Tour of Turkey , Valentin took his first win of the season in a field sprint , besting Alessandro Petacchi at the finish . The victory made the younger Iglinsky the race leader for a day before he ceded it to Colnago – CSF Inox 's Manuel Belletti , winner of stage 3 . Later in the race , Zeits made a fortunate breakaway which took nearly 12 minutes over the rest of the peloton . The result put him fourth in the overall standings , 20 seconds clear of the man in fifth , but 10 minutes ahead of the man in sixth . The next day , the Astana squad worked hard to get another breakaway containing Zeits to the finish line first , which resulted him in moving up to second overall . He retained this position to the conclusion of the race . At the Tour de Romandie , Vinokourov won stage 3 . He , Mickaël Cherel , and Tony Martin had slipped off the front of the field when the day 's principal breakaway was caught , and stayed away to allow a three @-@ up sprint decide the winner , though they had no appreciable time gap over the fast @-@ charging peloton at the finish . Cherel protested the results , feeling that Vinokourov 's sprint had illegally impeded him , but race officials upheld the order of finish on the road . Vinokourov felt after this result that he was a strong contender for the overall crown , sitting 32 seconds back with an individual time trial , where pending race leader Pavel Brutt struggles , still to race . He finished the race third , losing time to race champion Cadel Evans in that time trial . He later said he was satisfied with this performance . However , at this race , Kiserlovski was revealed to have worse injuries from his Paris – Nice crash than first thought . An MRI taken after the Romandie prologue , due to the Croatian suffering from severe shoulder pain , revealed that he had a cracked vertebra . He abandoned the race with hopes of recovering in time for the Giro d 'Italia . Vinokourov had a successful Critérium du Dauphiné . He finished second in the prologue time trial and assumed the race lead the next day on the first road race stage . He held the jersey for a second day before losing it in the stage 3 time trial , a considerably longer course than the prologue . He finished a distant 14th , having difficulty on the technical descents on the course , and slipped to fourth overall . When Janez Brajkovič faltered in stage 6 , Vinokourov re @-@ assumed a podium position , third , and kept it to the race 's conclusion the next day .
The team had a very successful Tour of Austria , a race concurrent to the Tour de France . Kessiakoff rode to a strong stage 2 win on a summit finish at Kitzbüheler Horn . On a day where the composition of the leading group changed several times over rolling terrain , Kessiakoff was the first rider to attack out of the main peloton and surpassed all riders ahead of him to finish alone atop the 1 @,@ 670 m ( 5 @,@ 480 ft ) summit . A former mountain bike veteran , this solo ride was Kessiakoff 's first career road win in his third year in the discipline . The result gave him a lead of a minute and 18 seconds in the overall standings . After most of the riders finished together on the next four stages , Kessiakoff built his lead even higher in the stage 7 time trial . He was fifth , ceding time only to riders well behind him in the overall standings , extending his lead to two and a half minutes . He easily won the race overall the next day , finishing safely in the peloton in an uncomplicated sprinters ' stage . After Masciarelli won the youth award at the inaugural Giro di Padania , Valentin Iglinsky provided for the team 's final wins of 2011 at the Tour of Hainan . In a race that actually counted toward the 2012 Asia tour standings , Iglinsky , the race 's defending champion , won stage 8 and subsequently the overall crown the next day .
The team also sent squads to the Tour Down Under , the Tour of Qatar , the Tour of Oman , the Volta ao Algarve , the Giro di Sardegna , Tirreno – Adriatico , the Volta a Catalunya , the Tour of Belgium , the Tour de Suisse , the Eneco Tour , and the Tour de l 'Ain , but did not have a stage win , classification win , or podium finish in any of them .
= = Grand Tours = =
= = = Giro d 'Italia = = =
Astana 's leader for the Giro was Kreuziger . Though he had ridden six previous Grand Tours and finished in the top ten at the Tour de France twice , this was his first time riding the Giro , as his former team Liquigas – Doimo always inevitably had someone else in mind for leadership at the Italian tour . It was also the first time Kreuziger had ridden as the unquestioned leader in a Grand Tour . Both leadership and access to the Giro were central to Kreuziger 's signing with Astana in the offseason . A team of experienced domestiques , along with Kiserlovski , the tenth place finisher at the 2010 Giro d 'Italia , were named to ride in support . Kreuziger 's goal was to finish on the podium .
The team began the Giro with a poor team time trial , finishing 17th of 23 teams , immediately putting Kreuziger 50 seconds off the race lead . Kreuziger made each of the day 's selections in stage 5 , a hilly stage with numerous sectors of unpaved or ' white ' roads , and finished with the race 's top riders eight seconds back of the day 's winner and new race leader Pieter Weening . This result moved Kreuziger up 42 places , from 70th to 18th , even though his time gap to the race leader remained close to the same . Kreuziger took one of the time bonuses two days later on Montevergine di Mercogliano , as the race 's top riders narrowly missed taking back the last breakaway rider Bart De Clercq on the Giro 's first summit finish . While the Belgian won the stage , Kreuziger 's third @-@ place ride moved him further up the classification , to 14th . Kreuziger , like the rest of the field , was greatly outclassed by Alberto Contador on Mount Etna in stage 9 , but despite finishing 50 seconds back he vaulted even higher in the standings , entering the top ten overall for the first time , at seventh . He also gained the white jersey for best young rider after this stage . He held that position in stage 11 , which unexpectedly became a stage for the overall classification riders despite Contador 's hints that he may cede his pink jersey on this day . With Michele Scarponi 's Lampre – ISD leading a strong chase , Kreuziger finished sixth on the day , amongst the race 's top riders , to remain seventh overall .
Kreuziger , along with most of the race 's best riders , was again out @-@ distanced by Contador on the Grossglockner , the next summit finish . He finished sixth on the day , losing over a minute and a half . Attrition to other riders meant he actually moved up to fifth overall , though he was three and a half minutes down on Contador , a time gap unlikely to be recouped . Kreuziger faltered badly the next day on the stage ending at Monte Zoncolan . He was a distant 16th on the day , losing three and a half minutes to stage winner Igor Antón , but more importantly losing between two and three minutes to the race 's other top riders . He fell down to ninth overall as a result . He regained one position the next day with ninth place on Gardeccia , but again lost time to the race 's other leading riders . This was because Ag2r – La Mondiale rider Hubert Dupont fell from his position above Kreuziger in the standings . Kreuziger finished sixth in the climbing time trial to the Nevegal , but since the climb was relatively short , time gaps among the top riders were small , and he remained eighth overall as a result .
The team took their one stage win in stage 19 . Tiralongo , perhaps Kreuziger 's top support rider , attacked out of the leading group 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) , all uphill , from the finish in Macugnaga . After other riders tried to bridge up to him but never made it all the way , Contador easily made his way to the front of the race and rode beside Tiralongo for several moments . They shared a few words , and Contador patted the veteran Italian on the back as he encouraged him to take the stage win himself . Tiralongo did so , the first race win of his 12 @-@ year career . Contador , who had ridden the last three seasons with Astana , remembered Tiralongo as a friend
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option to sign him permanently at the end of his loan spell . He played against Al @-@ Ahli in the Saudi Crown Prince Cup Final eight days later , but despite scoring his first goal for his new team , they lost 2 – 1 . His next goal came in the first round of the Kings Cup on 10 March 2015 , netting his side 's fourth goal in a 4 – 1 win over Al @-@ Jeel .
In April 2015 , Greek newspaper SportDay reported that Samaras was unhappy with life in the Middle East and did not wish to continue his career at the Saudi club when his contract expired at the end of the season . It was also reported that Portuguese club Sporting Lisbon were keen to sign him .
Samaras had his contract with West Bromwich Albion terminated by mutual consent on 17 July 2015 .
= = = Rayo OKC = = =
In August 2015 , Samaras was reported to have agreed terms with Serie A club Sampdoria , but the move fell through as the club were unhappy with the results of his medical . Afterwards , he spent time in New York to rehabilitate from a back injury , and in November 2015 was linked with a move to the New York Cosmos , although once again no move actually materialised .
Samaras did eventually sign for a North American Soccer League team , joining expansion side Rayo OKC on 10 March 2016 . On 2 April , he made his debut in their first match , replacing Robbie Findley for the final 12 minutes of a goalless home draw against FC Edmonton . He was the last of three of the team 's players sent off on 28 May in a 1 – 0 loss at Soccer Bowl holders the Cosmos . Samaras ' first goal for the franchise came on 16 July in his 9th match , coming on as a late substitute to wrap up a 3 – 0 win over the same opponent at the Miller Stadium .
= = International career = =
Samaras was eligible to play for the Australian national team . His father , Ioannis , was born in Melbourne , but moved to Greece at the age of 13 , and had a successful football career , playing for OFI Crete , Panathinaikos , and the Greek national team . Additionally , his grandfather ( also Georgios ) was one of the founding members of South Melbourne FC . Although Samaras considered playing for Australia , he was never approached by Football Federation Australia and chose to play for the country of his birth .
He made his debut for Greece just a week after his 21st birthday , on 28 February 2006 , in a friendly game against Belarus , in which he scored the only goal of the game . He featured in Greece 's Euro 2008 qualifiers and was a member of the unsuccessful Greek squad at the finals , making just one appearance as a second @-@ half substitute in their first UEFA Euro 2008 Group D game against Sweden .
Samaras ' fourth international goal was a crucial one , when he scored the winning goal in a 2010 World Cup qualifier against Israel in front of his hometown crowd in Heraklion . He scored his fifth international goal with an overhead kick in a World Cup qualifier on 10 October 2009 , against Latvia in a 5 – 2 victory . Samaras also played against Ukraine in a World Cup Qualifying play @-@ off , setting up the only goal of the tie , passing to Dimitris Salpingidis who slotted home to give Greece a 1 – 0 win and a place in the 2010 World Cup Finals .
On 1 June 2010 , Georgios Samaras was selected in the 23 @-@ man Greece squad for the World Cup . ESPN.com rated him as Greece 's second best player , only behind talisman Giorgos Karagounis . He played in all three group matches . Despite Greece 's 2 – 1 win over Nigeria , they failed to proceed to the knockout stage , due to 2 – 0 losses to both South Korea and Argentina . On 17 November 2010 , Samaras scored his sixth international goal in a friendly against Austria in Vienna with Greece winning the match 2 – 1 . Samaras also set up Greece 's second goal .
Samaras then went on to score a vital goal for Greece against Croatia on 7 October 2011 , a volley from the edge of the box with his left foot . The match finished 2 – 0 and the result meant that Greece qualified for the Euro 2012 . Samaras played in all three of Greece 's group games at Euro 2012 , helping them to finish second in Group A and progress to the quarter @-@ finals . He then played in the quarter @-@ final tie against Germany , scoring early in the second half to level the match at 1 – 1 , although Germany went on to win 4 – 2 and knock Greece out .
Samaras was selected in Greece 's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup . In the team 's final group stage fixture , Samaras assisted Greece 's first goal and scored the winning goal from a penalty kick in the 90th minute to give the team a 2 – 1 win over the Ivory Coast and qualify Greece for the last 16 of the World Cup for the first time in the nation 's history .
= = Style of play = =
Samaras has been described as having all the skills necessary for forward play . His height , 6 ft 4 in ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) , makes him difficult to handle in the air – and he is also a good header of the ball . This means he can be used as an effective target man and his team can hit long balls up to him . He can also score from corners and crosses . Samaras is also strong which further adds to his physical presence and makes him harder for defenders to play against .
Samaras is also a good dribbler . This is due to his skill , quick feet and agility . He uses this to his advantage as often goes on runs where he beats several opposition players . However , he can sometimes hold onto the ball for too long and get tackled . As well as his dribbling ability , he is quick which means he can beat players with his pace . He can also use his strength to beat players as well and is also able to use his creativity to set up goals for other players . While he was at Manchester City , Eriksson said that he would only retain him in the side if he stopped dribbling and running out wide . Eriksson said that he believed Samaras to be a good header of the ball and he had to stop believing he was like Ronaldinho if he was to become a good player .
Although predominantly a striker , Samaras can also play as a left midfielder . During his time at Manchester City , Samaras expressed his disappointment at being used on the left of midfield too often , he publicly said to manager Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson ; " I am not a left @-@ midfielder , I am a striker and I like to play there , " However , after his move to Celtic , Samaras was more open to playing as a left midfielder . The Daily Mail said that this was because he was happier at Celtic and more willing to be a team player . In addition to being able to play as a target man , Samaras can also be used in several different roles when playing up front . His natural style of play is to drift off the front line and provide a link between the attack and midfield . In doing this he can use his pace and skill to run at the defence , while also creating chances or opening up space for his teammates . He can also run beyond the centre @-@ backs and his pace means he can run on to through balls hit over the defence .
Despite his ability , Samaras has performed inconsistently throughout his career . His mazy runs often go nowhere and he frequently gets caught in possession when a pass to a team @-@ mate is available . His languid manner exacerbates supporters ' frustrations and has often led to accusations of him being " lazy " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club statistics = = =
As of 17 July 2016
1 . ^ Includes league play @-@ offs for spots in UEFA competitions and relegation / promotion play @-@ offs
2 . ^ Includes FA Community Shield
3 . ^ There is currently no other competition for Scottish professional football clubs
= = = International = = =
As of 17 October 2014
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list Greece 's goal tally first
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Celtic
Scottish Premier League ( 4 ) : 2007 – 08 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14
Scottish Cup ( 2 ) : 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13
Scottish League Cup ( 1 ) : 2008 – 09
Al @-@ Hilal
Saudi Crown Prince Cup : ( Runner @-@ up ) 2014 – 15
= = = Individual = = =
SPL Player of the Month : September 2008
Celtic Supporters ' Player of the Year : 2012 / 13
2014 FIFA World Cup awards : Man of the match Greece vs Ivory Coast
= What Makes You Beautiful =
" What Makes You Beautiful " is a song by English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction . It served as their debut single and lead single from their debut studio album , Up All Night ( 2011 ) . Written by Savan Kotecha and producer Rami Yacoub , the song was released by Syco Records on 11 August 2011 . The uptempo power pop track features a prominent guitar @-@ based chorus and riff . The middle eight consists of a " na na na " hook while the opening guitar riff is similar to that of the song " Summer Nights " from the Broadway musical and motion picture Grease as well as interpolations of The McCoys 's 1965 single " Hang on Sloopy " .
" What Makes You Beautiful " was a commercial success , reaching number one in several countries . It has been certified quadruple platinum in the US with sales of 4 @.@ 8 million copies as of June 2016 . The single peaked at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the UK Singles Chart . The song won the 2012 Brit Award for Best British Single and was generally complimented by contemporary music critics , who highlighted the appeal to the teenage audience and the pop sensibility . It debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart after setting a Sony Music Entertainment pre @-@ order record and selling 153 @,@ 965 copies in its first week . The single also topped the Irish and Scottish Singles Charts , and reached the top ten on the Australian and New Zealand Singles Charts , Flemish Ultratop 50 , Canadian Hot 100 , and the Japan Hot 100 . It has been certified quadruple platinum in the US with sales of 4 @.@ 8 million copies as of June 2016 .
The accompanying music video , directed by John Urbano , depicts One Direction spending time on a beach in Malibu , California . The music video was uploaded to YouTube on August 19 , 2011 and has accumulated more than 780 million views since it premiered . The clip garnered the group three MTV Video Music Awards at the 2012 ceremony . One Direction performed the song live on televised shows , at awards ceremonies , and on four of their major concert tours : Up All Night Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) , Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) , Where We Are Tour ( 2014 ) and On the Road Again Tour ( 2015 ) . Artists including the Piano Guys have covered " What Makes You Beautiful " .
= = Background and production = =
After being formed and finishing third in the seventh series of The X Factor in 2010 , they first formed as solo singers but soon got placed as a band on 23 July 2010 One Direction were signed to Syco Music , a subsidiary of Sony Music Entertainment . " What Makes You Beautiful " was written by Savan Kotecha and Carl Falk , and was produced by Yacoub and Falk . Instrumentation was completed by Falk and Yacoub . Serban Ghenea handled the audio mixing , Tom Coyne the audio mastering , and John Hanes the mix engineering , for which Phil Seaford served as the assistant . Discussing the song 's conception , Kotecha said :
After recording the song at Cosmos Studios and Kinglet Studios in Stockholm , Sweden , the band felt relieved to have a song that they were happy to release as their debut single . Band member Liam Payne called the song " perfect " , and Harry Styles said , " When we were recording in the studio we knew instantly that we wanted this track to be our first single . " Styles spoke to MTV News , " I think for us we wanted to release something that wasn 't cheesy but it was fun . It kind of represented us , I think it took us a while to find it but I think we found the right song . " Payne added , " We always wanted [ the single ] to be something that people didn 't expect and then when we heard it , it wasn 't what we expected either so it kind of fitted perfectly . "
= = Release and promotion = =
" What Makes You Beautiful " premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 10 August 2011 , and was released by Syco Music in Europe , Australia and New Zealand via digital download on 11 September 2011 . A CD single was released in the United Kingdom on 12 September 2011 , and followed in Australia and Germany on 25 November 2011 and 2 December 2011 , respectively . In North America , the single was released in Canada via digital download on 31 January 2012 . It was issued 14 February 2012 in the United States and was sent by Columbia Records to US contemporary hit radio ( CHR ) playlists on 28 February 2012 .
For the North American release of Up All Night on 13 March 2012 , Columbia Records executives used social media to shape its marketing campaign . Columbia Records co @-@ chairman Steve Barnett and his team decided to reverse the usual pattern of releasing a single on radio . Instead the label mounted a four @-@ month marketing campaign aimed at building a fan base through social media before a single was ever released or played on the radio . The social media campaign asked fans to sign petitions and to enter video competitions to win a concert in their town . The campaign was a success as One Direction 's Facebook followers in the United States rose from 40 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 . As a result , " What Makes You Beautiful " sold more than 131 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , even though it had yet to be played on the radio . Radio programmers were flooded with calls from fans . Johnny Wright , who managed New Kids on the Block , Backstreet Boys and ' N Sync , said : " Now they are calling the radio station , and the radio station is scratching its head , saying , " We don 't even have that record yet " . It 's almost like the return of the Beatles . I call it hype , but it 's positive hype because it 's all real . It 's not manufactured . No one paid these kids . "
= = Composition = =
" What Makes You Beautiful " is a power pop song , with electropop influences . Running for three minutes and 18 seconds , the song is set in common time with a tempo of 125 beats per minute . Written in the key of E major , it follows the chord progression E – A – B ; vocal elements range from the note of B3 to G ♯ 5 . James C. McKinley Jr. of The New York Times compared its chord progression to " La Bamba " . The opening guitar riff has been noted as similar to that of Grease single " Summer Nights " . " What Makes You Beautiful " has a guitar @-@ based chorus ; Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey likened it to a cross between Pink 's " Raise Your Glass " and McFly 's " All About You " . It also contains cowbell instrumentation , and the middle eight consists of an " oh na na na " hook .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave " What Makes You Beautiful " four out of five stars , praising its catchy melody and summarising it as " adorable , completely innocent and bound to cause a stir amongst your mates " . Zachary Houle of PopMatters called the song a " nice get @-@ up @-@ and @-@ go dance number . " Ailbhe Malone of NME commended the song 's appeal to the teenage audience and its chord progression for being " simple enough to be played on an acoustic guitar at a house party . " Newsround called it " fun , upbeat and incredibly catchy . " AllMusic 's Matthew Chisling called it an " effervescent and fresh tween love song " , and chose it as one of the best tracks on Up All Night . Sophie Goddard from Cosmopolitan called the single " ridiculously catchy " . Student 's Jack Murray rated " What Makes You Beautiful " five out of five stars and called it " not only the best pop single of the year so far , but potentially of any X Factor contestant ever " . Murray lauded the songwriting and light production . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly awarded " What Makes You Beautiful " a B + grade , calling the song " shallow but crushworthy " and writing that
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29 ( 1950 ) — segregated law schools in Texas
McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents , 339 U.S. 637 ( 1950 ) — prohibits segregation in a public institution of higher learning
Hernandez v. Texas , 347 U.S. 475 ( 1954 ) — the Fourteenth Amendment protects those beyond the racial classes of white or Negro .
Briggs v. Elliott , 347 U.S. 483 ( 1952 ) Brown Case # 1 — Summerton , South Carolina .
Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County , 103 F. Supp . 337 ( 1952 ) Brown Case # 2 — Prince Edward County , Virginia .
Gebhart v. Belton , 33 Del . Ch . 144 ( 1952 ) Brown Case # 3 — Claymont , Delaware
Bolling v. Sharpe , 347 U.S. 497 ( 1954 ) Brown companion case — dealt with the constitutionality of segregation in the District of Columbia , which — as a federal district , not a state — is not subject to the Fourteenth Amendment .
NAACP v. Alabama , 357 U.S. 449 ( 1958 ) — privacy of NAACP membership lists , and free association of members
Cooper v. Aaron , 358 U.S. 1 ( 1958 ) – Federal court enforcement of desegregation
Boynton v. Virginia , 364 U.S. 454 ( 1960 ) — outlawed racial segregation in public transportation
Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States , 379 U.S. 241 ( 1964 ) — held constitutional the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , which banned racial discrimination in public places , particularly in public accommodations even in private property .
Loving v. Virginia , 388 U.S. 1 ( 1967 ) — banned anti @-@ miscegenation laws ( race @-@ based restrictions on marriage ) .
Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education , 396 U.S. 1218 ( 1969 ) – changed Brown 's requirement of desegregation " with all deliberate speed " to one of " desegregation now "
Swann v. Charlotte @-@ Mecklenburg Board of Education , 402 U.S. 1 ( 1971 ) — established bussing as a solution
Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson , 404 U.S 1215 ( 1971 ) – " Brown v. Board of Education was not written for blacks alone " , desegregation of Asian schools in opposition to parents of Asian students
Milliken v. Bradley , 418 U.S. 717 ( 1974 ) — rejected bussing across school district lines .
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 , 551 U.S. 701 , 127 S. Ct . 2738 ( 2007 ) — rejected using race as the sole determining factor for assigning students to schools .
List of United States Supreme Court Cases
* See Case citation for an explanation of these numbers .
= Emma Hollis =
FBI Special Agent Emma Hollis is a fictional character from the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . Hollis , introduced in the series ' third and final season , is a young special agent within the Federal Bureau of Investigation . During the show 's final year , she was partnered with offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) . The character of Hollis was portrayed by Canadian actor Klea Scott .
Special agent Hollis made her first appearance in the third season 's opening episode " The Innocents " . She is the daughter of James Hollis , who suffered from alzheimer 's disease . The character has been met with mixed reactions from critics ; however , Scott 's performance has been generally well received .
= = Character arc = =
Hollis is a young Federal Bureau of Investigation special agent who becomes a protégée to offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) when he begins working in Virginia . She struggles to understand the criminal mind , as her sister was murdered by a man with no motive . She has an estranged half @-@ sister , Tamra , who has become a heroin addict . Hollis also has to deal with her father 's bout with an Alzheimer 's @-@ like illness , which has possibly been induced by the Millennium Group — a secretive organisation to which Black had previously belonged , and which he now believes to be responsible for bioterrorism . Group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) uses Hollis ' father 's illness as leverage to coerce her into cooperating with the Millennium Group .
Hollis is very much aware of Black 's reputation and eager to prove her worth as an investigator . Intrigued by Frank 's abilities as an investigator , she strives to learn as much from him as she can , while Frank also learns to recognize her strengths as an FBI agent . The respected , independent , ambitious young Bureau Agent formed a close relationship with Frank Black — and then turned her back on him to join the Millennium Group , which had agreed to cure her father of Alzheimer 's .
= = Conceptual history = =
When ending the second season , the producers and crew thought it would be the last . However , to their surprise Millennium was renewed for a third season . Many of the cliffhanger plot threads from the season finale were written off as the hallucinations of Frank Black . When creating the third season , they wanted to go back to the stand alone storytelling format used in the first season ; to do so they had Frank join the FBI and receive a new " skeptical " partner with whom he could work . Regarding Hollis , producer Michael Duggan said " she 's not a rookie ... but she 's young enough to be in awe of Frank Black 's rep as a legendary crime solver " .
Originally , the producers were looking for a white actress to play the part . Klea Scott 's agent thought she was " really right " for the part . He then went down to the producers for the show and campaigned for her and guaranteed them if she did not fit for the role , he would never send another actor to the casting director of the show . Scott auditioned with four other actresses to get the part . Scott won the role , but producer Chip Johannessen recalled that " she wasn 't what the network were looking , they wanted Heather Locklear or something to come . That was kind of how that went down " . Fox backed down , and Scott got the role . Scott had been living in Los Angeles , but relocated to the series ' filming location in Vancouver when she joined the cast . Scott had little input in her character 's development , and admitted feeling " a little hurt " to find that Hollis had joined the Millennium Group by the end of the series ; however , Scott felt this development was " believable and real " . Scott 's first day on set was during the filming of the final scene of " The Innocents " , the third season 's opening episode . The actress found it difficult to adjust to the series ' heavy workload , but found it enjoyable to work with co @-@ star Lance Henriksen .
= = Reception = =
Although the character of Emma Hollis has been met with mixed reception , Scott 's acting has generally been seen in a positive light . Entertainment Weekly writer Ken Tucker said Scott 's presence as Hollis was " bracing " , finding that she " captures perfectly the way young adepts try to soak up everything about their heroes " ; while Raymond Edel of The Record described the character as a " quick @-@ witted extrovert " . Allan Johnson of the Chicago Tribune felt that the character made the third season of Millennium " a much more watchable series than in its previous two seasons " , offering a " different perspective " on the series ' dark subject matter . Rob Owen , of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , has noted that Hollis ' involvement in the " a tug of war between Frank and [ the ] Millennium Group " gave Millennium 's third season " a more personal take " on its central conflicts . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , have been critical of the character of Emma Hollis , finding that she has been written in a manner that " pass [ es ] emotional baggage off as character development " . However , Shearman and Pearson were less critical of Scott 's performance , noting that the character was " played well " and that Scott " works hard to mine some sort of truth " out of Hollis ' character . Randy Miller , writing for DVD Talk , noted that Hollis ' introduction left Millennium feeling " more of a curious sister to The X @-@ Files rather than its own entity " , likening Hollis and Black to the latter series ' Fox Mulder and Dana Scully .
= Morea expedition =
The Morea expedition ( French : Expédition de Morée ) is the name given in France to the land intervention of the French Army in the Peloponnese ( at the time often still known by its medieval name , Morea ) between 1828 and 1833 , at the time of the Greek War of Independence .
After the fall of Messolonghi , Western Europe decided to intervene in favour of revolutionary Greece . Their attitude toward the Ottoman Empire 's Egyptian ally , Ibrahim Pasha , was especially critical ; their primary objective was to elicit the evacuation of the occupied regions , the Peloponnese in particular . The intervention began when a Franco @-@ Russo @-@ British fleet was sent to the region , winning the Battle of Navarino in October 1827 . In August 1828 , a French expeditionary corps disembarked at Koroni in the southern Peloponnese . The soldiers were stationed on the peninsula until the evacuation of Egyptian troops in October , then taking control of the principal strongholds still held by Turkish troops . Although the bulk of the troops returned to France from the end of 1828 , there was a French presence in the area until 1833 .
As during Napoleon 's Egyptian Campaign , when a Commission of Sciences and Arts had accompanied the military campaign , a Morea scientific expedition ( Expédition scientifique de Morée . ) accompanied the troops . Seventeen learned men represented different specialties ( natural history and antiquities – archaeology , architecture and sculpture ) made the voyage . Their work was of major importance in increasing knowledge about the country . As an example , the topographic maps they produced were excellent . More significantly , the measurements , drawings , profiles , plans and proposals for the theoretical restoration of Peloponnesian monuments , of Attica and of the Cyclades were , following James Stuart and Nicholas Revett 's Antiquities of Athens , a new attempt to systematically and exhaustively catalogue ancient Greek ruins . The Morea expedition and its publications offered a near @-@ complete description of the regions visited . They formed a scientific , aesthetic and human inventory that remained one of the best means , short of visiting them in person , to get to know the regions .
= = Context = =
= = = Military and diplomatic context = = =
In 1821 , the Greeks revolted against centuries @-@ long Ottoman rule . They won numerous victories early on and declared independence . However , the declaration contradicted the principles of the Congress of Vienna and of the Holy Alliance , which imposed a European equilibrium of the status quo , outlawing any change . In contrast to what happened elsewhere in Europe , the Holy Alliance did not intervene to stop the liberal Greek insurgents .
The liberal and national uprising displeased the Austria of Metternich , the principal political architect of the Holy Alliance . However , Russia , another reactionary gendarme of Europe , looked favorably on the insurrection due to its Orthodox religious solidarity and its geostrategic interest ( control of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus ) . France , another active member of the Holy Alliance , had just intervened in Spain against liberals at Trocadero ( 1823 ) but held an ambiguous position : Paris saw the liberal Greeks first and foremost as Christians , and their uprising against the Muslim Ottomans had undertones of a new crusade . Great Britain , a liberal country , was interested in the regional situation primarily because it lay on the route to India and London wished to exercise a form of control there . For all of Europe , Greece represented the cradle of Western civilisation and of art since antiquity .
The Greek victories had been short @-@ lived . The Sultan had called to his aid his Egyptian vassal Muhammad Ali , who had dispatched his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with a fleet and 8 @,@ 000 men , later adding a further 25 @,@ 000 troops . Ibrahim ’ s intervention proved decisive : the Peloponnese had been reconquered in 1825 ; the gateway town of Messolonghi had fallen in 1826 ; Athens had been taken in 1827 . All that Greek nationalists still held was Nafplion , Hydra , Mani and Aegina .
A strong current of philhellenism developed in Western Europe . Thus it was decided to intervene in favour of Greece , the cradle of civilisation and a Christian vanguard in the Orient whose strategic location was clear . By the Treaty of London of July 1827 , France , Russia and the United Kingdom recognised the autonomy of Greece , which remained a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire . The three powers agreed to a limited intervention in order to convince the Porte to accept the terms of the convention . A plan to send a naval expedition as a show of force was proposed and adopted . A joint Russian , French and British fleet was sent to exercise diplomatic pressure against Constantinople . The Battle of Navarino ( October 1827 ) , fought after a chance encounter , resulted in the destruction of the Turkish @-@ Egyptian fleet .
In 1828 , Ibrahim Pasha thus found himself in a difficult situation : he had just suffered a defeat at Navarino ; the joint fleet exercised a blockade which prevented him from receiving reinforcements and supplies ; his Albanian troops , whom he could no longer pay , had returned to their country under the protection of Theodoros Kolokotronis ’ Greek troops . On August 6 , 1828 , a convention had been signed at Alexandria between the viceroy of Egypt , Muhammad Ali , and the British admiral Edward Codrington . Ibrahim Pasha had to evacuate his Egyptian troops and leave the Peloponnese to the few Turkish troops ( estimated at 1200 men ) remaining there . However , Ibrahim Pasha refused to honor the agreement that had been reached , continuing to control various Greek regions : Messenia , Navarino , Patras and several other strongholds . He had also ordered the systematic destruction of Tripoli .
In addition , the French government of Charles X was beginning to have doubts about its Greek policy . Ibrahim Pasha himself noted this ambiguity when he met General Maison in September : “ Why was France , after enslaving men in Spain in 1823 , now coming to Greece to make men free ? ” Eventually a liberal agitation , pro @-@ Greek and inspired by what was then happening in that country , began to develop in France . The longer France waited , the more delicate her position vis @-@ à @-@ vis Metternich became . The ultra @-@ royalist government thus decided to accelerate events . A land expedition was proposed to Great Britain , which refused to intervene directly . Meanwhile , Russia had declared war against the Ottoman Empire and its military victories were unsettling for London , which did not wish to see the Tsarist empire extend too far south . Thus Great Britain did not oppose an intervention by France alone .
= = = Intellectual context = = =
Enlightenment philosophy had developed Western Europeans ’ interest in Greece , or rather in an idealised Ancient Greece , the linchpin of Antiquity , as it was perceived and taught . The Enlightenment philosophers , for whom the notions of Nature and Reason were so important , believed that these had been the fundamental values of Classical Athens . The Ancient Greek democracies , and above all Athens , became models to emulate . There they searched for answers to the political and philosophical problems of their time . Works such as those of Abbé Barthélemy , Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis ( 1788 ) , served to fix definitively the image that Europe had of the Aegean .
The theories and system of interpreting ancient art devised by Johann Joachim Winckelmann influenced European tastes for decades . His major work , History of Ancient Art , was published in 1764 and translated into French in 1766 ( the English translation came later , in 1881 ) . In this major work Winckelmann initiated the tradition of dividing ancient art into periods , classifying the works chronologically and stylistically .
The views of Winckelmann on art encompassed the entirety of civilisation . He drew a parallel between a civilisation 's general level of development and the evolution of its art . He interpreted this artistic evolution the same way that his contemporaries saw the life cycle of a civilisation , in terms of progress , apogee and then decline . For him , Greek art had been the pinnacle of artistic achievement , culminating with Phidias . Further , Winckelmann believed that the most beautiful works of Greek art had been produced under ideal geographic , political and religious circumstances . This frame of thought long dominated intellectual life in Europe . He classified Greek art into four periods : Ancient ( archaic period ) , Sublime ( Phidias ) , Beautiful ( Praxiteles ) and Decadent ( Roman period ) .
Winckelmann ’ s theories on the evolution of art culminated in the Sublime period of Greek art , which had been conceived during a period of complete political and religious liberty . The theories idealised Ancient Greece and increased people ’ s desire to travel to contemporary Greece . It was seductive to believe , as he did , that ' good taste ' was born beneath the Greek sky . He convinced 18th @-@ century Europe that life in Ancient Greece was pure , simple and moral , and that classical Hellas was the source from which artists should draw ideas of “ noble simplicity and calm grandeur ” . Greece became the “ motherland of the arts ” and “ the teacher of taste ” .
The French government had planned the Morea expedition in the same spirit as those of James Stuart and Nicholas Revett , whose work it wished to complete . The semi @-@ scientific expeditions commissioned and financed by the Society of Dilettanti remained a benchmark : these represented the first attempts to rediscover Ancient Greece . The first , that of Stuart and Revett to Athens and the islands , took place in 1751 – 1753 , and resulted in The Antiquities of Athens , mined by architects and designers for a refined " Grecian " neoclassicism . The expedition of Revett , Richard Chandler and William Pars to Asia Minor took place between 1764 and 1766 . Finally , the “ work ” of Lord Elgin on the Parthenon at the beginning of the 19th century had sparked further longing for Greece : it now seemed possible to build vast collections of ancient art in Western Europe .
= = Military expedition = =
= = = Preparation = = =
The Chamber of Deputies authorised a loan of 80 million gold francs to allow the government to meet its obligations . An expeditionary corps of 13 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 men commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Nicolas Joseph Maison was formed . It was composed of three brigades commanded by the maréchaux de camp Tiburce Sébastiani ( brother of the Corsican soldier @-@ diplomat Horace François Bastien Sébastiani de La Porta ) , Philippe Higonet , and Virgile Schneider . The Chief of the General Staff was General Antoine Simon Durrieu .
The expeditionary corps was made up of nine infantry regiments :
1st brigade : 8th Line Infantry Regiment , 16th Line Infantry Regiment , 27th Light Infantry Regiment
2nd brigade : 35th Line Infantry Regiment , 46th Line Infantry Regiment , 58th Line Infantry Regiment
3rd brigade : 29th Line Infantry Regiment , 42nd Line Infantry Regiment , 54th Line Infantry Regiment
Also departing were the 3rd Chasseur Regiment ( commanded by Colonel Paul @-@ Eugène de Faudoas @-@ Barbazan ) , four companies of artillery ( with equipment for campaigns , sieges , and mountains ) of the 3rd and 8th Artillery Regiments , and two companies of military engineers ( sappers and miners ) .
A transport fleet protected by warships was organised ; sixty ships sailed in all . Equipment , victuals , munitions and 1 @,@ 300 horses had to be brought over , as well as arms , munitions and money for the Greek provisional government of John Capodistria . France wished to support free Greece as it came into being by helping it activate its army , with the aim of gaining influence in the region .
The first brigade left Toulon on August 17 ; the second , two days later ; and the third on September 1 . The general in command , Nicolas Joseph Maison , was with the first brigade , aboard the ship of the line Ville de Marseille . The first convoy was composed of merchant ships and apart from the Ville de Marseille , it included the frigates Amphitrite , Bellone and Cybèle . The second convoy was escorted by ship of the line Duquesne and the frigates Iphigénie and Armide .
= = = Operations in the Peloponnese = = =
= = = = Landing = = = =
On August 29 , the fleet transporting the two first brigades arrived in Navarino bay , where the joint Franco @-@ Russo @-@ British squadron was berthed . The Egyptian army was concentrated between Navarino and Methoni . Thus , the landing was risky . The fleet sailed toward the Gulf of Koroni protected by a fortress held by the Ottomans . The expeditionary corps began to disembark without meeting any opposition on the evening of August 29 , finishing on the morning of August 30 . A proclamation by governor Capodistria had informed the Greek population of the imminent arrival of a French expedition . The locals rushed up before the troops as soon as they set foot on Greek soil and offered them food .
The French pitched camp in the plain of Koroni , near Petalidi , on the site of the ancient Coronea . The third brigade , which had borne up against a storm and lost three ships , managed to land at Koroni on September 16 .
= = = = Departure of the Egyptian Army = = = =
Ibrahim Pasha used a number of pretexts to delay the evacuation : problems with food supply or transport , or unforeseen difficulties in the strongholds ’ handover . The French officers had difficulties in maintaining the fighting zeal of their soldiers , who for example had become excited at the ( false ) news that an imminent march on Athens would take place . This impatience on the part of the French troops was perhaps decisive in convincing the Egyptian commander to respect his obligations . Moreover , French soldiers were beginning to suffer from autumn rains which drenched their tent camp , increasing the likelihood of fever and especially of dysentery . On September 24 , Louis @-@ Eugène Cavaignac wrote that thirty men of 400 in his company of military engineers were affected by fever . General Maison wished to be able to set up his men in the fortresses ’ barracks . On September 7 , Ibrahim Pasha accepted to evacuate his troops as of September 9 . The agreement reached with General Maison provided that the Egyptians would leave with their arms , baggage and horses , but without any Greek slave or prisoner . As the Egyptian fleet could not evacuate the entire army in one go , supplies were authorised for the troops who remained on land ; these men had just undergone a lengthy blockade . A first Egyptian division , 5 @,@ 500 men and 27 ships , set sail on September 16 , escorted by three ships from the joint fleet ( two English ones and the French frigate Sirène ) .
The last Egyptian transport sailed away on October 5 , taking Ibrahim Pasha . Of the 40 @,@ 000 men he had brought from Egypt , he was taking back barely 20 @,@ 000 . A few Ottoman soldiers remained in order to hold the different strongholds of the Peloponnese . The next mission of the French troops was to “ give security ” to these and hand them back to independent Greece .
= = = = Strongholds taken = = = =
On October 6 , General Maison ordered General Higonet to march on Navarino . He left with the 16th Infantry Regiment , which included artillery and military engineers . Thus , Navarino ’ s seacoast was put under siege by Admiral Henri de Rigny ’ s fleet and the land siege was undertaken by General Higonet ’ s soldiers . The Turkish commander of the fort refused to surrender :
“ The Porte is at war with neither the French nor the English ; we will commit no hostile act , but we will not surrender the fort . ”
Hence , the sappers received an order to open a breach in the walls . General Higonet entered the fortress , held by 250 men who surrendered with sixty cannons and 800 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . The French troops moved in intending to remain for some time , building up Navarino ’ s fortifications , rebuilding its houses and setting up a hospital and various features of local administration .
On October 7 , the 35th Line Infantry Regiment , commanded by General Durrieu , accompanied by artillery and by military engineers , appeared before Methoni , defended by 1 @,@ 078 men and a hundred cannons , and which had food supplies for six months . Two ships of the line , the Breslaw ( Captain Maillard ) and HMS Wellesley ( Captain Frederick Lewis Maitland ) blocked the port and threatened the fortress with their cannons . The fort ’ s commanders , the Turk Hassan Pasha and the Egyptian Ahmed Bey , made the same reply as had the commander of Navarino . Methoni ’ s fortifications were in a better state than those of Navarino . Thus the sappers focused on opening the city gate . The city ’ s garrison did not defend it . The commanders of the fort explained that they could not surrender it without disobeying the Sultan ’ s orders , but also recognised that it was impossible for them to resist . Thus the fort had to be taken , at least symbolically , by force .
It was more difficult to take Koroni . General Sébastiani showed up there on October 7 with a party from his brigade . The fort commander ’ s response was similar to those given at Navarino and Methoni . Sébastiani sent his sappers , who were pushed back by rocks thrown from atop the walls . A dozen men were wounded , among them Cavaignac and , more seriously , a captain , a sergeant and three sappers . The other French soldiers felt insulted and their general had great difficulty in preventing them from opening fire and taking the stronghold by force . The Amphitrite , the Breslaw and the Wellesley came to the assistance of the ground troops . The threat they posed led the Ottoman commander to surrender . On October 9 , the French entered Koroni and seized 80 cannons and guns , along with numerous victuals and munitions .
Patras had been controlled by Ibrahim Pasha since the evacuation of the Peloponnese . The third brigade had been sent by sea to take the city , located in the north @-@ western part of the peninsula . It landed on October 4 . General Schneider gave Hadji Abdullah , Pasha of Patras and of the “ Castle of the Morea ” , twenty @-@ four hours to hand over the fort . On October 5 , when the ultimatum expired , three columns marched on the city and the artillery was deployed . The Pasha immediately signed the capitulation of Patras and of the “ Castle of the Morea ” . However , the aghas who commanded the latter refused to obey their pasha , whom they considered a traitor , and announced that they would rather die in the ruins of their fortress than surrender .
= = = = Siege of the " Morea Castle " = = = =
The " Castle of the Morea " guarded the entry to the Gulf of Corinth , near Rion . Bayezid II had built it in 1499 .
General Schneider negotiated with the aghas , who persisted in their refusal to surrender . A siege was begun from in front of the fortress and fourteen marine and field guns , placed a little over 400 meters away , reduced the artillery of those under siege to silence . Admiral de Rigny had General Maison put all his artillery and sappers on board . By land Maison sent two infantry regiments and the 3rd Light Cavalry Regiment . Reinforcements arrived on October 23 . New batteries nicknamed “ for breaching ” ( de brèche ) were installed . These received the names of Charles X , George IV , the Duke of Angoulême , the Duke of Bordeaux and “ Marine ” . A party from the British fleet and HMS Blonde under Captain Edmund Lyons came to add their cannons .
On October 30 , the batteries opened fire . In four hours , a breach was largely opened in the ramparts . Then , an emissary came out with a white flag to negotiate the terms of the fort ’ s surrender . General Maison replied that the terms had been negotiated at the beginning of the month at Patras . He added that he did not trust a group of besieged men who had not respected a first agreement to respect a second one . He gave the garrison half an hour to evacuate the fort , without arms or baggage . The aghas submitted . However , the fortress ’ resistance had cost 25 men , killed or wounded in the French expedition .
= = = The French in the Peloponnese = = =
On November 5 , 1828 , the last “ non @-@ Greeks ” ( Turks , Egyptians or Muslims generally ) left the Morea . 2 @,@ 500 Turks and their families were placed aboard French vessels headed for Smyrna .
The French and British ambassadors had set themselves up at Poros and invited Constantinople to send a diplomat there so as to pursue negotiations over the status of Greece . The Porte persisted in refusing to participate in conferences . Hence , the French suggested continuing military operations and extending them into Attica and Euboea . The British opposed this plan . Thus it was left to the Greeks to drive out the Ottomans from these territories , with the understanding that the French army would only intervene if the Greeks found themselves in trouble .
Gradually , the Morea was evacuated of troops . The Schneider brigade , of which Cavaignac was a member , boarded ship in the first days of April 1829 . General Maison left on May 22 , 1829 . Only one brigade remained in the Peloponnese . Fresh troops came from France to relieve the soldiers present in Greece : thus the 57th Line Infantry Regiment landed at Navarino on July 25 , 1830 . France did not withdraw its troops for good until after King Otto arrived in Greece in January 1833 .
The French troops , commanded by General Charles Louis Joseph Olivier Guéhéneuc , did not remain idle during these nearly five years . Fortifications were raised , like those at Navarino . Bridges were constructed , such as those over the Pamissos River between Kalamata and Methoni . The Methoni – Navarino road was built , and improvements were made to Peloponnesian towns ( barracks , bridges , gardens , etc . ) .
= = = Military results of the expedition = = =
The Ottoman Empire could no longer depend on Egyptian troops to hold Greece . The strategic situation now resembled that existing before 1825 and the landing of Ibrahim Pasha . Then , the Greek insurgents had triumphed on all fronts .
After the Morea military expedition , the Greeks only had to face the Turkish troops in Central Greece . Livadeia , gateway to Boeotia , was conquered at the beginning of November 1828 . A counterattack by Mahmud Pasha from Euboea was repulsed in January 1829 . In April , Naupaktos was restored to the Greeks ; in May , Augustinos Kapodistrias recaptured the symbolic town of Messolonghi . However , it took the military victory of Russia in the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1828 – 29 and the Treaty of Adrianople before the independence of Greece was recognised .
The Greek territories that had been liberated by September 1829 , a year after the Morea military expedition — the Peloponnese and central Greece — were those which would form independent Greece after 1832 .
= = Scientific expedition = =
The Morea expedition was the second of the great military @-@ scientific expeditions led by France in the first half of the 19th century . The first , used as a benchmark , had been the Egyptian one , starting in 1798 ; the last took place in Algeria from 1839 . All three took place at the initiative of the French government and were placed under the guidance of a particular ministry ( Foreign relations for Egypt , Interior for the Morea and War for Algeria ) . The great scientific institutions recruited learned men ( both civilians and from the military ) and specified their missions , but in situ work took place in close co @-@ operation with the army .
The Commission of Sciences and Arts from Napoleon ’ s Egyptian expedition , and especially the publications that followed , had become a model . As Greece was the other important “ ancient ” region considered as lying at the origin of Western civilisation ( one of the philhellenes ’ principal arguments ) , it was decided to “ take advantage of the presence of our soldiers who were occupying the Morea to send a learned commission . It did not have to equal that attached to the glory of Napoleon [ … ] It did however need to render eminent services to
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the arts and sciences . ”
In Egypt and Algeria , scientific work took place under the army ’ s protection . In the Morea , most troops were departing when exploration had barely begun . The army was content to provide logistical support : “ tents , stakes , tools , liquid containers , large pots and sacks ; in a word , everything that could be found for us to use in the army ’ s storehouses . ”
The members of the scientific expedition landed at Navarino on March 3 , 1829 , after 21 days at sea .
= = = Physical sciences section = = =
This section included several sciences : botany ( Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint @-@ Vincent , Louis Despreaux Saint @-@ Sauveur and Antoine Vincent Pector ) , geography , geology ( Pierre Théodore Virlet d ’ Aoust and Émile Puillon Boblaye ) and zoology . The government insisted that a landscape artist also be sent , as Minister of the Interior Martignac had asked for one so as not to restrict the observations “ to flies and herbs , but to extend them to places and people . ”
= = = = Geography = = = =
One of the first objectives fixed by the French government had been to draw precise maps of the Peloponnese , with a scientific purpose , but also for economic and military reasons . The Minister of War , the Vicomte de Caux , had written to General Maison on January 6 , 1829 :
“ All the maps of Greece are very imperfect and were drawn up based on more or less inaccurate templates ; it is thus essential to fix them . Not only will geography be enriched by this research , but we will in the process support France ’ s commercial interests by making her relations easier , and it will above all be useful for our ground and naval forces , who may find themselves involved in this part of Europe . ”
In two years , a very precise map , drawn on six sheets at a 1 / 200 @,@ 000 scale , was produced . In March 1829 , a base of 3 @,@ 500 meters had been traced in the Argolis , from one angle at the ruins of Tiryns to an angle of a house in ruins in the village of Aria . This was intended to serve as a point of departure in all the triangulation operations for topographic and geodesic readings in the Peloponnese . Pierre Peytier and Puillon @-@ Boblaye proceeded to perform numerous verifications on the base and on the rulers used . The margin of error was thus reduced to 1 meter for every 15 kilometers . The longitude and latitude of the base point at Tiryns were read and checked , so that again the margin of error was reduced as far as possible to an estimated 0 @.@ 2 seconds . 134 geodesic stations were set up on the peninsula ’ s mountains , as well as on Aegina , Hydra and Nafplion . Thus , equilateral triangles whose sides measured about 20 km were drawn . The angles were measured with theodolites by Gambey .
The geographers suffered from fever — Bory de Saint @-@ Vincent ’ s team as much as that of Puillon @-@ Boblaye :
“ The horrible heat that beset us in July placed , for the rest , the entire topographic brigade in disarray . These gentlemen , having worked in the sun , have nearly all taken ill and eight days ago , we grieved to see M. Dechièvre die at Napoli eight days ago . ” ( Bory de Saint @-@ Vincent )
“ Of twelve officers employed in the geodesic service , two are dead and all have been sick . Besides them , we have lost two sappers and a household servant . ” ( Puillon @-@ Boblaye )
= = = = Botany and zoology = = = =
Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint @-@ Vincent led the scientific expedition . Additionally , he made detailed botanical studies . He gathered a multitude of specimens : Flore de Morée ( 1832 ) lists 1 @,@ 550 plants , of which 33 were orchids and 91 were grasses ( just 42 species had not yet been described ) ; Nouvelle Flore du Péloponnèse et des Cyclades ( 1838 ) described 1 @,@ 821 species . In Morea , Bory de Saint @-@ Vincent was content to collect plants . He proceeded to classify , identify and describe them upon his return to France . Then he was aided , not by his collaborators from Greece , but by Louis Athanase Chaubard , Jean @-@ Baptiste Fauché and Adolphe @-@ Théodore Brongniart . Similarly , the naturalists Étienne and Isidore Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire helped edit the expedition ’ s scientific works .
As the gathering process went along , they sent the plants , as well as birds and fish , to France .
The Morea expedition confirmed that the golden jackal existed in Greece . Although earlier travel narratives had mentioned its presence , these were not considered trustworthy . Moreover , the subspecies seen and described by the French ( named Canis aureus moreotica ) was endemic to the region . Bory de Saint @-@ Vincent brought back pelts and a skull .
= = = Fine arts section = = =
This section was formed by the Institut de France , which designated the architect Guillaume @-@ Abel Blouet as its head . The Institut sent Amable Ravoisié , Pierre Achille Poirot , Frédéric de Gournay and Pierre Félix Trezel as his assistants .
The architect Jean @-@ Nicolas Huyot gave very precise instructions to this section . Of wide @-@ ranging experience formed in Asia Minor and Egypt and under the influence of engineers , he asked them to keep an authentic diary of their excavations where precision measurements read off watches and compasses should be written down , to draw a map of the region they travelled , and to describe the layout of the terrain .
= = = = Itineraries = = = =
The publication of works on archaeology and art followed the same pattern as with works on physical and natural sciences : that of an itinerary with descriptions of the roads travelled , noteworthy monuments along these routes and descriptions of their destinations . Hence , volume I of Expédition de Morée . Section des Beaux Arts describes Navarino ( pp. 1 – 7 ) with six pages of plates ( fountains , churches , the fortress of Navarino and the palace of Nestor at Pylos ) ; then on pages 9 – 10 , the Navarino @-@ Methoni road is detailed with four pages of plates ( a church in ruins and its frescoes , but also bucolic landscapes reminding the reader that the scene is not so far from Arcadia ) ; and finally three pages on Methoni and four pages of plates . The bucolic landscapes were rather close to the “ norm ” that Hubert Robert had proposed for depictions of Greece .
The presence of troops from the expeditionary corps was important , alternating with that of Greek shepherds :
“ ( … ) their generous hospitality and simple and innocent mores reminded us of the beautiful period of pastoral life which fiction calls the Golden age , and seemed to present to us as real people the characters of Theocritus ’ and Virgil ’ s eclogues . ”
The archaeological expedition travelled through Navarino ( Pylos ) , Methoni , Koroni , Messene and Olympia ( described in the publication ’ s first volume ) ; Bassae , Megalopolis , Sparta , Mantineia , Argos , Mycenae , Tiryns and Nafplion ( subjects of the second volume ) ; the Cyclades ( Syros , Kea , Mykonos , Delos , Naxos and Milos ) , Sounion , Aegina , Epidaurus , Troezen , Nemea , Corinth , Sicyon , Patras , Elis , Kalamata , the Mani Peninsula , Cape Matapan , Monemvasia , Athens , Salamis Island and Eleusina ( covered in volume III ) .
Edgar Quinet had left with the rest of the expedition . However , from the time he arrived in Greece , he kept apart from his companions , as did another member of his section , the Lyon sculptor Jean @-@ Baptiste Vietty . The two travelled through the Peloponnese separately and Quinet visited Piraeus on April 21 , 1829 , thence reaching Athens . He saw the Cyclades in May , starting with Syros . Having taken ill , he returned to France on June 5 , and his Grèce moderne et ses rapports avec l ’ Antiquité appeared in September 1831 . Vietty pursued his research in Greece until August 1831 , long after the expedition had returned to France at the end of 1829 .
= = = = Ways of exploration = = = =
The artistic and archaeological exploration of the Peloponnese unfolded in the manner in which archaeological research was then conducted in Greece . The first step always involved an attempt to make an on @-@ site check ( a form of autopsy in the manner of Herodotus ) against the texts of ancient authors like Homer , Pausanias or Strabo . Thus , at Navarino , the location of Nestor ’ s palace was determined from Homer and the adjectives “ inaccessible ” and “ sandy ” . At Methoni , “ the ancient remains of the port of which the description matches perfectly with that of Pausanias are enough to determine with certainty the location of the ancient town . ”
Having explored Navarino , Methoni and Koroni , the members of the expedition returned to Messene , where they spent a month starting on April 10 .
= = = = Olympia = = = =
The expedition spent six weeks , starting on May 10 , 1829 , in Olympia . Abel Blouet and Dubois undertook the first excavations there . They were accompanied by the painters Poirot , Trezel and Duval . The archaeological advice of Huyot was followed :
“ Following the instructions which had been given to him by the commission of the Institute , this antiquarian ( Dubois ) had begun the excavations of which the result had been the discovery of the first bases of the two columns of the pronaos and several fragments of sculpture . ”
The site was divided into squares and excavations were undertaken in straight lines : archaeology was becoming rationalised , and it was in this way that the location of the temple of Zeus was determined . The simple chase after treasure was beginning to be abandoned .
The fundamental contribution of the Morea scientific expedition was in effect its quasi @-@ disinterest in pillage and treasure hunting . Blouet refused to perform excavations that risked damaging the monuments , and banned the mutilation of statues with the intent of taking a piece separated from the rest of the statue without regard . It is perhaps for this reason that the three metopes of the temple of Zeus discovered at Olympia were brought back in their entirety . In any case , this willingness to protect the integrity of monuments undoubtedly represented an epistemological progress .
= = = = Byzantine Greece = = = =
The French did not limit their interest to Antiquity ; they also described and drew Byzantine monuments . Quite often , and until then for the travellers as well , only Ancient Greece mattered ; medieval and modern Greece were ignored . Blouet , in his Expédition de Morée , gave very precise descriptions of the churches he saw . For instance , plate 9 ( I , II and III ) of volume I deals with :
“ Layout , section and perspective view of one of the two small churches of the village of Osphino , situated on the slope of the mountain to the left of the Navarino @-@ Methoni road ; ( … ) ; its interior , decorated with paintings and frescoes , is divided into two parts by a wall that forms a small closed sanctuary in the back in which the priest stands to officiate . ”
= = = = Foundation of the French School at Athens = = = =
The results obtained by the Morea scientific expedition underscored the need to create a permanent , stable structure that would allow its work to continue . From 1846 , it was possible to “ systematically and permanently continue the work so gloriously and so happily begun by the Morea scientific expedition ” due to the creation on rue Didot , at the foot of Mount Lycabettus , of a French scientific institution , in the form of the French School at Athens .
= = = Publications = = =
Abel Blouet and Amable Ravoisié , Expédition scientifique de Morée , ordonnée par le Gouvernement Francais . Architecture , Sculptures , Inscriptions et Vues du Péloponèse , des Cyclades et de l ’ Attique . , Firmin Didot , 1831 . ( 3 volumes )
J. B. Bory de Saint @-@ Vincent , Relation du voyage de la Commission scientifique de Morée dans le Péloponnèse , les Cyclades et l ’ Attique . , Levrault , 1836 – 1838 . 2 volumes and an atlas .
J. B. Bory de Saint @-@ Vincent ( and collaborators ) , Expédition scientifique de Morée . Section des sciences physiques . , volume II Géographie et géologie . , 1834 .
J. B. Bory de Saint @-@ Vincent ( and collaborators ) , Expédition scientifique de Morée . Section des sciences physiques . , volume III Botanique , also called Flore de Morée . , 1832 .
J. B. Bory de Saint @-@ Vincent ( and Louis Athanase Chaubard ) , Nouvelle Flore du Péloponnèse et des Cyclades . , 1838 ( revised and expanded edition of 1832 ’ s Flore de Morée . ) .
E. Puillon @-@ Boblaye , Recherches géographiques sur les ruines de Morée . , Levrault , 1836 .
= Natalie Clifford Barney =
Natalie Clifford Barney ( October 31 , 1876 – February 2 , 1972 ) was an American playwright , poet and novelist who lived as an expatriate in Paris .
Barney 's salon was held at her home at 20 rue Jacob in Paris ' Left Bank for more than 60 years and brought together writers and artists from around the world , including many leading figures in French literature along with American and British Modernists of the Lost Generation . She worked to promote writing by women and formed a " Women 's Academy " ( L 'Académie des Femmes ) in response to the all @-@ male French Academy while also giving support and inspiration to male writers from Remy de Gourmont to Truman Capote .
She was openly lesbian and began publishing love poems to women under her own name as early as 1900 , considering scandal as " the best way of getting rid of nuisances " ( meaning heterosexual attention from young males ) . In her writings she supported feminism and pacifism . She opposed monogamy and had many overlapping long and short @-@ term relationships , including on @-@ and @-@ off romances with poet Renée Vivien and dancer Armen Ohanian and a 50 @-@ year relationship with painter Romaine Brooks . Her life and love affairs served as inspiration for many novels , ranging from the salacious French bestseller Sapphic Idyll to The Well of Loneliness , the most famous lesbian novel of the twentieth century .
= = Early life = =
Barney was born in 1876 in Dayton , Ohio , to Albert Clifford Barney and Alice Pike Barney . Her father was the son of a wealthy manufacturer of railway cars and of English descent , and her mother was of French , Dutch and German ancestry . Her maternal grandfather 's father was Jewish . When Barney was five years old her family spent the summer at New York 's Long Beach Hotel where Oscar Wilde happened to be speaking on his American lecture tour . Wilde scooped her up as she ran past him fleeing a group of small boys , held her out of their reach then sat her down on his knee and told her a story . The next day he joined Barney and her mother on the beach , where their conversation changed the course of Alice 's life , inspiring her to pursue art seriously , despite , years later , her husband 's disapproval . She later studied under Carolus @-@ Duran and James McNeill Whistler . Many of Alice Pike Barney 's paintings are now in the Smithsonian American Art Museum .
Like many girls of her time , Barney had a haphazard education . Her interest in the French language began with a governess who read Jules Verne stories aloud to her so she would have to learn quickly to understand them . Later she and her younger sister Laura Clifford Barney attended Les Ruches , a French boarding school founded by feminist Marie Souvestre and attended by such notables as Eleanor Roosevelt . As an adult she spoke French fluently without an accent and made her home in Paris . Nearly all her published works were written in French .
When she was ten her family moved from Ohio to Washington , D.C. , spending summers in Bar Harbor , Maine . As the rebellious and unconventional daughter of one of the wealthiest families in town , she was often mentioned in Washington newspapers . In her early twenties she made headlines by galloping through Bar Harbor while driving a second horse on a lead ahead of her and by riding astride instead of sidesaddle .
Barney later said she knew by age 12 she was lesbian and was determined to " live openly , without hiding anything . " In 1899 after seeing the courtesan Liane de Pougy at a dance hall in Paris , Barney presented herself at de Pougy 's residence in a page costume and announced she was a " page of love " sent by Sappho . Although de Pougy was one of the most famous women in France , constantly sought after by wealthy and titled men , Barney 's audacity charmed her . Their brief affair became the subject of de Pougy 's tell @-@ all roman à clef , Idylle Saphique ( Sapphic Idyll ) . Published in 1901 , this book became the talk of Paris , reprinted at least 69 times in its first year . Barney was soon well known as the model for one of the characters . By this time , however , the two had already broken up after quarre
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ling repeatedly over Barney 's desire to " rescue " de Pougy from her life as a courtesan .
Barney herself contributed a chapter to Idylle Saphique in which she described reclining at de Pougy 's feet in a screened box at the theater , watching Sarah Bernhardt 's play Hamlet . During intermission , Barney ( as " Flossie " ) compares Hamlet 's plight with that of women : " What is there for women who feel the passion for action when pitiless Destiny holds them in chains ? Destiny made us women at a time when the law of men is the only law that is recognized . " She also wrote Lettres à une Connue ( Letters to a Woman I Have Known ) , her own epistolary novel about the affair . Although Barney failed to find a publisher for the book and later called it naïve and clumsy , it is notable for its discussion of homosexuality , which Barney regarded as natural and compared to albinism . " My queerness , " she said , " is not a vice , is not deliberate , and harms no one . "
= = Eva Palmer @-@ Sikelianos = =
Barney 's earliest intimate relationship was with Eva Palmer @-@ Sikelianos . In 1893 they became acquainted during summer vacations in Bar Harbor , Maine . Barney likened Palmer to a medieval virgin , an ode to her ankle length red hair , sea @-@ green eyes and pale complexion . The two remained close for a number of years . As young adults in Paris they shared an apartment at 4 , rue Chalgrin . Later they each had their own place in Neuilly . Barney frequently solicited Palmer 's help in her romantic pursuits of other women , namely Pauline Tarn . Palmer ultimately left Barney 's side for Greece and eventually married Angelos Sikelianos . Their relationship did not survive this turn of events , Barney took a dim view of Angelos and heated letters were exchanged . Later in their lives the friendship was repaired and both took a mature view on the roles they had played in each other 's lives .
= = Renée Vivien = =
In November 1899 Barney met the poet Pauline Tarn , better known by her pen name Renée Vivien . For Vivien it was love at first sight , while Barney became fascinated with Vivien after hearing her recite one of her poems , which she described as " haunted by the desire for death . " Their romantic relationship was also a creative exchange that inspired both of them to write . Barney provided a feminist theoretical framework which Vivien explored in her poetry . They adapted the imagery of the Symbolist poets along with the conventions of courtly love to describe love between women , also finding examples of heroic women in history and myth . Sappho was an especially important influence and they studied Greek so as to read the surviving fragments of her poetry in the original . Both wrote plays about her life .
Vivien saw Barney as a muse and as Barney put it , " she had found new inspiration through me , almost without knowing me . " Barney felt Vivien had cast her as a femme fatale and that she wanted " to lose herself ... entirely in suffering " for the sake of her art . Vivien also believed in fidelity , which Barney was unwilling to agree to . While Barney was visiting her family in Washington , D.C. in 1901 , Vivien stopped answering her letters . Barney tried to get her back for years , at one point persuading a friend , operatic mezzo @-@ soprano Emma Calvé , to sing under Vivien 's window so she could throw a poem ( wrapped around a bouquet of flowers ) up to Vivien on her balcony . Both flowers and poem were intercepted and returned by a governess .
In 1904 she wrote Je Me Souviens ( I Remember ) , an intensely personal prose poem about their relationship which was presented as a single handwritten copy to Vivien in an attempt to win her back . They reconciled and traveled together to Lesbos , where they lived happily together for a short time and talked about starting a school of poetry for women like the one which Sappho , according to tradition , had founded on Lesbos some 2 @,@ 500 years before . However , Vivien soon got a letter from her lover Baroness Hélène van Zuylen and went to Constantinople thinking she would break up with her in person . Vivien planned to meet Barney in Paris afterward but instead stayed with the Baroness and this time , the breakup was permanent .
Vivien 's health declined rapidly after this . According to Vivien 's friend and neighbor Colette , she ate almost nothing and drank heavily , even rinsing her mouth with perfumed water to hide the smell . Colette 's account has led some to call Vivien an anorexic but this diagnosis did not yet exist at the time . Vivien was also addicted to the sedative chloral hydrate . In 1908 she attempted suicide by overdosing on laudanum and died the following year . In a memoir written fifty years later Barney said " She could not be saved . Her life was a long suicide . Everything turned to dust and ashes in her hands . "
In 1949 , two years after the death of Hélène van Zuylen , Barney restored the Renée Vivien Prize with a financial grant under the authority of the Société des gens de lettres and took on the chairmanship of the jury in 1950 .
= = Poetry and plays = =
In 1900 , Barney published her first book , a collection of poems called Quelques Portraits @-@ Sonnets de Femmes ( Some Portrait @-@ Sonnets of Women ) . The poems were written in traditional French verse and a formal , old @-@ fashioned style since Barney did not care for free verse . These poems have been described as " apprentice work " but by publishing them , Barney became the first woman poet to openly write about the love of women since Sappho . Her mother contributed pastel illustrations of the poems ' subjects , wholly unaware three of the four women who modeled for her were her daughter 's lovers .
Reviews were generally positive and glossed over the lesbian theme of the poems , some even misrepresenting it . The Washington Mirror said Barney " writes odes to men 's lips and eyes ; not like a novice , either . " However , a headline in a society gossip paper cried out " Sappho Sings in Washington " and this alerted her father , who bought and destroyed the publisher 's remaining stock and printing plates .
To escape her father 's sway Barney published her next book , Cinq Petits Dialogues Grecs ( Five Short Greek Dialogues , 1901 ) , under the pseudonym Tryphé . The name came from the works of Pierre Louÿs , who helped to edit and revise the manuscript . Barney also dedicated the book to him . The first of the dialogues is set in ancient Greece and contains a long description of Sappho , who is " more faithful in her inconstancy than others in their fidelity . " Another argues for paganism over Christianity . Barney 's father 's death in 1902 left her with a substantial fortune , freeing her from any need to conceal the authorship of her books ; she never used a pseudonym again .
Je Me Souviens was published in 1910 , after Vivien 's death . That same year , Barney published Actes et Entr 'actes ( Acts and Interludes ) , a collection of short plays and poems . One of the plays was Equivoque ( Ambiguity ) , a revisionist version on the legend of Sappho 's death : Instead of throwing herself off a cliff for the love of Phaon the sailor , she does so out of grief that Phaon is marrying the woman she loves . The play incorporates quotations from Sappho 's fragments , with Barney 's own footnotes in Greek .
Barney did not take her poetry as seriously as Vivien did , saying , " if I had one ambition it was to make my life itself into a poem . " Her plays were only performed through amateur productions in her garden . According to Karla Jay , most of them lacked coherent plots and " would probably baffle even the most sympathetic audience . " After 1910 she mostly wrote the epigrams and memoirs for which she is better known . Her last book of poetry was called Poems & Poemes : Autres Alliances and came out in 1920 , bringing together romantic poetry in both French and English . Barney asked Ezra Pound to edit the poems but then ignored the detailed recommendations he made .
= = Salon = =
For over 60 years , Barney hosted a literary salon , a weekly gathering at which people met to socialize and discuss literature , art , music and any other topic of interest . Barney strove to feature women 's writing while also hosting some of the most prominent male writers of her time . She brought together expatriate Modernists with members of the French Academy . Joan Schenkar described Barney 's salon as " a place where lesbian assignations and appointments with academics could coexist in a kind of cheerful , cross @-@ pollinating , cognitive dissonance . "
In the 1900s Barney held early gatherings of the salon at her house in Neuilly . The entertainment included poetry readings and theatricals ( in which Colette sometimes performed ) . Mata Hari performed a dance once , riding into the garden as Lady Godiva on a white horse harnessed with turquoise cloisonné .
The play Equivoque may have led Barney to leave Neuilly in 1909 . According to a contemporary newspaper article , her landlord objected to her holding an outdoor performance of a play about Sappho , which he felt " followed nature too closely " . She canceled her lease and rented the pavilion at 20 , Rue Jacob in Paris ' Latin Quarter and her salon was held there until the late 1960s . This was a small two @-@ story house , separated on three sides from the main building on the street . Next to the pavillon was a large , overgrown garden with a Doric " Temple of Friendship " tucked into one corner . In this new location , the salon grew a more prim outward face , with poetry readings and conversation , perhaps because Barney had been told the pavillon 's floors would not hold up to large dancing parties . Frequent guests during this period included Pierre Louÿs , Paul Claudel , Philippe Berthelot and translator J. C. Mardrus .
During World War I the salon became a haven for those opposed to the war . Henri Barbusse once gave a reading from his anti @-@ war novel Under Fire and Barney hosted a Women 's Congress for Peace at the Rue Jacob . Other visitors to the salon during the war included Oscar Milosz , Auguste Rodin and poet Alan Seeger , who came while on leave from the French Foreign Legion .
In the early 1920s , Ezra Pound was a close friend of Barney 's and often visited . The two schemed together to subsidize Paul Valéry and T. S. Eliot so they could quit their jobs and focus on writing , but Valéry found other patrons and Eliot refused the grant . Pound introduced Barney to avant @-@ garde composer George Antheil and while her own taste in music leaned towards the traditional , she hosted premieres of Antheil 's Symphony for Five Instruments and First String Quartet at the Rue Jacob . It was also at Barney 's salon that Pound met his longtime mistress , the violinist Olga Rudge .
In 1927 Barney started an Académie des Femmes ( Women 's Academy ) to honor women writers . This was a response to the influential French Academy which had been founded in the 17th century by Louis XIII and whose 40 " immortals " included no women at the time . Unlike the French Academy , her Women 's Academy was not a formal organization , but rather a series of readings held as part of the regular Friday salons . Honorees included Colette , Gertrude Stein , Anna Wickham , Rachilde , Lucie Delarue @-@ Mardrus , Mina Loy , Djuna Barnes and posthumously , Renée Vivien .
Other visitors to the salon during the 1920s included French writers Jeanne Galzy , André Gide , Anatole France , Max Jacob , Louis Aragon and Jean Cocteau along with English @-@ language writers Ford Madox Ford , W. Somerset Maugham , F. Scott Fitzgerald , Sinclair Lewis , Sherwood Anderson , Thornton Wilder , T. S. Eliot and William Carlos Williams and moreover , German poet Rainer Maria Rilke , Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore ( the first Nobel laureate from Asia ) , Romanian aesthetician and diplomat Matila Ghyka , journalist Janet Flanner ( who set the New Yorker style ) , journalist , activist and publisher Nancy Cunard , publishers Caresse and Harry Crosby , art collector and patron Peggy Guggenheim , Sylvia Beach ( the bookstore owner who published James Joyce 's Ulysses ) , painters Tamara de Lempicka and Marie Laurencin and dancer Isadora Duncan .
For her 1929 book Aventures de l 'Esprit ( Adventures of the Mind ) Barney drew a social diagram which crowded the names of over a hundred people who had attended the salon into a rough map of the house , garden and Temple of Friendship . The first half of the book had reminiscences of 13 male writers she had known or met over the years and the second half had a chapter for each member of her Académie des Femmes . This gender @-@ balanced structure was not carried through on the book 's packaging , which listed eight of the male writers then added " ... and some women . "
In the late 1920s Radclyffe Hall drew a crowd after her novel The Well of Loneliness had been banned in the UK . A reading by poet Edna St. Vincent Millay packed the salon in 1932 . At another Friday salon in the 1930s Virgil Thomson sang from Four Saints in Three Acts , an opera based on a libretto by Gertrude Stein .
Of the famous Modernist writers who spent time in Paris , Ernest Hemingway never made an appearance at the salon . James Joyce came once or twice but didn 't care for it . Marcel Proust never attended a Friday , though he did come to 20 , Rue Jacob once to talk with Barney about lesbian culture whilst doing research for In Search of Lost Time . His visit was delayed repeatedly owing to his poor health , and when the meeting finally did happen he was too nervous to bring up the subject he had come to talk about .
= = Epigrams and novel = =
Éparpillements ( Scatterings , 1910 ) was Barney 's first collection of pensées — literally , thoughts . This literary form had been associated with salon culture in France since the 17th century , when the genre was perfected at the salon of Madame de Sablé . Barney 's pensées , like de Sablé 's own Maximes , were short , often one @-@ line epigrams or bon mots such as " There are more evil ears than bad mouths " and " To be married is to be neither alone nor together . "
Her literary career got a boost after she sent a copy of Éparpillements to Remy de Gourmont , a French poet , literary critic , and philosopher who had become a recluse after contracting the disfiguring disease lupus vulgaris in his thirties . He was impressed enough to invite her to one of the Sunday gatherings at his home , at which he usually received only a small group of old friends . She was a rejuvenating influence in his life , coaxing him out for evening car rides , dinners at the Rue Jacob , a masked ball , even a short cruise on the Seine . He turned some of their wide @-@ ranging conversations into a series of letters that he published in the Mercure de France , addressing her as l 'Amazone , a French word that can mean either horsewoman or Amazon ; the letters were later collected in book form . He died in 1915 , but the nickname he gave her would stay with her all her life — even her tombstone identifies her as " the Amazon of Remy de Gourmont " — and his Letters to the Amazon left readers wanting to know more about the woman who had inspired them .
Barney obliged in 1920 with Pensées d 'une Amazone ( Thoughts of an Amazon ) , her most overtly political work . In the first section , " Sexual Adversity , War , and Feminism " , she developed feminist and pacifist themes , describing war as an " involuntary and collective suicide ordained by man " . In war , she said , men " father death as women mother life , with courage and without choice " . The epigrammatic form makes it difficult to determine the details of Barney 's views ; ideas are presented only to be dropped , and some pensées seem to contradict others . Some critics interpret her as saying that the aggression that leads to war is visible in all male relationships . Karla Jay , however , argues that her philosophy was not that sweeping , and is better summed up by the epigram " Those who love war lack the love of an adequate sport — the art of living . "
Another section of Pensées d 'une Amazone , " Misunderstanding , or Sappho 's Lawsuit " , gathered historical writings about homosexuality along with her own commentary . She also covered topics such as alcohol , friendship , old age , and literature , writing " Novels are longer than life " and " Romanticism is a childhood ailment ; those who had it young are the most robust . " A third volume , Nouvelles Pensées de l 'Amazone ( New Thoughts of the Amazon ) , appeared in 1939 .
The One Who is Legion , or A.D. ' s After @-@ Life ( 1930 ) was Barney 's only book written entirely in English , as well as her only novel . Illustrated by Romaine Brooks , it concerns a suicide , known only as A.D. , who is brought back to life as a hermaphroditic being and reads the book of her own life . This book @-@ within @-@ a @-@ book , entitled The Love @-@ Lives of A.D. , is a collection of hymns , poems and epigrams , much like Barney 's own other writings .
= = Major relationships = =
Barney practiced , and advocated , non @-@ monogamy . As early as 1901 , in Cinq Petits Dialogues Grecs , she argued in favor of multiple relationships and against jealousy ; in Éparpillements she wrote " One is unfaithful to those one loves in order that their charm does not become mere habit . " While she could be jealous herself , she actively encouraged at least some of her lovers to be non @-@ monogamous as well .
Due in part to Jean Chalon 's early biography of her , published in English as Portrait of a Seductress , she had become more widely known for her many relationships than for her writing or her salon . She once wrote out a list , divided into three categories : liaisons , demi @-@ liaisons , and adventures . Colette was a demi @-@ liaison , while the artist and furniture designer Eyre de Lanux , with whom she had an off @-@ and @-@ on affair for several years , was listed as an adventure . Among the liaisons — the relationships that she considered most important — were Olive Custance , Renée Vivien , Élisabeth de Gramont , Romaine Brooks , and Dolly Wilde . Of these , the three longest relationships were with de Gramont , Brooks , and Wilde ; from 1927 , she was involved with all three of them simultaneously , a situation that ended only with Wilde 's death . Her shorter affairs , such as those with Colette and Lucie Delarue @-@ Mardrus , often evolved into lifelong friendships .
= = = Élisabeth de Gramont = = =
Élisabeth de Gramont , the Duchess of Clermont @-@ Tonnerre , was a writer best known for her popular memoirs . A descendant of Henry IV of France , she had grown up among the aristocracy ; when she was a child , according to Janet Flanner , " peasants on her farm ... begged her not to clean her shoes before entering their houses " . She looked back on this lost world of wealth and privilege with little regret , and became known as the " red duchess " for her support of socialism . She was married and had two daughters in 1910 , when she met Barney ; her husband is said to have been violent and tyrannical . They eventually separated , and in 1918 she and Barney wrote up a marriage contract stating : " No one union shall be so strong as this union , nor another joining so tender — nor relationship so lasting . "
De Gramont accepted Barney 's nonmonogamy — perhaps reluctantly at first — and went out of her way to be gracious to her other lovers , always including Romaine Brooks when she invited Barney to vacation in the country . The relationship continued until de Gramont 's death in 1954 .
= = = Romaine Brooks = = =
Barney 's longest relationship was with the American painter Romaine Brooks , whom she met around 1914 . Brooks specialized in portraiture and was noted for her somber palette of gray , black , and white . During the 1920s she painted portraits of several members of Barney 's social circle , including de Gramont and Barney herself .
Brooks tolerated Barney 's casual affairs well enough to tease her about them , and had a few of her own over the years , but could become jealous when a new love became serious . Usually she simply left town , but at one point she gave Barney an ultimatum to choose between her and Dolly Wilde — relenting once Barney had given in . At the same time , while Brooks was devoted to Barney , she did not want to live with her as a full @-@ time couple ; she disliked Paris , disdained Barney 's friends , hated the constant socializing on which Barney thrived , and felt that she was fully herself only when alone . To accommodate Brooks 's need for solitude they built a summer home consisting of two separate wings joined by a dining room , which they called Villa Trait d 'Union , the hyphenated villa . Brooks also spent much of the year in Italy or travelling elsewhere in Europe , away from Barney . They remained devoted to one another for over fifty years .
= = = Dolly Wilde = = =
Dolly Wilde was the niece of Oscar Wilde ( whom Natalie Barney had met as a little girl ) and the last of her family to bear the Wilde name . She was renowned for her epigrammatic wit but , unlike her famous uncle , never managed to apply her gifts to any publishable writing ; her letters are her only legacy . She did some work as a translator and was often supported by others , including Barney , whom she met in 1927 .
Like Vivien , Wilde seemed bent on self @-@ destruction . She drank heavily , was addicted to heroin , and attempted suicide several times . Barney financed Drug detoxifications , which were never effective ; she emerged from one nursing @-@ home stay with a new dependency on the sleeping draught paraldehyde , then available over @-@ the @-@ counter .
In 1939 she was diagnosed with breast cancer and refused surgery , seeking alternative treatments . The following year , World War II separated her from Barney ; she fled Paris for England while Barney went to Italy with Brooks . She died in 1941 from causes that have never been fully explained , possibly a paraldehyde overdose .
= = World War II and after = =
Barney 's attitudes during World War II have been controversial . In 1937 , Una , Lady Troubridge had complained that Barney " talked a lot of half @-@ baked nonsense about the tyranny of fascism " . Barney herself was one @-@ quarter Jewish , and since she spent the war in Italy with Romaine Brooks , risked deportation to a concentration camp — a fate she avoided only by wiring her sister Laura for a notarized document attesting to her confirmation . Nevertheless , having no other source of information about the war , she believed Axis propaganda that portrayed the Allies as the aggressors , so that pro @-@ Fascism seemed to her to be a logical consequence of her pacifism . An unpublished memoir she wrote during the war years is pro @-@ Fascist and anti @-@ Semitic , quoting speeches by Hitler , apparently with approval .
It is possible that the anti @-@ Semitic passages in her memoir were intended to be used as evidence that she was not Jewish ; alternatively , she may have been influenced by Ezra Pound 's anti @-@ Semitic radio broadcasts . Whatever the case , she did help a Jewish couple escape Italy , providing passage on a ship to the United States . By the end of the war her sympathies had again changed , and she saw the Allies as liberators .
Villa Trait d 'Union was destroyed by bombing . After the war , Brooks declined to live with Barney in Paris ; she remained in Italy , and they visited each other frequently . Their relationship remained monogamous until the mid @-@ 1950s , when Barney met her last new love , Janine Lahovary , the wife of a retired Romanian ambassador . Lahovary made a point of winning Romaine Brooks 's friendship , Barney reassured Brooks that their relationship still came first , and the triangle appeared to be stable .
The salon resumed in 1949 and continued to attract young writers for whom it was as much a piece of history as a place where literary reputations were made . Truman Capote was an intermittent guest for almost ten years ; he described the decor as " totally turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century " and remembered that Barney introduced him to the models for several characters in Marcel Proust 's In Search of Lost Time . Alice B. Toklas became a regular after Gertrude Stein 's death in 1946 . Fridays in the 1960s honored Mary McCarthy and Marguerite Yourcenar , who in 1980 — eight years after Barney 's death — became the first female member of the French Academy .
Barney did not return to writing epigrams , but did publish two volumes of memoirs about other writers she had known , Souvenirs Indiscrets ( Indiscreet Memories , 1960 ) and Traits et Portraits ( Traits and Portraits , 1963 ) . She also worked to find a publisher for Brooks 's memoirs and to place her paintings in galleries .
In the late 1960s Brooks became increasingly reclusive and paranoid ; she sank into a depression and refused to see the doctors Barney sent . Bitter at Lahovary 's presence during their last years , which she had hoped they would spend exclusively together , she finally broke off contact with Barney . Barney continued to write to her , but received no replies . Brooks died in December 1970 , and Barney on February 2 , 1972 of heart failure .
= = Legacy = =
By the end of Barney 's life her work had been largely forgotten . In 1979 , Natalie Barney was honored with a place setting in Judy Chicago 's feminist work of art The Dinner Party . In the 1980s Barney began to be recognized for what Karla Jay calls an " almost uncanny anticipation " of the concerns of later feminist writers . English translations of some of her memoirs , essays , and epigrams appeared in 1992 , but most of her plays and poetry are still untranslated .
Her indirect influence on literature , through her salon and her many literary friendships , can be seen in the number of writers who have addressed or portrayed her in their works . Claudine S 'en Va ( Claudine and Annie , 1903 ) by Colette contains a brief appearance by Barney as " Miss Flossie , " echoing the nickname she had earlier been given in de Pougy 's novel Idylle Saphique . Renée Vivien wrote many poems about her , as well as a Symbolist novel , Une Femme M 'Apparut ( A Woman Appeared to Me , 1904 ) , in which she is described as having " eyes ... as sharp and blue as a blade .... The charm of peril emanated from her and drew me inexorably . " Remy de Gourmont addressed her in his Letters to the Amazon , and Truman Capote mentioned her in his last , unfinished novel Answered Prayers . She also appeared in two later novels by writers who never met her : Francesco Rapazzini 's Un Soir chez l 'Amazone ( An Evening with the Amazon , 2004 ) is a historical novel about Barney 's salon , while Anna Livia 's Minimax ( 1991 ) portrays both her and Renee Vivien as still @-@ living vampires .
According to Lillian Faderman , " There was probably no lesbian in the four decades between 1928 and the late 1960s capable of reading English or any of the eleven languages into which the book was translated who was unfamiliar with The Well of Loneliness . " Although the novel 's author , Radclyffe Hall , intended it as an argument for greater tolerance for what she called " sexual inverts " , it has often been criticized by lesbian readers for its protagonist 's self @-@ hatred and its use of terms like " freak " and " mistake of nature " . Barney , as the salon hostess Valérie Seymour , appears in the novel as the symbol of a different attitude . " Valérie , placid and self @-@ assured , created an atmosphere of courage ; everyone felt very normal and brave when they gathered together at Valérie Seymour 's . "
Lucie Delarue @-@ Mardrus wrote love poems to Barney in the early years of the century , and in 1930 depicted her in a novel , L 'Ange et les Pervers ( The Angel and the Perverts ) , in which she said she " analyzed and described Natalie at length as well as the life into which she initiated me " . The protagonist of the novel is a hermaphrodite named Marion who lives a double life , frequenting literary salons in female dress , then changing from skirt to trousers to attend gay soirées . Barney is Laurette Wells , a salon hostess who spends much of the novel trying to win back an ex @-@ lover loosely based on Renée Vivien . The book 's portrayal of her is , at times , harshly critical , but she is the only person whose company Marion enjoys . He / she tells Wells that she is " perverse ... dissolute , self @-@ centered , unfair , stubborn , sometimes miserly ... [ but ] a genuine rebel , ever ready to incite others to rebellion .... [ Y ] ou are capable of loving someone just as they are , even a thief — in that lies your only fidelity . And so you have my respect . "
After meeting Barney in the 1930s , the Russian poet Marina Ivanovna Tsvetaeva addressed her in a Letter to the Amazon ( 1934 ) in which she expressed her conflicted feelings about love between women . The result , according to Terry Castle , is " an entirely cryptic , paranoid , overwhelming piece of reverie " .
Barney and the women in her social circle are the subject of Djuna Barnes 's Ladies Almanack ( 1928 ) , a roman à clef written in an archaic , Rabelaisian style , with Barnes ' own illustrations in the style of Elizabethan woodcuts . She has the lead role as Dame Evangeline Musset , " who was in her Heart one Grand Red Cross for the Pursuance , the Relief and the Distraction , of such Girls as in their Hinder Parts , and their Fore Parts , and in whatsoever Parts did suffer them most , lament Cruelly " . " [ A ] Pioneer and a Menace " in her youth , Dame Musset has reached " a witty and learned Fifty " ; she rescues women in distress , dispenses wisdom , and upon her death is elevated to sainthood . Also appearing pseudonymously are Élisabeth de Gramont , Romaine Brooks , Dolly Wilde , Radclyffe Hall and her partner Una , Lady Troubridge , Janet Flanner and Solita Solano , and Mina Loy . The obscure language , inside jokes , and ambiguity of Ladies Almanack have kept critics arguing about whether it is an affectionate satire or a bitter attack , but Barney herself loved the book and reread it throughout her life .
On October 26 , 2009 , Barney was honored with a historical marker in her home town of Dayton , Ohio . The marker is the first in Ohio to note the sexual orientation of its honoree . This plaque was vandalized in July 2010 .
Barney 's French novel , Amants féminins ou la troisième , believed to have been written in 1926 , was published in 2013 .
= = Works = =
= = = In French = = =
Quelques Portraits @-@ Sonnets de Femmes ( Paris : Ollendorf , 1900 )
Cinq Petits Dialogues Grecs ( Paris : La Plume , 1901 ; as " Tryphé " )
Actes et entr 'actes ( Paris : Sansot , 1910 )
Je me souviens ( Paris : Sansot , 1910 )
Eparpillements ( Paris : Sansot , 1910 )
Pensées d 'une Amazone ( Paris : Emile Paul , 1920 )
Aventures de l 'Esprit ( Paris : Emile Paul , 1929 )
Nouvelles Pensées de l 'Amazone ( Paris : Mercure de France , 1939 )
Souvenirs Indiscrets ( Paris : Flammarion , 1960 )
Traits et Portraits ( Paris : Mercure de France , 1963 )
Amants féminins ou la troisième ( Paris : ErosOnyx ,
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by Daktronics , the display has twelve screens and two LED ribbons , and is called the Enmax Energy Board .
= = = 2013 flood = = =
The Saddledome was one of many buildings impacted by the 2013 Alberta floods . The flooding of the Elbow and Bow Rivers swamped many areas of the city , including Stampede Park where the Saddledome is located . The event level of the arena was filled with water , while the dressing rooms and control room for the video replay screen were swamped . At a press conference held on June 22 , 2013 , team president Ken King stated that the arena had flooded up to the eighth row and that the event level of the facility was a " total loss " . He added that the team 's equipment and some memorabilia had also been destroyed , but expressed confidence that the facility would be repaired and ready in time for the October start to the 2013 – 14 Calgary Flames season . Repairs to the facility forced the cancellation of all concerts and agricultural events scheduled for the 2013 Calgary Stampede .
Crews worked around the clock to repair the facility ; Saddledome director of building operations Robert Blanchard estimated that 650 @,@ 000 man hours of work was performed on the facility and noted that they had compressed a six @-@ month project into two . The facility was granted its occupancy permit in late August , and the first event following the Saddledome 's re @-@ opening was an Eagles concert on September 11 . The first hockey game was September 14 , a Flames pre @-@ season contest .
= = Events = =
As the home of the Flames , the Saddledome hosted the 1985 NHL All @-@ Star Game , and the 2000 NHL Entry Draft . The Flames have played three Stanley Cup Finals series in the Saddledome : 1986 , 1989 and 2004 . The arena is also the home of the Calgary Hitmen of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . The Hitmen won the President 's Trophy in 1999 before a WHL playoff record crowd of 17 @,@ 139 . Playing in the largest arena in the WHL , the Hitmen also hold league records for overall attendance ( 362 @,@ 227 in 2004 – 05 ) , as well as single game ( 19 @,@ 305 in 2007 – 08 ) . The Saddledome is also the home of the Calgary Roughnecks of the National Lacrosse League ( NLL ) and hosted the 2005 NLL All @-@ Star Game . It has twice hosted the NLL Champion 's Cup game : 2004 and 2009 , both Calgary victories . The stadium was one of the venues for the 2012 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships .
The opening of the Saddledome allowed Calgary to play host to major musical acts that were bypassing the city in the early 1980s , because the city 's existing facilities were not large enough to accommodate the industry 's top performers .
The Moody Blues were the first musical act to appear with Stevie Ray Vaughan opening , in November 1983 , while Rod Stewart has made the most appearances in the Dome , 11 . Many other top acts have made stops in the Saddledome , however the inability of the roof to support the massive light , speaker and special effect rigs that some performers currently use has led the city to again be bypassed for some major tours .
In addition to hockey and figure skating at the 1988 Olympics , the Saddledome has been the site of numerous major national and international events . The facility has hosted Brier , the Canadian men 's curling championship , on four occasions ( 1997 , 2002 , 2009 and 2015 ) . It also hosted the women 's championship , the Tournament of Hearts in 1995 . The 2006 World Figure Skating Championships was also held in the arena . The WWF pay @-@ per @-@ view event In Your House 16 : Canadian Stampede was also held at the Saddledome in July 1997 . Among non @-@ sporting events , the Saddledome most recently hosted a public address by the Dalai Lama in 2009 that was attended by 15 @,@ 000 people . In 2005 , Queen Elizabeth II attended a celebration of Alberta 's centennial at the Saddledome .
It has also hosted PBR Bud Light Cup events ; in 1998 and 1999 the event was known as " Cody Snyder 's Bullbustin ' " , and in 2000 and 2001 the event was called the Professional Bull Riders Canadian Open . The Saddledome has also been a host for PBR Canada events .
= = Amenities = =
The Saddledome seats 19 @,@ 289 for hockey and lacrosse , with different capacities for other events depending on the arena 's configuration . It has 72 luxury suites , 41 of which were constructed at the top of the lower bowl in 1995 and 31 were constructed at the top of the second level when the facility was built . There are also six party suites on the corners of the upper loges that are rented on an event by event basis . Sections 115 through 122 of the lower bowl form the Chrysler Club and offers in @-@ seat concession service at Flames games .
The Chrysler Club features a private dining room available during Flames games , large concerts and private events . Dutton 's Canadian Lounge is a sports bar located at the west entrance to the building . There are three additional restaurants within the facility : The HSBC Saddleroom Restaurant , the Alumni Lounge and the King Club . The Iconic Platinum Club is a 188 @-@ seat executive club accessible with a purchased membership . It features a private bar and restaurant as well as a fully functional business centre .
= = Saddledome Foundation = =
The City of Calgary established the Saddledome Foundation in 1983 and leased the arena for 50 @-@ years to the non @-@ profit organization . Its mandate was to " oversee the operation in a manner that protects taxpayers and benefits amateur sports at the local , provincial and national level " . The foundation is made up of a board of nine directors : three appointed by the city , three appointed by the province , and one each appointed by the Calgary Olympic Development Association ( now WinSport Canada ) , Hockey Canada and the Calgary Exhibition and Stampede . The foundation contracted the Stampede to manage the arena , and through its lease agreements with the Stampede and the Flames , earned 15 % of gross concession sales , 50 % of net income from luxury suites and executive seating and investment income on the arena 's revenues . The Flames signed a 20 @-@ year lease in 1983 that earned them 70 % of advertising revenues and 90 % of ticket revenues . The Stampede earned 85 % of concession revenues and all revenue from parking .
As part of the 1994 deal with the city , the Flames bought out the Stampede 's contract for $ 20 million and took over management of the facility . While the city and Saddledome Foundation paid for the 1994 – 95 renovations , the new agreement required the Flames to pay for future arena maintenance and repairs , as well as any further renovations . The Flames agreed to manage the arena for 20 years and to contribute $ 14 @.@ 5 million toward amateur sport in the city over that time . The Saddledome Foundation retains the responsibility of distributing funds to amateur sport . From its inception through 2007 , it had allocated over $ 20 million toward this cause .
= = Future = =
The Saddledome is one of the oldest arenas in the NHL , fueling speculation that it is due to be replaced . Flames president and chief executive officer Ken King said in 2008 that plans for a new arena were " five to eight years away " creating the expectation that the team hoped to have a new arena built for when their lease was due to expire in 2014 , but such plans never came to fruition . Team chairman Murray Edwards argues that the ability of the facility to host major events and concerts are growing increasingly limited as the facility ages . Along with Edwards , sports financial analysts also note that newer arenas generate far more revenue for their teams than the Saddledome does for the Flames .
It is expected that any new arena would also be located either on the Stampede Grounds or elsewhere in downtown Calgary . While NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman has lobbied on behalf of both the Flames and the Oilers for government support , Calgary mayor Naheed Nenshi and alderman John Mar have stated their opposition using taxpayer money to help fund a new arena . King stated that the Flames have concepts and designs for a new building , but are not ready to release them . Some of the plans being considered for Stampede Park would include lowering the city 's C @-@ train light rail transit line below ground and run straight into a new facility .
A new arena is being proposed as part of CalgaryNEXT — a sports complex which would be located in the western downtown area , and would include replacements for both the Saddledome and McMahon Stadium .
= California State Route 67 =
State Route 67 ( SR 67 ) is a state highway in San Diego County , California . It begins at Interstate 8 ( I @-@ 8 ) in El Cajon and continues to Lakeside as the San Vicente Freeway before becoming an undivided highway through the eastern part of Poway . In the town of Ramona , the route turns into Main Street before ending at SR 78 . SR 67 provides direct access from the city of San Diego to the East County region of San Diego County , including Ramona and Julian .
The route has existed as a railroad corridor since the turn of the 20th century . A highway known as the Julian road was built by 1913 , and was designated as Legislative Route 198 in the state highway system by 1935 . Route 198 was renumbered SR 67 in the 1964 state highway renumbering . A freeway south of Lakeside was built in the late 1960s , and opened to traffic in 1970 . Since then , the portion of the highway north of Lakeside has become known for a high number of traffic accidents and related fatalities . The California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) has made several attempts to remedy the problem and make the road safer .
= = Route description = =
SR 67 begins at I @-@ 8 in El Cajon ; known as the San Vicente Freeway , it turns north near the Westfield Parkway shopping center . There are two interchanges in the city of El Cajon : one with Broadway and Fletcher Parkway , and another with Bradley Avenue . Following this , the freeway leaves the El Cajon city limits , entering the city of Santee near Gillespie Field , before coming to an interchange with the eastern end of SR 52 in Santee . Near the Woodside Avenue exit , SR 67 turns northeast , paralleling the San Diego River and entering the unincorporated area of Eucalyptus Hills as it leaves the San Diego urban area . Riverford Road and Winter Gardens Boulevard have interchanges with SR 67 .
The freeway ends , and SR 67 turns north and becomes an undivided highway at Mapleview Street , crossing the San Diego River and entering the locale of Moreno . SR 67 then enters the rural area east of Sycamore Canyon County Open Space Preserve near the locale of Foster , passing to the west of San Vicente Reservoir . The road intersects the eastern end of Scripps Poway Parkway and County Route S4 ( CR S4 ) , the latter within the Poway city limits . In eastern Poway , SR 67 veers east , eventually leaving the city and entering unincorporated Rock Haven . The road continues near Rosemont before turning northeast and becoming Julian Road and then Main Street in downtown Ramona . SR 67 ends at the intersection with SR 78 ; SR 78 intersects to the northwest as Pine Street and continues northeast along Main Street towards Julian .
SR 67 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System , but is not part of the National Highway System , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The route is named the CHP Officer Christopher D. Lydon Memorial Freeway from I @-@ 8 to Mapleview Street in Lakeside . In 2013 , SR 67 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 94 @,@ 000 between Broadway and Bradley Avenue ( the highest AADT for the highway ) , and 18 @,@ 100 between Rio Maria Road and Poway Road ( the lowest AADT for the highway ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early days = = =
The " Julian road " had been constructed by 1872 , and was used for stagecoaches . In 1883 , The San Diego Union and Daily Bee described it as a " disgrace to the county . It could hardly be in a worse condition ... and should be repaired immediately . " On October 21 , 1885 , the county Board of Supervisors agreed to a realignment of the Julian road , in what was known as the Bernardo District , onto private property . The road was described in 1890 by The San Diego Union and Daily Bee as passing through farms , and the grade was " cut on the west side of the canyon and buttressed with granite the greater part of the way . " The route continued towards Ramona through vineyards , passing by more boulders .
Between 1885 and 1891 , the San Diego , Cuyamaca , and Eastern Railroad was extended from San Diego through El Cajon to the town of Foster , northeast of Lakeside . In 1896 , the stagecoach line connected the terminus of the railroad line in Foster to Julian , and transported the San Diego newspapers to Ramona by 2 : 30 pm each day . The county began to survey a new routing of the Julian road in 1913 cutting through the El Monte Ranch , reducing the distance from San Diego to Julian by five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) and removing some steep grades .
Bidding was conducted on the Julian road , then known as Road No. 3A , on June 30 , 1920 ; however , progress on the grading of the road fell behind the county engineer 's expectations by October , with only 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) of the road complete . The road was paved from Santee to El Cajon by the end of 1920 . Between Foster and Julian , the paved road was opened in July 1922 , at a cost of $ 550 @,@ 000 ( about $ 45 @,@ 530 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) . The " Ramona Road " remained unpaved between the Mussey Grade and the road to Ballena , a distance of 20 miles ( 32 km ) , and the estimated cost of paving it was $ 400 @,@ 000 ( about $ 29 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) . In 1925 , there were 12 miles ( 19 km ) left of unpaved road between Ramona and Julian , and state and county taxes were to be used to fund this project . The Mussey Grade was completed in April 1925 , marking the completion of the paved road between San Diego and Ramona .
San Diego County declared the Julian road a county boulevard in 1926 , meaning that vehicles were required to stop before entering the highway . The road that would become SR 67 was added to the state highway system in 1933 , from El Cajon to near Santa Ysabel , and was designated as Route 198 in 1935 . It consisted of Maine and Woodside avenues in Lakeside and Magnolia Avenue in the city of El Cajon all the way to U.S. Route 80 ( US 80 ) at Main Street . Because of the construction of the San Vicente Reservoir north of Lakeside , a two @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) section of the road had to be submerged , and it was decided to relocate the road 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) further west by the foot of Mount Woodson . The road was allocated $ 830 @,@ 784 in funding ( about $ 37 @,@ 641 @,@ 062 in 2015 dollars ) to be realigned , widened , and repaved between Lakeside and Mount Woodson in 1942 . Grading and paving of the 11 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 18 @.@ 8 km ) part was scheduled for completion on December 15 , 1943 .
Funding was allocated for traffic signals on the portion between Main Street and Broadway in El Cajon in 1954 . Route 198 also extended onto La Mesa Boulevard and Palm Avenue to SR 94 . This portion was signed as Sign Route 67 by 1962 , from Campo Road to US 80 . In the 1964 state highway renumbering , Route 198 was renumbered as State Route 67 ; the portion south of I @-@ 8 was renumbered as SR 125 .
= = = Freeway construction = = =
The State Highway Commission decided to reroute SR 67 through Lakeside in 1954 , moving it closer to the San Diego River and away from the city center , using the land formerly occupied by the old railroad . In 1961 , the construction of the San Vicente Freeway was listed as a high @-@ priority project by the California Chamber of Commerce . During 1964 , the county of San Diego received $ 1 million ( about $ 16 million in 2015 dollars ) to construct SR 67 as a freeway from Pepper Drive to Broadway in the city of El Cajon . Another $ 1 million ( about $ 15 million in 2015 dollars ) was allocated in 1965 , and the project was extended to I @-@ 8 . The freeway from I @-@ 8 to Pepper Drive was complete by 1967 , when Caltrans announced that " yellow , non @-@ reflectorized markers interspersed with raised yellow dots " would be installed on the freeway portion to delineate the shoulder ; this was the first section to use them in the county . By December 1968 , the freeway was complete from I @-@ 8 north to Woodside Avenue ; the grade at the northern end was smoothed out during the widening of the road in early 1970 . In March , the freeway was under construction from Woodside Avenue to the San Diego River , at a cost of $ 3 @.@ 2 million ( about $ 34 million in 2015 dollars ) . The freeway portion opened on October 12 , 1970 ; it was constructed four lanes wide .
It was planned that SR 67 would be the eastern terminus of SR 56 . On December 30 , 1980 , the City of Poway included SR 56 in the city plan extending east through the city to a northern extension of SR 125 . In 1983 , both the cities of San Diego and Poway supported the extension of SR 56 to SR 67 , although the City of Poway wanted the route moved and had reservations about the freeway ending in the city . There are no plans to construct the portion of SR 56 east of I @-@ 15 . Several arterial roads connect the eastern end of the SR 56 freeway with SR 67 , including Ted Williams Parkway , Twin Peaks Road , Espola Road ( CR S5 ) , and Poway Road ( CR S4 ) .
= = = Safety concerns = = =
The highway portion of SR 67 was popularly known as " Slaughterhouse Alley " because of the high number of fatal accidents . The road was widened in 1979 to add a shoulder and passing lane between the north end of the freeway and Poway Road . During the construction , there were concerns about speeding cars putting the construction workers in danger . The total cost was $ 927 @,@ 000 ( about $ 4 @,@ 422 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) , and Asphalt Inc. performed the work .
The reputation of the highway continued into the early years of the 21st century . In 2000 , a $ 1 million project ( about $ 1 @.@ 5 million in 2015 dollars ) was authorized to widen the shoulders of the road , after there were 413 accidents and 15 fatalities on SR 67 from 1996 to 1999 . At this time , County Supervisor Dianne Jacob proposed expanding the highway portion to four lanes along the entire route . Following a safety initiative , including the involvement of law enforcement and trucking companies , accidents and fatalities both decreased by the end of 2001 . Accidents continued , however , and by November 2008 , electronic signs were installed to inform motorists of their speed , and another publicity campaign had been launched . The reduction from two lanes to one lane heading southbound just after a curve has been blamed for at least some of the accidents , with collisions resulting from cars " jockeying " to be ahead . Head @-@ on collisions are another source of crashes . Despite this , in 2009 Caltrans did not view the road as unsafe according to official metrics .
In May 2009 , the San Diego Association of Governments ( SANDAG ) announced that fixing SR 67 was number 17 on its priority list , resulting in an estimated 2030 completion of a four @-@ lane highway that would not be limited @-@ access . A month later , Caltrans and the California Highway Patrol agreed to take more efforts to educate the public about the safety issues . Signs were installed in 2010 to encourage drivers to practice safe driving habits ; from January 2007 to early December 2010 , twenty @-@ four people died from accidents on SR 67 . Following a March 2009 fatal crash , some of the survivors filed a lawsuit against Caltrans for negligence in maintaining and designing the highway , but the suit was decided in favor of the department . In a 2010 report , Caltrans suggested that two lanes could be added along the highway from I @-@ 8 to Dye Road in order to improve traffic flow .
= = = Further developments = = =
In 1983 , the Kassler Corporation was awarded a contract to renovate the interchange with I @-@ 8 for $ 9 @.@ 1 million ( about $ 32 @.@ 7 million in 2015 dollars ) . SR 67 from Poway Road to the Poway city limits was proposed to be widened in 1985 . There was a movement in 1987 to construct a northbound offramp at Woodside Avenue , due to traffic congestion at the Prospect Avenue offramp ; however , it was never built . Call boxes were installed on SR 67 in 1994 .
There was also a proposal in 2000 to renovate the interchange at Bradley Avenue . The next year , SANDAG approved the construction of a southern bypass of Ramona and widening from Vigilante Road to Dye Road for a cost of $ 200 million as part of a 2030 transportation plan . The chairman of the Ramona Planning Group suggested calming traffic by using a roundabout instead of widening the highway .
The road 's guardrails and signs sustained damage in the 2003 Cedar Fire . That year , there were plans to widen Route 67 from Mapleview Street to Dye Road ; however , when threatened with a lawsuit from Save Our Forests and Ranchlands , SANDAG agreed to " reconsider " the project . Traffic jams were prevalent on October 21 and 22 in 2007 , during the ongoing local wildfires and the evacuation of Ramona on the narrow road .
" Heavy construction " of SR 52 from SR 125 eastward to SR 67 began in February 2008 , after it had been delayed by funding issues that were finally resolved in 2006 with voter @-@ approved statewide transportation bonds . The interchange with SR 52 began to be constructed in mid @-@ June 2008 . Completion was scheduled for 2010 , but was delayed to early 2011 due to weather @-@ related delays . This new interchange opened to traffic on March 29 , 2011 . The cost of this project was $ 525 million , funded with state and federal funds as well as TransNet county sales tax revenue .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in San Diego County .
= Varanus salvadorii =
Varanus salvadorii is a monitor lizard found in New Guinea . It is also known by the common names crocodile monitor , Papua ( n ) monitor , Salvadori 's monitor and artellia . The largest monitor lizard in New Guinea , it is believed to be one of the longest lizards in the world , verified at up to 244 cm ( 8 ft ) , and in rare cases it may rival or exceed the length of the world 's largest lizard , the Komodo dragon . It is the sole member of the subgenus Papusaurus . V. salvadorii is an arboreal lizard with a dark green body and yellowish bands , a blunt snout and a very long tail . It lives in mangrove swamps and coastal rainforests in the southeastern part of the island , where it feeds on birds , small mammals , eggs , and carrion in the wild , using teeth better adapted than those of most monitors for seizing fast @-@ moving prey . Like all monitors , it has anatomical features that enable it to breathe more easily when running than other lizards can , and V. salvadorii may have greater stamina than most monitors . Little is known of its reproduction and development , as the species is very difficult to breed in captivity .
V. salvadorii is threatened by deforestation and poaching , and is protected by the CITES agreement . The lizard is hunted and skinned alive by tribesmen to make drums , who describe the monitor as an evil spirit that " climbs trees , walks upright , breathes fire , and kills men " ; yet the tribesmen maintain that the monitor gives warnings if there are crocodiles nearby .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
V. salvadorii was first described as Monitor salvadorii by Wilhelm Peters and Giacomo Doria in 1878 from a female specimen with a snout @-@ to @-@ vent length of 48 cm ( 19 in ) long and a tail measuring 114 cm ( 45 in ) in length .
The generic name Varanus is derived from the Arabic waral ( ورل ) , meaning " lizard " . The term " monitor " is thought to have come about from confusion between waral and the German warnen , meaning " warning " . The term " goanna " came about as a corruption of the name " iguana " . The specific name is derived from a Latinization of Tommaso Salvadori , an Italian ornithologist who worked in New Guinea . Later , in 1885 , it was renamed Varanus salvadorii by George Albert Boulenger . The Papua monitor is occasionally confused for the Asian water monitor ( V. salv
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fascist paramilitary group , when the liner made an intermediary stop in Naples . On her second voyage , the ship 's master @-@ at @-@ arms was killed by a fellow crew member . Financial difficulties included unpaid bills and resultant court actions as well as accusations of fraud against company officers that were leveled in the press . In late 1925 the company was placed in the hands of a receiver ; President Arthur — after a two @-@ alarm fire in her forward cargo hold — ended up back in the hands of the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , and the company 's office furniture and fixtures were sold at auction in early 1926 .
= = Background = =
The newly formed American Palestine Line , reportedly the first ever steamship company owned and operated by Jews , began working to institute direct passenger service from New York to Palestine . To that end , the company began negotiations with the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) to purchase three former German ocean liners , sister ships President Fillmore and President Arthur and the smaller Mount Clay . On October 9 , 1924 , the American Palestine Line 's president — Jacob S. Strahl , a New York Supreme Court justice — announced the purchase of President Arthur from the USSB , with plans to begin the Palestine service the following March . Strahl also publicly announced American Palestine 's intent to acquire President Fillmore at the same time ; plans for that acquisition and that of Mount Clay , however , never materialized .
= = The ship = =
SS President Arthur was formerly Kiautschou , a Barbarossa @-@ class ocean liner launched in September 1900 for the Hamburg America Line 's Far East passenger and mail service . When Hamburg America withdrew from the service , the liner was traded to North German Lloyd , and regularly used — under the new name of Princess Alice — on both North Atlantic and Far East passenger routes . The liner was interned in the U.S.-controlled Philippines at the outset of World War I and was seized upon the American entry to the conflict . The ship was used as a transport ship for both the U.S. Navy and U.S. Army under the name Princess Matoika . After some post @-@ war use as a passenger liner and yet another name change — this one in honor of the 21st U.S. President , Chester A. Arthur — she was taken out of service when changes in U.S. laws severely curtailed the number of immigrants that could enter the country in the early 1920s . At the time of the purchase by American Palestine , the ship had been laid up in Baltimore since late 1923 .
News reports the following month fixed the purchase price of President Arthur at $ 60 @,@ 000 cash , plus assurances that the liner would be reconditioned within six months . Announced plans for reconditioning included reducing passenger capacity to 675 and increasing the cargo capacity to 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 100 t ) . Also on tap were swimming pools , a game room , a gymnasium , a lecture hall , a social hall , and a moving picture theater . The line had originally planned to change the name of the liner to White Palace , but that was never brought about .
After undergoing reconditioning at Morse Dry Dock & Repair in Brooklyn , President Arthur was taken out for a 100 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 190 km ) shakedown cruise on March 7 , 1925 . Steaming off the New Jersey coast , President Arthur , expected by American Palestine officials to top out at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ) , reached a reported maximum cruising speed of 19 @.@ 7 knots ( 36 @.@ 5 km / h ) , which company officials claimed would reduce her travel time to Palestine by two or three days . At the end of the shakedown , the liner was docked at the foot of West Houston Street in preparation for her maiden voyage five days later .
The acquisition of President Arthur by American Palestine inspired Jewish lyricist Solomon Small to pen the song " President Arthur 's Zion Ship " which contained these lines in its refrain :
President Arthur , sail
Blazing for my children a trail .
I have waited ages long
With a mother 's yearning strong .
= = Palestine service begins = =
On the morning of March 12 , 1925 , crowds started gathering at President Arthur ' s pier at 7 : 00 a.m. By the time the ceremonies — broadcast by New York 's municipal radio station , WNYC — opened with the singing of both " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " and " Hatikvah " , the crowd had swelled to 15 @,@ 000 in number . The festivities included speeches and prayers from Orthodox Rabbi Morris S. Margolies ; David Yellin , Vice Mayor of Jerusalem , who addressed the crowd in Yiddish ; Rabbi David de Sola Pool ; and Rabbi Stephen S. Wise . Cantor Josef Rosenblatt sang to the crowd and a telegram from New York merchant Nathan Straus , unable to attend the event , was read aloud . American Palestine Line president Jacob S. Strahl , in his remarks , made the claim that the sailing of President Arthur marked the first appearance " in more than 2 @,@ 000 years of the flag of Judea on the high seas " .
The ship , with Stars of David painted on her funnels , pulled away from the dock at eight minutes before noon , nearly an hour later than her planned departure time , and headed to Haifa , with an intermediate stop in Naples . On board were some 400 passengers from all over the United States and Canada , most of whom were tourists wanting to see the Holy Land . Many of the passengers , including a contingent from the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg , were also sailing in order to attend the dedication of the Hebrew University at Mount Scopus by former British Foreign Secretary Lord Balfour . President Arthur also carried agricultural equipment and trucks to be used for farm development in Palestine . In addition , the liner featured Bernice P. Schmitt and Rebeccca Adelman , who , according to contemporary news reports , were the first ever female officers on an ocean liner .
Herman Hirsch , a Jewish male from Chicago on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land , kept an account of President Arthur ' s maiden voyage . On Friday , March 13 , one day into the voyage , Hirsch reported that the torah was dedicated and a procession to songs and music accompanied a march over all parts of the ship . Afterwards , Rabbi Aaron Ashinsky of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , officiated at a service held in a chapel provided for the passengers .
Newspapers published radio dispatches emanating from President Arthur throughout her maiden voyage , thanks to a powerful new radio set installed aboard the liner . On March 14 the liner was able to avoid the worst of a gale that slowed Leviathan of the United States Lines , and on March 26 President Arthur was able to avoid a waterspout 50 nautical miles ( 93 km ) east of Gibraltar . At Gibraltar , the local Jewish community chartered a ship to escort President Arthur through the Mediterranean . The ship docked at Naples on March 27 , four days later than her planned arrival there , and departed the same day .
The liner arrived at Haifa on March 31 , nearly a week late . Herman Hirsch reported that a passenger from Chicago , Jacob Drapekin , 72 , had died aboard the ship on March 24 . The man 's dying wish was to be buried in the Holy Land , and the crew of President Arthur helped fulfill his wishes . After arrival in Haifa , his flag @-@ draped coffin was placed on deck and services were conducted in English and Hebrew by Rabbi Ashinsky before the body was taken ashore for interment . A sizable crowd , comprising delegations from Jerusalem , Jaffa , and Tel Aviv , greeted the arriving ship . Most of the passengers on President Arthur were hurried to Jerusalem for the Hebrew University dedication ceremony the next day .
President Arthur departed Haifa on April 4 for a ten @-@ day excursion in the Mediterranean , calling at Jaffa , Beirut , Alexandria , and Naples , among others , before sailing for the United States from Haifa on April 17 . While docked at Naples on April 23 , crewmen from President Arthur got into a confrontation with members of the Blackshirts , the Italian fascist paramilitary group . Five of the Blackshirts had broken noses and black eyes ; five American seamen were arrested and a further 15 Americans swam out to their steamer to avoid arrest . After calling at Halifax , the liner docked at Pier 86 in New York on March 8 , carrying among its cargo 75 @,@ 000 bags of onions from Alexandria , 16 @,@ 000 cases of lemons from Palermo , and two cases of Jaffa oranges for Nathan Straus . Only 500 well @-@ wishers greeted the ship , arriving as it did on the Jewish sabbath , but President Arthur was greeted by the largest police detail in many years because of rumors of a mutiny on board the ship . Sources are unclear as to what actually happened aboard the ship , but it is known that virtually the entire crew , including the captain , was replaced before the next voyage .
On May 12 President Arthur sailed on her second voyage to Palestine , counting Hemda Ben @-@ Yahuda , the widow of Hebrew linguist Eliezer Ben @-@ Yehuda , among her passengers . During the trip , an altercation between a Steward and the ship 's master @-@ at @-@ arms resulted in the death of the latter while the ship was in Naples . Though the steward was arrested by Italian authorities , he was acquitted of murder by the Assize Court at Naples . After a return to New York , President Arthur sailed for Haifa on July 19 for what would be her last voyage for American Palestine .
= = The demise of American Palestine = =
By this time , the company , perpetually undercapitalized by its own admission , faced mounting financial troubles . On July 10 , the company had to post an indemnity bond to avoid the impoundment of President Arthur for a disputed bill owed to Morse Dry Dock for the ship 's 1924 refit . The following month , President Arthur was used as collateral for $ 100 @,@ 000 loan from a Bronx bank , but it was too little , too late . American Palestine Line was placed in receivership on September 11 by federal judge Thomas D. Thacher of the U.S. District Court after suit was brought by a creditor . Eight days later , President Arthur , docked at the foot of West 34th Street , experienced a two @-@ alarm fire in her forward cargo hold that brought out both land @-@ based firefighters and the New York City Fire Department fireboat James Duane . In December , the line was accused of fraud in some of its prior financial dealings , charges the company denied . By the time all the legal wrangling was finished , President Arthur was back in the hands of the USSB , and the furniture and fixtures of the American Palestine offices were sold at public auction by the company 's receiver in early March 1926 .
= Ecgric of East Anglia =
Ecgric ( killed circa 636 ) was a king of East Anglia , the independent Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom that today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk . He was a member of the ruling Wuffingas dynasty , but his relationship with other known members of the dynasty is not known with any certainty . Anna of East Anglia may have been his brother , or his cousin . It has also been suggested that he was identical with Æthelric , who married Hereswith and was the father of Ealdwulf of East Anglia . The primary source for the little that is known about Ecgric 's life is Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum .
In the years that followed the reign of Rædwald and the murder of Rædwald 's son ( and successor ) Eorpwald in around 627 , East Anglia lost its dominance over other Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms . Three years after Eorpwald 's murder at the hands of a pagan , Ecgric 's kinsman Sigeberht returned from exile and they ruled the East Anglians together , with Ecgric perhaps ruling the northern part of the kingdom . Sigeberht succeeded in re @-@ establishing Christianity throughout East Anglia , but Ecgric may have remained a pagan , as Bede praises only Sigeberht for his accomplishments , and his lack of praise for his co @-@ ruler is significant . Ecgric ruled alone after Sigeberht retired to his monastery at Beodricesworth in around 634 : it has also been suggested that he was a sub @-@ king who only became king after Sigeberht 's abdication . Both Ecgric and Sigeberht were killed in battle in around 636 , at an unknown location , when the East Anglians were forced to defend themselves from a Mercian military assault led by their king , Penda . Ecgric , whose grave may have been the ship burial under Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo , was succeeded by Anna .
= = East Anglian allegiances = =
After 616 , Rædwald , who ruled East Anglia during the first quarter of the seventh century , was the most powerful of the southern Anglo @-@ Saxon kings . In the following decades , from the reign of Sigeberht onwards , East Anglia became increasingly dominated by Mercia . Raedwald 's son Eorpwald was murdered by a pagan noble soon after he was baptised in around 627 , after which East Anglia reverted into paganism for three years . In the void left by the death of Rædwald , the first overlord who originated north of the Thames , the pagan Penda of Mercia , emerged to challenge the pre @-@ eminence of the new overlord ( or bretwalda ) , Edwin of Northumbria . The reversion of East Anglia to rule by Eorpwald 's successor , the pagan Ricberht , possibly due to Mercian influence , temporarily overthrew an important pillar of Edwin 's authority .
In contrast , two sons of Rædwald 's brother Eni , who were both eager to renew their Christian alliances , made diplomatic marriages during this period : Anna , who was to become a devout Christian ruler , married a woman of East Saxon connection and his brother Æthelric married a Northumbrian princess , Hereswitha , who was Edwin of Northumbria 's grand @-@ niece . This marriage was probably intended to reinforce the conversion of East Anglia to Christianity .
= = Wuffingas identity = =
Ecgric was a member of the Wuffingas royal family , but his exact descent is not known , as the only information historians have is from Bede , who named him as Sigeberht 's cognatus or ' kinsman ' . The 12th century English historian William of Malmesbury contradicts Bede , stating that Sigeberht was Rædwald 's stepson . The name Sigeberht is not of East Anglian , but of Frankish origin . Rædwald may have
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so he begins by cleaning his boat that night with a black light to detect any blood . He is unaware that the marina is being videotaped by the Miami @-@ Metro Police , who believe that the Bay Harbor Butcher may be keeping his boat at that marina .
= = Production = =
Schlattmann thought to write the comic book store homicide storyline when he picked up the Aquaman snow globe in his office and thought , " ' Wow , this thing could easily be a murder weapon , " because of its weight and its edge . The writers wanted to use the actual Aquaman globe but DC Comics would not allow the character and the snow globe to be used in the episode , so the Dexter art department custom @-@ made a snow globe . The superhero 's name ultimately became " Mariner " as other names including " Sea King " and " King of the Seas " could not be used for legal reasons . Trademark and copyright clearances was again an issue when finding a name for the superhero based on the Bay Harbor Butcher . " The Eradicator " and " Judge Justice " were considered , but the final choice was " The Dark Defender " . Cerone said that the name was " a little on the generic side , but it was one we could clear . " He said that The Dark Defender was in part an homage to Batman : The Dark Knight Returns and to Dexter 's Dark Passenger , featured in Jeff Lindsay 's series of Dexter novels on which the television series is based . On the poster , The Dark Defender , though hooded , was drawn with a smile to resemble Michael C. Hall . The poster was rendered by comic artist Tone Rodriguez , with whom Schlattmann had previously worked on a screenplay in development at 20th Century Fox . When Schlattmann visited Rodriguez 's studio in Los Angeles to discuss the art , comic book writer Dan Wickline was also there . Schlattmann thought that " by including the two of them , we could make things a bit more special and add some credibility to the show " . Wickline played the dead comic book shopkeeper , while Rodriguez played the prime suspect for the murder . The Dark Defender character also lent its name to a series of highly stylized Dexter webisodes , recapping Dexter 's victims of the second season .
The scenes at the marina where Dexter keeps his boat , Coral Cove , were filmed at the Leeward Bay Marina in Los Angeles ' Wilmington neighborhood , in spite of the show 's Miami setting . The episode opens in a coffee bar at Coral Cove Marina , which was filmed at Leeward Bay 's floating diner , the Chowder Barge . One of the empty barns at Long Beach , California 's Shoreline Village was set up as the comic book store . Doakes and LaGuerta discuss the homicide case while standing on the Shoreline Village boardwalk , and the Village car park was used to film Doakes and LaGuerta 's stake out .
= = Reception = =
Eric Goldman of IGN called " The Dark Defender " " a very satisfying episode of the show " and thought that " so far [ the cast and crew are ] doing a very good job " of replicating the tension seen in the first season . He was impressed by Dexter 's discoveries about his birth mother and adoptive father , but called Debra 's romance with Gabriel a " less successful " storyline . Writing for the Los Angeles Times , Tom O 'Neil called the episode a " standout " because of the parts of Dexter 's past that it explored . He stated that , for regular viewers , " this episode is a real knockout " , but for unfamiliar viewers , " this whole Dark Defender bit might look pretty corny " . TV Squad 's Keith McDuffee believed the revelation of Laura 's affair with Harry to be " certainly the most shocking moment of the episode " , and thought that " One of the brilliant moments of the season so far was Dexter going after one of his mom 's killers . " Paula Paige of TV Guide called Dexter 's monologue about his hollowness " very moving " . She thought that his confrontation with his mother 's killer " may have been one of the best shot [ scenes ] in the whole series " . Blogcritics ' Ray Ellis praised the " razor @-@ sharp sense of humor " seen in the episode and thought that " In a season of mostly dreary , bland series , Dexter remains the most daring show on television . " Dexter and Jimenez 's confrontation was named Hall 's best scene by Variety critic Stuart Levine .
In a short recap of seasons 1 and 2 in Film Quarterly , J. M. Tyree called " The Dark Defender " season 2 's " most intriguing episode " , and compared Dexter to Batman :
When the identities of the Butcher 's victims are revealed to be murderers , the public applauds him , elevating Dexter to the status of a folktale avenger or comic @-@ book anti @-@ hero . And indeed Rita excoriates him for disappearing at night " like Clark fucking Kent , " but the FBI describes the Butcher as more like one 's own " personal Batman . " Batman is an apt comparison , although Dexter prefers to violate Batman 's aversion to killing . Both live outside the law , " part human , part mutant , " as Dexter puts it . Both cling to an ethos riddled with perplexities and contradictions . Visiting a comic @-@ book shop , Dexter find himself transformed on a handmade superhero poster from Butcher into The Dark Defender , a protector of the city and the executioner of its predators . Vigilantes simultaneously share territory with cops and outlaws , they break the law in the hopes of helping society . ... Dexter describes being " half sick with the thrill , the complete wrongness , " when the " dark passenger " inside him takes command .
Schlattmann was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for his work on this episode in the Episodic Drama category . " The Dark Defender " was submitted to the Primetime Emmy Awards judging panel to determine nominees for the Outstanding Drama Series award ; Dexter was one of the top ten candidates and became one of the 6 series nominated for the award . The episode was also unsuccessfully submitted for Emmys for Outstanding Writing ( Timothy Schlattmann ) and Outstanding Directing ( Keith Gordon ) in a Drama Series .
= Music of Final Fantasy III =
The music of the video game Final Fantasy III was composed by regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu . Final Fantasy III Original Sound Version , a compilation of almost all of the music in the game , was released by Square Co . / NTT Publishing in 1991 , and subsequently re @-@ released by NTT Publishing in 1994 and 2004 . The soundtrack to the remake of Final Fantasy III for the Nintendo DS , Final Fantasy III Original Soundtrack was released by NTT Publishing in 2006 , with revamped versions of the tracks and additional tracks . A vocal arrangement album entitled Final Fantasy III Yūkyū no Kaze Densetsu , or literally Final Fantasy III Legend of the Eternal Wind , contained a selection of musical tracks from the game . The tracks were performed by Nobuo Uematsu and Dido , a duo composed of Michiaki Kato and Shizuru Ohtaka . The album was released by Data M in 1990 and by Polystar in 1994 .
The music received positive reviews from critics , and is lauded as one of the best soundtracks of any NES game . Several pieces from the soundtrack remain popular today , and have been performed numerous times in Final Fantasy orchestral concert series such as the Tour de Japon : Music from Final Fantasy concert series and the Distant Worlds - Music from Final Fantasy series . Music from the game has also been published in arranged albums and compilations by Square as well as outside groups .
= = Final Fantasy III Original Sound Version = =
Final Fantasy III Original Sound Version is a soundtrack album of video game music from Final Fantasy III . The album contains the musical tracks from the game , composed by Nobuo Uematsu . It spans 44 tracks and covers a duration of 54 : 24 . It was released on July 15 , 1991 , by Square and NTT Publishing . Final Fantasy III has been described as the game in which Uematsu 's musical style " began to take a more definite form " . Many of the tracks in the soundtrack use " cascading rhythms " in both the foreground and background sounds , as well as a bass rhythm , pushing the limited sound hardware of the Nintendo Entertainment System further than in Final Fantasy II .
The tunes range in style , including " jazzy " and " new age " , and in tempo from slow , somber pieces to more upbeat rhythms . Including the smaller pieces not included in the original soundtrack , Final Fantasy III contained twice as many pieces as the soundtrack to Final Fantasy II . The original release bears the catalog number N23D @-@ 002 . It was re @-@ released on November 26 , 1994 and again on October 1 , 2004 by NTT Publishing under the catalog numbers PSCN @-@ 5013 and NTCP @-@ 5013 , respectively .
Final Fantasy III Original Sound Version was well received by critics . Ben Schweitzer of RPGFan felt that it was " one of the strongest soundtracks " of any NES game , a sentiment that Patrick Gann of RPGFan agreed with . Gann further declared the main theme " Eternal Wind " to " quite possibly be the best world map music " in a video game . Jon Turner of Soundtrack Central felt that , although the sound limitations of the album detracted it in the eyes of many listeners , the album was still well worth the purchase . Dave of Square Enix Music Online , however , disagreed , feeling that , although it was " charming " , it was " one of the weaker Final Fantasy albums " .
= = Final Fantasy III Yūkyū no Kaze Densetsu = =
Final Fantasy III Yūkyū no Kaze Densetsu ( ファイナルファンタジーIII 悠久の風伝説 , Fainaru Fantajī Surī Yūkyū no Kaze Densetsu , lit . Final Fantasy III Legend of the Eternal Wind ) is an arranged album containing a selection of vocal and arranged musical tracks from the game interspersed with English narration of a story similar to Final Fantasy III . The songs were performed by Nobuo Uematsu and sung by Dido , a duo composed of Michiaki Kato and Shizuru Ohtaka . The tunes have been described as being in the Romantic music style , with a slow feeling to them . The seven tracks of the album spans several genres , including orchestral tracks , tribal themes , and vocal tracks , and cover a duration of 52 : 32 . The album was first released on May 25 , 1990 by Data M and subsequently re @-@ released on March 25 , 1994 by Polystar . The original release bears the catalog number PSCX @-@ 1005 , and the re @-@ release bears the catalog number PSCR @-@ 5252 .
Final Fantasy III Yuukyuu no Kaze Densetsu was received positively by critics , with Patrick Gann declaring that it was worth " searching long and hard " for the album . Ben Martin , Jason Strohmaier , and Aaron Lau of Soundtrack Central all agreed , finding the songs to be varied and interesting , though each added that the narration seriously detracted from the album . Dave of Square Enix Music Online also found the narration to be a flaw of the album , but termed it overall to be " a great effort from Nobuo Uematsu " .
= = Final Fantasy III Original Soundtrack = =
Final Fantasy III Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack released for the remake of Final Fantasy III for the Nintendo DS . The album contains the original tracks from the game rearranged by Tsuyoshi Sekito and Keiji Kawamori for the DS system , as well as two remixes , one from The Black Mages and the other by Yasuhiro Yamanaka , the synth operator for the soundtrack . The album also included a DVD containing the opening full motion video sequence of the game , a promotional video , and an interview with the game 's staff . It was released on September 20 , 2006 by Square Enix and bears the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10076 ~ 7 . The soundtrack disc contains 61 tracks and covers a duration of 70 : 56 . , while the DVD 's three tracks have a length of 28 : 24 .
Final Fantasy III Original Soundtrack received mixed reviews from critics , with Patrick Gann declaring that " even if you own the original Famicom version 's soundtrack , there is plenty of reason to own this soundtrack alongside it , " while Richard of Square Enix Music Online found it to be a " passable " album , but " mostly forgettable " .
Track listing
= = Legacy = =
The Black Mages , a band led by Nobuo Uematsu that arranges music from Final Fantasy video games into a rock music style , have arranged two pieces from Final Fantasy III . These are " The Rocking Grounds " from the album The Skies Above , published in 2004 , and " KURAYAMINOKUMO " , a remix of " The Final Struggle " , from Darkness and Starlight , published in 2008 . Lyrical versions of " The Boundless Ocean " and " Elia , the Maiden of Water " , sung by Risa Ohki , appeared on Final Fantasy : Pray , a compilation album produced by Square . Additionally , lyrical versions of " Eternal Wind " and " Cute Little Tozas " , sung by Risa Ohki and Ikuko Noguchi , appeared on Final Fantasy : Love Will Grow .
The music of Final Fantasy III has also appeared in various official concerts and live albums , such as 20020220 music from FINAL FANTASY , a live recording of an orchestra performing music from the series including several pieces from the game . Additionally , " Elia , the Water Maiden " was performed as part of a medley by the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra for the Distant Worlds - Music from Final Fantasy concert tour , while " Eternal Wind " and " Cute Little Tozas " were performed in a medley by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra in the Tour de Japon : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . The Black Mages performed " The Final Battle " at the Extra : Hyper Game Music Event 2007 concert in Tokyo on July 7 , 2007 . Independent but officially licensed releases of Final Fantasy III music have been composed by such groups as Project Majestic Mix , which focuses on arranging video game music . Selections also appear on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .
= White @-@ breasted nuthatch =
The white @-@ breasted nuthatch ( Sitta carolinensis ) is a small songbird of the nuthatch family which breeds in old @-@ growth woodland across much of temperate North America . It is a stocky bird , with a large head , short tail , powerful bill , and strong feet . The upperparts are pale blue @-@ gray , and the face and underparts are white . It has a black cap and a chestnut lower belly . The nine subspecies differ mainly in the color of the body plumage .
Like other nuthatches , the white @-@ breasted nuthatch forages for insects on trunks and branches and is able to move head @-@ first down trees . Seeds form a substantial part of its winter diet , as do acorns and hickory nuts that were stored by the bird in the fall . The nest is in a hole in a tree , and the breeding pair may smear insects around the entrance as a deterrent to squirrels . Adults and young may be killed by hawks , owls , and snakes , and forest clearance may lead to local habitat loss , but this is a common species with no major conservation concerns over most of its range .
= = Taxonomy = =
The nuthatches are a genus , Sitta , of small passerine birds which derive their English name from the propensity of some species to wedge large insects or seeds into cracks , and then hack at them with their strong bills . Sitta is derived from sittē , the Ancient Greek for nuthatch , and carolinensis means " of Carolina " in Latin . The white @-@ breasted nuthatch was first described by English ornithologist John Latham in his 1790 work , the Index Ornithologicus .
Nuthatch taxonomy is complex , with geographically separated species sometimes closely resembling each other . The white @-@ breasted nuthatch has an appearance and contact call similar to those of the white @-@ cheeked nuthatch , Sitta leucopsis , of the Himalayas and was formerly considered to be conspecific with it . A study published in 2012 showed that four distinct lineages were genetically isolated from each other and could represent different species , recognizable by morphology and song . A molecular phylogeny published in 2014 and including all main species ' lineages within nuthatches concluded that the white @-@ breasted nuthatch was more closely related to the giant nuthatch ( S. magna ) than to S. przewalskii , formerly regarded as possibly conspecific with it ; S. przewalskii turned out to be basal in the family .
= = Description = =
Like other members of its genus , the white @-@ breasted nuthatch has a large head , short tail , short wings , a powerful bill and strong feet ; it is 13 – 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) long , with a wingspan of 20 – 27 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 10 @.@ 6 in ) and a weight of 18 – 30 g ( 0 @.@ 63 – 1 @.@ 06 oz ) .
The adult male of the nominate subspecies , S. c. carolinensis , has pale blue @-@ gray upperparts , a glossy black cap ( crown of the head ) , and a black band on the upper back . The wing coverts and flight feathers are very dark gray with paler fringes , and the closed wing is pale gray and black , with a thin white wing bar . The face and the underparts are white . The outer tail feathers are black with broad diagonal white bands across the outer three feathers , a feature readily visible in flight .
The female has , on average , a narrower black back band , slightly duller upperparts and buffer underparts than the male . Her cap may be gray , but many females have black caps and cannot be reliably distinguished from the male in the field . In the northeastern United States , at least 10 % of females have black caps , but the proportion rises to 40 – 80 % in the Rocky Mountains , Mexico and the southeastern U.S. Juveniles are similar to the adult , but duller plumaged .
Like other nuthatches , this is a noisy species with a range of vocalizations . The male 's mating song is a rapid nasal qui @-@ qui @-@ qui @-@ qui @-@ qui @-@ qui @-@ qui . The contact call between members of a pair , given most frequently in the fall and winter is a thin squeaky nit , uttered up to 30 times a minute . A more distinctive sound is a shrill kri repeated rapidly with mounting anxiety or excitement kri @-@ kri @-@ kri @-@ kri @-@ kri @-@ kri @-@ kri @-@ kri ; the Rocky Mountains and Great Basin subspecies have a higher , faster yididitititit call , and Pacific birds a more nasal beeerf .
Three other , significantly smaller , nuthatches have ranges which overlap that of white @-@ breasted , but none has white plumage completely surrounding the eye . Further distinctions are that the red @-@ breasted nuthatch has a black eye line and reddish underparts , and the brown @-@ headed and pygmy nuthatches each have a brown cap , and a white patch on the nape of the neck .
= = = Geographical variation = = =
The white @-@ breasted nuthatch has nine subspecies , although the differences are small and change gradually across the range . The subspecies are sometimes treated as three groups based on close similarities in morphology , habitat usage , and vocalizations . These groups cover eastern North America , the Great Basin and central Mexico , and the Pacific coastal regions . The subspecies of the western interior have the darkest upperparts , and eastern S. c. carolinensis has the palest back . The eastern form also has a thicker bill and broader dark cap stripe than the interior and Pacific races . The calls of the three groups differ , as described above . The Great Basin and Eastern forms have been observed in secondary contact on the Great Plains , where they do not seem to mix .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The breeding habitat of the white @-@ breasted nuthatch is woodland across North America , from southern Canada to northern Florida and southern Mexico . In the eastern part of its range , its preferred habitat is old @-@ growth open deciduous or mixed forest , including orchards , parks , suburban gardens and cemeteries ; it is found mainly in the lowlands , although it breeds at 1 @,@ 675 m ( 5 @,@ 495 ft ) altitude in Tennessee . In the west and Mexico , this nuthatch is found in open montane pine @-@ oak woodlands , and nesting occurs at up to 3 @,@ 200 m ( 10 @,@ 500 ft ) altitude in Nevada , California and Mexico . Pinyon @-@ juniper and riverside woodlands may be used locally where available . The white @-@ breasted nuthatch is the only North American nuthatch usually found in deciduous trees ; red @-@ breasted , pygmy and brown @-@ headed nuthatches prefer pines .
The presence of mature or decaying trees with holes suitable for nesting is essential , and trees such as oak , beech and hickory are favored in the east since they provide edible seeds . Although suitable habitat is distributed continentally , it is discontinuous , and the separate populations of this non @-@ migratory species have diverged to form distinct regional subspecies .
This nuthatch , like most of its genus , is non @-@ migratory , and the adults normally stay in their territory year @-@ round . There may be more noticeable dispersal due to seed failure or high reproductive success in some years , and this species has occurred as a vagrant to Vancouver Island , Santa Cruz Island , and Bermuda . One bird landed on the RMS Queen Mary six hours sailing east of New York in October 1963 .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The white @-@ breasted nuthatch is monogamous , and pairs form following a courtship in which the male bows to the female , spreading his tail and drooping his wings while swaying back and forth ; he also feeds her morsels of food . The pair establish a territory of 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 15 km2 ( 25 – 37 acres ) in woodland , and up to 0 @.@ 2 km2 ( 49 acres ) in semi @-@ wooded habitats , and then remain together year @-@ round until one partner dies or disappears . The nest cavity is usually a natural hole in a decaying tree , sometimes an old woodpecker nest .
The nest hole is usually 3 – 12 m ( 9 @.@ 8 – 39 @.@ 4 ft ) high in a tree and is lined with fur , fine grass , and shredded bark . The clutch is 5 to 9 eggs which are creamy @-@ white , speckled with reddish brown , and average 19 mm × 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 75 in × 0 @.@ 55 in ) in size . The eggs are incubated by the female for 13 to 14 days prior to hatching , and the altricial chicks fledge in a further 18 to 26 days . Both adults feed the chicks in the nest and for about two weeks after fledging , and the male also feeds the female while she is incubating . Once independent , juveniles leave the adults ' territory and either establish their own territory or become " floaters " , unpaired birds without territories . It is probably these floaters which are mainly involved in the irregular dispersals of this species . This species of nuthatch roosts in tree holes or behind loose bark when not breeding and has the unusual habit of removing its feces from the roost site in the morning . It usually roosts alone except in very cold weather , when up to 29 birds have been recorded together .
= = = Predation = = =
Predators of adult nuthatches include owls and diurnal birds of prey ( such as sharp @-@ shinned and Cooper 's hawks ) , and nestlings and eggs are eaten by woodpeckers , small squirrels , and climbing snakes such as the western rat snake . The white @-@ breasted nuthatch responds to predators near the nest by flicking its wings while making hn @-@ hn calls . When a bird leaves the nest hole , it wipes around the entrance with a piece of fur or vegetation ; this makes it more difficult for a predator to find the nest using its sense of smell . The nuthatch may also smear blister beetles around the entrance to its nest , and it has been suggested that the unpleasant smell from the crushed insects deters squirrels , its chief competitor for natural tree cavities . The estimated average lifespan of this nuthatch is two years , but the record is twelve years and nine months .
This nuthatch 's responses to predators may be linked to a reproductive strategy . A study compared the white @-@ breasted nuthatch with the red @-@ breasted nuthatch in terms of the willingness of males to feed incubating females on the nest when presented with models of predators . The models were of a sharp @-@ shinned hawk , which hunts adult nuthatches , and a house wren , which destroys eggs . The white @-@ breasted nuthatch is shorter @-@ lived than the red @-@ breasted nuthatch , but has more young , and was found to respond more strongly to the egg predator , whereas the red @-@ breasted showed greater concern with the hawk . This supports the theory that longer @-@ lived species benefit from adult survival and future breeding opportunities , while birds with shorter life spans place more value on the survival of their larger broods .
= = = Feeding = = =
The white @-@ breasted nuthatch forages along tree trunks and branches in a similar way to woodpeckers and treecreepers , but does not use its tail for additional support , instead progressing in jerky hops using its strong legs and feet . All nuthatches are distinctive when seeking food because they are able to descend tree trunks head @-@ first and can hang upside @-@ down beneath twigs and branches .
This nuthatch is omnivorous , eating insects and seeds . It places large food items such as acorns or hickory nuts in crevices in tree trunks , and then hammers them open with its strong beak ; surplus seeds are cached under loose bark or crevices of trees . The diet in winter may be nearly 70 % seeds , but in summer it is mainly insects . The insects consumed by the white @-@ breasted nuthatch include caterpillars , ants , and pest species such as pine weevils , oystershell and other scale insects , and jumping plant lice . This bird will occasionally feed on the ground , and readily visits feeding stations for nuts , suet and sunflower seeds , the last of which it often takes away to store . The white @-@ breasted nuthatch was also observed visiting raccoon latrines in order to find seeds .
The white @-@ breasted nuthatch often travels with small mixed flocks in winter . These flocks are led by titmice and chickadees , with nuthatches and downy woodpeckers as common attendant species . Participants in such flocks are thought to benefit in terms of foraging and predator avoidance . It is likely that the attendant species also access the information carried in the chickadees ' calls and reduce their own level of vigilance accordingly .
= = Status = =
The white @-@ breasted nuthatch is a common species with a large range , estimated at 8 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Its total population is estimated at 10 million individuals , and there is evidence of an overall population increase , so it is not believed to approach either the size criterion ( fewer than 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals ) or the population decline criterion ( declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) of the IUCN Red List . For these reasons , the species is evaluated as Least Concern .
The removal of dead trees from forests may cause problems locally for this species because it requires cavity sites for nesting ; declines have been noted in Washington , Florida , and more widely in the southeastern U.S. west to Texas . In contrast , the breeding range is expanding in Alberta , and numbers are increasing in the northeast due to regrown forest . This nuthatch is protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 , to which the three countries in which it occurs ( Canada , Mexico , and the United States ) are all signatories .
= Gottlob Berger =
Gottlob Christian Berger ( 16 July 1896 – 5 January 1975 ) was a senior German Nazi official who held the rank of SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen @-@ SS ( lieutenant general ) , and was the chief of the SS Main Office responsible for Schutzstaffel ( SS ) recruiting during World War II . Berger served in the German Army during World War I , was wounded four times and also awarded the Iron Cross First Class . Immediately after the war he was a leader of the Einwohnerwehr militia in his native North Württemberg . He joined the Nazi Party in 1922 , but lost interest in right @-@ wing politics during the 1920s , training and working as a physical education teacher .
In the late 1920s he rejoined the Nazi Party and became a member of the paramilitary Sturmabteilung ( SA ) in 1931 . He clashed with other leaders of the SA , and joined the Allgemeine @-@ SS in 1936 . Initially responsible for physical education in an SS region , he was soon transferred to the staff of Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler as head of the sports office . In 1938 , he was appointed as head of the recruiting office of the SS Main Office ( SS @-@ HA ) , taking over as chief of the SS @-@ HA the following year . To a significant extent , Berger was the " father " of the Waffen @-@ SS , as he not only implemented recruiting structures and policies that assisted the Waffen @-@ SS to circumvent Wehrmacht controls over conscription , but also extended Waffen @-@ SS recruiting first to " Germanic " volunteers from Scandinavia and western Europe , then Volksdeutsche ( ethnic Germans ) outside the Reich , and finally to peoples who in no way reflected Himmler 's ideas of " racial purity " . He also sponsored and protected his friend Oskar Dirlewanger , who he placed in command of a unit of convicted criminals . The Sonderkommando Dirlewanger subsequently committed many war crimes in the areas it operated . Berger often clashed with senior officers of the Wehrmacht and even with senior Waffen @-@ SS officers over his recruiting methods , but his organisational skills were largely responsible for the growth of the Waffen @-@ SS to a total of 38 divisions by war 's end .
Berger undertook several other roles in the latter stages of the war , while continuing as chief of the SS @-
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part in the Operation Crossroads nuclear weapon tests at Bikini Atoll in 1946 . She survived both explosions and the effects of radiation on the ship were studied for several years . She was eventually sunk as a target in 1948 . She received three battle stars for her service .
= = Design and construction = =
New York was the first of two planned New York @-@ class battleships , though construction on her began after her sister , Texas . She was ordered in fiscal year 1911 as the first class of battleship in the United States Navy to carry the 14 @-@ inch / 45 @-@ caliber gun .
She had a standard displacement of 27 @,@ 000 long tons ( 27 @,@ 000 t ) and a full @-@ load displacement of 28 @,@ 367 long tons ( 28 @,@ 822 t ) . She was 573 ft ( 175 m ) in length overall , 565 ft ( 172 m ) at the waterline , and had a beam of 95 ft 6 in ( 29 @.@ 11 m ) and a draft of 28 ft 6 in ( 8 @.@ 69 m ) .
She was powered by 14 Babcock & Wilcox boilers driving two dual @-@ acting vertical triple expansion reciprocating steam engines , with 28 @,@ 000 shp ( 21 @,@ 000 kW ) , with a maximum speed of 21 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She had a range of 7 @,@ 060 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 080 km ; 8 @,@ 120 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Armor on New York consisted of a belt from 10 to 12 in ( 250 to 300 mm ) thick . Her lower casemate had between 9 and 11 in ( 230 and 280 mm ) of armor , and her upper casemate had 6 in ( 150 mm ) of armor . Deck armor was 2 in ( 51 mm ) thick , and turret armor was 14 in ( 360 mm ) on the face , 4 in ( 100 mm ) on the top , 2 inches on the sides , and 8 in ( 200 mm ) on the rear . Armor on her barbettes was between 10 and 12 inches . Her conning tower was protected by 12 inches of armor , with 4 inches of armor on its top .
Her armament consisted of ten 14 @-@ inch / 45 @-@ caliber guns , arrayed in five double mounts designated 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , and 5 . As constructed , these turrets had an elevation of 15 degrees , but this was increased to 30 degrees during an overhaul in 1940 – 41 . The class was the last to feature a turret mounted amidships . As built , she also carried twenty @-@ one 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 @-@ caliber guns , primarily for defense against destroyers and torpedo boats . The 5 @-@ inch guns were poor in accuracy in rough seas due to the open casemates mounted in the hull , so the 5 @-@ inch armament was reduced to 16 guns in 1918 by removal of the least useful positions near the ends of the ship . The ship was not designed with anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defense in mind , but two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 caliber AA guns were added in 1918 . She also had four 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , 1 each on the port side bow and stern and starboard bow and stern , for the Bliss @-@ Leavitt Mark 3 torpedo . The torpedo rooms held 12 torpedoes total , plus 12 naval defense miness . Her crew consisted of 1 @,@ 042 officers and enlisted men .
New York was laid down on 11 September 1911 in New York Navy Yard in Brooklyn . The New York class was constructed under new labor laws that limited the working hours of her construction crews . It was also stipulated that each ship cost less than $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , excluding cost of armor and armament . She was launched on 30 October 1912 and commissioned on 15 May 1914 . The fifth ship to be named for New York State , she was sponsored by Elsie Calder , the daughter of New York politician William M. Calder . The fourth New York , an armored cruiser , was renamed Rochester , and was later scuttled in Subic Bay in 1941 . However , the wreck site for that ship , which has become a popular recreational dive site , is still commonly referred to as USS New York .
= = Service history = =
Under the command of Captain Thomas S. Rodgers , New York headed straight for Veracruz following its commissioning . She was designated flagship for Rear Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher in July 1914 , commanding the fleet occupying and blockading Veracruz to prevent arms shipments from arriving there to support the government of Victoriano Huerta . The United States occupation of Veracruz ultimately ended and New York resumed her shakedown cruise along the East Coast of the United States . She also undertook several goodwill duties , and in December 1915 she held a high @-@ profile Christmas party and dinner for several hundred orphans from New York City , at the suggestion of her crew . It later became a tradition on the ship to help the underprivileged when possible , earning it the nickname " Christmas Ship . " Following this duty , she undertook a number of training exercises off the Atlantic coast .
= = = World War I = = =
Following the United States ' entry into World War I , New York , under the command of Captain Edward L. Beach , Sr. , became flagship of Battleship Division 9 ( BatDiv 9 ) , commanded by Rear Admiral Hugh Rodman . She was sent to reinforce the British Grand Fleet in the North Sea , arriving at Scapa Flow on 7 December 1917 . The ships of the U.S. fleet were assigned to the 6th Battle Squadron in the Grand Fleet , the American ships joined in blockade and escort . In December 1917 , New York and the other U.S. battleships took part in several gunnery exercises . New York scored the highest score of the ships for her main battery , with an accuracy of 93 @.@ 3 percent . Ultimately the New York was the best performer in these exercises , the only ship rated as " excellent " while many of her sisters received mediocre performance reviews .
She did not fire any shots during the war , but during at least two occasions , the convoy she was escorting came under attack by German U @-@ boats . On the evening of 14 October 1918 , as New York led a group of battleships into the Pentland Firth , she was rocked by a violent underwater collision on her starboard side , followed shortly after by another to the stern that broke off two blades on one of her propellers , reducing the ship to one engine and a speed of 12 kn ( 14 mph ; 22 km / h ) . It was immediately clear to the men on board that she had struck an underwater object , but the depth of the channel meant it could not have been a shipwreck . Commanders concluded that New York must have accidentally collided with a submerged U @-@ boat . They agreed that the submarine had rammed its bow into the ship 's side , then been struck moments later by the ship 's propeller . In their opinion , the damage would have been fatal to the German craft . Postwar examination of German records revealed that the submarine lost may have been UB @-@ 113 or UB @-@ 123 . This strange — and accidental — encounter marked the only time in all of Battleship Division Nine 's service with the Grand Fleet that one of its ships sank a German vessel .
Badly damaged by the loss of a propeller , the ship sailed to Rosyth under heavy escort for repairs on 15 October . At 01 : 00 the next morning , a U @-@ boat launched three torpedoes at the damaged vessel , all of which passed ahead of her . Unlike in previous cases , sufficient evidence existed to suppose that this torpedo attack was not a false alarm — a number of officers and men aboard New York clearly saw the wakes of the torpedoes in the full moonlight , and a submarine was spotted in the immediate vicinity by a patrol shortly after the attack . Ironically , the battleship 's wounded condition is possibly what saved her : although standard procedure was to steam at 16 kn ( 18 mph ; 30 km / h ) , New York could make only 12 kn ( 14 mph ; 22 km / h ) on her one operable propeller . Due to this , historian Jerry Jones believes that the U @-@ boat captain misjudged the ship 's speed . With no further damage , however , the battleship was able to safely arrive at a drydock in Rosyth . As she was lifted clear of the water , a large dent commensurate with a submarine bow was found in her hull .
New York was also frequently host to foreign dignitaries , including King George V and Edward VIII of the United Kingdom , as well as prince Hirohito of the Empire of Japan . The ship was of great interest to other European powers , as it was in many cases a first chance to see an American dreadnought up close . She was on hand for the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet on 21 November 1918 in the Firth of Forth , several days after the signing of the Armistice , after which she returned to the United States briefly . She then served as an escort for George Washington , carrying President Woodrow Wilson , on his trip from the United States to Brest , France en route to the Versailles Peace Conference .
= = = Interwar period = = =
Arriving back in the United States in 1919 , she began to undertake training and patrol duties , including at one point to the Caribbean with a number of other U.S. ships . During this year , she also saw a refit in Norfolk Navy Yard where five 5 @-@ inch guns were removed and three additional 3 @-@ inch / 50 caliber AA guns were added , bringing the total to five . The secondary battery was reduced to sixteen 5 @-@ inch / 51 caliber guns . In late 1919 , she sailed to the Pacific Ocean and joined the newly formed United States Pacific Fleet . She continued to conduct training and patrol duties in the Pacific until the mid @-@ 1930s when she was transferred again to the Atlantic , and began operating out of the North Atlantic , with the exception of several occasional trips to the West Coast of the United States .
In 1926 New York was considered obsolete compared with other battleships in service , so she steamed to Norfolk Navy Yard for a complete refit . While several other battleships in service , including Utah and Florida were converted to training ships or scrapped , New York and Texas were chosen to be overhauled to increase their speed , armor , armament , and propulsion systems as allowed by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . An additional 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) were added to her for defense against aerial targets and submarines . The number of 3 @-@ inch AA guns was increased to 8 , and six of the 5 @-@ inch guns were relocated to new casemates on the main deck . The torpedo tubes were removed at this time . Her 14 Babcock & Wilcox coal @-@ fired boilers were replaced with six Bureau Express oil @-@ fired boilers and the twin funnels were trunked into one , aft of the forward superstructure . Tripods were fitted in place of lattice masts , and atop the forward tripod a control tower was installed . A tower was built amidships that contained additional fire control to backup the system on the foremast . A new aircraft catapult was installed atop turret Number 3 and cranes were installed on either side of the funnel for boat and aircraft handling . Additional deck protection was added , and her beam was widened to 106 ft ( 32 m ) . She was fitted with anti @-@ torpedo bulges . However , these bulges made maneuvering harder at low speeds , she rolled badly , and her gunfire accuracy was reduced in rough seas . On 4 September 1928 , she left for short @-@ range battle drills with Arizona , and from 7 to 10 November the ships traveled to San Francisco together with Pennsylvania . On 3 April 1929 she undertook anti @-@ aircraft practice with Arizona , and then the two ships and Pennsylvania steamed for Cuba , where they stayed until steaming for Hampton Roads on 1 May .
She remained with the Pacific Fleet training as part of the series of Fleet Problems until 1937 . That year she was selected to carry Admiral Hugh Rodman , the President 's personal representative for the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth , and New York took part in the Grand Naval Review of 20 May 1937 as sole U.S. Navy representative . In 1937 , eight 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 28 mm ) / 75 caliber AA guns in two quadruple mounts were added to improve the light AA armament . New York was fitted with XAF radar in February 1938 , including the first United States duplexer so a single antenna could both send and receive . This made her the second ship to be outfitted with radar after the destroyer Leary . The tests conducted on New York led to similar radars being installed on the Brooklyn @-@ class and St. Louis @-@ class cruisers as well as newer battleship West Virginia . For several years , she served primarily as a training ship for midshipmen and newly enlisted sailors .
In September 1939 , New York joined the Neutrality Patrol , safeguarding sea lanes in the North Atlantic , and served with the Atlantic Squadron , later redesignated the United States Atlantic Fleet , for the next 27 months . In July 1941 , she protected a convoy of U.S. troops moving to garrison Iceland . She saw another modernization in 1940 – 41 where her main battery elevation was increased from 15 to 30 degrees . She was in the midst of this refit on 7 December 1941 , when the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked Pearl Harbor , sinking many of the battleships in the U.S. Pacific Fleet and bringing the United States into World War II .
= = = World War II = = =
With the outbreak of war , New York 's overhaul was sped up and completed four weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor . She returned to duty escorting cargo and troop ships to Iceland and Scotland . She continued on patrol duty for the next year . In her first series of escorts , she left Norfolk 15 February , arrived in New York 16 February , Nova Scotia 21 February , and Iceland 2 March , returning to Norfolk on 27 March . She left there on her second patrol 24 April and arrived at New York the next day , Nova Scotia 2 May , Newfoundland 5 May , and Iceland 10 May , returning to New York on 20 May . The next day she left for a third escort , arriving again at Nova Scotia on 2 June and Scotland on 10 June , returning to Norfolk on 30 June . Following these three escort missions , she put in for overhaul in Norfolk . The secondary battery was reduced to six 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns and the anti @-@ aircraft armament was increased to ten 3 @-@ inch / 50 caliber guns , 24 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) Bofors guns in quadruple mounts , and 42 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Oerlikon cannons . She departed Norfolk on 12 August and arrived the next day at New York . From there , she escorted a convoy to Nova Scotia where she remained until 22 August , then departed for Scotland where she was from 31 August to 5 September . She returned to Norfolk on 15 September .
New York saw her first major action during Operation Torch , the Allied invasion of North Africa in November 1942 . She left Norfolk on 23 October in order to join the Allied fleet . Attached to the Southern Attack Group , on 8 November , New York and the cruiser Philadelphia , screened by six destroyers , attacked Safi harbor in Morocco , supporting landings by the U.S. 9th Infantry Division 's 47th Infantry Regiment , and defended the transports Cole and Bernadou which came under attack by 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) shore batteries at Point De La Tour . New York fired several salvoes with her 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) guns , with one of them striking the base of the battery and ricocheting into a bunker , destroying the range finder and killing the battery commander and neutralizing the battery . Other shore batteries were destroyed by Philadelphia 's guns and aircraft from escort carrier Santee . New York remained on station until the port was secure , then steamed north to support the Center Group off Fedhala and Casablanca , specifically to deal with the threat of the Vichy French battleship Jean Bart , but by the time she arrived , that battleship had been disabled by Massachusetts and other Vichy French ships had been driven off by Brooklyn and Augusta . New York remained on off the coast of North Africa until the beaches were secure , then retired on 14 November . She had expended a total of sixty 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) rounds . She returned to Norfolk on 23 November .
New York next returned to convoy patrol . She escorted two convoys to Casablanca from the United States during late 1942 , leaving Norfolk on 24 November and in New York from 25 November to 12 December , Casablanca from 24 to 29 December , and back in Norfolk on 12 January 1943 . She left Norfolk on the second escort on 26 February , in New York from 27 February to 5 March , in Casablanca from 18 to 25 March , and back to New York from 5 April to 1 May . In 1943 she was selected for a refit to become a main battery and escort training center . She arrived in Portland , Maine on 2 May , where she remained until 27 July . During her fourth and final refit in early 1943 her anti @-@ aircraft battery was increased to ten 3 @-@ inch / 50 caliber guns , forty 40mm and thirty @-@ six 20mm guns . Improved fire control was added as well , and this ultimately increased her displacement to 29 @,@ 340 long tons ( 29 @,@ 810 t ) standard and 34 @,@ 000 long tons ( 35 @,@ 000 t ) full @-@ load . She returned to Norfolk on 2 August 1943 . She was used to train crews from the US Navy , US Coast Guard , and Allied navies on the 14 @-@ inch / 45 caliber gun , the 3 @-@ inch / 50 caliber gun , and the 20mm and 40mm guns , primarily because many newer ships used these weapons . Between July 1943 and June 1944 about
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the title of the film Jaws . The skeleton is mounted at the Natural History Museum in London , and in 1997 Charig and Milner published a monograph describing the holotype skeleton in detail .
Fossils from other parts of the UK and Iberia , mostly isolated teeth , have subsequently been attributed to Baryonyx or similar animals . Isolated teeth and bones from the Isle of Wight , including hand bones and a vertebra , have been attributed to this genus . A maxilla fragment from La Rioja , Spain was attributed in 1995 . In 1999 a postorbital bone , a squamosal bone , a tooth , vertebra remains , metacarpals , and a phalanx from the Sala de los Infantes deposit in Burgos Province , Spain , were attributed to an immature Baryonyx ( though some of these elements are unknown in the holotype ) , and dinosaur tracks near Burgos have been identified as those of Baryonyx or a similar theropod . In 2011 a specimen ( ML1190 ) from the Papo Seco Formation in Boca do Chapim , Portugal , with a fragmentary dentary , teeth , vertebrae , ribs , hip bones , a scapula , and a phalanx bone , was attributed to Baryonyx , the most @-@ complete Iberian remains of the animal . The skeletal elements of this specimen are also represented in the more @-@ complete holotype NHM R9951 , except for the mid @-@ neck vertebrae .
= = Classification = =
In their original description , Charig and Milner found Baryonyx unique enough to warrant a new family of theropod dinosaurs : Baryonychidae . Although they found Baryonyx to be unlike any other theropod group ( and considered the possibility that it was a thecodont , due to apparently primitive features ) , they noted that the articulation of the maxilla and premaxilla was similar to that in Dilophosaurus . They also noted that two fragmentary snouts from Niger , assigned to the family Spinosauridae by French palaeontologist Philippe Taquet in 1984 , appeared almost identical to those of Baryonyx and they referred them to Baryonychidae instead . In 1988 , American palaeontologist Gregory S. Paul agreed with Taquet that Spinosaurus , described in 1915 based on fragmentary remains from Egypt which were destroyed in World War II , and Baryonyx were similar and ( due to their kinked snouts ) possibly late @-@ surviving dilophosaurs . French palaeontologist Eric Buffetaut also supported this relationship in 1989 . In 1990 Charig and Milner dismissed the spinosaurid affinities of Baryonyx , since they did not find their remains similar enough .
Discoveries in the 1990s shed more light on the relationships of Baryonyx and its relatives . A snout from Morocco was referred to Spinosaurus and Irritator from Brazil was named in 1996 . Two years later the snout fragments from Niger were named Cristatusaurus , and Suchomimus was named from a partial skeleton from the country . In their description of Suchomimus , Sereno and colleagues placed it and Baryonyx in the new subfamily Baryonychinae within Spinosauridae ; other members of the group were placed in the subfamily Spinosaurinae . Although they also united the spinosaurids and their closest relatives in the superfamily Spinosauroidea , in 2010 Roger Benson considered this a junior synonym of Megalosauroidea ( an older name ) . The following cladogram shows the position of Baryonyx within Spinosauridae , after Allain et al . ( 2012 ) :
The authors of a 2002 article about Irritator proposed that Suchomimus tenerensis was similar enough to B. walkeri to be considered a species within the same genus ( B. tenerensis ) , suggesting that Suchomimus was identical to Cristatusaurus ; both are from the Elrhaz Formation . At about 9 @.@ 5 m ( 30 ft ) and 2 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 511 lb ) , Suchomimus was larger than Baryonyx . In a 2004 conference abstract , palaeontologists Steve Hutt and Penny Newbery supported this view based on a large theropod vertebra from the Isle of Wight which they attributed to Baryonyx ; this indicated that the vertebrae of the two genera were more similar than previously thought . Later studies have kept the genera separate .
In a 2003 article , Milner noted that the teeth of Baryonyx were very similar to those of the genus Suchosaurus and suggested that their remains represented the same animal . The type species of the genus , S. cultridens , was named in 1841 based on teeth from Tilgate Forest in Sussex ; a second species , S. girardi , was named in 1897 based on jaw fragments and a tooth from Boca do Chapim . In 2007 Buffetaut considered the teeth of S. girardi very similar to those of Baryonyx ( and S. cultridens ) except for the stronger development of the crown ribs , suggesting that the remains belonged to the same genus . Buffetaut agreed with Milner that the teeth of S. cultridens were almost identical to those of B. walkeri , but with a ribbier surface . The former taxon might be a senior synonym of the latter ( since it was published first ) , depending on whether the differences were within a taxon or between different ones . According to Buffetaut , since the holotype specimen of S. cultridens is one worn tooth and that of B. walkeri is a skeleton it would be more practical to retain the newer name . In 2011 Portuguese palaeontologist Octávio Mateus and colleagues agreed that Suchosaurus was closely related to Baryonyx , but considered both species in the former genus nomina dubia ( dubious names ) since their holotype specimens were not considered diagnostic ( lacking distinguishing features ) and could not be definitely equated with other taxa .
= = = Evolution = = =
Spinosaurids appear to have been widespread from the Barremian to the Cenomanian ages of the Cretaceous , about 130 to 95 million years ago . They shared features such as long , narrow , crocodile @-@ like skulls ; sub @-@ circular teeth , with fine to no serrations ; the snout rosette , and a secondary palate which made them more resistant to torsion . In contrast , the primitive and typical condition for theropods was a tall , narrow snout with blade @-@ like teeth serrated front and back . The skull adaptations of spinosaurids converged with those of crocodilians ; early members of the latter group had skulls similar to typical theropods , later developing elongated snouts , conical teeth , and secondary palates . These adaptations may have been the result of a dietary change from terrestrial prey to fish . Unlike crocodiles , the post @-@ cranial skeletons of most spinosaurids ( except Spinosaurus ) do not appear to have aquatic adaptations . Sereno and colleagues proposed that the large thumb @-@ claw and robust forelimbs of spinosaurids evolved in the Middle Jurassic , before the elongation of the skull and other adaptations related to fish @-@ eating , since the former features are shared with their megalosaurid relatives . They also suggested that the spinosaurines and baryonychines diverged before the Barremian age of the Early Cretaceous .
Several theories have been proposed about the biogeography of the spinosaurids . Since Suchomimus was more closely related to Baryonyx ( from Europe ) than to Spinosaurus — although that genus also lived in Africa — the distribution of spinosaurids cannot be explained as vicariance resulting from continental rifting . Sereno et al. proposed that spinosaurids were initially distributed across the supercontinent Pangea , but split with the opening of the Tethys Sea . Spinosaurines would then have evolved in the south ( Africa and South America : in Gondwanaland ) and baryonychines in the north ( Europe : in Laurasia ) , with Suchomimus the result of a single north @-@ to @-@ south dispersal event . It has also been suggested that baryonychines could be the ancestors of spinosaurines , which appear to have replaced the former in Africa . In 2006 , it was demonstrated that Iberia was near northern Africa during the Early Cretaceous ; some researchers have argued that the Iberian region was a stepping stone between Europe and Africa , which is supported by the presence of baryonychines in Iberia . The direction of the dispersal between Europe and Africa is still unknown , and subsequent discoveries of spinosaurid remains in Asia and Australia indicate that it may have been complex .
= = Palaeobiology = =
In 1986 Charig and Milner first suggested that its elongated snout with many finely serrated teeth indicated that Baryonyx was piscivorous ( a fish @-@ eater ) , speculating that it crouched on a riverbank and used its claw to gaff fish out of the water ( similar to the modern grizzly bear ) . In 1984 , Taquet pointed out that the spinosaurid snouts from Niger were similar to those of the modern gharial and suggested a behaviour similar to herons or storks . Although Charig and Milner did not consider Baryonyx to be aquatic ( due to its nostrils being on the sides of its snout — far from the tip — and the form of the post @-@ cranial skeleton ) , they thought it was capable of swimming like most land vertebrates . They later rejected their initial proposal that the articulation between the premaxilla and maxilla was mobile .
In 1987 Andrew Kitchener disputed the piscivorous behaviour of Baryonyx and suggested that it would have been a scavenger , using its long neck to feed on the ground , its claws to break into a carcass , and its long snout ( with nostrils far back for breathing ) for investigating the body cavity . Kitchener argued that Baryonyx 's
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of Spinosaurus based on new remains suggested that it was a quadruped , based on its anterior centre of body mass . The authors found quadrupedality unlikely for Baryonyx , since the better @-@ known legs of the closely related Suchomimus did not support this posture .
= = Palaeoecology = =
The Weald Clay formation consists of sediments of Hauterivian ( Lower Weald Clay ) to Barremian ( Upper Weald Clay ) in age , about 130 @-@ 125 million years old . The B. walkeri holotype was found in the latter , in clay representing non @-@ marine still water , which has been interpreted as a fluvial or mudflat environment with shallow water , lagoons , and marsh . During the Early Cretaceous , the Weald area of Surrey , Sussex , and Kent was partly covered by the large , fresh @-@ to @-@ brackish water Wealden Lake . Two large rivers drained the northern area ( where London now stands ) , flowing into the lake through a river delta ; the Anglo @-@ Paris Basin was in the south . Its climate was sub @-@ tropical , similar to the present Mediterranean region . Since the Smokejacks Pit consists of different stratigraphic levels , fossil taxa found there are not necessarily contemporaneous . Dinosaurs from the locality include the ornithopods Mantellisaurus , Iguanodon , and small sauropods . Other vertebrates include sharks ( such as Hybodus ) , bony fishes ( including Scheenstia ) , crocodiles , and pterosaurs . Members of ten orders of insects have been identified , including Valditermes , Archisphex , and Pterinoblattina . Other invertebrates include ostracods , isopods , conchostracans , and bivalves . The plants Weichselia and the aquatic , herbaceous Bevhalstia were common . Other plants found include ferns , horsetails , club mosses , and conifers .
Charig and Milner presented a possible scenario explaining the taphonomy ( changes during fossilisation ) of the B. walkeri holotype specimen . The fine @-@ grained sediments around the skeleton , and the fact that the bones were found close together ( skull and forelimb elements at one end of the excavation area and the pelvis and hind @-@ limb elements at the other ) , indicates that the environment was quiet at the time of fossilisation and water currents did not carry the carcass far — possibly because the water was shallow . The area where the specimen died seems to have been suitable for a piscivorous animal . It may have caught fish and scavenged on the mud plain , becoming mired before it died and was buried . Since the bones are well @-@ preserved and had no gnaw marks , the carcass appears to have been undisturbed by scavengers ( suggesting that it was quickly covered by sediment ) . The disarticulation of the bones may have been the result of soft @-@ tissue decomposition . Parts of the skeleton seem to have weathered to different degrees , perhaps because water levels changed or the sediments shifted ( exposing parts of the skeleton ) . The girdle and limb bones , the dentary , and a rib were broken before fossilisation , perhaps from trampling by large animals while buried . The orientation of the bones indicates that the carcass lay on its back , which may explain why all the lower teeth had fallen out of their sockets and some upper teeth were still in place .
Other dinosaurs from the Wessex Formation of the Isle of Wight include the theropods Neovenator , Aristosuchus , Thecocoelurus , Calamospondylus , and Ornithodesmus ; the ornithopods Iguanodon , Hypsilophodon , and Valdosaurus ; the sauropods Pelorosaurus and Chondrosteosaurus , and the ankylosaur Polacanthus . The Papo Seco Formation of Portugal where Baryonyx has been identified is composed of marl , representing a lagoon environment . Other dinosaur remains from the area include fragments tentatively assigned to Mantellisaurus , a macronarian sauropod , and Megalosaurus . Most of the bones of Portuguese specimen ML1190 were damaged , and some scratches may be marks from small scavengers . The specimen 's disarticulation indicates it was transported from a more @-@ terrestrial environment ( since many bones are missing ) , but those found were close together .
= Hastati =
Hastati ( singular : Hastatus ) were a class of infantry in the armies of the early Roman Republic who originally fought as spearmen , and later as swordsmen . These soldiers were the staple unit after Rome threw off the Etruscan rule . They were originally some of the poorest men in the legion , and could afford only modest equipment — light chainmail and miscellaneous equipment . The Senate supplied their soldiers with only a short stabbing sword , the gladius and their distinctive squared shields . The Hastati soldier was typically equipped with these , and several soft iron tipped throwing spears called pila . This doubled their effectiveness , not only as a strong leading edge to their maniple , but also as a stand @-@ alone missile troop . Later , the hastati contained the younger men rather than just the poorer , though most men of their age were relatively poor . Their usual position was the first battle line . They fought in a quincunx formation , supported by light troops . The enemy was allowed to penetrate the first battle line consisting of hastati , then the enemy would deal with the more hardened , seasoned soldiers , the principes . They were eventually done away with after the Marian reforms of 107 BC .
= = History and deployment = =
Hastati appear to have been remnants of the old third class of the army under the Etruscan kings when it was reformed by Marcus Furius Camillus . The third class stood in some of the last few ranks of a very large phalanx were equipped in a similar manner to hastati , but more often than not were relegated to providing missile support to the higher classes rather than fighting themselves . It is probable that engagements with the Samnites and a crushing defeat at the hands of the Gallic warlord Brennus , who both used lots of smaller military units rather than a few very large ones , taught the Romans the importance of flexibility and the inadequacy of the phalanx on the rough , hilly ground of central Italy .
= = = Camillan system = = =
By the 4th century BC the military the Romans had inherited from the Etruscans was still in use . Though its efficiency was doubtful , it proved effective against Rome 's largely local adversaries . When Gauls invaded Etruria in 390 BC , the inhabitants requested help from Rome . The small contingent Rome sent to repel the Gallic invaders provoked a full @-@ scale attack on Rome . The entire Roman army was destroyed at the Battle of the Allia in a crushing defeat that prompted reforms by Marcus Furius Camillus . Under the new system , men were sorted into classes based on wealth ; the hastati were the third poorest , with the rorarii being slightly poorer and the principes slightly wealthier . Hastati were armed with short spears , or hastae , up to 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 6 ft ) long , from which the soldiers acquired their name . They fought in quincunx formation , usually carrying scuta , large rectangular shields , and bronze helmets , often with a number of feathers fixed onto the top to increase stature . They wore light armour , the most common form being small breastplates , called " heart protectors " .
In this type of legion , the 900 hastati formed 15 maniples , military units of 60 men each . Attached to each maniple were about 20 leves , javelin @-@ armed light infantry . The hastati stood in the first battle line , in front of the principes of the second line and the triarii of the third . In a pitched battle , the leves would form up at the front of the legion and harass the enemy with javelin fire to cover the advance of the hastati . If the hastati failed to break the enemy during their engagement , they would fall back and let the heavier principes take over . If the principes could not break them , they would retire behind the triarii spearmen , who would then engage the enemy in turn . The equites , cavalrymen , were used as flankers and to pursue routing enemies . The rorarii and accensi in the final battle line were some of the least dependable troops , and were used in a support role , providing mass and reinforcing wavering areas of the line .
= = = Polybian system = = =
By the time of the Punic wars of the 3rd century BC , the Camillan system of organisation was found to be inefficient . In a new Polybian system , infantry were sorted into classes according to age and experience rather than wealth , the hastati being the youngest and least experienced . Their equipment and role was very similar to the previous system , except they now carried swords , or gladii , instead of spears . Each hastatus also carried two pila , heavy javelins that , " contrary to deeply entrenched myth " ( Goldsworthy ) , did not bend on impact to make any struck shield useless or prevent the weapon from being thrown back . The weight and barb alone sufficiently hampered any struck shield ( often penetrating the shield to hit the man behind it ) , and the iron was sufficiently hard that pila were often used as hand @-@ held spears against both infantry and cavalry . By the time the volley of pila had reached the enemy line ( usually only fifteen yards distant for best effect ) , the legionaries were charging and very quickly at work with their swords . There was rarely any time for the foe to find a pilum , pull it out of whatever it had hit and throw it back .
The hastati had been increased in number to 1 @,@ 200 per legion , and formed 10 maniples of 120 men each . The rorarii and accensi had been done away with . Leves had been replaced with velites , who had a similar role but were now also attached to principes and triarii . Pitched battles were conducted in a similar fashion ; the velites would gather at the front and fling javelins to cover the advance of the hastati . If the hastati failed to break the enemy , they would fall back on the principes , who had also been re @-@ armed with swords . If the principes could not break them , they would retire behind the triarii , who would then engage the enemy .
This order of battle was almost always followed , the battle of the Great Plains and the battle of Zama being among the few notable exceptions . At the Great Plains , Scipio , the Roman general , formed his men up in the usual manner , but once the hastati had begun to engage the enemy , he used his principes and triarii as a flanking force , routing the opposing Carthaginian troops .
At Zama , Scipio arranged his men into columns , side by side , with large lanes in between . The opposing Carthaginian elephants were drawn into these lanes where many were killed by velites without inflicting many casualties on the Romans . Once the surviving elephants had been routed , he formed his men into a long line with his triarii and principes in the centre and hastati on the flanks , ready to engage the Carthaginian infantry .
= = = Marian reforms = = =
With the formal military reforms of Gaius Marius in 107 BC , intended to combat a shortage of manpower from wars against Jugurtha in Africa and Germanic tribes to the north , the different classes of units were done away with entirely . The wealth and age requirements were scrapped . Soldiers would join as a career , rather than as service to the city , and would all be equipped as medium infantry with the same state @-@ purchased equipment . Auxiliaries , local irregular troops , would fulfill other roles , serving as archers , skirmishers and cavalry .
= Avro Vulcan =
The Avro Vulcan ( later Hawker Siddeley Vulcan from July 1963 ) is a jet @-@ powered tailless delta wing high @-@ altitude strategic bomber , which was operated by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) from 1956 until 1984 . Aircraft manufacturer A.V. Roe and Company ( Avro ) designed the Vulcan in response to Specification B.35 / 46 . Of the three V bombers produced , the Vulcan was considered the most technically advanced and hence the riskiest option . Several scale aircraft , designated Avro 707 , were produced to test and refine the delta wing design principles .
The Vulcan B.1 was first delivered to the RAF in 1956 ; deliveries of the improved Vulcan B.2 started in 1960 . The B.2 featured more powerful engines , a larger wing , an improved electrical system and electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) ; many were modified to accept the Blue Steel missile . As a part of the V @-@ force , the Vulcan was the backbone of the United Kingdom ’ s airborne nuclear deterrent during much of the Cold War . Although the Vulcan was typically armed with nuclear weapons , it was capable of conventional bombing missions , a capability which was used in Operation Black Buck during the Falklands War between the United Kingdom and Argentina in 1982 .
The Vulcan had no defensive weaponry , initially relying upon high @-@ speed high @-@ altitude flight to evade interception . Electronic countermeasures were employed by the B.1 ( designated B.1A ) and B.2 from circa 1960 . A change to low @-@ level tactics was made in the mid @-@ 1960s . In the mid @-@ 1970s nine Vulcans were adapted for maritime radar reconnaissance operations , redesignated as B.2 ( MRR ) . In the final years of service six Vulcans were converted to the K.2 tanker configuration for aerial refuelling .
Since retirement by the RAF one example , B.2 XH558 , named " The Spirit of Great Britain " was restored for use in display flights and air shows , whilst two other B.2s , XL426 and XM655 , are kept in taxiable condition for ground runs and demonstrations at London Southend Airport and Wellesbourne Mountford Airfield respectively . B.2 XH558 flew for the last time in October 2015 , before also being kept in taxiable condition at Robin Hood Airport , Doncaster .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
The origin of the Vulcan and the other V bombers is linked with early British atomic weapon programme and nuclear deterrent policies . Britain 's atom bomb programme began with Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.1001 issued in August 1946 . This anticipated a government decision in January 1947 to authorise research and development work on atomic weapons , the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1946 ( McMahon Act ) having prohibited exporting atomic knowledge , even to countries that had collaborated on the Manhattan Project . OR.1001 envisaged a weapon not to exceed 24 ft 2 in ( 7 @.@ 37 m ) in length , 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter and 10 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) in weight . The weapon had to be suitable for release from 20 @,@ 000 ft ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) to 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) .
In January 1947 , the Ministry of Supply distributed Specification B.35 / 46 to UK aviation companies to satisfy Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.229 for " a medium range bomber landplane capable of carrying one 10 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) bomb to a target 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 700 mi ; 2 @,@ 800 km ) from a base which may be anywhere in the world . " A cruising speed of 500 knots ( 580 mph ; 930 km / h ) at heights between 35 @,@ 000 ft ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) and 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) was specified . The maximum weight when fully loaded ought not to exceed 100 @,@ 000 lb ( 45 @,@ 000 kg ) . In addition to a " Special " ( i.e. , atomic ) bomb , the aircraft was to be capable of alternatively carrying a conventional bomb load of 20 @,@ 000 lb ( 9 @,@ 100 kg ) . The similar OR.230 required a " long range bomber " with a 2 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 300 mi ; 3 @,@ 700 km ) radius of action with a maximum weight of 200 @,@ 000 lb ( 91 @,@ 000 kg ) when fully loaded ; this requirement was considered too exacting . A total of six companies would submit technical brochures to this specification , including Avro .
Required to tender by the end of April 1947 , work began on receipt of Specification B.35 / 46 at Avro , led by technical director Roy Chadwick and chief designer Stuart Davies ; the type designation was Avro 698 . It was obvious to the design team that conventional aircraft could not satisfy the Specification ; knowing little about high @-@ speed flight and unable to glean much from the Royal Aircraft Establishment or the US , they investigated German Second World War swept wing research . The team estimated that an otherwise conventional aircraft , with a swept wing of 45 ° , would have doubled the weight requirement . Realising that swept wings increase longitudinal stability , the team deleted the tail ( empennage ) and the supporting fuselage , it thus became a swept @-@ back flying wing with only a rudimentary forward fuselage and a fin ( vertical stabilizer ) at each wingtip . The estimated weight was now only 50 % over the requirement ; a delta shape resulted from reducing the wingspan and maintaining the wing area by filling in the space between the wingtips , which enabled the specification to be met . Though Dr Alexander Lippisch is generally credited as the pioneer of the delta wing , Chadwick ’ s team had followed its own logical design process . The initial design submission had four large turbojets stacked in pairs buried in the wing either side of the centreline . Outboard of the engines were two bomb @-@ bays .
In August 1947 , Roy Chadwick was killed in the crash of the Avro Tudor 2 prototype and was succeeded by Sir William Farren . Reductions in wing thickness made it impossible to incorporate the split bomb bays and stacked engines , thus the engines were placed side @-@ by @-@ side in pairs either side of a single bomb @-@ bay , the fuselage growing somewhat . The wingtip fins gave way to a single fin on the aircraft 's centreline . Rival manufacturer Handley Page received a prototype contract for its crescent @-@ winged HP.80 B.35 / 46 tender in November 1947 . Though considered the best option , contract placement for Avro 's design was delayed whilst its technical strength was established . Instructions to proceed with the construction of two Avro 698 prototypes was received in January 1948 . As an insurance measure against both radical designs failing , Short Brothers received a contract for the prototype SA.4 to the less @-@ stringent Specification B.14 / 46 ; the SA.4 , later named Sperrin , was not required . In April 1948 , Vickers also received authority to proceed with their Type 660 which , although falling short of the B.35 / 46 Specification , being of a more conventional design would be available sooner ; this plane entered service as the Valiant .
= = = Avro 707 and Avro 710 = = =
As Avro had no flight experience of the delta wing , the company planned two smaller experimental aircraft based on the 698 , the one @-@ third scale model 707 for low @-@ speed handling and the one @-@ half scale model 710 for high @-@ speed handling . Two of each were ordered . However , the 710 was cancelled when it was considered too time @-@ consuming to develop ; a high @-@ speed variant of the 707 was designed in its place , the 707A . The first 707 , VX784 , flew in September 1949 but crashed later that month killing Avro test pilot Flt Lt Eric Esler . The second low @-@ speed 707 , VX790 , built with the still uncompleted 707A ’ s nose section ( containing an ejection seat ) and redesignated 707B , flew in September 1950 piloted by Avro test pilot Wg Cdr Roland " Roly " Falk . The high speed 707A , WD480 , followed in July 1951 .
Due to the delay of the 707 programme , the contribution of the 707B and 707A towards the basic design of the 698 was not considered significant , though it did highlight a need to increase the length of the nosewheel to give a ground incidence of 3 @.@ 5 degrees , the optimum take @-@ off attitude . The 707B and 707A proved the design 's validity and gave confidence in the delta planform . A second 707A , WZ736 and a two @-@ seat 707C , WZ744 were also constructed but they played no part in the 698 's development .
= = = Vulcan B.1 and B.2 = = =
= = = = Prototypes and type certification = = = =
More influential than the 707 in the 698 's design was wind @-@ tunnel testing performed by the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough , which indicated the need for a wing redesign to avoid the onset of compressibility drag which would have restricted the maximum speed . Painted gloss white , the 698 prototype VX770 flew for the first time on 30 August 1952 piloted by Roly Falk flying solo . The prototype 698 , then fitted with only the first @-@ pilot 's ejection seat and a conventional control wheel , was powered by four Rolls @-@ Royce RA.3 Avon engines of 6 @,@ 500 lbf ( 29 kN ) thrust ; there were no wing
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fuel tanks , temporary tankage was carried in the bomb bay . VX770 made an appearance at the 1952 Society of British Aircraft Constructors ' ( SBAC ) Farnborough Air Show the next month when Falk demonstrated an " almost vertical bank " . After its Farnborough appearance , the future name of the Avro 698 was a subject of speculation ; Avro had strongly recommended the name Ottawa , in honour of the company 's connection with Avro Canada . Weekly magazine Flight suggested Albion after rejecting Avenger , Apollo and Assegai . The Chief of the Air Staff preferred a V @-@ class of bombers , the Air Council announced the following month that the 698 would be called Vulcan after the Roman god of fire and destruction . In January 1953 , VX770 was grounded for the installation of wing fuel tanks , Armstrong Siddeley ASSa.6 Sapphire engines of 7 @,@ 500 lbf ( 33 kN ) thrust and other systems ; it flew again in July 1953 .
The second prototype , VX777 , flew in September 1953 . More representative of production aircraft , it was lengthened to accommodate a longer nose undercarriage leg , featured a visual bomb @-@ aiming blister under the cabin and was fitted with Bristol Olympus 100 engines of 9 @,@ 750 lbf ( 43 @.@ 4 kN ) thrust . At Falk ’ s suggestion , a fighter @-@ style control stick replaced the control wheel . Both prototypes had almost pure delta wings with straight leading edges . During trials in July 1954 , VX777 was substantially damaged in a heavy landing at Farnborough . It was repaired and fitted with Olympus 101 engines of 11 @,@ 000 lbf ( 49 kN ) thrust before resuming trials in October 1955 . While exploring the high speed and high altitude flight envelope , mild buffeting and other undesirable flight characteristics were experienced while approaching the speed of sound , including an alarming tendency to enter an uncontrollable dive , unacceptable to the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment ( A & AEE ) at Boscombe Down . The solution included the " Phase 2 " wing , featuring a kinked and drooped leading edge and vortex generators on the upper surface , first tested on 707A WD480 . An auto @-@ mach trimmer introduced a nose @-@ up attitude when at high speeds , the control column had to be pushed rather than pulled to maintain level flight .
Meanwhile , the first production B.1 , XA889 , had flown in February 1955 with the original wing . In September 1955 , Falk , flying the second production B.1 XA890 amazed crowds at the Farnborough Air Show by executing a barrel roll on his second flypast in front of the SBAC president ’ s tent . After two days flying , he was called in front of service and civil aviation authorities and ordered to refrain from carrying out this " dangerous " manoeuvre . Now fitted with a Phase 2 wing , XA889 was delivered in March 1956 to the A & AEE for trials for the type ’ s initial Certificate of Airworthiness which it received the following month .
= = = = Further developments = = = =
The first 15 B.1s were powered by the Olympus 101 of 11 @,@ 000 lbf ( 49 kN ) thrust . Many of these early examples in a metallic finish remained the property of the Ministry of Supply being retained for trials and development purposes . Those entering RAF service were delivered to No 230 Operational Conversion Unit ( OCU ) , the first in July 1956 . Later aircraft , painted in anti @-@ flash white and powered by the Olympus 102 of 12 @,@ 000 lbf ( 53 kN ) thrust , began to enter squadron service in July 1957 . The Olympus 102s were quickly modified to Olympus 104 standard , ultimately rated at 13 @,@ 500 lbf ( 60 kN ) thrust . As far back as 1952 , Bristol Aero Engines had begun development of the BOl.6 ( Olympus 6 ) rated at 16 @,@ 000 lbf ( 71 kN ) thrust but if fitted to the B.1 , this would have re @-@ introduced the buffet requiring further redesign of the wing .
The decision to proceed with the B.2 versions of the Vulcan was made in May 1956 . It was anticipated that the first B.2 would be around the 45th aircraft of the 99 then on order . As well as being able to achieve greater heights over targets , it was believed that operational flexibility could be extended by the provision of in @-@ flight refuelling equipment and tanker aircraft . The increasing sophistication of Soviet air defences required the fitting of electronic countermeasure ( ECM ) equipment and vulnerability could be reduced by the introduction of the Avro Blue Steel stand @-@ off missile , then in development . In order to develop these proposals , the second Vulcan prototype VX777 was rebuilt with the larger and thinner Phase 2C wing , improved flying control surfaces and Olympus 102 engines , first flying in this configuration in August 1957 . Plans were in hand to equip all Vulcans from the 16th aircraft onwards with in @-@ flight refuelling receiving equipment . A B.1 , XA903 , was allocated for Blue Steel development work . Other B.1s were used for the development of the BOl.6 ( later Olympus 200 ) , XA891 ; a new AC electrical system , XA893 ; and ECM including jammers within a bulged tail @-@ cone and a tail warning radar , XA895 .
The 46th production aircraft and first B.2 , XH533 , first flew in September 1958 fitted with Olympus 200 engines of 16 @,@ 000 lbf ( 71 kN ) thrust , six months before the last B.1 XH532 was delivered in March 1959 . Rebuilding B.1s as B.2s was considered but rejected over cost . Nevertheless , to extend the B.1 's service life , 28 were upgraded by Armstrong Whitworth between 1959 and 1963 to the B.1A standard , including features of the B.2 such as ECM equipment , in @-@ flight refuelling receiving equipment , and UHF radio . The second B.2 , XH534 , flew in January 1959 . Powered by production Olympus 201 of 17 @,@ 000 lbf ( 76 kN ) thrust , it was more representative of a production aircraft , being fitted with an in @-@ flight refuelling probe and a bulged ECM tail cone . Some subsequent B.2s were initially lacking probes and ECM tail cones , but these were fitted retrospectively . The first 10 B.2s outwardly showed their B.1 ancestry , retaining narrow engine air intakes . Anticipating even more powerful engines , the air intakes were deepened on the 11th ( XH557 ) and subsequent aircraft . Many of the early aircraft were retained for trials and it was the 12th B.2 , XH558 , that was the first to be delivered to the RAF in July 1960 . Coincidentally , XH558 would also be the last Vulcan in service with the RAF , before being retired in 1992 .
The 26th B.2 , XL317 , the first of a production batch ordered in February 1956 , was the first Vulcan , apart from development aircraft , capable of carrying the Blue Steel missile ; 33 aircraft were delivered to the RAF with these modifications . When the Mk.2 version of Blue Steel was cancelled in favour of the Douglas GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt air @-@ launched ballistic missile in December 1959 , fittings were changed in anticipation of the new missile , one under each wing . Though Skybolt was cancelled in November 1962 , many aircraft were delivered or retrofitted with " Skybolt " blisters . Later aircraft ( XL391 and XM574 onwards ) were delivered with Olympus 301 engines of 20 @,@ 000 lbf ( 89 kN ) thrust . Two earlier aircraft were re @-@ engined ( XH557 and XJ784 ) for trials and development work ; another seven aircraft ( XL384 @-@ XL390 ) were converted circa 1963 .
The last B.2 XM657 was delivered in 1965 and the type served till 1984 . Whilst in service the B.2 was continuously updated with modifications including rapid engine starting , bomb @-@ bay fuel tanks , wing strengthening to give the fatigue life to enable the aircraft to fly at low level ( a tactic introduced in the mid @-@ 60s ) , upgraded navigation equipment , terrain following radar ( TFR ) , standardisation on a common nuclear weapon ( WE.117 ) and improved ECM equipment . The B.1As were not strengthened , thus all were withdrawn by 1968 . Nine B.2s were modified for the maritime radar reconnaissance ( MRR ) role and six for the airborne tanker role .
= = = Proposed developments and cancelled projects = = =
Avro Type 718
The Avro 718 was a 1951 proposal for a delta @-@ winged military transport based on the Type 698 to carry 80 troops or 110 passengers . It would have been powered by four Bristol Olympus BOl.3 engines .
Avro Atlantic
The Avro Type 722 Atlantic was a 1952 proposal ( announced in June 1953 ) for a 120 @-@ passenger delta @-@ winged airliner based on the Type 698 .
Avro Type 732
The Avro 732 was a 1956 proposal for a supersonic development of the Vulcan and would have been powered by 8 de Havilland Gyron Junior engines . Unlike the proposed Avro 721 low @-@ level bomber of 1952 or the Avro 730 supersonic stainless steel canard bomber dating from 1954 ( cancelled in 1957 before completion of the prototype ) , the Type 732 showed its Vulcan heritage .
Vulcan Phase 6 ( Vulcan B.3 )
In 1960 , the Air Staff approached Avro with a request into a study for a patrol missile arrier armed with up to six Skybolt missiles capable of a mission length of 12 hours . Avro 's submission in May 1960 was the Phase 6 Vulcan , which if built would have been the Vulcan B.3. The aircraft was fitted with an enlarged wing of 121 ft ( 37 m ) span with increased fuel capacity ; additional fuel tanks in a dorsal spine ; a new main undercarriage to carry an all @-@ up @-@ weight of 339 @,@ 000 lb ( 154 @,@ 000 kg ) ; and reheated Olympus 301s of 30 @,@ 000 lbf ( 130 kN ) thrust . An amended proposal of October 1960 inserted a 10 ft 9 in ( 3 @.@ 28 m ) plug into the forward fuselage with capacity for six crew members including a relief pilot , all facing forwards on ejection seats , and aft @-@ fan versions of the Olympus 301 .
= = = Export proposals = = =
Other countries expressed interest in purchasing Vulcans but , as with the other V @-@ bombers , no foreign sales materialised .
Australia
As early as 1954 , Australia recognised that the English Electric Canberra was becoming outdated and evaluated aircraft such as the Avro Vulcan and Handley @-@ Page Victor as potential replacements . Political pressure for a Canberra replacement only rose to a head in 1962 ; at which point more modern types such as the BAC TSR @-@ 2 , General Dynamics F @-@ 111C , and North American A @-@ 5 Vigilante had become available . The RAF would have transferred several V @-@ bombers , including Vulcans , for interim use by the RAAF if they had purchased the TSR @-@ 2 , but the RAAF selected the F @-@ 111C .
Argentina
In the early 1980s , Argentina approached the UK with a proposal to buy a number of Vulcans . An application , made in September 1981 , requested the ' early availability ' of a ' suitable aircraft ' . With some reluctance , ministers approved the export of a single aircraft but emphasised that clearance had not been given for the sale of a larger number . A letter from the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office to the Ministry of Defence in January 1982 stated that little prospect was seen of this happening without ascertaining the Argentine interest and whether such interest was genuine : ' On the face of it , a strike aircraft would be entirely suitable for an attack on the Falklands . ' Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands less than three months later .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
Despite its radical and unusual shape , the airframe was built along traditional lines . Except for the most highly stressed parts , the whole structure was manufactured from standard grades of light alloy . The airframe was broken down into a number of major assemblies : the centre section , a rectangular box containing the bomb @-@ bay and engine bays bounded by the front and rear spars and the wing transport joints ; the intakes and centre fuselage ; the front fuselage , incorporating the pressure cabin ; the nose ; the outer wings ; the leading edges ; the wing trailing edge and tail end of the fuselage ; the wings were not sealed and used directly as fuel tankage , but carried bladders for fuel in the void spaces of the wings ; and there was a single swept tail fin with a single rudder on the trailing edge .
A five @-@ man crew , the first pilot , co @-@ pilot , navigator radar , navigator plotter and air electronics officer ( AEO ) was accommodated within the pressure cabin on two levels ; the pilots sitting on Martin @-@ Baker 3K ( 3KS on the B.2 ) ejection seats whilst on the lower level , the other crew sat facing rearwards and would abandon the aircraft via the entrance door . The original B35 / 46 specification sought a jettisonable crew compartment , this requirement was removed in a subsequent amendment , the rear crew 's escape system was often an issue of controversy , such as when a practical refit scheme was rejected . A rudimentary sixth seat forward of the navigator radar was provided for an additional crew member ; the B.2 had an additional seventh seat opposite the sixth seat and forward of the AEO . These seats were no more than cushions , a full harness and an oxygen and intercom facility . The visual bomb @-@ aimer ’ s compartment could be fitted with a T4 ( Blue Devil ) bombsight , in many B.2s this space housed a vertically mounted Vinten F95 Mk.10 camera for assessing simulated low @-@ level bombing runs .
Fuel was carried in 14 bag tanks , four in the centre fuselage above and to the rear of the nosewheel bay and five in each outer wing . The tanks were split into four groups of almost equal capacity , each normally feeding its respective engine though cross @-@ feeding was possible . The centre of gravity was automatically maintained by electric timers which sequenced the booster pumps on the tanks . B.2 aircraft could be fitted with one or two additional fuel tanks in the bomb @-@ bay .
Despite being designed before a low radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) and other stealth factors were ever a consideration , a Royal Aircraft Establishment technical note of 1957 stated that of all the aircraft so far studied , the Vulcan appeared by far the simplest radar echoing object , due to its shape : only one or two components contributed significantly to the echo at any aspect , compared with three or more on most other types .
= = = Colour schemes = = =
The two prototype Vulcans were finished in gloss white . Early Vulcan B.1s left the factory in a natural metal finish ; the front half of the nose radome was painted black , the rear half painted silver . Front @-@ line Vulcan B.1s had a finish of anti @-@ flash white and RAF " type D " roundels . Front @-@ line Vulcan B.1As and B.2s were similar but with ' type D pale ' roundels .
With the adoption of low @-@ level attack profiles in the mid @-@ 1960s , B.1As and B.2s were given a glossy sea grey medium and dark green disruptive pattern camouflage on the upper surfaces , white undersurfaces and " type D " roundels . ( The last 13 Vulcan B.2s , XM645 onwards , were delivered thus from the factory ) . In the mid @-@ 1970s : Vulcan B.2s received a similar scheme with matte camouflage , light aircraft grey undersides , and " low @-@ visibility " roundels ; B.2 ( MRR ) s received a similar scheme in gloss ; and the front half of the radomes were no longer painted black . Beginning in 1979 , 10 Vulcans received a wrap @-@ around camouflage of dark sea grey and dark green because , during Red Flag exercises in the US , defending SAM forces had found that the grey @-@ painted undersides of the Vulcan became much more visible against the ground at high angles of bank .
= = = Avionics = = =
The original Vulcan B.1 radio fit was : two 10 @-@ channel VHF transmitter / receivers ( TR @-@ 1985 / TR @-@ 1986 ) and a 24 @-@ channel HF transmitter / receiver ( STR @-@ 18 ) . The Vulcan B.1A also featured an UHF transmitter / receiver ( ARC @-@ 52 ) . The initial B.2 radio fit was similar to the B.1A though it was ultimately fitted with the ARC @-@ 52 , a V / UHF transmitter / receiver ( PTR @-@ 175 ) , and a SSB HF transmitter / receiver ( Collins 618T ) .
The navigation and bombing system ( NBS ) comprised an H2S Mk9 radar and a navigation bombing computer ( NBC ) Mk1 . Other navigation aids included a Marconi radio compass ( ADF ) , GEE Mk3 ,
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to the centre of the fuselage . The engine 's design began in 1947 , intended to power the Bristol Aeroplane Company 's own rival design to the Vulcan . A serendipitous arrangement in air intakes could cause the Vulcan to emit a distinctive " howl " when the engines were at approximately 90 % power , which can be heard as the aircraft performs a flypast , such as at public airshows .
As the prototype Vulcan VX770 was ready for flight prior to the Olympus being available , it first flew using Rolls @-@ Royce Avon RA.3 engines of 6 @,@ 500 lbf ( 29 kN ) thrust . These were quickly replaced by Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire ASSa.6 engines of 7 @,@ 500 lbf ( 33 kN ) thrust . VX770 later became a flying test bed for the Rolls @-@ Royce Conway . The second prototype VX777 first flew with Olympus 100s of 10 @,@ 000 lbf ( 44 kN ) thrust . It was subsequently re @-@ engined with Olympus 101 engines of 11 @,@ 000 lbf ( 49 kN ) thrust . When VX777 flew with a Phase 2C ( B.2 ) wing in 1957 , it was fitted with Olympus 102 engines of 12 @,@ 000 lbf ( 53 kN ) thrust .
Early B.1s were engined with the Olympus 101 . Later aircraft were delivered with Olympus 102s . All Olympus 102s became the Olympus 104 of 13 @,@ 000 lbf ( 58 kN ) thrust on overhaul and ultimately 13 @,@ 500 lbf ( 60 kN ) thrust on uprating . The first B.2 flew with the second @-@ generation Olympus 200 of 16 @,@ 000 lbf ( 71 kN ) thrust , design of which began in 1952 . Subsequent B.2s were engined with either the uprated Olympus 201 of 17 @,@ 000 lbf ( 76 kN ) thrust or the Olympus 301 of 20 @,@ 000 lbf ( 89 kN ) thrust . The Olympus 201 was designated 202 on being fitted with a rapid air starter . The engine would later be developed into a reheated ( afterburning ) powerplant for the cancelled supersonic BAC TSR @-@ 2 strike bomber and the supersonic passenger transport Concorde .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Introduction = = =
In September 1956 , the RAF received its first Vulcan B.1 , XA897 , which immediately embarked upon a round @-@ the @-@ world tour . The tour was to be an important demonstration of the range and capabilities of the aircraft , but it also had other benefits in the form of conducting goodwill visits in various countries ; in later life Vulcans routinely visited various nations and distant parts of the former British Empire as a show of support and military protection . This first tour , however , was struck by misfortune ; on 1 October 1956 , while landing in bad weather at London Heathrow Airport at the completion of the world tour , XA897 was destroyed in a fatal accident .
The first two aircraft were delivered to 230 OCU in January 1957 and the training of crews started on 21 February 1957 ; in the following months more aircraft were delivered to the OCU . The first OCU course to qualify was No. 1 Course , on 21 May 1957 , and they went on to form the first flight of No. 83 Squadron . No. 83 Squadron was the first operational squadron to use the bomber , at first using borrowed Vulcans from the OCU , and on 11 July 1956 it received the first aircraft of its own . By September 1957 , several Vulcans had been handed over to No. 83 Squadron . The second OCU course also formed a Flight of 83 Squadron , but subsequent trained crews were also used to form the second bomber squadron , 101 Squadron . The last aircraft from the first batch of 25 aircraft had been delivered by the end of 1957 to 101 Squadron .
In order to increase the mission range and flight time for Vulcan operations , in @-@ flight refuelling capabilities were added in 1959 onwards ; several Valiant bombers were refurbished as tankers to refuel the Vulcans . Continuous airborne patrols proved untenable , however , and the refuelling mechanisms across the Vulcan fleet fell into disuse in the 1960s . Both Vulcans and the other V @-@ force aircraft routinely visited the Far East , in particular Singapore , where a fully equipped nuclear weapons storage facility had been constructed in 1959 . During the Indonesia – Malaysia confrontation Britain planned to deploy three squadrons of V @-@ bomber aircraft and 48 Red Beard tactical nuclear weapons to the region ; although this was ultimately decided against , Vulcans trained in the region for both conventional and nuclear missions . Britain regularly deployed Vulcans to the Far East as a part of their contribution to SEATO operations , often to test the defenses of friendly nations in joint exercises . In the early 1970s , the RAF decided to permanently deploy two squadrons of Vulcans overseas in the Near East Air Force Bomber Wing , based at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus ; the Vulcans were withdrawn as Cypriot intercommunal violence intensified in the mid @-@ 1970s .
Vulcans did some very long range missions . In June 1961 , one of them took off from RAF Scampton to Sydney , with an 18 @,@ 507 km long journey , flown in only a bit more than 20 hours and three air refuellings . Vulcans frequently visited the United States during the 1960s and 1970s to participate in air shows and static displays , as well as to participate in the Strategic Air Command 's Annual Bombing and Navigation Competition at such locations as Barksdale AFB , Louisiana and the former McCoy AFB , Florida , with the RAF crews representing Bomber Command and later Strike Command . Vulcans also took part in the 1960 , 1961 , and 1962 Operation Skyshield exercises , in which NORAD defences were tested against possible Soviet air attack , the Vulcans simulating Soviet fighter / bomber attacks against New York , Chicago and Washington . The results of the tests were classified until 1997 . The Vulcan proved quite successful during the 1974 " Giant Voice " exercise , in which it managed to avoid USAF interceptors .
= = = Nuclear deterrent = = =
As part of Britain 's independent nuclear deterrent , the Vulcan initially carried Britain 's first nuclear weapon , the Blue Danube gravity bomb . Blue Danube was a low @-@ kiloton yield fission bomb designed before the United States detonated the first hydrogen bomb . These were supplemented by U.S.-owned Mk 5 bombs ( made available under the Project E programme ) and later by the British Red Beard tactical nuclear weapon . The UK had previously embarked on its own hydrogen bomb programme , and to bridge the gap until these were ready the V @-@ bombers were equipped with an Interim Megaton Weapon based on the Blue Danube casing containing Green Grass , a large pure @-@ fission warhead of 400 kt ( 1 @.@ 7 PJ ) yield . This bomb was known as Violet Club . Only five were deployed before the Green Grass warhead was incorporated into a developed weapon as Yellow Sun Mk.1.
The later Yellow Sun Mk 2 , was fitted with Red Snow , a British @-@ built variant of the U.S. W28 warhead . Yellow Sun Mk 2 was the first British thermonuclear weapon to be deployed , and was carried on both the Vulcan and Handley Page Victor . The Valiant retained U.S. nuclear weapons assigned to SACEUR under the dual @-@ key arrangements . Red Beard was pre @-@ positioned in Singapore for use by Vulcan and Victor bombers . From 1962 , three squadrons of Vulcan B.2s and two squadrons of Victor B.2s were armed with the Blue Steel missile , a rocket @-@ powered stand @-@ off bomb , which was also fitted with the 1 @.@ 1 Mt ( 4 @.@ 6 PJ ) yield Red Snow warhead .
Operationally , RAF Bomber Command and the U.S. Strategic Air Command cooperated in the Single Integrated Operational Plan ( SIOP ) to ensure coverage of all major Soviet targets from 1958 , 108 aircraft of the RAF 's V @-@ Bombers were assigned targets under SIOP by the end of 1959 . From 1962 onwards , two jets in every major RAF base were armed with nuclear weapons and on standby permanently under the principle of Quick Reaction Alert ( QRA ) . Vulcans on QRA standby were to be airborne within four minutes of receiving an alert , as this was identified as the amount of time between warning of a USSR nuclear strike being launched and it arriving in Britain . The closest the Vulcan came to taking part in potential nuclear conflict was during the Cuban missile crisis in October 1962 , where Bomber Command was moved to Alert Condition 3 , an increased state of preparedness from normal operations ; however , it stood down in early November .
The Vulcans were intended to be equipped with the American Skybolt Air Launched Ballistic Missile to replace the Blue Steel , with Vulcan B.2s carrying two Skybolts under the wings ; the last 28 B.2s were modified on the production line to fit pylons to carry the Skybolt . A B.3 variant with increased wingspan to carry up to six Skybolts was proposed in 1960 . When the Skybolt missile system was cancelled by U.S. President John F. Kennedy on the recommendation of his Secretary of Defense , Robert McNamara in 1962 , Blue Steel was retained . To supplement it until the Royal Navy took on the deterrent role with Polaris ICBM @-@ equipped submarines , the Vulcan bombers adopted a new mission profile of flying high during clear transit , dropping down low to avoid enemy defences on approach , and deploying a parachute @-@ retarded bomb , the WE.177B. However , since the aircraft had been designed for high @-@ altitude flight , at low altitudes it could not exceed 350 knots . RAF Air Vice Marshal Ron Dick , a former Vulcan pilot , said " it is [ thus ] questionable whether it could have been effective flying at low level in a war against ... the Soviet Union . ”
After the British Polaris submarines became operational and Blue Steel was taken out of service in 1970 , the Vulcan continued to carry WE.177B in a tactical nuclear strike role as part of the British contribution to Europe 's standing NATO forces , although they no longer held aircraft at 15 minutes ' readiness in peacetime . Two squadrons were also stationed in Cyprus as part of the Near East Air Force and assigned to Central Treaty Organization in a strategic strike role . With the eventual demise of the WE.177B and the Vulcan bombers , the Blackburn Buccaneer , SEPECAT Jaguar , and Panavia Tornado continued with the WE.177C until its retirement in 1998 . While not a like @-@ for @-@ like replacement , the multi @-@ role Tornado interdictor / strike bomber is the successor for the roles previously filled by the Vulcan .
= = = Conventional role = = =
Although in operational usage the Vulcan typically carried various nuclear armaments , the type also had a secondary conventional role . While performing conventional combat missions , the Vulcan can carry up to 21 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 454 kg ) bombs inside its bomb bay . Since the 1960s , the various Vulcan squadrons were routinely conducting conventional training missions ; the aircrews were expected to be able to perform conventional bombing missions in addition to the critical nuclear strike mission the Vulcan normally performed .
The Vulcan 's only combat missions took place towards the end of the type 's service in 1982 . During the Falklands War , the Vulcan was deployed against Argentinian forces which had occupied the Falkland Islands . This conflict was the only occasion in which any of the V @-@ bombers would participate in conventional warfare . The missions performed by the Vulcan became known as the Black Buck raids , each aircraft had to fly 3 @,@ 889 mi ( 6 @,@ 259 km ) from Ascension Island to reach Stanley on the Falklands . Victor tankers conducted the necessary air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling for the Vulcan to cover the distance involved ; approximately 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 imp gal ( 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 l ) of fuel was used in each mission .
Five Vulcans were selected to participate in the operation . In order to do so , each aircraft had to receive various last @-@ minute adaptations ; including modifications to the bomb bay , the reinstatement of the long out @-@ of @-@ use in @-@ flight refuelling system , the installation of a new navigational system derived from the Vickers VC @-@ 10 , and the updating of several onboard electronics . Underneath the wings , new pylons were fitted to carry an ECM pod and Shrike anti @-@ radar missiles at wing hardpoint locations ; these hardpoints had originally been installed for the purpose of carrying the cancelled Skybolt nuclear missile . Engineering work to retrofit these Vulcans had begun on 9 April .
On 1 May , the first mission was conducted by a single Vulcan that flew over Port Stanley and dropped its bombs on the airfield concentrating on the single runway , with one direct hit , making it unsuitable for fighter aircraft . The Vulcan 's mission was quickly followed up by strikes against anti @-@ air installations , flown by British Aerospace Sea Harriers from nearby Royal Navy carriers . Three Vulcan missions were flown against the airfield , a further two missions in which missiles were launched against radar installations ; an additional two missions were cancelled . At the time , these missions held the record for the world 's longest @-@ distance raids . The ECM systems on board the Vulcans proved to be effective at jamming Argentine radars ; while a Vulcan was within the theatre , other British aircraft in the vicinity had a greatly reduced chance of coming under effective fire .
On 3 June 1982 , Vulcan B.2 XM597 of No. 50 Squadron took part in the " Black Buck 6 " mission against Argentinian radar sites at Stanley airfield on the Falkland Islands . While attempting to refuel for its return journey to Ascension Island , the probe broke , leaving the Vulcan with insufficient fuel , forcing a diversion to Galeão Air Force Base , Rio de Janeiro in neutral Brazil . En route , secret papers were dumped along with the two remaining AGM @-@ 45 Shrike missiles , although one failed to launch . After a mayday call , the Vulcan , escorted by Brazilian Air Force Northrop F @-@ 5 fighters , was permitted an emergency landing at Rio with very little fuel left on board . The Vulcan and her crew were detained until the end of hostilities nine days later .
= = = Reconnaissance = = =
In November 1973 , as a result of the planned closure of the Victor SR.2 equipped No. 543 Squadron , No. 27 Squadron reformed at RAF Scampton equipped with the Vulcan as a replacement in the maritime radar reconnaissance role . The squadron carried out patrols of the seas around the British Isles , including the strategically important GIUK gap between Iceland and the United Kingdom , flying at high level and using the Vulcan 's H2S radar to monitor shipping . In peacetime , this could be followed up by visual identification and photography of targets of interest at low level . In wartime , a Vulcan would leave visual identification of potential targets to Buccaneers or Canberras , and could coordinate attacks by Buccaneers against hostile shipping . Though initially equipped with a number of B.2 aircraft , the Squadron eventually operated nine B.2 ( MRR ) aircraft ( also known by the unofficial designation SR.2 ) . The aircraft were modified for the role by removing the Terrain Following Radar ( and its thimble radome ) and adding the LORAN C radio navigation aid . The main external visual difference was the presence of a gloss paint finish , with a light grey undersurface , to protect against sea spray .
The squadron also inherited its secondary role of air sampling from No. 543 Squadron . This involved flying through plumes of airborne contamination and using onboard equipment to collect fallout released from both above ground and underground nuclear tests for later analysis at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston . Five aircraft had small pylons fitted to the redundant Skybolt hardpoints , which could be used to carry sampling pods modified from drop tanks . These pods would collect the needed samples on a filter , while an additional smaller " localiser " pod was fitted to the port wing , inboard of the main pylons .
The squadron disbanded at Scampton in March 1982 , passing on its radar reconnaissance duties to the RAF 's Nimrods .
= = = Aerial refuelling role = = =
After the end of the Falklands War in 1982 , the Vulcan B.2 was due to be withdrawn from RAF service that year . However , the Falklands campaign had consumed much of the airframe fatigue life of the RAF 's Victor tankers . While Vickers VC10 tanker conversions had been ordered in 1979 and Lockheed TriStar tankers would be ordered subsequent to the conflict , as a stopgap measure six Vulcans were converted into single point tankers . The Vulcan tanker conversion was accomplished by removing the jammers from the ECM bay in the tail of the aircraft , and replacing them with a single Hose Drum Unit ( HDU ) . An additional cylindrical bomb @-@ bay tank was fitted , making a total of three , giving a fuel capacity of almost 100 @,@ 000 lb ( 45 @,@ 000 kg ) .
The go @-@ ahead for converting the six aircraft was given on 4 May 1982 . Just 50 days after being ordered , the first Vulcan tanker , XH561 , was delivered to RAF Waddington . The Vulcan K.2s were operated by No. 50 Squadron , along with three Vulcan B.2s , in support of UK air defence activities until it was disbanded in March 1984 .
= = = Vulcan Display Flight = = =
After the disbandment of No. 50 Squadron , two Vulcans continued flying with the RAF in air displays as part of the Vulcan Display Flight , based at Waddington but administered through No. 55 Squadron , based at RAF Marham . Initially displaying using XL426 , in 1986 that aircraft was sold , having been replaced by XH558 , which began displays in 1985 . The VDF continued with XH558 until 1992 , finishing operations after the Ministry of Defence determined it was too costly to run in light of budget cuts . Both aircraft subsequently entered preservation and survived , although a third , XH560 , kept in reserve in the first years , was later scrapped .
= = = Engine test beds = = =
The first prototype VX770 had its Sapphire engines replaced with four 15 @,@ 000 lbf ( 67 kN ) Rolls @-@ Royce Conway RCo.7 turbofans in 1957 . It was transferred to Rolls @-@ Royce as the Conway test bed . It flew with the Conways , the first turbofans in the world , until its fatal crash in September 1958 .
The first Vulcan B.1 XA889 was used for the flight clearances of the Olympus 102 and 104 .
Vulcan B.1 XA891 was fitted with four Olympus 200 engines in the spring of 1958 for intensive flying trials . The aircraft crashed in July 1958 during a routine test flight .
Vulcan B.1 XA894 flew with five Olympus engines , the standard four Mk.101s , plus a reheated Olympus 320 destined for the BAC TSR @-@ 2 in an underslung nacelle . This aircraft was destroyed in a ground fire at Filton on 3 December 1962 .
Vulcan B.1 XA896 was withdrawn from RAF service in June 1964 and transferred to be converted to the test bed for the Bristol Siddeley BS100 vectored thrust turbofan for the Hawker Siddeley P.1154. The P.1154 was cancelled in February 1965 and XA896 was scrapped before being converted .
Vulcan B.1 XA902 was withdrawn from RAF service after a landing accident in 1958 . After rebuilding , it replaced VX770 as the Conway test bed , fitted with four RCo.11s. The two inner Conways were replaced with Rolls @-@ Royce Speys , flying for the first time in this configuration on 12 October 1961 .
Vulcan B.1 XA903 , surplus to Blue Steel trials , was converted to a similar layout to XA894 to flight test the Olympus 593 Concorde installation . The first flight was on 1 October 1966 and testing continued through to June 1971 . In April 1973 , XA903 flew with an underslung Rolls @-@ Royce RB.199 turbofan destined for the Panavia Tornado . The RB.199 engine included both the reheat and thrust reverser functions . XA903 was the last B.1 to fly , being retired in February 1979 .
Vulcan B.2 XH557 was used by BSEL for developing the Olympus 301 and first flew with the larger engine in May 1961 . It was returned to Woodford in 1964 to be refurbished for the RAF .
= = Variants = =
B.1
The initial production aircraft . First few with straight leading edge , later retrofitted with Phase 2 ( kinked ) wing . Early examples finished in silver , later changed to " anti @-@ flash " white . Many converted to B.1A standard 1959 @-@ 1963 . Last few unmodified B.1s in RAF service with No. 230 OCU retired by 1966 . Last flight by any B.1 , an engine testbed XA903 , March 1979 .
B.1A
The B.1 with an Electronic Countermeasures ( ECM ) system in a new larger tail cone ( as in B.2 ) . Unlike the B.2 , the B.1As did not undergo extensive wing strengthening for low @-@ level flying and were withdrawn from service 1966 @-@ 67 .
B.2
Developed version of the B.1. Larger , thinner wing than the B.1 ( Phase 2C wing ) and fitted with Olympus 201 @-@ 202 engines of 17 @,@ 000 lbf ( 76 kN ) each , or Olympus 301 engines of 20 @,@ 000 lbf ( 89 kN ) each . Uprated electrics with Auxiliary Airborne Power Plant ( AAPP ) ( Auxiliary power unit ) and Ram Air Turbine ( RAT ) . ECM similar to B.1A. Terrain @-@ Following Radar ( TFR ) in nose thimble radome fitted to most aircraft in mid @-@ 60s . New Radar warning receiver aerials on tail fin giving it a square top from the mid @-@ 1970s .
B.2 ( MRR )
Nine B.2s converted to Maritime Radar Reconnaissance ( MRR ) . TFR deleted . Five aircraft further modified for Air Sampling Role . Distinctive gloss finish with light grey underside .
K.2
Six B.2s converted for air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling with Mark 17 Hose Drum Unit ( HDU ) mounted semi @-@ recessed in tail cone . TFR deleted . Fitted with three bomb @-@ bay drum tanks , it was the only mark of Vulcan that could jettison fuel in an emergency .
B.3
Proposed version intended as a long endurance missile carrier capable of carrying up to six Skybolt ALBMs on flights of up to 12 hours duration . Never built .
= = = Production = = =
A total of 134 production Vulcans were assembled at Woodford Aerodrome , 45 to the B.1 design and 89 were B.2 models , the last being delivered to the RAF in January 1965 .
= = Operators = =
United Kingdom
Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment aircraft used for trials and evaluation
Royal Air Force
No. 9 Squadron RAF ( Operated the B.2 from 1962 to 1982 )
No. 12 Squadron RAF ( Operated the B.2 from 1962 to 1967 )
No. 27 Squadron RAF ( Operated the B.2 from 1961 to 1972 and the B.2 ( MRR ) from 1973 to 1982 )
No. 35 Squadron RAF ( Operated the B.2 from 1962 to 1982 )
No. 44 Squadron RAF ( Operated the B.1 / B.1A from 1960 to 1967 and the B.2 from 1966 to 1982 )
No. 50 Squadron RAF ( Operated the B.1 / B.1A from 1961 to 1966 , the B.2 from 1966 to 1984 and the K.2 from 1982 to 1984 )
No. 83 Squadron RAF ( the first Vulcan squadron operated the B.1 / B.1A from 1957 to 1960 and the B.2 from 1960 to 1969 )
No. 101 Squadron RAF ( Operated the B.1 / B1A from 1957 to 1967 and the B.2 from 1967 to 1982 )
No. 617 Squadron RAF ( Operated the B.1 / B1A from 1958 to 1961 and the B.2 from 1961 to 1981 )
No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit RAF from 1956 to 1981 . The first unit to operate the Vulcan , it provided conversion to type and operational training for Vulcan aircrew
Bomber Command Development Unit
Vulcan To The Sky Trust ( flying G @-@ VLCN ( formerly XH558 ) currently based at Robin Hood Airport Doncaster Sheffield )
Aircraft were also operated at various times under the direction of the Ministry of Supply / Aviation for trials and evaluation by Avro , Bristol Siddeley Engines , Rolls @-@ Royce and the Blind Landing Experimental Unit ( BLEU ) .
= = = Bases = = =
RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus was the base for two operational B.2 squadrons from 1969 to 1975
9 Squadron 1969 @-@ 1975 , moved from Cottesmore in 1969 it returned to the UK in 1975 to Waddington .
35 Squadron 1969 @-@ 1975 , moved from Cottesmore in 1969 it returned to the UK in 1975 to Scampton .
RAF Coningsby was the base for three operational squadrons from 1962 to 1964
9 Squadron 1962 @-@ 1964 , formed in 1962 to operate the B.2 it moved to Cottesmore in 1964 .
12 Squadron 1962 @-@ 1964 , formed in 1962 to operate the B.2 it moved to Cottesmore in 1964 .
35 Squadron 1962 @-@ 1964 , formed in 1962 to operate the B.2 it moved to Cottesmore in 1964 .
RAF Cottesmore was the base for three operational squadrons from 1964 to 1969
9 Squadron 1964 @-@ 1969 , moved in from Coningsby in 1964 , it moved to Akrotiri in 1969 .
12 Squadron 1964 @-@ 1967 , moved in from Coningsby in 1964 until it disbanded in 1967 .
35 Squadron 1964 @-@ 1969 , moved in from Coningsby in 1964 , it moved to Akrotiri 1969 .
RAF Finningley
101 Squadron 1957 @-@ 1961 , formed in 1957 to be the second operational B.1 squadron , moved to Waddington in 1961 .
230 OCU 1961 @-@ 1969 , moved from Waddington in 1961 , moved to Sc
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ampton in 1969 .
RAF Scampton was the base for three operational squadrons at different times between 1961 and 1981
27 Squadron 1961 @-@ 1972 , formed in 1961 to operate the B.2 until it disbanded in 1972 . Reformed in 1973 to operate the B.2 ( MRR ) variant until 1982 .
83 Squadron 1960 @-@ 1969 , a former B.1 / B.1A squadron at Waddington , reformed in 1960 to operate the B.2 until disbanded in 1969 .
617 Squadron 1958 @-@ 1981 , formed in 1958 to operate the B.1 , reformed to operate the B.2 in 1961 until disbanded in 1981 .
230 OCU 1969 @-@ 1981 , moved from Finningley in 1969 until disbanded in 1981 .
RAF Waddington was the base for a number of operational squadrons at different times between 1957 and 1984 , it was the first and last operational Vulcan base
9 Squadron 1975 @-@ 1982 , moved in from Akrotiri in 1975 until it was disbanded 1982 .
44 Squadron 1960 @-@ 1982 , formed in 1960 to operate the B.1 / B.1A , it converted to the B.2 in 1966 and disbanded in 1982 .
50 Squadron 1961 @-@ 1984 , formed in 1961 to operate the B.1 / B.1A , it converted to the B.2 in 1966 , from 1982 it also flew the tanker version until disbanding in 1984 .
83 Squadron 1957 @-@ 1960 , formed in 1957 to be the first operational squadron to operate the B.1 until 1960 , it reformed at Scampton later in the year as a B.2 unit .
101 Squadron 1961 @-@ 1982 , moved from Finningley in 1961 with the B.1 / B.1A , converted to B.2 in 1967 and disbanded in 1982 .
230 OCU 1956 @-@ 1961 , formed in 1956 to train Vulcan crews it moved to Finningley in 1961 .
= = = V @-@ Bomber dispersal airfields = = =
In the event of transition to war , the V Bomber squadrons were to deploy four aircraft at short notice to each of 26 pre @-@ prepared dispersal airfields around the United Kingdom . In the early 1960s the RAF ordered 20 Beagle Basset communication aircraft to move the crews to dispersal airfields ; the importance of these aircraft was only brief , diminishing when the primary nuclear deterrent switched to the Royal Navy 's Polaris Missile .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 1 October 1956 , Vulcan B.1 XA897 , the first to be delivered , crashed at London Heathrow Airport during Operation Tasman Flight , a flag @-@ waving trip to Australia and New Zealand . After a GCA approach in bad weather , it struck the ground 700 yd ( 640 m ) short of the runway just as engine power was applied . The impact probably broke the drag links on the main undercarriage , allowing the undercarriage to be forced backwards and damaged the wing 's trailing edge . After the initial impact , XA897 rose back in the air . The pilot , Squadron Leader D. R. Howard , and co @-@ pilot Air Marshal Sir Harry Broadhurst , AOC @-@ in @-@ C Bomber Command , both ejected and survived , the other four occupants ( including a spare pilot and an Avro representative ) were killed when the aircraft hit the ground again and broke up .
In 1957 , a Vulcan B.1 XA892 attached to the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment ( A & AEE ) at Boscombe Down for acceptance testing was unintentionally flown to an Indicated Mach Number ( IMN ) above 1 @.@ 04 , alarming the crew that it had reached supersonic speed . XA892 's commander , Flt Lt Milt Cottee ( RAAF ) , and co @-@ pilot , Flt Lt Ray Bray ( RAF ) , were tasked to fly at 478 mph ( 769 km / h ) and 0 @.@ 98 IMN , taking the aircraft to a load factor of 3 g . It climbed to 35 @,@ 000 ft ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) and then dived , intending to reach the target speed at 27 @,@ 000 ft ( 8 @,@ 200 m ) . Approaching the target altitude , the throttles were closed and full up @-@ elevator applied , but XA892 continued to pitch nose @-@ down . Cottee contemplated pushing forward to go inverted and then rolling upright ; instead , he opened the speed brakes . Although the airspeed was above their maximum operating speed , the speed brakes were undamaged and did slow the aircraft , which came back past the vertical at about 18 @,@ 000 ft ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) and leveled off at 8 @,@ 000 ft ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) . There were no reports of a sonic boom , it is unlikely a true Mach Number of 1 @.@ 0 was reached . Afterwards , a rear bulkhead was found to be deformed .
On 20 September 1958 , Vulcan VX770 was flown by a Rolls @-@ Royce test pilot on an engine performance sortie with a fly past at RAF Syerston Battle of Britain At Home display . It flew along the main runway then started a roll to starboard and climbed slightly , during which the starboard wing disintegrated and the main spar collapsed . VX770 went into a dive with the starboard wing on fire and struck the ground , killing three occupants of a controllers ' caravan and all four crew on board . Proposed causes of the structural failure have included pilot error , metal fatigue due to air intake vibration , and inadequate maintenance .
On 24 October 1958 , Vulcan B.1 XA908 of No. 83 Squadron crashed east of Detroit , Michigan , USA . A complete electrical failure occurred at around 30 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) , the backup system should have provided 20 minutes of emergency power , allowing XA908 to reach one of several airports in the area , however backup power only lasted three minutes due to a short circuit in the service busbar , locking the controls . XA908 went into a steep dive before crashing , leaving a 40 @-@ ft ( 13 m ) crater in the ground , which was later excavated while retrieving wreckage . Despite extensive property damage , there were no ground fatalities , only one person on the ground was hospitalized . All six crew members were killed , including the co @-@ pilot , who had ejected . The co @-@ pilot 's ejector seat was found in Lake St Clair , but his body was not recovered until the following spring . They were buried at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Trenton , Michigan , alongside 11 RAF student pilots killed during the Second World War in accidents at nearby Naval Air Station Grosse Ile .
On 24 July 1959 , Vulcan B.1 XA891 crashed due to an electrical failure during an engine test . Shortly after take @-@ off , the crew observed generator warning lights and loss of busbar voltage . The aircraft commander , Avro Chief Test Pilot Jimmy Harrison , climbed XA891 to 14 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) , steering away from the airfield and populated areas while the AEO attempted to solve the problem . When it became clear that control would not be regained , Harrison instructed the rear compartment crew to exit the aircraft and the co @-@ pilot to eject , before ejecting himself . All the crew survived , making them the first complete Vulcan crew to successfully escape . The aircraft crashed near Kingston upon Hull .
On 26 October 1959 , Vulcan B.1 XH498 participated in an airshow marking the opening of Wellington International Airport , formerly Rongotai Airport . After a ' touch @-@ and @-@ go landing ' on Runway 34 , it came around for a full stop landing . Turbulence and wind shear caused XH498 to land short of the runway threshold , the port undercarriage leg clipped the embankment at the Moa Point or southern end , damaging wing attachments , engine fuel lines and the main landing gear drag link , which was ruptured and unable to support the aircraft . The port wing tip nearly scraped the runway surface before it was able to lift off again , spilling fuel over the crowd . Pilot actions prevented a possible disaster as spectators were present on the western apron . XH4
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01 .
The video game has spawned two direct cross @-@ over prequels on the PlayStation Portable : Dissidia Final Fantasy and Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy . Warrior of Light , based on Yoshitaka Amano 's design of the lead character , and Garland are the respective hero and villain representing Final Fantasy . Warrior of Light is voiced by Toshihiko Seki in the Japanese version and Grant George in the English version , while Garland is voiced by Kenji Utsumi in the Japanese version and Christopher Sabat in the English version . Both games add background information to the world of Final Fantasy . For instance , Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy names the world of Final Fantasy " World A " in order to distinguish it from World B , the world of Dissidia .
= Ronald Stuart =
Ronald Niel Stuart VC DSO RD RNR ( 26 August 1886 – 8 February 1954 ) was a British Merchant Navy commodore and Royal Navy captain who was highly commended following extensive and distinguished service at sea over a period of more than thirty @-@ five years . During World War I he received the Victoria Cross , the Distinguished Service Order , the French Croix de Guerre avec Palmes and the United States ' Navy Cross for a series of daring operations he conducted while serving in the Royal Navy during the War at Sea .
Stuart 's Victoria Cross was awarded following a ballot by the men under his command . This unusual method of selection was used after the Admiralty board was unable to choose which members of the crew deserved the honour after a desperate engagement between a Q @-@ ship and a German submarine off the Irish coast . His later career included command of the liner RMS Empress of Britain and the management of the London office of a major transatlantic shipping company . Following his retirement in 1951 , Stuart moved into his sister 's cottage in Kent and died three years later . A sometimes irascible man , he was reportedly embarrassed by any fuss surrounding his celebrity and was known to exclaim " Mush ! " at any demonstration of strong emotion .
= = Early life = =
Ronald Niel Stuart was born in 1886 in Liverpool to Neil Stuart and Mary Harrison , both from experienced seafaring families . Neil Sr. had been born on Prince Edward Island in Canada and had met and married Mary in Montreal . She was the daughter of a master mariner from Australia . In the 1880s the family moved to Liverpool , where Stuart was born as the youngest of six children . Neil worked in the city as a dock superintendent and owner of a wholesale tea shop before dying suddenly while preparing for a return to the Merchant Navy .
Stuart was by this time a stocky , blonde , blue @-@ eyed man described as " powerful " but " very bleak and penetrating " . He was initially educated at Shaw Street College , but following his father 's death was forced to leave and take a job as a clerk in an office . Stuart 's son commented that " He hated it [ the job ] . He hated Liverpool " . In 1902 , Stuart decided to leave the city and find work in a different environment . He took an apprenticeship with the shipping company Steele & Co and was sent to learn his trade on the sailing barque Kirkhill .
In 1905 the Kirkhill was wrecked on a rock near the Falkland Islands . Stuart survived the sinking and returned to England to continue his training . He was posted to a new ship upon his return but she too was wrecked by a cyclone off the Florida coast . Eventually , after several years service he achieved his mariner 's qualifications and gained a job with the Allan Line as a junior officer . He then served in a variety of sailing and steam ships traveling across most of the world . In 1910 , the Allan Line was taken over by the Canadian Pacific Line and he continued working with the company 's new owners as a junior ship 's officer .
= = First World War = =
At the outbreak of World War I Stuart was called up to service , as an officer in the Royal Naval Reserve . He was originally posted as a junior officer on board the old and obsolete destroyer HMS Opossum in Plymouth . This ship was used for harbour patrols and intercepting neutral merchant ships and other work Stuart considered tedious . He became increasingly impatient with the life and repeatedly applied to his senior officers with requests for transfer ; at one point he even requested that he be commissioned into the army . All of these were turned down , with increasing levels of hostility from his commanders , one of whom was reported to have told him to " Go to hell ! And shut the door behind you ! "
= = = HMS Farnborough = = =
In the spring of 1916 he was transferred as first lieutenant to a Q @-@ ship under Gordon Campbell . A Q @-@ ship was a merchant ship with hidden weaponry , commanded secretly by the navy and manned by a Royal Navy crew . When attacked by a submarine , the Q @-@ ship would feign damage until the enemy was close enough to engage and then reveal its weapons to counter @-@ attack . Campbell , a major proponent of Q @-@ ship strategy , was impressed with Stuart 's stubborn refusal to accept the two years of rejection and brought him in to replace an officer whose nerves had cracked under the strain of Q @-@ ship operations .
Stuart 's experience in merchant shipping proved invaluable to his work and he soon had the crew of Q5 ( also known as HMS Farnborough ) disciplined and the ship well maintained and run . Campbell himself was very pleased with his executive officer , declaring him " on the top line " . Stuart and Campbell would later fall out over Stuart 's belief that Campbell was exaggerating the danger of Q @-@ ship service , Stuart comparing his own life favourably with service in the trenches .
His first year of Q @-@ ship service was frustrating for Stuart and the crew . Although , prior to his attachment to the ship , Farnborough had succeeded in sinking an enemy submarine ( the U @-@ 68 in March 1916 ) , there had been no successes since . In February 1917 , Campbell decided that in order to properly invite an attack , the Farnborough would have to actually be torpedoed before combat and then engage the submarine as she closed to finish the job with shellfire . On 17 February this theory was proven correct off Southern Ireland when the lone Farnborough was struck by a torpedo fired at extreme range . Campbell intentionally failed to evade the missile and the ship took the blow in the hold , causing some minor injuries to the crew but serious damage to the ship . The crew were well rehearsed and the " panic party " took to their boats with a great show of alarm and disorder while the gun crews manned positions on their hidden weapons . When four lifeboats had been released and the ship had settled in the water and was clearly sinking , the submarine U @-@ 83 pulled up just ten yards ( 9m ) from the wreck . A hail of shot was then unleashed by the Farnborough 's remaining crew from their six @-@ pounder gun and several machine guns into the stationary submarine . The very first shot decapitated the German captain Bruno Hoppe and the U @-@ boat was rapidly reduced to a battered wreck . Eight German sailors escaped the submarine before it sank but only two could be pulled from the water , one of whom subsequently died from his wounds .
The Farnborough too was sinking from her torpedo damage . Realising this , Campbell left the men in the boats , destroyed all confidential papers and radioed for help . His unorthodox message read : " Q5 slowly sinking respectfully wishes you goodbye " . This message reached nearby naval shipping , and within an hour the destroyers HMS Narwhal and HMS Buttercup arrived and began to tow the stricken ship back to land . During the night a depth charge accidentally exploded on board Farnborough and the tow was dropped . Campbell ordered the twelve men remaining aboard into a lifeboat and attempted to take a final survey of his vessel , only to be driven back by another exploding depth charge . On returning to the rail he discovered that Stuart had disobeyed his order and remained on board , to make sure his captain disembarked safely . The tow was later reattached and the battered Farnborough beached at Mill Cove , in no fit state to return to sea . Campbell was awarded the Victoria Cross in recognition of his service in the action and £ 1 @,@ 000 of prize money was shared among the crew . Stuart and Engineer @-@ Lieutenant Len Loveless were both presented with the Distinguished Service Order .
= = = HMS Pargust = = =
Following the action Stuart remained with Campbell and Loveless as Inspectors of Shipping , choosing those vessels they believed to be best suited to Q @-@ ship work for naval service . After some time ashore all three returned to sea in a vessel they had personally chosen , an old , battered tramp steamer named SS Vittoria . Renaming it HMS Pargust , they armed their vessel with a 4 " gun , two twelve pounders , two machine guns , torpedo tubes and depth charges . Thus armed the Pargust departed on her first patrol to the same grounds where U @-@ 83 had been sunk , in the waters south of Ireland . For the first few days her duties consisted only of rescuing survivors from sunken cargo ships but with increasing German activity , an attack was expected at any moment . On 7 June 1917 , Pargust was suddenly struck by a torpedo fired at very close range from an unseen German submarine . Unlike the Farnborough action , the damage done to the Pargust was immense . The ship was holed close to the waterline , and its cover was almost blown when one of the twelve pounder gun ports was blasted free from its mounting ; it was only the quick thinking of sailor William Williams , who took the full weight of the gun port on himself , that prevented the gun being exposed . One petty officer was killed and a number wounded .
By this stage in the war , the German submarine authorities had become aware of the existence of Q @-@ ships and Captain Ernst Rosenow of the UC @-@ 29 was taking no risks with his target , remaining at 400 yards ( 366 m ) distance watching the staged panicked evacuation of the ship . While the hidden gun crews watched the enemy approach the lifeboats , the officer in charge of the boats , Lieutenant Francis Hereford , realised that the submarine would follow his movements , as its commander assumed him to be the captain . Hereford therefore ordered his men to row back towards the ship , thus luring the enemy into range . This made the submarine commander believe that the ship ’ s crew were planning to regain their vessel and he immediately closed to just 50 yards ( 46m ) , surfaced and began angrily semaphoring to the " survivors " in the boats . This was exactly what the gun crews had been waiting for and a volley of fire was directed at the U @-@ boat . Numerous holes were blown in the conning tower and the submarine desperately attempted to flee on the surface before slowing down and heeling over , trailing oil . The gun crews then stopped firing only for the submarine to suddenly restart its engines and attempt to escape . In a final barrage of fire the submarine was hit fatally , a large explosion blowing the vessel in two . Rosenow and 22 of his crew were killed , while two survivors were rescued by the panic party .
The wrecked Pargust was taken in tow by HMS Crocus , USS Cushing and HMS Zinnia and reached Queenstown barely afloat nearly two days later . The port 's admiral congratulated the crew personally on their arrival . As before , the crew were awarded £ 1 @,@ 000 prize money and several awards were promised . Unusually , the Admiralty were unable to decide who among the ship 's crew should receive the Victoria Cross as all were deemed to have participated in the action with equal valour . It was thus decided for the first time , under article 13 of the Victoria Cross 's royal warrant , that one officer and one enlisted man would be granted the award following a ballot by the ship 's company . After the vote , from which Campbell abstained , the Victoria Crosses were awarded to Stuart and William Williams . Fourteen other crew members were awarded medals , including DSOs for Campbell and Hereford . In addition , every sailor had his participation in the action and subsequent ballot noted on his service records .
Due to the official secrecy surrounding the activities of the Q @-@ ships , Stuart 's and Williams 's Victoria Crosses were announced without fanfare or explanation of their actions ; even the Pargust 's name was omitted from the citation . The full account of the action was not published until after the armistice in November 1918 . Stuart was noted as the first Anglo @-@ Canadian to receive the Victoria Cross and his obituary later stated that in the action , " his gallantry stood out " . The medal was presented to him in a ceremony at Buckingham Palace by King George V on 23 July 1917 .
= = = Victoria Cross citations = = =
= = = HMS Tamarisk = = =
In addition to receiving the Victoria Cross , Stuart was promoted to lieutenant commander and given his own command , HMS Tamarisk . Tamarisk was a small sloop built in 1916 that was capable of being disguised as a merchant vessel and used as a Q @-@ ship , designated Q11 .
A few months after assuming command , on 15 October 1917 , Stuart was on hand to rescue the United States Navy destroyer USS Cassin after she was torpedoed by U @-@ 61 in heavy weather . Along with one crewmember killed and nine wounded , the Cassin had lost her entire stern including the rudder and was in danger of sinking . The dead crew member was Osmond Ingram , who had died throwing burning munitions overboard and was later posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor . Twenty miles from the Irish coast and in total darkness , the Tamarisk not only found the crippled ship but was able to come alongside in high seas and a strong gale and pass across a tow line . Twice during the night the tow broke and twice it was reconnected as the battle to save the ship continued . The next morning several trawlers came to the aid of the Q @-@ ship and together they enabled the Cassin to make port , saving the ship and her crew . Ten years after the Cassin 's rescue the US Navy awarded Stuart the Navy Cross in recognition of his part in the operation ; it was a rare presentation to a sailor of a foreign navy and the only occasion in which the recipient also possessed the Victoria Cross .
The remainder of the war was quiet for Stuart , achieving no further successes against submarines . Upon the armistice the full details of his Victoria Cross action were revealed and , in 1919 , he was mentioned in despatches in recognition of the service he had performed during the Q @-@ ship operations . As further recognition of his overall efforts against the German submarine campaign , the French government presented him with the Croix de Guerre .
In 1919 , Stuart returned to Canadian Pacific , his maritime reputation on both sides of the Atlantic greatly enhanced by his war record . In the same year he met and married his wife Evelyn , with whom he would have three sons and two daughters .
= = Return to the Merchant Navy = =
After post @-@ war service on a succession of merchant ships , Stuart was provided with his first merchant command , the steam freighter SS Brandon , in 1927 . After a short period in charge , he was again promoted and transferred , taking up the role of staff captain on the liner RMS Empress of Australia .
= = = Ships ' captain = = =
Just a year later he again moved , becoming full captain on the 15 @,@ 000 @-@ ton liner SS Minnedosa – an older ship that transported immigrants to Canada . Stuart was one of a number of Royal Naval Reserve officers employed by Canadian Pacific , part of a deliberate recruitment policy by the company . In 1929 , he was given his biggest command yet as he took over the newly completed 20 @,@ 000 @-@ ton ocean liner SS Duchess of York . He commanded her for five years along her route from Liverpool to Saint John , New Brunswick stopping at Belfast and Greenock . He also briefly commanded her on the New York to Bermuda route . It was during this period , in 1929 , that he was awarded the Decoration for Officers of the Royal Naval Reserve ( RD ) in honour of his long service and in 1935 he was made a full Naval Reserve Captain . He maintained his connection with the RNR throughout his life , becoming Honorary President of the RNR Officer 's Club and a part @-@ time naval aide @-@ de @-@ camp to King George VI in 1941 – a position he held part @-@ time throughout World War II . A special warrant was written in 1927 that allowed him to fly the Blue Ensign from any ship , mercantile or military , which he commanded .
In 1931 , while he was in command of the Duchess of York , his wife suddenly died in Toxteth . This event is said to have changed Stuart 's demeanour and plunged him into a depression . He never again took time off work and left his children to the sole care and maintenance of his four maiden sisters in England . In 1934 he took over his last and most important seagoing role as Commodore of the CPS fleet and was placed in command of the 42 @,@ 000 @-@ ton liner RMS Empress of Britain on her transatlantic route .
After three years in command of this giant ship on her England to Quebec route , Stuart was given a desk job managing the company 's assets in Montreal . In 1937 , he was promoted to company superintendent , a role followed by the job of general manager at Canadian Pacific 's London office . He retained this job for 13 years , including through the difficult experiences of World War II when London 's dockyards were badly damaged by the London Blitz . Two of his sons served in the war ; one in the Royal Navy and the other in the Royal Canadian Navy . Both were decorated for bravery while fighting in the Battle of the Atlantic against the resurgent German submarine fleet . One was presented with the Distinguished Service Cross , while the other was Mentioned in Despatches .
= = = Retirement = = =
Retiring in 1951 , Stuart retreated to his sisters ' cottage in Charing , Kent , and spent his days reading , walking , observing nature and visiting the cinema , where he was reportedly notorious for " jeering embarrassingly loudly at falsely heroic , sentimental or emotional passages " and shouting " Mush ! " at parts of movies he did not approve . He died aged 67 at the cottage on 8 February 1954 and was buried in local Charing Cemetery . For many years his gravestone was in a poor state of repair , but successful attempts have been made by memorial organisations to replace it with a standard white Commonwealth War Grave headstone . Following his death , ' Stuart Close ' in Lee @-@ on @-@ Solent was named for him and his medals were collected and donated on permanent loan to the National Maritime Museum , where they are on display .
= = Personal life = =
His granddaughter 's are Elizabeth Stuart . Veronica Stuart , Kate Quill , Harriet Clarke , Fiona Stuart
= Jack L. Warner =
Jack Leonard " J. L. " Warner ( August 2 , 1892 – September 9 , 1978 ) , born Jacob Warner in London , Ontario , was a Canadian @-@ American film executive who was the president and driving force behind the Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , California . Warner 's career spanned some forty @-@ five years , its duration surpassing that of any other of the seminal Hollywood studio moguls .
As co @-@ head of production at Warner Bros. Studios , he worked with his brother , Sam Warner , to procure the technology for the film industry 's first talking picture . After Sam 's death , Jack clashed with his surviving older brothers , Harry and Albert Warner . He assumed exclusive control of the film production company in the 1950s , when he secretly purchased his brothers ' shares in the business after convincing them to participate in a joint sale of stocks .
Although Warner was feared by many of his employees and inspired ridicule with his uneven attempts at humor , he earned respect for his shrewd instincts and tough @-@ mindedness . He recruited many of Warner Bros. ' top stars and promoted the hard @-@ edged social dramas for which the studio became known . Given to decisiveness , Warner once commented , " If I 'm right fifty @-@ one percent of the time , I 'm ahead of the game . "
Throughout his career , he was viewed as a contradictory and enigmatic figure . Although he was a staunch Republican , Warner encouraged film projects that promoted the agenda of Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal . He opposed European fascism and criticized Nazi Germany well before America 's involvement in World War II . An opponent of Communism , after the war Warner appeared as a friendly witness before the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee , voluntarily naming screenwriters who had been fired as suspected Communists or sympathizers . Despite his controversial public image , Warner remained a force in the motion picture industry until his retirement in the early 1970s .
= = Early years = =
Jack Warner was born in London , Ontario , in 1892 . His parents were Jewish immigrants from Poland who spoke mainly Yiddish . Jack was the fifth surviving son of Benjamin Warner a cobbler from Krasnosielc , Poland ( then located in the Congress Kingdom ) , and his wife , the former Pearl Leah Eichelbaum . Following their marriage in 1876 , the couple had three children in Poland , one of whom died at a young age . One of the surviving children was Jack 's eldest brother , Hirsch ( later Harry ) . The Warner family had occupied a " hostile world " , where the " night @-@ riding of cossacks , the burning of houses , and the raping of women were part of life 's burden for the Jews of the ' shtetl ' " . In 1888 , in search of a better future for his family and himself , Benjamin made his way to Hamburg , Germany , and then took a ship to America . The Warner surname was perhaps originally " Wonsal " or " Wonskolaser " Upon arriving in New York City , Benjamin introduced himself as " Benjamin Warner " , and the surname " Warner " remained with him for the rest of his life . Pearl Warner and the couple 's two children joined him in Baltimore , Maryland , less than a year later . In Baltimore , the couple had five more children , including Abraham ( later known as Albert ) and Sam Warner .
Benjamin Warner 's decision to move to Canada in the early 1890s was inspired by a friend 's advice that he could make an excellent living bartering tin wares with trappers in exchange for furs . Their sons Jack and David were born in Ontario . After two arduous years in Canada , Benjamin and Pearl Warner returned to Baltimore , bringing along their growing family . Two more children , Sadie and Milton , were added to the household there . In 1896 , the family relocated to Youngstown , Ohio , following the lead of Harry Warner , who established
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a shoe repair shop in the heart of the emerging industrial town . Benjamin worked with his son Harry in the shoe repair shop until he secured a loan to open a meat counter and grocery store in the city 's downtown area .
Jack spent much of his youth in Youngstown . He observed in his autobiography that his experiences there molded his sensibilities . Warner wrote : " J. Edgar Hoover told me that Youngstown in those days was one of the toughest cities in America , and a gathering place for Sicilian thugs active in the Mafia . There was a murder or two almost every Saturday night in our neighborhood , and knives and brass knuckles were standard equipment for the young hotheads on the prowl . " Warner claimed that he briefly belonged to a street gang based at Westlake 's Crossing , a notorious neighborhood located just west of the city 's downtown area . Meanwhile , he received his first taste of show business in the burgeoning steel town , singing at local theaters and forming a brief business partnership with another aspiring " song @-@ and @-@ dance man " . During his brief career in vaudeville , he officially changed his name to Jack Leonard Warner . Jack 's older brother Sam disapproved of these youthful pursuits . " Get out front where they pay the actors , " Sam Warner advised Jack . " That 's where the money is . "
= = Professional career = =
= = = Early business ventures = = =
In Youngstown , the Warner brothers took their first tentative steps into the entertainment industry . In the early 20th century , Sam Warner formed a business partnership with another local resident and " took over " the city 's Old Grand Opera House , which he used as a venue for " cheap vaudeville and photoplays " . The venture failed after one summer . Sam Warner then secured a job as a projectionist at Idora Park , a local amusement park . He convinced the family of the new medium 's possibilities and negotiated the purchase of a Model B Kinetoscope from a projectionist who was " down on his luck " . The purchase price was $ 1 @,@ 000 , and Jack Warner contributed $ 150 to the venture by pawning a horse , according to his obituary .
The enterprising brothers screened a well @-@ used copy of The Great Train Robbery throughout Ohio and Pennsylvania before renting a vacant store in New Castle , Pennsylvania . This makeshift theatre , called the Bijou , was furnished with chairs borrowed from a local undertaker . Jack , who was still living in Youngstown at the time , arrived on weekends " to sing illustrated song @-@ slides during reel changes " . In 1906 , the brothers purchased a small theater in New Castle , which they called the Cascade Movie Palace . They maintained the theater until moving into film distribution in 1907 . That year , the Warner brothers established the Pittsburgh @-@ based Duquesne Amusement Company , a distribution firm that proved lucrative until the advent of Thomas Edison 's Motion Picture Patents Company ( also known as the Edison Trust ) , which charged distributors exorbitant fees . In 1909 , Harry agreed to bring Jack into the family business ; he sent his younger brother to Norfolk , Virginia , where Jack assisted Sam in the operation of a second film exchange company . Later that year , the Warners sold the family business to the General Film Company for " $ 10 @,@ 000 in cash , $ 12 @,@ 000 in preferred stock , and payments over a four @-@ year period for a total of $ 52 @,@ 000 " ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 369 @,@ 526 today ) .
= = = Formation of Warner Bros. = = =
The Warner brothers pooled their resources and moved into film production in 1910 . Then , in 1912 , they lent their support to filmmaker Carl Laemmle 's Independent Motion Picture Company , which challenged the monopolistic control of the Edison Trust . That same year , Jack Warner acquired a job as a film splicer in New York , where he assisted brother Sam with the production of the film Dante 's Inferno . Despite the film 's success at the box office , Harry Warner remained concerned about the economic threat presented by the Edison Trust . He subsequently broke with Laemmle and sent Jack to establish a film exchange in San Francisco , while Sam did the same in Los Angeles . The brothers were soon poised to exploit the expanding California movie market . In 1917 , Jack was sent to Los Angeles to open another film exchange company . Their first opportunity to produce a major film came in 1918 , when they purchased the film rights for My Four Years in Germany , a bestselling novel that condemned German wartime atrocities . The film proved to be a commercial and critical success , and the four brothers were able to establish a studio in California . In the new studio , Jack became co @-@ head of production along with his older brother , Sam . In this capacity , the two brothers secured new scripts and story lines , managed film production , and looked for ways to reduce production costs .
Warner Bros. followed up the success of My Four Years in Germany with a popular serial titled The Tiger 's Claw in 1919 . That same year , the studio was less successful in its efforts to promote Open Your Eyes , a tract on the dangers of venereal disease that featured Jack Warner 's sole screen appearance . During this period , the studio earned few profits ; and in 1920 , the Warners secured a bank loan to settle outstanding debts . Shortly thereafter , the Warners relocated their production studio from Culver City , California , to Hollywood , where they purchased a lot on the corner of Sunset Boulevard and Bronson Avenue , known today as Sunset Bronson Studios . The new location and upgraded facilities did not significantly improve the studio 's image , which remained defined by its low @-@ budget comedies and racy films on declining morality .
The studio discovered a trained German Shepherd named Rin Tin Tin in 1923 . The canine made his debut in Where the North Begins , a film about an abandoned pup who is raised by wolves and befriends a fur trapper . According to one biographer , Jack Warner 's initial doubts about the project were quelled when he met Rin Tin Tin , " who seemed to display more intelligence than some of the Warner comics . " Rin Tin Tin proved to be the studio 's most important commercial asset until the introduction of sound . Screenwriter Darryl F. Zanuck produced several scripts for Rin Tin Tin vehicles and , during one year , wrote more than half of the studio 's features . Between 1928 and 1933 , Zanuck served as Jack Warner 's right @-@ hand man and executive producer , a position whose responsibilities included the day @-@ to @-@ day production of films . Despite the success of Rin Tin Tin and other projects , however , Warner Bros. was unable to compete with Hollywood 's " Big Three " – Paramount , Universal , and First National studios .
In 1925 , the studio expanded its operations and acquired the Brooklyn @-@ based theater company , Vitagraph . Later that year , Sam Warner urged his brother , Harry , to sign an agreement with Western Electric to develop a series of talking " shorts " using the newly developed Vitaphone technology . Sam died of pneumonia in 1927 ( just before the premiere of the first feature @-@ length talking picture , The Jazz Singer ) , and Jack became sole head of production . Sam 's death left Jack inconsolable . One biographer writes , " Throughout his life , Jack had been warmed by Sam 's sunshiny optimism , his thirst for excitement , his inventive mind , his gambling nature . Sam had also served as a buffer between Jack and his stern eldest brother , Harry . In the years to come , Jack ran the Warner Bros. Burbank studio with an iron hand . Following his brother 's death , he became increasingly difficult to deal with and inspired the resentment of many of his employees .
As the family grieved over Sam 's sudden passing , the success of The Jazz Singer helped establish Warner Bros. as a major studio . While Warner Bros. invested only $ 500 @,@ 000 in the film , the studio reaped $ 3 million in profits . Hollywood 's five major studios , which controlled most of the nation 's movie theaters , initially attempted to block the growth of " talking pictures " . In the face of such organized opposition , Warner Bros. produced 12 " talkies " in 1928 alone . The following year , the newly formed Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences recognized Warner Bros. for " revolutionizing the industry with sound " .
Despite Warner Bros. ' new prosperity , Jack kept a tight rein on costs . He placed the studio 's directors on a quota system , and decreed a flat , low @-@ key lighting style to make the sets look cheaper than they were .
= = = Depression era = = =
The studio emerged relatively unscathed from the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and produced a broad range of films , including " backstage musicals , " " crusading biopics , " " swashbucklers , " and " women 's pictures . " As Thomas Schatz observed , this repertoire was " a means of stabilizing marketing and sales , of bringing efficiency and economy into the production of some fifty feature films per year , and of distinguishing Warners ' collective output from that of its competitors " . Warner Bros. became best known , however , for its hard @-@ hitting social dramas , whose production Jack Warner tended to support . These included gangster classics such as Little Caesar and The Public Enemy as well as the critically acclaimed I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang , starring Paul Muni . Some of these films reflected a surprising ( albeit temporary ) shift in Warner 's political outlook . By 1932 , despite his longstanding association with the Republican Party , he openly supported Democratic presidential candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt , staging a " Motion Picture and Electrical Parade Sports Pageant " at L.A. Stadium in Roosevelt 's honor . This development foreshadowed an " era in which Warner would recruit the most New Deal @-@ ish ( often simultaneously the most left @-@ wing ) writers " .
During this period , Warner took an active role in recruiting talent . To furnish Warner Bros. with much needed " star power " , he raided contract players from rival studios , in some cases offering to double their salaries . This strategy yielded three leading stars from Paramount Studios – William Powell , Kay Francis , and Ruth Chatterton . In 1929 , Warner persuaded British stage and screen actor George Arliss to play the title role in
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's Fair = =
On the advice of Roosevelt 's secretary , Malvina Thompson , Hickok then sought work in New York with public relations man and politician Grover Whalen . Shortly after Franklin Roosevelt 's 1936 re @-@ election , Hickok was hired by Whalen to do publicity for the 1939 New York World 's Fair . Opportunities for female employees of the Fair were limited , and she found the work unrewarding compared to her reporting days . Hickok primarily worked on promoting the fair to young people , including arranging class trips . Because Hickok rented both a country home and an apartment , she often faced financial problems despite her good salary during these years , and Roosevelt occasionally sent her small gifts of money .
= = Democratic National Committee = =
With help from Roosevelt , Hickok became the executive secretary of the Women 's Division of the Democratic National Committee ( DNC ) in February 1940 , doing groundwork for the 1940 election . Taking to the road again , she wrote Roosevelt , " This job is such fun , dear ... It 's the nearest thing to newspaper work I 've found since I left the A.P. "
From early January 1941 until shortly after FDR 's fourth inauguration in 1945 , she lived at the White House . During her time there , Hickok 's nominal address was at the Mayflower Hotel in DC , where she met most people . Also during this time , she formed an intense friendship with Marion Janet Harron , a United States Tax Court judge who was ten years younger than she and almost the only person to visit her at the White House .
When Hickok 's diabetes worsened in 1945 , she was forced to leave her position with the DNC . Two years later , Roosevelt found her a position with the New York State Democratic Committee . When Hickok 's health continued to decline , she moved to Hyde Park to be closer to Roosevelt . She lived in a cottage on the Roosevelt estate , where she died in 1968 .
= = Legacy = =
Late in life , Hickok wrote several books . She co @-@ authored Ladies of Courage with Eleanor Roosevelt in 1954 . This was followed by The Story of Franklin D. Roosevelt ( 1956 ) , The Story of Helen Keller ( 1958 ) , The Story of Eleanor Roosevelt ( 1959 ) , and several more .
Hickok willed her personal papers to the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum in Hyde Park , part of the US National Archives . Her donation was contained in eighteen filing boxes that , according to the provisions of her will , were to be sealed until ten years after her death . In early May 1978 , Doris Faber , as part of research for a projected short biography of Eleanor Roosevelt , became perhaps the first person outside the National Archives to open these boxes , and was astounded to discover that they contained 2 @,@ 336 letters from Roosevelt to Hickok , and 1 @,@ 024 letters from Hickok to Roosevelt . Most of them dated to the 1930s , but the correspondence continued up to Roosevelt 's 1962 death . Hickok 's papers remain at the FDR Library and Museum , where they are available to the public .
Based on these letters , Terry Baum and Pat Bond wrote the play , HICK : A Love Story , the Romance of Lorena Hickok and Eleanor Roosevelt .
= We Love You , Conrad =
" We Love You , Conrad " is the fourteenth episode of the seventh season of Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on May 3 , 2009 . In the episode , Brian 's ex @-@ girlfriend Jillian is getting married . As he tries to move on , he starts dating The Hills star Lauren Conrad and the media begins raving about their relationship . Brian is starting to think they are the perfect match , but realizes he still has feelings for Jillian .
The episode was written by Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and directed by John Holmquist . Drew Barrymore returned as Jillian , and Lauren Conrad and Audrina Patridge guest starred as themselves . In her second guest appearance on the series , Conrad played a smart version of herself , which she proclaimed as being fun to play . She took the recording sessions seriously and did not do any improvisation with her lines . The show 's staff was ultimately impressed with her performance , and series creator Seth MacFarlane praised her stamina and how prepared she was before the recording sessions . The episode also featured live @-@ action sequences with talk show hosts Jay Leno , Craig Ferguson and Jimmy Fallon .
" We Love You , Conrad " was met with generally positive reviews from critics , who enjoyed the episode and praised the live @-@ action footage , in contrast to the negative reactions towards live @-@ action clips of Conway Twitty from previous episodes . According to Nielsen ratings , " We Love You , Conrad " was watched by 6 @.@ 67 million viewers in its original airing . The episode was released on DVD along with six other episodes from the season on June 15 , 2010 .
= = Plot = =
The Griffins learn that Brian 's ex @-@ girlfriend , Jillian , is getting married to " the perfect man in every aspect " . Peter has been asked to walk Jillian down the aisle , and the others are invited except for Brian . Feeling like he is being excluded , Brian goes to a local bar to drown his sorrows . In a drunken stupor , he meets up with Lauren Conrad , the star of The Hills . However , he does not recognize her until they wake up in the same bed the next morning .
Stewie becomes ecstatic when he meets Lauren . Against Brian 's express wishes , Stewie leaks the relationship onto the Internet , resulting in a media circus and the claim that Lauren is a dumb blonde . Attempting to break off the relationship , Brian realizes that Lauren is a well @-@ educated , articulate and rather accomplished woman . In fact , she is one of the most intelligent women he had ever met . Brian becomes even more uncomfortable with the relationship and tries comparing himself to Lauren .
Realizing that Brian had never gotten over the end of his relationship with Jillian , Lauren encourages him to let her know about his still @-@ strong feelings for her . Brian uses Jillian 's wedding as this opportunity , interrupting the ceremony to passionately profess his love for her . Jillian , however , tells Brian ( gently ) that he had his chance and blew it , as she decided to move on and he needs to as well . Brian is now a miserable , single dog , unable even to go back to Lauren , who has dumped him because he gave her worms .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and directed by John Holmquist . Drew Barrymore returned as Brian 's ex @-@ girlfriend Jillian , and The Hills stars Lauren Conrad and Audrina Patridge guest starred as themselves in both cartoon form and live @-@ action form . The episode featured live @-@ action sequences with Jay Leno , Craig Ferguson and Jimmy Fallon from their respective talk shows , The Tonight Show , The Late Late Show and Late Night . In addition to the major guest stars , actresses Sarah Utterback and Kate Todd guest starred in the episode as Lindsay Lohan and Heidi Montag , respectively . The episode marked Utterback 's second appearance on the show , having previously provided the voice for Lohan in the season four episode " The Father , the Son and the Holy Fonz " . John Viener , a writer for Family Guy , provided the voice of Jillian 's husband , Derek Wilcox . Recurring guest voice actors James Burkholder , Jackson Douglas , Ralph Garman , Camille Guaty , writer Danny Smith , actor André Sogliuzzo , writer Alec Sulkin , and voice actor Wally Wingert also made minor appearances .
The fact that Conrad would guest star on Family Guy was originally announced in October 2008 . Creator Seth MacFarlane told Fox News , " I thought it would be funny to see if we could get [ Conrad ] to read very , very dense historical documents centering around the second World War , [ ... ] Lauren did one scene where she had to read a paragraph on scientific self @-@ analysis , which I thought was funny . " The staff was impressed with Conrad 's performance , saying that she " took it very seriously . " Conrad praised her time at the show , calling it " amazing " , and said that " they destroy me in it . I 'm totally making fun of myself . [ ... ] It was funny , I had to go over historical facts and like , biology and weird formulas I had no idea about . " Conrad explained that she is playing a character on The Hills , " because America likes dumb people " , and that " The idea in the episode is that they make fun of me for being dumb , and then discover that I 'm actually a genius , [ ... ] It 's a more exaggerated version of who I am , but fun to play . "
Conrad first met MacFarlane while recording a Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County clip for the season five episode " Prick Up Your Ears " . She had watched Family Guy for years and considered Stewie her favorite character . Conrad stuck to the script and did not do any improvisation while recording for this episode . In an interview with People , she revealed that she has no plans on getting into acting , and even calls herself an " awful actor " and admits that she cannot memorize lines . However , she enjoyed recording for this episode and hired an acting coach to help her get through the lines . Even though she enjoyed the experience , she said that " [ acting is ] not really something I 'm interested in . " She had to do a lot of research before recording , because " there were a lot of facts and a lot of big words " and she " had to say it as if it was coming to [ her ] very easily . " Her acting coach advised her to learn the lines ahead of time so that she would " really understood what [ she ] was talking about , it would come through a little more true . " MacFarlane commented on this , saying , " She made an effort [ to understand the text ] , so let me just put it that way . " He ultimately praised her performance , calling it " surprisingly fantastic " , and said : " She came in , and she 'd prepared before she even arrived . She hired an acting coach , with her own money , and she nailed it . She never once complained , and it was a long session . There was a lot of dialog . Her stamina was astonishing . "
= = Cultural references = =
" We Love You , Conrad " includes several pop culture references . When Jillian and Peter are planning the wedding , Peter points out that only the last three words that musician Sting sings are understandable . At the restaurant , Jillian says that her fiancé speaks " Orange " , instead of Mandarin . Stewie calls Caitlyn Jenner ( then Bruce ) an " elegant , beautiful Dutch woman . " The Genesis cave from Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan appears in the episode , and the scene is mirrored line for line . The episode depicts The Hills star Spencer Pratt as an orangutan from Planet of the Apes . When Brian , Lauren Conrad and Stewie are watching The Hills , it suddenly cuts to footage from The A @-@ Team . In an attempt to impress Lauren , Brian wears Austin Powers glasses . The episode also makes references to actress Lindsay Lohan and the cartoon character Mr. Magoo . The promotional image for this episode , featuring Brian , Lauren Conrad and Stewie with his woman 's disguise , is a parody of an " iconic " The Hills photoshoot with Audrina Patridge , Conrad and Whitney Port . In addition , the title of the episode itself refers to Bye Bye Birdie , a 1960 @-@ Broadway musical . Lastly , the episode includes a reference of Bill Cosby having sexual relations with " The Hills " star Lauren Conrad .
= = Reception and release = =
In its original broadcast in the United States on May 3 , 2009 , " We Love You , Conrad " was watched by 6 @.@ 67 million viewers and was the most watched show in Fox 's Animation Domination block that night , beating The Simpsons , American Dad ! and King of the Hill . The episode acquired a 3 @.@ 5 Nielsen rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing second in its timeslot after ABC 's Desperate Housewives . The episode also acquired a 4 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 34 demographic , finishing first in its timeslot .
The episode received generally positive reviews from television sources and critics . Although the live @-@ action sequences with Conway Twitty from previous episodes were highly criticized , IGN writer Ahsan Haque felt that the live @-@ action footage in this episode " blends in pretty well " . Haque praised Barrymore 's portrayal of Jillian in the episode , saying that she had " some great comedy moments . " He went on to grade the episode 8 out of 10 , and said that the live @-@ action footage " seemed to work somehow here , and the storyline took center stage here " and that " you can 't argue against an attempt to tell an actual story , and for that reason , this episode 's definitely worth watching . " Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club praised the live @-@ action footage as well , saying that he " liked the splicing in of late night hosts and their jokes about Brian and [ Lauren Conrad ] , if only to add a certain element of timeliness to the material . " Heisler graded the episode B- , the second highest grade of the night . He said that " often Family Guy is unbearable " and " has established a certain style and rhythm , jokes come off as smug " , but said that he found himself enjoying the episode " more and more as it went on [ ... ] because it was willing to fully embrace the silliness and ridiculousness of what it was setting up . "
The episode , along with the six other episodes from Family Guy 's seventh season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on June 15 , 2010 . The set included brief audio commentaries for most episodes , excluding " We Love You , Conrad " , " Stew @-@ Roids " , " Quagmire 's Baby and " Dog Gone " . The set also included a collection of deleted scenes , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage from the production of " Road to the Multiverse " and a Family Guy karaoke featurette .
= Nikephoros ( Caesar ) =
Nikephoros ( Greek : Νικηφόρος ) , also Latinized as Nicephorus or Nicephoros , was the second son of Byzantine emperor Constantine V ( reigned 741 – 775 ) and Caesar of the Byzantine Empire . He was engaged in a plot against his half @-@ brother , Leo IV ( r . 775 – 780 ) , which cost Nikephoros his title , and was the focal point of numerous usurpation plots during the subsequent reigns of his nephew , Constantine VI ( r . 780 – 797 ) , and of Constantine 's mother , Irene of Athens ( r . 797 – 802 ) . He was therefore blinded and exiled to a monastery for most of his life , probably dying in the island of Aphousia sometime after 812 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and first conspiracies = = =
Nikephoros was born in the late 750s ( circa 756 / 758 ) to Emperor Constantine V and his third wife Eudokia . Nikephoros was Constantine 's third son overall , following the future Leo IV , who was born 750 to Constantine 's first wife Irene of Khazaria , and Christopher , who was born in circa 755 to Eudokia . Either Christopher or Nikephoros were possibly twin brothers to Eudokia 's and Constantine 's only daughter , Anthousa . On April 1 , 769 , Eudokia was crowned as Augusta , and on the same occasion Christopher and Nikephoros were crowned and raised to the rank of Caesar , while their younger brother Niketas was made Nobilissimus . Nikephoros had two other younger brothers , Anthimos and Eudokimos , who were also named Nobilissimi at later dates .
When Constantine V died in 775 , his eldest son Leo IV ascended the Byzantine throne . Soon , Leo caused a rift with his half @-@ brothers , when he confiscated a large amount of gold reserved for their use and distributed it to the army and the citizens of Constantinople as a donative . Then , in spring 776 , a conspiracy headed by Nikephoros and involving a number of middle @-@ ranking courtiers was discovered . Nikephoros himself was stripped of his rank , but otherwise not harmed , while the other plotters were tonsured as monks and exiled to Cherson in the Crimea .
When Leo IV died in October 780 , his sole heir was the young Constantine VI , his son by the Empress Irene of Athens . Due to Constantine 's being underage , a regency was instituted under Irene , but this was not well received among leading officials . Not only was rule by a woman alien to the military @-@ dominated establishment of the time , but Irene was also a confirmed iconophile , an adherent of the veneration of holy images . This was regarded as heresy by the state @-@ sponsored doctrine of Iconoclasm , which was especially popular with the army and the officials loyal to Constantine V 's memory . A number of them , including the Postal Logothete ( foreign minister ) Gregory , the former strategos ( governor ) of the Anatolic Theme Bardas and Constantine , the commander of the Excubitors guard regiment , consequently favoured the rise of Nikephoros to the imperial throne . Barely a month and a half after Leo 's death , the plot was discovered . Irene had the conspirators exiled , and Nikephoros and his younger brothers were ordained as priests , removing them from the line of succession . To confirm this before the people , on Christmas Day 780 , Nikephoros and his brothers were forced to perform the communion service in the Hagia Sophia .
Nikephoros and his brothers disappear from the sources until 792 , when the return of Irene to power ( after having been ousted in a military revolt in 790 ) , coupled with the disastrous defeat of Constantine VI at Marcellae against the Bulgars , caused widespread discontent among the troops . Some of the imperial guard regiments , the tagmata , proclaimed Nikephoros as emperor , but Constantine reacted swiftly : he arrested his uncles , and while Nikephoros was blinded , the others had their tongues slit . They were then imprisoned at a monastery in Therapia .
= = = After 792 = = =
Nikephoros is no longer mentioned by name after 792 ; instead , the brothers are mentioned collectively . It is therefore questionable whether he is to be included in subsequent events , although traditionally ( including in reference works like the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium ) it is held that he did share in his brothers ' fate and died after 812 .
After Empress Irene deposed her son in 797 , the brothers were visited at the monastery by some of their supporters and persuaded to seek refuge in the Hagia Sophia . If it had been hoped that Constantinople 's populace would be moved to proclaim one of them emperor , their hopes were dashed . No uprising in their support materialized , and Irene 's trusted eunuch advisor Aetios managed to extricate the brothers and send them to exile in Athens . There , they were again the subject of a conspiracy : in March 799 , a certain Akameros , " archon of the Slavs in Belzetia " in southern Thessaly , together with local troops from the theme of Hellas ( to which Athens belonged ) , planned to proclaim one of them emperor . The plot was foiled , but the brothers were again moved to Panormos in the Marmara Sea , and Nikephoros 's brothers were blinded as well .
The brothers are mentioned for the last time in 812 , when a group of disgruntled soldiers tried to proclaim the brothers emperors in the aftermath of the fall of Debeltum to the Bulgars . Emperor Michael I Rangabe ( r . 811 – 813 ) , however , promptly dismissed the soldiers involved and moved the brothers to the island of Aphousia , where they died sometime later .
= Waterbuck =
The waterbuck ( Kobus ellipsiprymnus ) is a large antelope found widely in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . It is placed in the genus Kobus of the family Bovidae . It was first described by Irish naturalist William Ogilby in 1833 . The thirteen subspecies are grouped under two varieties : the common or ellipsen waterbuck and the defassa waterbuck . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically between 177 – 235 cm ( 70 – 93 in ) and the average height is between 120 and 136 cm ( 47 and 54 in ) . A sexually dimorphic antelope , males are taller as well as heavier than females . Males reach approximately 127 cm ( 50 in ) at the shoulder , while females reach 119 cm ( 47 in ) . Males typically weigh 198 – 262 kg ( 437 – 578 lb ) and females 161 – 214 kg ( 355 – 472 lb ) . The coat colour varies from brown to grey . The long , spiral horns , present only on males , curve backward , then forward and are 55 – 99 cm ( 22 – 39 in ) long .
Waterbuck are rather sedentary in nature . A gregarious animal , the waterbuck may form herds consisting of six to 30 individuals . These groups are either nursery herds with females and their offspring or bachelor herds . Males start showing territorial behaviour from the age of five years , but are most dominant from the age of six to nine . The waterbuck can not tolerate dehydration in hot weather , and thus inhabits areas close to sources of water . Predominantly a grazer , the waterbuck is mostly found on grassland . In equatorial regions , breeding takes place throughout the year , but births are at their peak in the rainy season . The gestational period lasts for seven to eight months , followed by the birth of a single calf .
Waterbuck inhabit scrub and savanna areas along rivers , lakes and valleys . Due to their requirement for grasslands as well as water , the waterbuck have a sparse ecotone distribution . The IUCN lists the waterbuck as being of Least Concern . More specifically , the common waterbuck is listed as of Least Concern while the defassa waterbuck is Near Threatened . The population trend for both the common and defassa waterbuck is downwards , especially that of the latter , with large populations being eliminated from certain habitats because of hunting and human disturbance .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The scientific name of the waterbuck is Kobus ellipsiprymnus . The waterbuck is one of the six species of the genus Kobus and belongs to the family Bovidae . It was first described by Irish naturalist William Ogilby in 1833 . The generic name Kobus is a New Latin word , originating from an African name , koba . The specific name ellipsiprymnus refers to the white elliptical ring on the rump , from the Greek ellipes ( ellipse ) and prymnos ( prumnos , hind part ) . The animal acquired the vernacular name " waterbuck " due to its heavy dependence on water as compared to other antelopes and its ability to enter into water for defence .
The type specimen of the waterbuck was collected by South African hunter @-@ explorer Andrew Steedman in 1832 . This specimen was named Antilope ellipsiprymnus by Ogilby in 1833 . This species was transferred to the genus Kobus in 1840 , becoming K. ellipsiprymnus . It is usually known as the common waterbuck . In 1835 , German naturalist Eduard Rüppell collected another specimen , which differed from Steedman 's specimen in having a prominent white ring on its rump . Considering it a separate species , Rüppell gave it the Amharic name " defassa " waterbuck and scientific name Antilope defassa . Modern taxonomists , however , consider the common waterbuck and defassa waterbuck a single species , K. ellipsiprymnus , given the large number of instances of hybridisation between the two . Interbreeding between the two takes place in the Nairobi National Park owing to extensive overlapping of habitats .
= = = Evolution = = =
Not many fossils of the waterbuck have been found . Fossils were scarce in the Cradle of Humankind , occurring only in a few pockets of the Swartkrans . On the basis of Valerius Geist 's theories about the relation of social evolution and dispersal in ungulates during the Pleistocene , the ancestral home of the waterbuck is considered to be the eastern coast of Africa - with the Horn of Africa to the north and the East African Rift Valley to the west .
= = = Subspecies = = =
37 subspecies of the waterbuck had been initially recognised on the basis of coat colour . They were classified into two groups : the Ellipsen waterbuck group and the Defassa waterbuck group . Owing to the large number of variations in the coat colour in the Defassa waterbuck group , as many as 29 subspecies were included in it ; the Ellipsen waterbuck group consisted of eight subspecies . In 1971 , however , the number of subspecies was reduced to thirteen ( four for the Ellipsen waterbuck group and nine for the Defassa waterbuck group ) . Though they occur in Zambia as well , their ranges are separated by relief features or by the Muchinga escarpment . The subspecies have been listed below ( along with notes about the former subspecies which were recombined into a single subspecies ) :
K. e. ellipsiprymnus ( Ellipsen waterbuck , common or Ringed waterbuck ) group : Found in the Webi Shebeli river valley in southeastern Ethiopia ; the Juba and Webi Shebeli river valleys in Somalia ; essentially east of the Rift Valley in Kenya and Tanzania ; east of the Rift Valley in the middle Zambezi and Luangwa valleys in Zambia ; Malawi ; Mozambique ; east of the Kwando River in the Caprivi Strip of Namibia ; eastern and northern Botswana ; Zimbabwe ; and eastern and northern Transvaal in South Africa . Its distribution slightly overlaps that of the typical defassa along the Rift Valley in Kenya and Tanzania , and that of the Crawshay defassa in the Rift Valley in Zambia .
Includes the following four subspecies :
K. e. ellipsiprymnus Ogilby , 1833 ( southern Africa )
K. e. kondensis Matschie , 1911 ( including K. e. lipuwa , K. e. kulu ) ( southern Tanzania )
K. e. pallidus Matschie , 1911 ( Webi Shebeli drainage in Ethiopia , and Juba and Webi Shebeli drainages in Somalia )
K. e. thikae Matschie , 1910 ( including K. e. kuru and K. e. canescens ) ( southern and eastern Kenya and northeastern Tanzania )
K. e. defassa ( Defassa waterbuck ) group : Found west of the Gregory Rift , ranging from Ethiopia west to Senegal and south to Zambia .
Includes the following subspecies :
Angolan Defassa Waterbuck ( K. e. penricei ) W. Rothschild , 1895 Can be found in Southern Gabon , southern Congo ( Brazzaville ) , Angola , southwestern Congo ( Kinshasa ) , and marginally in Namibia along the Okavango River .
Crawshay Defassa Waterbuck or Rhodesian defassa waterbuck ( K. e. crawsh
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who continued to breed the Cracker horse and kept distinct bloodlines alive . John Law Ayers was one such breeder ; in 1984 , he donated his herd of pure @-@ bred Cracker horses to the state of Florida . With them , the state started three small herds in Tallahassee , Withlacoochee State Forest and Paynes Prairie State Preserve . By 1989 , however , these three herds and around 100 other horses owned by private families were all that remained of the breed . In 1989 the Florida Cracker Horse Association was founded and in 1991 a registry was established . After the registry was created , 75 horses designated as " foundation horses " and 14 of their offspring were immediately registered . These horses came mainly from four lines of Cracker bloodstock and were designated as purebreds by breed experts – partbred horses were denied entry to the registry . As of 2009 , around 900 horses had been registered since the foundation of the registry .
Effective July 1 , 2008 , the Florida House of Representatives declared the Florida Cracker Horse the official state horse . As of 2009 there are three main bloodlines of Cracker stock , as well as a few smaller lines . The state of Florida still maintains two groups of Ayers @-@ line horses in Tallahassee and Withlacoochee for breeding purposes and a display group in the Paynes Prairie Preserve . The state annually sells excess horses from all three herds , and individual breeders also send horses to the sale.The Livestock Conservancy considers the breed to be at " critical " status , as part of the Colonial Spanish Horse family , meaning that the estimated global population of the breed is fewer than 2 @,@ 000 and there are fewer than 200 registrations annually in the United States . The Equus Survival Trust also considers the population to be " critical , " meaning that there are between 100 and 300 active adult breeding mares in existence today . However , breed numbers are slowly on the rise .
= = = Chickasaw horse = = =
The original Chickasaw horse , bred by the Chickasaw Indians using horses captured from De Soto 's expedition , became extinct after being used to create the Florida Cracker Horse and having some influence on the Quarter Horse . Some sources still use the Chickasaw name to describe the Florida Cracker Horses of today . In the 1970s there was a surge of interest in recreating the Chickasaw using horses bearing strong resemblances to the original breed , but this has since died out and the breed association no longer exists .
= Chiming Fountain =
The Chiming Fountain , also known as Cupid 's Fountain , the John Staehli Fountain , Portland 's City Park Fountain and Washington Park Fountain , is an outdoor cast iron fountain and sculpture built in 1891 by John " Hans " Staehli . It is installed in Washington Park in Portland , Oregon , United States . The fountain 's name derives from the sound made when water drips from the upper basin . Staehli designed the fountain to serve as a watering trough for horses pulling carriages into the park . Based on a Renaissance fountain , it was originally painted white and included a statuette of a boy , possibly depicting Cupid , though the figure was damaged and permanently removed from the sculpture before or during the 1940s .
The fountain was restored in 1960 , but no longer functioned . Its condition was deemed " treatment urgent " by the Smithsonian Institution 's " Save Outdoor Sculpture ! " program in February 1994 . Since then , its water @-@ pumping function has also been restored . Chiming Fountain has been included in published biking and walking tours of Portland and has been mentioned as a highlight of Washington Park in guides recommending family @-@ friendly activities in the city .
= = Description and history = =
The decorative fountain is located at the junction of Southwest Sacajawea Boulevard and Southwest Sherwood Boulevard in the main circle of Washington Park . It was designed by John " Hans " Staehli , a woodcarver from Switzerland who immigrated to Portland and was known for his decorative carvings of churches . The fountain was commissioned by the city in 1891 for $ 400 and completed by Staehli later that year , becoming the city 's second piece of public art . It served as a watering trough for horses pulling carriages into the park . The fountain has been given many different names , but is most commonly referred to as Chiming Fountain , in reference to the sound made by water dripping from the upper basin .
The fountain is made of cast iron and measures approximately 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) tall with a 7 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) diameter . It has a pedestal and two round bronze basins separated by a narrow post , and stands in an octagonal concrete base which served as a retaining pool . The pedestal has four horned gargoyle @-@ like figures . On the bottom of the pedestal 's west side is an unsigned inscription which reads : " J. Staehli / Portland , Org . / 64 Second St. "
Staehli 's design is based on a Renaissance fountain and was originally painted white . The central post originally held a figure of a boy carrying a staff ( or possibly a fish or a torch ) from which water spouted . Some sources suggest the figure depicted Cupid , hence one of the fountain 's nicknames , " Cupid 's Fountain " . According to Portland Parks & Recreation , the figure was last recorded in 1912 in a photograph of Willis McElroy 's band in the nearby bandstand . However , in the 1920s , freezing weather expanded water in the fountain , damaging the figure . The boy statuette was removed from the fountain and discarded by the 1940s , and it was not replaced .
The city planned to remove the fountain in 1960 due to disrepair . However , Mayor Terry Schrunk instructed the parks bureau to begin a restoration after Francis J. Murnane , a local longshoreman and advocate for historic preservation , appealed its removal . Much of its original decoration was absent , so replicas of existing pieces were constructed at a cost of $ 450 . The restoration cost around $ 1 @,@ 775 , including assembly and installation . Despite its restoration , the fountain was no longer functional . Its condition was deemed " treatment urgent " by the Smithsonian Institution 's " Save Outdoor Sculpture ! " program in February 1994 . Since then , the fountain 's plumbing has been restored . According to Smithsonian , the fountain is administered by the City of Portland 's Metropolitan Arts Commission .
= = Reception = =
The fountain has been included in published biking and walking tours of the city , including one which described it as " elegant " . It was also mentioned as a highlight of Washington Park in the 2010 guidebook Best Places : Portland and by Delta Sky Magazine . Similarly , Chiming Fountain has been included in descriptions of the park in guides recommending child @-@ friendly activities and sites in the city . These guides include the website TravelforKids.com and the 2009 book The 10 Best of Everything Families : An Ultimate Guide for Travelers , which listed Washington Park as one of the ten " Best Parks and Playgrounds " in the Northwestern United States .
= 2013 Penn State Nittany Lions football team =
The 2013 Penn State Nittany Lions football team represented Pennsylvania State University in the 2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season . The team was coached by Bill O 'Brien and played its home games in Beaver Stadium in University Park , Pennsylvania . They were a member of the Big Ten Conference and its Leaders Division . Penn State was ineligible to play in a bowl game for the 2013 season , the second season of a four @-@ year ban , due to NCAA sanctions imposed in the wake of the Penn State child sex abuse scandal .
Before the season , Penn State had an open competition to win the starting quarterback position ; true freshman Christian Hackenberg won and started all 12 games for the Nittany Lions . Hackenberg headlined their recruiting class , which also featured tight end Adam Breneman . John Butler was named Penn State 's new defensive coordinator upon the departure of Ted Roof . Most predicted Penn State would have a similar season to that of the 2012 team , which won eight games and lost four , but there was uncertainty , as injuries could decimate the team , which was already thin at many positions including offensive line and linebacker , while surprise performances from key players could lift them to success .
Penn State opened the season with two non @-@ conference wins , but lost to the UCF Knights , who ultimately went on to a BCS bowl , the Fiesta , in their third game . Entering conference play , the Nittany Lions were 3 – 1 , and in their first conference game they lost to Indiana before defeating Michigan in a quadruple @-@ overtime thriller . They alternated losses and wins for the remainder of the season , losing to Ohio State , Minnesota , and Nebraska , and defeating Illinois , Purdue , and Wisconsin .
Despite the team never being ranked , several players earned national and conference recognition , headlined by wide receiver Allen Robinson , who was named the Big Ten Conference Receiver of the Year and earned first team all @-@ conference and All @-@ American honors before subsequently announcing he would forgo his senior season and enter the 2014 NFL Draft . Senior John Urschel , an offensive guard , won the William V. Campbell Trophy — sometimes referred to as the " academic Heisman " . Hackenberg was named Big Ten Freshman of the Year . Additionally , backup quarterback Tyler Ferguson , who lost the preseason quarterback competition to Hackenberg , announced his intent to transfer . Soon after the season , two coaches — Ron Vanderlinden and Charlie Fisher — left Penn State for undisclosed reasons , though there was speculation that O 'Brien forced them out . A few weeks later , O 'Brien accepted the head coaching position with the Houston Texans , leaving the Nittany Lions after two seasons . Early in 2014 , the Nittany Lions hired James Franklin to replace O 'Brien as head coach for the 2014 season .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Coaching staff = = =
Graduate assistants
Offense - Bartley Webb , Steven Williams
Defense - Tim Kelly , Will Lawing
= = = Position key = = =
= = = Roster = = =
= = = Depth chart = = =
= = Recruiting = =
Despite NCAA sanctions including limited scholarships and a bowl ban , Penn State retained their top recruit : quarterback Christian Hackenberg . They finished with the 24th ranked recruiting class according to ESPN , who cited retention of top prospects Hackenberg and tight end Adam Breneman , as well as adding depth in the secondary , overall giving them a " B " rating . Linebacker recruit Zayd Issah never enrolled at Penn State after several instances of legal trouble . Entering camp , Hackenberg and Ferguson vied for the starting quarterback position ; ultimately , Hackenberg won the job , and Ferguson served as the backup .
= = Preseason buildup = =
Coming off an 8 – 4 season during which , according to USA Today 's Paul Myerberg , " Attrition robbed Penn State of everything but the kitchen sink , or so we heard , so it was quite surprising when the sink , a few walk @-@ ons , a mathematician , a local kid and a rookie coach went 8 @-@ 2 after a sluggish start , pushing back against storm clouds and bringing PSU back from the abyss of life post @-@ NCAA sanctions . " Many college football analysts expected the Nittany Lions to perform similarly in 2013 , although almost all season outlooks noted that the team could take a major step back from 2012 if they were hampered by injuries , or could surprise everyone and win more games than they did in 2012 .
A solid backfield anchored by Zach Zwinak , a trio of established tight ends plus a promising newcomer , and a veteran offensive line highlighted the projected success offensively , while a new coordinator ( John Butler ) , a " borderline All @-@ American " linebacker ( Glenn Carson ) , and lots of potential both on the defensive line and in the secondary , the latter of which was " dramatically improved " , highlighted projected progress defensively . Also , a quarterback competition between Christian Hackenberg and Tyler Ferguson brewed , which provided intrigue entering the season . For Penn State to achieve success , they needed to avoid injuries that would hinder their already depleted depth due to NCAA sanctions . SBNation.com asserted , " If either Hackenberg or Ferguson gets hurt , and the other one stinks ... if either Zach Zwinak or Bill Belton ( who missed four games last year ) gets hurt ... if basically any linemen get hurt ( and linemen often get hurt ) ... this house of cards comes tumbling down . " ESPN.com reporter Josh Moyer wrote , " In short , like last year , PSU is a bit of a wild card . If it receives strong efforts from its quarterback and the front seven , it should surpass last year 's record . If it doesn 't , it might be fortunate to get to seven wins . "
= = Schedule = =
= = Game notes = =
= = = August 31 vs. Syracuse = = =
Note : Though the game was held at a neutral site , Penn State wore white uniforms and was considered the away team .
Prior to the game , Penn State coach Bill O 'Brien hoped to keep his choice between Tyler Ferguson and Christian Hackenberg as starting quarterback a secret until the first snap . However , the night before the game , media reports began to surface that Hackenberg was going to be the starter . Hackenberg did start for the Nittany Lions , while Oklahoma transfer Drew Allen started for Syracuse , who had a quarterback competition as well . After Hackenberg played the first two drives for Penn State , Ferguson came in and promptly fumbled the football for a turnover and did not return . Allen Robinson , the Big Ten 's leading receiver in 2012 , did not start for what O 'Brien said was , " between me and Allen " , but he did play in the second half .
After a scoreless first quarter , the second quarter featured three turnovers , and at half time , Penn State led 6 – 3 with two field goals from senior kicker Sam Ficken . On Penn State 's first drive in the second half , Allen Robinson returned and caught a screen pass , which he ran for 25 yards , and then a 51 @-@ yard touchdown pass to make the score 13 – 3 . On the ensuing drive , however , Syracuse came right back and scored a touchdown via a Jerome Smith 10 @-@ yard run . Early in the fourth quarter , Ficken made his third field goal of the day , a career @-@ long 46 yards . Later in the quarter , Hackenberg threw a 54 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Eugene Lewis to make the score 23 – 10 . When only down by 6 points , Syracuse got the ball around their own 45 @-@ yard line with a little over two minutes left , but turned the ball over via an interception with under two minutes to play .
Hackenberg was named the Big Ten freshman of the week after totaling 278 passing yards , two touchdowns , and two interceptions , and Ficken was named Big Ten special teams player of the week , redeeming himself from the 2012 season , after kicking three field goals including a career @-@ long 46 @-@ yard kick . Seniors DaQuan Jones and Stephen Obeng @-@ Agyapong led the team defensively with nine tackles , including three for a loss , and a sack at defensive tackle , and eight tackles , a sack , a forced fumble that he recovered , and an interception at safety and linebacker respectively . After it was announced that Penn State lost senior tight end Matt Lehman for the season with a knee injury during the game , O 'Brien announced that Obeng @-@ Agyapong might practice with the tight ends to help replace him .
= = = September 7 vs. Eastern Michigan = = =
Prior to the game , Penn State was predicted to have the advantage on both sides of the ball at every position , and as such , was expected to win handily . Coming into the game , Penn State had sustained injuries two of their top tight ends , Matt Lehman and Kyle Carter . Lehman suffered a knee injury against Syracuse and was out for the season , while Carter was " day @-@ to @-@ day " with an arm injury , but played in the game . The Lions wanted to focus on improving their running game , which was lackluster against Syracuse ; Eastern Michigan allowed 202 rushing yards on 5 @.@ 8 yards per carry in week one . Defensively , linebacker depth was an issue for the Lions . Safety Stephen Obeng @-@ Agyapong was expected to step up and take snaps at linebacker , in addition to speculation he could end up on offense . At half time , the Nittany Lions honored the 1973 Penn State Nittany Lions football team and retired the number of Penn State 's only Heisman Trophy winner , number 22 John Cappelletti .
After both teams ' first drives ended without points , Eastern Michigan got good field position to start their second drive , and attempted a 35 @-@ yard field goal , but after a low snap , Penn State defender Jordan Lucas tackled the holder for a loss , and the kick never got off , for a turnover on downs . Penn State failed to capitalize , however , as Hackenberg threw another incomplete pass on third down , starting the game with one completion in five attempts . Eastern Michigan scored first after the ball slipped from Hackenberg 's hands and was returned for a touchdown by Hunter Matt for 11 yards , giving Eastern Michigan a 7 – 0 advantage with 4 : 01 in the first quarter . Penn State responded on their next drive scoring a touchdown on a 2 @-@ yard Zach Zwinak run , capping a 6 @-@ play , 67 @-@ yard drive that included a 43 @-@ yard reception to Allen Robinson to put the ball inside the 10 @-@ yard line . Penn State 's next drive featured a hurry up offense , which Penn State calls " NASCAR " , included 15 + yard completions to Jesse James and Matt Zanellato , and culminated with two consecutive runs by Bill Belton , the latter of which went for a 5 @-@ yard touchdown making the score 14 – 7 . Eastern Michigan 's ensuing drive had some success , as they got to Penn State 25 @-@ yard line prior to kicker Dylan Mulder pushing a 42 @-@ yard field goal attempt to the right of the goal posts . At the end of the first half , Penn State got into field goal range with under a minute to go , and Sam Ficken converted a 39 @-@ yard field goal , his Penn State record 14th straight , to make the score 17 – 7 with 17 seconds in the half . Penn State got the ball to start the second half , but exchanged punts with Eastern Michigan for their first three drives , both teams punting the ball away on their first three drives . On their fourth drive of the half , Penn State got to the board – on a six play drive that included a 20 @-@ yard run by Zwinak on 3rd and 24 ( after two sacks ) and a subsequent fourth down conversion , and then culminated with a 7 @-@ yard touchdown run by Zwinak making the score 24 – 7 . After a quick punt , Penn State began to grind it out offensively prior to Hackenberg finding Robinson for a 45 @-@ yard touchdown pass to make it 31 – 7 . Later in the quarter , Belton broke loose for a 51 @-@ yard touchdown run , putting him over 100 rushing yards on the day making the score 38 – 7 . After Eastern Michigan punted for the 10th time in the game , Penn State brought in Tyler Ferguson at quarterback to replace Hackenberg , who had already amassed 311 passing yards , a Penn State single game freshman record . On that drive , Akeel Lynch became the third Nittany Lion to rush for a touchdown , an 18 @-@ yard run with under five minutes to go . That would be the final scoring play of the game ; Penn State won 45 – 7 .
The Penn State defense struggled with defending the bootleg play early on , but recorded a shut out ( the seven points for Eastern Michigan were off an offensive fumble ) and limited Eastern Michigan to 183 total yards . They were led by senior defensive tackle DaQuan Jones , who recorded nine tackles and two sacks , Glenn Carson , who recorded 10 tackles , and Nyeem Wartman , who recorded six tackles and three pass deflections . On offense , the " running back by committee " approach proved successful – the two non @-@ starters , Belton and Lynch , each recorded 108 rushing yards . One problem offensively was third down efficiency ; the Lions were just 1 of 10 on third downs , bringing them to 2 of 26 on the season . One writer called Jones the game 's MVP , noting his statistics , plugging holes opened by the offensive line , and overall " dominance " , noting that he " put on an absolute display " .
= = = September 14 vs. UCF = = =
This was the two teams ' first meeting since 2004 , and the meeting reunited O 'Brien and George O 'Leary , under whom O 'Brien was a graduate assistant in 1995 , his first season coaching . The two squads are also set to meet in Ireland to open the 2014 season . In an article in The Patriot @-@ News , writer Bob Flounders asserted that if the Nittany Lions beat the Knights of UCF , they would be on a fast track to a 5 – 0 start , which would have been their first since 2008 . As this was Penn State 's first night game with a particularly young team , keeping emotions in check was a key , as was improving third down efficiency ( the Lions were 2 @-@ for @-@ 26 on the season ) good for dead last in the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) . UCF , who was 2 – 0 coming into the game , went 10 – 4 in 2012 , and was led by their running back Latavius Murray , who graduated . As such , their top offensive player was quarterback Blake Bortles . Defensively , they had only allowed one scoring play all season . Penn State students organized a " whiteout " , in which the entire student section dons white . Outside linebacker Mike Hull returned after missing the prior game against Eastern Michigan .
UCF got the ball to start the game at their nine @-@ yard line after a penalty on the kickoff return , and their junior quarterback Blake Bortles orchestrated an efficient drive in which he converted two third downs and was 6 / 7 passing for 65 yards and a 4 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Storm Johnson . Penn State took over and got two first downs , the latter of which as a fourth down conversion , before a 44 @-@ yard pass to Allen Robinson immediately followed by a 6 @-@ yard touchdown run by Zach Zwinak to tie the game . Penn State moved the ball on their next drive , but ultimately turned the ball over on downs giving UCF good field position , with which they ran a two play drive culminating with a 58 @-@ yard touchdown run by Johnson to make it 14 – 7 UCF . Penn State 's special teams responded with a 44 @-@ yard kickoff return by Geno Lewis , but their offense went three @-@ and @-@ out , and though they punted the ball deep into UCF territory , the Knights marched down the field with a strong running game and scored another touchdown to go up 21 – 7 . On Penn State 's ensuing drive , Sam Ficken kicked a career @-@ long 47 @-@ yard field goal . UCF got some decent yardage on their next drive , but Bortles threw his first interception since October 27 , 2012 with 1 : 17 in the half , but they ran down the clock and Ficken missed his first field goal attempt of the season , a 57 @-@ yard try as time expired . At the half , UCF had 290 total yards including 170 rushing yards , compared to 220 total yards for Penn State with only 89 rushing yards . Penn State got the ball to start the second half , but punted on their first drive . UCF responded with a touchdown via a 25 @-@ yard pass . Penn State came right back with a touchdown of their own . UCF 's ensuing drive brought them to the one yard line , but Penn State held them to a field goal , making the score 31 – 17 . Zwinak rushed for his third touchdown of the game on Penn State 's next drive , and Shawn Moffitt kicked his second field goal of the game . Penn State drove 51 yards on their next drive before Zwinak lost a fumble with 5 : 43 remaining in the game . UCF went three @-@ and @-@ out , and on their punt , the snap went over the punter 's head , and Penn State got the ball at the UCF 25 . Penn State took advantage , scoring on a 5 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Allen Robinson with 57 seconds left . Penn State needed to regain possession of the ball after the score , and failed to do so , so ultimately UCF held on to win by three .
Penn State 's defense had excelled in their first two games , but regressed significantly against Central Florida , particularly with poor tackling , which some attributed to their practice strategy of " thud " tackling , in which one does not actually take a player to the ground , instead making a " thud " to stop a player . Several media outlets speculated that the Lions used this due to their lack of scholarship players in the wake of sanctions imposed due to the Penn State child sex abuse scandal . Defensive coordinator John Butler renounced that assertion , commenting he employed " thud " when he coached at South Carolina . Penn State 's linebackers were also criticized ; Glenn Carson and Nyeem Wartman received criticism for not being as strong as the 2012 team 's Michael Mauti and Gerald Hodges . In addition , 2012 Big Ten Freshman of the Year defensive end Deion Barnes " barely wreaked any havoc " , and DaQuan Jones , whose strong play had previously compensated for Barnes ' weak play , was held to just five tackles . The offense , however , was considered a " bright spot " ; they gained 455 total yards , though receiver Allen Robinson commented that a fast start would have helped them gain more early momentum : " We are in the Big Ten playing against some great offenses and people are going to put points up early , so we need to get going early and start off fast . " Freshman quarterback Christian Hackenberg earned Big Ten Freshman of the Week accolades for the second time in the first three weeks of the season .
= = = September 21 vs. Kent State = = =
Penn State came into the game 2 – 1 , while the Kent State Golden Flashes entered 1 – 2 , including 0 – 1 in conference play , though this was a non @-@ conference matchup . Kent State was expected to be without their star offensive weapon , wide receiver and running back Dri Archer , who suffered lingering effects from an ankle injury sustained in week one . In 2012 , Archer rushed for 1 @,@ 429 yards and scored 16 touchdowns , led the Golden Flashes in receptions and receiving yards , and recorded three kickoff returns for touchdowns ; he even received some Heisman hype ( he did not win ) . Without Archer , Kent State would have to more heavily rely on their freshman quarterback Colin Reardon , who had " not exactly dazzled " in Kent State 's first three games , but had yet to throw an interception . Picking up the slack in the running game was Trayvion Durham , who had a total of 152 rushing yards in their first three games . The game also featured two top sophomore defensive ends – NFL prospects Roosevelt Nix for Kent State and Deion Barnes for Penn State , neither of whom had gotten off to a particularly strong start to the season , but both of whom had won their conference 's freshman of the year award in 2012 . Penn State also looked to rebound from sloppy tackling the previous week against UCF that underscored an overall poor defensive performance . Offensively for Penn State , a quarter of the way through the season , one ESPN writer projected Allen Robinson to win the Big Ten Offensive Player of the Year award , and Christian Hackenberg to win the Big Ten Freshman of the Year award for their strong performances through the first three games . That duo along with the running back trio of Zach Zwinak , Bill Belton , and Akeel Lynch led Penn State 's offense , which was coming off a performance in which they had scored 31 points , into the game .
In heavy rain that announcer Kevin Kugler described as a " deluge " , Penn State 's Blue Band wore ponchos in the stands during a " blue out " , to support the Pennsylvania Coalition Against Rape . After Penn State went three @-@ and @-@ out to start the game , Kent State got excellent field position at the opposition 's 36 @-@ yard line after Penn State committed kick catching interference on the punt , but failed to capitalize as their kicker , Anthony Melchiori , missed a 31 @-@ yard field goal . Penn State 's next drive stalled , and on fourth down , quarterback Christian Hackenberg executed a " pooch punt " , in which the quarterback lines up in the shotgun formation , and punts the ball , for 44 @-@ yards pinning Kent State inside their 10 @-@ yard line . Penn State drove down the field late in the first quarter getting it to the five @-@ yard line , when Hackenberg had the ball slip from his hand backing Penn State up to the 15 @-@ yard line , but on the subsequent play , Hackenberg completed a 15 @-@ yard pass to Bill Belton for a touchdown to culminate a 9 @-@ play , 87 @-@ yard drive encapsulating 3 : 39 . Kent State 's offense again proved ineffective , and Penn State 's proved strong , as they drove down the field on a 10 @-@ play , 82 @-@ yard drive ending with Zach Zwinak running for a 2 @-@ yard touchdown . Towards the end of the first half , the teams began to exchange punts , and the half ended with Penn State ahead 14 – 0 . In the third quarter , Hackenberg threw an interception , but on the next drive , Kent State threw an interception and Penn State got the ball back . Later in the quarter , Penn State ran a 51 @-@ yard drive that got them inside the ten @-@ yard line down to the one , at which point Zwinak ran for a touchdown , his second of the game . Later in the quarter , Penn State began another drive that spilled into the fourth quarter on which Akeel Lynch was the primary running back for the Lions , running for a total of 78 yards en route to Sam Ficken booting his first field goal of the game , a 25 @-@ yarder . In the middle of the fourth quarter , Penn State embarked on a drive that milked over five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes off the clock and culminated with Zwinak rushing for his third touchdown of the game , a one @-@ yard score with 6 : 42 to play . After another lackluster drive by Kent State , they punted for the ninth time , and on Penn State 's ensuing drive , Tyler Ferguson entered at quarterback , and Von Walker , a member of Penn State 's " run @-@ on " program , entered at running back ,
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konardóttir , mother of Haraldr Maddaðarson , Earl of Orkney , Mormaer of Caithness . Because of this relationship with his mother , Haraldr banished Gunni from the earldom , and enmity arose between Sveinn and the earl . Sveinn then sent Gunni to stay with Ljótólfr on Lewis , with whom Sveinn himself had stayed at an earlier time . The saga also states that at this time , Ljótólfr 's son , Fugl , was with Haraldr , and consequently there was a " coldness " between Fugl and Sveinn . The saga relates that Sveinn stole a ship from Fugl , who had been travelling to Orkney to meet Haraldr . However , subsequently a relation of Fugl 's , named Anakol , who became a friend of Sveinn , succeeded in making peace between the two . Historian Garreth Williams noted that Anakol 's name is Gaelic in origin , and like Ljótólfr and Fugl , he is described as being originally from the Hebrides . The saga also states that he was from a good family .
= = Links to Clan MacLeod = =
Captain F. W. L. Thomas , a 19th @-@ century antiquarian , proposed that Ljótólfr was the eponymous progenitor of Clan MacLeod . However , today the accepted understanding is that the clan 's eponymous ancestor is another man , Leod , who flourished about a century after Ljótólfr . Leod 's name , and the modern surname MacLeod , are considered to be ultimately derived from the Old Norse personal name Ljótr . This name is derived from the Old West Norse word ljótr , meaning " foul " , " ugly " , " misshapen " . The personal name Ljótólfr is composed of two elements — the first , liút , is derived from the Germanic word meaning " light " , " shining " ; the second element , ólfr , is derived from a Germanic word meaning " wolf " . While the current understanding of Leod 's ancestry does not include a man named Ljótólfr , the 20th @-@ century clan historian Alick Morrison considered it possible that Ljótólfr could be an ancestor of Leod , albeit on his distaff side ; Morrison even suggested that Leod 's name could have been derived from Ljótólfr .
The MacLeods have two main branches — Sìol Thormoid ( Scottish Gaelic : " seed of Tormod " ) and Sìol Thorcaill ( " seed of Torcall " ) . Sìol Thorcaill was the dominant family on Lewis from the Late Middle Ages until the end of the 16th century . The Gaelic names Tormod and Torcall are derived from the Old Norse names Þórmóðr and Þórketill . Thomas noted that these names were also those of two men with Lewis connections , who are both recorded in the 13th @-@ century kings ' saga Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar . One of these men was Þórketill Þórmóðsson , who according to the saga , was slain near the Isle of Skye in about the year 1230 . Thomas proposed that this man could be a grandson of Ljótólfr . Another man who appears in the saga , Þórmóðr Þórketilson , was forced to flee Lewis , leaving behind his wife , retainers , and goods ; according to Thomas , this shows that Þórmóðr was a resident on the island . Thomas noted that Þórmóðr Þórketilson was married in about 1231 , and on the assumption that each generation could be estimated to be 30 years , Thomas gave Þórmóðr 's birth at 1201 ; his ( supposed ) father , Þórketill , at 1171 ; Þórketill 's father Þórmóðr at 1141 ; and this man 's father at 1111 . Thomas concluded that the elder Þórmóðr would have been born at about the time Ljótólfr flourished on Lewis .
= Give It Away ( Red Hot Chili Peppers song ) =
" Give It Away " is a song by the American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers from the group 's fifth studio album , Blood Sugar Sex Magik . It was released as the lead single from their album on September 4 , 1991 , by Warner Bros. Records . The music was written by guitarist John Frusciante and bassist Flea during a jam session months prior to the album recording sessions . Vocalist Anthony Kiedis wrote the song 's most prevalent lyrical refrain in response to an experience he shared with former girlfriend Nina Hagen regarding altruistic behavior and the value of selflessness .
While several radio stations initially refused to air the song because they felt it lacked melody , " Give It Away " went on to achieve international fame . It peaked at number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks in late 1991 , giving the band their first ever number one single . In 1992 the single charted inside the top 75 of the U.S. Hot 100 in the wake of the huge success of the record 's second single " Under the Bridge " . " Give It Away " also became the band 's first top ten hit in the United Kingdom , where it peaked at number nine on the UK Singles Chart .
The accompanying music video , which was directed by French film @-@ maker Stéphane Sednaoui , was put into heavy rotation on music @-@ television stations such as MTV and added to the band 's success . Since its release , " Give It Away " has gone on to receive numerous accolades , including a Grammy Award for the Best Hard Rock Performance With Vocals in 1992 . Steve Huey of Allmusic noted that while the single " didn 't achieve the massive pop success of its follow @-@ up , ' Under the Bridge ' [ ... ] it did become one of the band 's most instantly recognizable songs . "
" Give It Away " has been performed live by the band over 700 times , the most out of any of the band 's songs . The band performed the song as part of a guest appearance during the Super Bowl XLVIII halftime show , which was headlined by Bruno Mars on February 2 , 2014 .
= = Origins and recording = =
Guitarist John Frusciante and bassist Flea wrote much of " Give It Away " during jam sessions in the early 1990s . Following the Chili Peppers ' tour in support of Mother 's Milk ( 1989 ) , the duo spent time in a side project called H.A.T.E. with members of Fishbone . During their tenure in the group , the guitarist and bassist created the main riff and accompanying bassline for " Give It Away " . The rhythm was played at several H.A.T.E. performances shortly thereafter , but when the side project disbanded Frusciante and Flea believed the track would be appropriate for the Chili Peppers ' upcoming record . Vocalist Anthony Kiedis agreed , and upon hearing the rest of the Chili Peppers play the song he began chanting " give it away , give it away , give it away now " . The phrase had been something the vocalist intended to incorporate into a song for the band 's new record , but it was not until he heard the bassline that the lyrics fit . Kiedis said , " I was so struck by Flea 's bass part , which covered the whole length of the instrument 's neck , that I jumped up and marched over to the mic , my notebook in tow . I always had fragments of songs and ideas or even specific isolated phrases in mind . "
The song was recorded between April and June 1991 at The Mansion in Los Angeles , California . Through the recording of " Give It Away " came a practice of crafting songs that the band would continue to use on every album following Blood Sugar Sex Magik . When the group encountered difficulty in composing a bridge for the song , it developed a tool the members colloquially termed " face @-@ offs " . Flea and Frusciante were unable to come to an agreement on guitar or bass progressions , but separately crafted part of the song . The band then reconvened at a later time and chose the most appropriate inclusion . With " Give It Away " , a chorus and verse had already been written but a bridge was lacking , so thus they partook in a " face @-@ off " .
= = Lyrics and meaning = =
The lyrical meaning behind " Give It Away " is centered on the philosophy of selflessness and altruistic behavior . The song is titled after its most prevalent lyrical phrase " give it away " , which is taken from an experience Kiedis had with his former girlfriend — punk rock singer Nina Hagen — in the early 1980s . Hagen was several years Kiedis ' senior and became a role @-@ model during his drug addiction to heroin : " she realized how young and inexperienced I was then , so she was always passing on gems to me , not in a preachy way , just by seizing on opportunities . " When Kiedis was looking through her closet he came across a jacket he liked , and commented to Hagen that it was " really cool " . Upon expressing this , Hagen immediately told him to keep it . Her reasoning behind this selflessness was due to an attempt to constantly make her life more enjoyable , and explained to Kiedis that " if you have a closet full of clothes and you try to keep them all , your life will get very small . But if you have a full closet and someone sees something they like , if you give it to them , the world is a better place . "
The act was something that affected Kiedis significantly because he had never before experienced such an enlightening ideology on life . Growing up in Los Angeles , he had always thought differently from Hagen . Instead of giving material possessions away and being free thinking , the vocalist believed one must take what one wants , as no one else will provide . Instead , he now adopted Hagen 's philosophy : " It was such an epiphany that someone would want to give me her favorite thing . That stuck with me forever . Every time I 'd be thinking ' I have to keep , ' I 'd remember ' No , you gotta give away instead . ' When I started going regularly to [ drug and alcohol ] meetings , one of the principles I had learned was that the way to maintain your own sobriety is to give it to another suffering alcoholic . Every time you empty your vessel of that energy , fresh new energy comes flooding in . " Flea 's bassline for the song allowed Kiedis to recall this incident and he believed the music paired perfectly with the lyrics . During the verses , Kiedis departs from the idea of unselfishness and sings about a variety of topics including long @-@ time friend River Phoenix , musician Bob Marley and various sexual themes including fertility and lust .
= = Music and composition = =
" Give It Away " is performed in the time signature of 4 / 4 time . The track begins with a distinctively " dry " guitar tone that is similar in style to the rest of the record . Producer Rick Rubin had a considerable influence on the sound of Blood Sugar Sex Magik by removing much of the reverb and guitar layering that epitomized the band 's previous album Mother 's Milk . This caused the record to contain simpler and dryer guitar and bass chords that were not filtered through guitar effects — those that did , however , were made with vintage electronics from the 1960s and 70s . For " Give It Away " , along with the rest of the album , Rubin sought to achieve a sense of atmosphere that was similar to 60s records that were made without commercialism or viability in mind and to downplay on " big " sounds : " What you hear is what you get — there 's not a lot of trickery . A lot of people want the biggest sound , with walls of guitar and huge drums . But I don 't think those things matter . " The song follows a traditional verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse structure ; when Kiedis begins singing , Frusciante jumps into a funk @-@ oriented riff that is repeated throughout the verse while Flea plays a complex bass @-@ line that makes use of virtually the entire fretboard .
During the chorus , Kiedis sings " Give it away , give it away , give it away now " repeatedly over a more rapid guitar riff before Frusciante provides , according to Steve Huey of Allmusic , a " sudden contrast to Kiedis ' hyperactivity in the form of a languid solo pre @-@ recorded and dubbed backwards over the rhythm track . " The solo was recorded in one take because Frusciante had developed a preference towards speedy execution and a raw feeling ; according to Flea , " We did very little fix @-@ up stuff . John 's philosophy was that he would only play a solo twice . He 'd play it once , and if he didn 't like it or we didn 't like it , he 'd play it again — completely different . And that was it . " " Give It Away " also makes use of other instruments like the jew 's harp , which was played by band friend Pete Weiss . The song continues through several verses and choruses before reaching a bridge that introduces the outro , which consists of " a hard @-@ rocking riff " that , according to Huey , strongly resembles the main riff from Black Sabbath 's " Sweet Leaf " from their 1971 record Master of Reality . Kiedis repeats " Give it away now " for several measures before the guitar , bass and drums drop out .
= = Release and reception = =
" Give It Away " was released as the lead single from Blood Sugar Sex Magik in early September 1991 , shortly before the record went on sale . Warner Bros. sought to premiere the song on a popular rock radio station in Texas , but were turned down when the format refused to air the track — they told employees at the label to " come back to us when you have a melody in your song " . The band then embarked on a short press tour through Europe in order to promote the record ; it was during this time that KROQ @-@ FM , a Los Angeles @-@ based modern rock station , began to place " Give It Away " on heavy rotation . According to Kiedis , " That was the beginning of the infusion of those songs into mass consciousness . "
Critical reception to the song , much like the album , was highly positive . Jeff Vice of Deseret News noted " [ this ] dynamic first single that pays homage to Bob Marley , may start a new musical trend with its brilliant Rasta @-@ funk . " Patrick MacDonald of The Seattle Times commented that " [ Blood Sugar Sex Magik ] includes one of the best songs the Peppers have done — ' Give It Away ' , the first single . The hook is irresistible and the message , about ' material excess , ' is delivered simply and straightforwardly . " Steve Huey of Allmusic felt the song was enhanced by Kiedis ' lyrics , which were " a free @-@ associative mixture of positive vibes , tributes to musical heroes , and free love , and their literal meaning was often as difficult to understand as Kiedis ' nasal , staccato enunciation . But that distinctive vocal style helped make the most comprehensible lines even catchier and more memorable , greatly enhancing the song 's appeal . " He continued by praising the track 's music , " John Frusciante 's guitar should not be underappreciated either ; his noisy , scratchy funk @-@ rock work add [ s ] depth and texture to the powerhouse rhythm section of Flea and Chad Smith . " Jay Clarke of the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch felt " Give It Away " was " a journey into the funky world of Kiedis and Flea . This song invigorates better than the heaviest metal or the most hard @-@ core rap . " Tom Moon of Rolling Stone noted , " The pummeling ' Give It Away ' [ ... ] established a template for rock punctuated by the beatcentric relentlessness of hip @-@ hop that would be appropriated by everyone . "
Since the song 's release , it has become a notable factor in the Red Hot Chili Peppers ' success and has won a variety of accolades . " Give It Away " won a Grammy award at the 35th Ceremony in 1993 for the " Best Hard Rock Performance " . In 1994 " Give It Away " was included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's unordered list of the " 500 Songs That Shaped Rock " ; in 2002 Kerrang ! placed the song at number 67 in their list of the " 100 Greatest Singles of All Time " ; in 2004 Q included it in their unordered list of the " 1001 Songs You Must Own ! " ; and VH1 awarded the song the 50th spot in its 2009 compilation of the " 100 Greatest Hard Rock Songs " .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Give It Away " was made by French fashion photographer and director Stéphane Sednaoui . Kiedis wanted the video to be visually distinct and readily identifiable but disliked much of the material Warner Bros. sent for him to choose from : " I started viewing reels and reels and reels of video directors but nothing looked good to me . Everything was the same , boring , homogenized , contrived shit . " Upon finding Sednaoui 's reel , however , Kiedis noticed it was " like nothing else . It was slower and poetic , shot in black and white . It seemed like authentic art , not something shot for MTV . " He and Flea met with Sednaoui to talk about the video , for which the director proposed a " very desolated [ and ] very graphic landscape , " while heavily focusing on
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majority of Allied strength throughout much of the fighting in the South West Pacific . The military was largely relegated to subsidiary fronts from mid @-@ 1944 but continued offensive operations against the Japanese until the war ended .
World War II contributed to major changes in the nation 's economy , military and foreign policy . The war accelerated the process of industrialisation , led to the development of a larger peacetime military and began the process with which Australia shifted the focus of its foreign policy from Britain to the United States . The final effects of the war also contributed to the development of a more diverse and cosmopolitan Australian society .
= = Outbreak of war = =
Between World War I and World War II Australia suffered greatly from the Great Depression which started in 1929 . This limited Australian defence expenditure and led to a decline in the size and effectiveness of the armed forces during the late 1920s and early 1930s . In the years leading up to the war , Australia followed Britain 's policy towards Nazi Germany , supporting first its appeasement of Hitler and then its guarantee of Polish independence .
Australia entered the war against Germany on 3 September 1939 , shortly after Britain declared war when its ultimatum for Germany to withdraw from Poland expired . Unlike in Canada and South Africa , no legislative debate took place . The government of Australia believed that , as Prime Minister Robert Menzies said , " Britain is at war therefore Australia is at war " , and asked London to notify Germany that Australia was an associate of the United Kingdom . Australia 's support of the war was primarily made on the grounds that its interests were inextricably linked to those of Britain , and that a British defeat would destroy the system of imperial defence which Australia relied upon for security against Japan . This position received almost universal public support though there was little enthusiasm for war .
At the time war broke out in Europe , the Australian armed forces were less prepared than at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 . The Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) , the best @-@ prepared of the three services , was small and equipped with only two heavy cruisers , four light cruisers , two sloops , five obsolete destroyers and a number of small and auxiliary warships . The Australian Army comprised a small permanent cadre of 3 @,@ 000 men and 80 @,@ 000 part @-@ time militiamen who had volunteered for training with the Citizen Military Forces ( CMF ) . The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , the weakest of the services , had 246 aircraft , few of them modern . While the Commonwealth Government began a large military expansion and transferred some RAAF aircrew and units to British control upon the outbreak of war , it was unwilling to immediately dispatch an expeditionary force overseas due to the threat posed by Japanese intervention .
The first Australian shot of the war took place several hours after the declaration of war when a gun at Fort Queenscliff fired across the bows of an Australian ship as it attempted to leave Melbourne without required clearances . On 10 October 1939 a Short Sunderland of No. 10 Squadron , based in England for re @-@ equipment , became the first Australian and the first Commonwealth air @-@ force unit to go into action when it undertook a mission to Tunisia .
On 15 September 1939 Menzies announced the formation of the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . This expeditionary force initially consisted of 20 @,@ 000 men organised into an infantry division ( the 6th Division ) and auxiliary units . The AIF was institutionally separate from the CMF , which was legally restricted to service in Australia and its external territories , and was formed by raising new units rather than transferring CMF units . On 15 November , Menzies announced the reintroduction of conscription for home @-@ defence service , effective 1 January 1940 . Recruitment for the AIF was initially slow , but one in six men of military age had enlisted by March 1940 and a huge surge of volunteers came forward after the fall of France in June 1940 . Men volunteered for the AIF for a range of reasons , with the most common being a sense of duty to defend Australia and the British Empire . In early 1940 each of the services introduced regulations which prohibited the enlistment of people not " substantially of European origin " ; while these regulations were strictly enforced by the RAN and Army , the RAAF continued to accept small numbers of non @-@ European Australians .
The AIF 's major units were raised between 1939 and 1941 . The 6th Division formed during October and November 1939 and embarked for the Middle East in early 1940 to complete its training and to receive modern equipment after the British Government assured the Australian Government that Japan did not pose an immediate threat . The division was intended to join the British Expeditionary Force in France when its preparations were complete , but this did not eventuate as Axis forces conquered France before the division was ready . A further three AIF infantry divisions ( the 7th Division , 8th Division and 9th Division ) were raised in the first half of 1940 , as well as a corps headquarters ( I Corps ) and numerous support and service units . All of these divisions and the majority of the support units deployed overseas during 1940 and 1941 . An AIF armoured division ( the 1st Armoured Division ) was also raised in early 1941 but never left Australia .
While the Government initially planned to deploy the entire RAAF overseas , it later decided to focus the force 's resources on training aircrew to facilitate a massive expansion of Commonwealth air @-@ power . In late 1939 Australia and the other Dominions established the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) to train large numbers of men for service in the British Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and in other Commonwealth air units . Almost 28 @,@ 000 Australians eventually trained through EATS in schools in Australia , Canada and Rhodesia . While many of these men were posted to Australian Article XV squadrons , the majority served with British and other Dominion squadrons . Moreover , these nominally " Australian " squadrons did not come under RAAF control and Australians often made up a minority of their airmen . As the Australian Government had no effective control over the deployment of airmen trained through EATS , most Australian historians regard the scheme as having hindered the development of Australia 's defence capability . Nevertheless , RAAF airmen trained through EATS represented about nine percent of all aircrew who fought for the RAF in the European and Mediterranean theatres and made an important contribution to Allied operations .
= = North Africa , the Mediterranean and the Middle East = =
During the first years of World War II , Australia 's military strategy was closely aligned with that of the United Kingdom . In line with this , most Australian military units deployed overseas in 1940 and 1941 were sent to the Mediterranean and Middle East where they formed a key part of the Commonwealth forces in the area . The three AIF infantry divisions sent to the Middle East saw extensive action , as did the RAAF squadrons and warships in this theatre .
= = = North Africa = = =
The RAN was the first of the Australian services to see action in the Mediterranean . At the time Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940 the RAN had a single cruiser ( Sydney ) and the five elderly destroyers of the so @-@ called ' Scrap Iron Flotilla ' at Alexandria with the British Mediterranean Fleet . During the first days of the Battle of the Mediterranean , Sydney sank an Italian destroyer and Voyager a submarine . The Mediterranean Fleet maintained a high operational tempo , and on 19 July Sydney , with a British destroyer squadron in company , engaged the fast Italian light cruisers Bartolomeo Colleoni and Giovanni dalle Bande Nere in the Battle of Cape Spada . In the running battle which followed , Bartolomeo Colleoni was sunk . The Australian ships spent much of their time at sea throughout 1940 and Sydney was relieved by her sister ship Perth in February 1941 .
The Australian Army first saw action in Operation Compass , the successful Commonwealth offensive in North Africa which was conducted between December 1940 and February 1941 . The 6th Division relieved the 4th Indian Division on 14 December . Although the 6th Division was not fully equipped , it had completed its training and was given the task of capturing Italian fortresses bypassed by the British 7th Armoured Division during its advance .
The 6th Division went into action at Bardia on 3 January 1941 . Although the fortress was manned by a larger Italian force , the Australian infantry quickly penetrated the defensive lines with the support of British tanks and artillery . The majority of the Italian force surrendered on 5 January and the Australians took 40 @,@ 000 prisoners . The 6th Division followed up this success by assaulting the fortress of Tobruk on 21 January . Tobruk was secured the next day with 25 @,@ 000 Italian prisoners taken . The 6th Division subsequently pushed west along the coast road to Cyrenaica and captured Benghazi on 4 February . The 6th Division was withdrawn for deployment to Greece later in February and was replaced by the untested 9th Division , which took up garrison duties in Cyrenaica .
In the last week of March 1941 , a German @-@ led force launched an offensive in Cyrenaica which rapidly defeated the Allied forces in the area , forcing a general withdrawal towards Egypt . The 9th Division formed the rear guard of this withdrawal , and on 6 April was ordered to defend the important port town of Tobruk for at least two months . During the ensuing siege of Tobruk the 9th Division , reinforced by the 18th Brigade of the 7th Division and British artillery and armoured regiments , used fortifications , aggressive patrolling and artillery to contain and defeat repeated German armoured and infantry attacks . Tobruk 's defenders were sustained by the Mediterranean Fleet , and the elderly Australian destroyers made repeated supply ' runs ' into the port . Waterhen and Parramatta were sunk during these operations . Upon the request of the Australian Government , the bulk of the 9th Division was withdrawn from Tobruk in September and October 1941 and was replaced by the British 70th Division . The 2 / 13th Battalion was forced to remain at Tobruk until the siege was lifted in December when the convoy evacuating it was attacked , however . The defence of Tobruk cost the Australian units involved 3 @,@ 009 casualties , including 832 killed and 941 taken prisoner .
Two Australian fighter squadrons also took part in the fighting in North Africa . No. 239 Wing , a Curtiss P @-@ 40 @-@ equipped unit in the Desert Air Force , was dominated by Australians , in the form of two RAAF squadrons — No. 3 Squadron and No. 450 Squadron — and numerous individual Australians in RAF squadrons . These two squadrons differed from the other RAAF squadrons in the Mediterranean in that they were made up of predominantly Australian ground staff and pilots ; the other RAAF units had ground crews made up of mostly British RAF personnel .
= = = Greece , Crete and Lebanon = = =
In early 1941 the 6th Division and I Corps headquarters took part in the ill @-@ fated Allied expedition to defend Greece from a German invasion . The corps ' commander , Lieutenant @-@ General Thomas Blamey , and Prime Minister Menzies both regarded the operation as risky , but agreed to Australian involvement after the British Government provided them with briefings which deliberately understated the chance of defeat . The Allied force deployed to Greece was much smaller than the German force in the region and the defence of the country was compromised by inconsistencies between Greek and Allied plans .
Australian troops arrived in Greece during March and manned defensive positions in the north of the country alongside British , New Zealand and Greek units . Perth also formed part of the naval force which protected the Allied troop convoys travelling to Greece and participated in the Battle of Cape Matapan in late March . The outnumbered Allied force was not able to halt the Germans when they invaded on 6 April and was forced to retreat . The Australians and other Allied units conducted a fighting withdrawal from their initial positions and were evacuated from southern Greece between 24 April and 1 May . Australian warships also formed part of the force which protected the evacuation and embarked hundreds of soldiers from Greek ports . The 6th Division suffered heavy casualties in this campaign , with 320 men killed and 2 @,@ 030 captured .
While most of the 6th Division returned to Egypt , the 19th Brigade Group and two provisional infantry battalions landed at Crete where they formed a key part of the island 's defences . The 19th Brigade was initially successful in holding its positions when German paratroopers landed on 20 May , but was gradually forced to retreat . After several key airfields were lost the Allies evacuated the island 's garrison . Approximately 3 @,@ 000 Australians , including the entire 2 / 7th Infantry Battalion , could not be evacuated , and were taken prisoner . As a result of its heavy casualties the 6th Division required substantial reinforcements and equipment before it was again ready for combat . Perth and the new destroyers Napier and Nizam also took part in operations around Crete , with Perth embarking soldiers for evacuation to Egypt .
The Allied defeat during the Greek Campaign indirectly contributed to a change of government in Australia . Prime Minister Menzies ' leadership had been weakened by the lengthy period he spent in Britain during early 1941 , and the high Australian losses in the Greek Campaign led many members of his United
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achments of coastwatchers were also stationed in the Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands to report on any Japanese operations there .
At the start of the Pacific War the strategic port town of Rabaul in New Britain was defended by ' Lark Force ' , which comprised the 2 / 22nd Infantry Battalion reinforced with coastal artillery and a poorly equipped RAAF bomber squadron . While Lark Force was regarded as inadequate by the Australian military , it was not possible to reinforce it before the Japanese South Seas Force landed at Rabaul on 23 January 1942 . The outnumbered Australian force was swiftly defeated and most of the survivors surrendered in the weeks after the battle . Few members of Lark Force survived the war , as at least 130 were murdered by the Japanese on 4 February and 1 @,@ 057 Australian soldiers and civilian prisoners from Rabaul were killed when the ship carrying them to Japan ( Montevideo Maru ) was sunk by a US submarine on 1 July 1942 .
AIF troops were also dispatched from Darwin to the Netherlands East Indies ( NEI ) in the first weeks of the Pacific War . Reinforced battalions from the 23rd Brigade were sent to Koepang in West Timor ( ' Sparrow Force ' ) and the island of Ambon ( ' Gull Force ' ) to defend these strategic locations from Japanese attack . The 2 / 2nd Independent Company was also sent to Dili in Portuguese Timor in violation of Portugal 's neutrality . The force at Ambon was defeated by the Japanese landing on 30 January and surrendered on 3 February 1942 . Over 300 Australian prisoners were subsequently killed by Japanese troops in a series of mass executions during February . While the force at Koepang was defeated after the Japanese landed there on 20 February and also surrendered , Australian commandos waged a guerrilla campaign against the Japanese in Portuguese Timor until February 1943 . Voyager and Armidale were lost in September and December 1942 , respectively , while operating in support of the commandos .
In the lead @-@ up to the Japanese invasion of Java a force of 242 carrier and land @-@ based aircraft attacked Darwin on 19 February 1942 . At the time Darwin was an important base for Allied warships and a staging point for shipping supplies and reinforcements into the NEI . The Japanese attack was successful , and resulted in the deaths of at least 243 military personnel and civilians , most of whom were non @-@ Australian Allied seamen , and heavy damage to RAAF Base Darwin and the town 's port facilities .
Several Australian warships , a 3 @,@ 000 strong Army unit and aircraft from several RAAF squadrons participated in the unsuccessful defence of Java when the Japanese invaded the island in March 1942 . Perth formed part of the main American @-@ British @-@ Dutch @-@ Australian Command ( ABDACOM ) naval force which was defeated in the Battle of the Java Sea on 27 February during an attempt to intercept one of the Japanese invasion convoys . Perth was sunk on 1 March when she and USS Houston encountered another Japanese invasion force while trying to escape to Tjilatjap on the south coast of Java . The sloop Yarra was also sunk off the south coast of Java when she was attacked by three Japanese cruisers while escorting a convoy on 4 March . Other Australian warships , including the light cruiser Hobart and several corvettes successfully escaped from NEI waters . An army force made up of elements from the 7th Division also formed part of the ABDACOM land forces on Java but saw little action before it surrendered at Bandung on 12 March after the Dutch forces on the island began to capitulate . RAAF aircraft operating from bases in Java and Australia also participated in the fighting , and 160 ground crew from No. 1 Squadron RAAF were taken prisoner .
Following the conquest of the NEI , the Japanese Navy 's main aircraft carrier force raided the Indian Ocean . This force attacked Ceylon in early April , and Vampire was sunk off Trincomalee on 12 April while escorting HMS Hermes , which was also lost . The Australian Army 's 16th and 17th Brigades formed part of the island 's garrison at the time of the raid but did not see action .
= = = Buildup of forces in Australia = = =
After the fall of Singapore the Australian Government and many Australians feared that Japan would invade the Australian mainland . Australia was ill @-@ prepared to counter such an attack as the RAAF lacked modern aircraft and the RAN was too small and unbalanced to counter the Imperial Japanese Navy . Additionally , the Army , although large , contained many inexperienced units and lacked mobility . In response to this threat most of the AIF was brought back from the Middle East and the Government appealed to the United States for assistance . British Prime Minister Winston Churchill attempted to divert the 6th and 7th Divisions to Burma while they were en route to Australia , but Curtin refused to authorise this movement . As a compromise two brigades of the 6th Division disembarked at Ceylon and formed part of the island 's garrison until they returned to Australia in August 1942 .
The perceived threat of invasion led to a major expansion of the Australian military . By mid @-@ 1942 the Army had a strength of ten infantry divisions , three armoured divisions and hundreds of other units . The RAAF and RAN were also greatly expanded , though it took years for these services to build up to their peak strengths . Due to the increased need for manpower , the restrictions which prohibited non @-@ Europeans from joining the military ceased to be enforced from late 1941 , and about 3000 Indigenous Australians eventually enlisted . Most of these personnel were integrated into existing formations , but a small number of racially segregated units such as the Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion were formed . A number of small units made up of Indigenous Australians were also established to patrol northern Australia and harass any Japanese forces which landed there ; the members of these units did not receive pay or awards for their service until 1992 . Thousands of Australians who were ineligible for service in the military responded to the threat of attack by joining auxiliary organisations such as the Volunteer Defence Corps and Volunteer Air Observers Corps , which were modelled on the British Home Guard and Royal Observer Corps respectively . Australia 's population and industrial base were not sufficient to maintain the expanded military after the threat of invasion had passed , and the Army was progressively reduced in size from 1943 while only 53 of the 73 RAAF squadrons approved by the government were ever raised .
Despite Australian fears , the Japanese never intended to invade the Australian mainland . While an invasion was considered by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters in February 1942 , it was judged to be beyond the Japanese military 's capabilities and no planning or other preparations were undertaken . Instead , in March 1942 the Japanese military adopted a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States by capturing Port Moresby in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands , Fiji , Samoa and New Caledonia . This plan was frustrated by the Japanese defeat in the Battle of the Coral Sea and was postponed indefinitely after the Battle of Midway . While these battles ended the threat to Australia , the Australian government continued to warn that an invasion was possible until mid @-@ 1943 .
The collapse of British power in the Pacific also led Australia to reorient its foreign and military policy towards the United States . In February 1942 the US and British Governments agreed that Australia would become a strategic responsibility of the United States and the Allied ANZAC Force was created specifically to defend the Australian continent . In March , General Douglas MacArthur arrived in Australia after escaping from the Philippines and assumed command of the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) . All of the Australian military 's combat units in this area were placed under MacArthur 's command , and MacArthur replaced the Australian Chiefs of Staff as the Australian Government 's main source of military advice until the end of the war . Australian General Thomas Blamey was appointed the Allied land force commander , but MacArthur did not permit him to command American forces . MacArthur also rejected US Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall 's request that he appoint Australians to senior posts in his General Headquarters . Nevertheless , the partnership between Curtin and MacArthur proved beneficial for Australia between 1942 and 1944 as MacArthur was able to communicate Australian requests for assistance to the US Government .
Large numbers of United States military personnel were based in Australia during the first years of the Pacific War . The first US units arrived in Australia in early 1942 and almost 1 million US personnel passed through Australia during the war . Many US military bases were constructed in northern Australia during 1942 and 1943 , and Australia remained an important source of supplies to US forces in the Pacific until the end of the war . Though relations between Australians and Americans were generally good , there was some conflict between US and Australian soldiers , such as the Battle of Brisbane , and the Australian Government only reluctantly accepted the presence of African American troops .
= = = Papuan campaign = = =
Japanese forces first landed on the mainland of New Guinea on 8 March 1942 when they invaded Lae and Salamaua to secure bases for the defence of the important base they were developing at Rabaul . Australian guerrillas from the New Guinea Volunteer Rifles established observation posts around the Japanese beachheads and the 2 / 5th Independent Company successfully raided Salamaua on 29 June .
After the Battle of the Coral Sea frustrated the Japanese plan to capture Port Morseby via an amphibious landing , the Japanese attempted to capture the town by landing the South Seas Force at Buna on the north coast of Papua and advancing overland using the Kokoda Track to cross the rugged Owen Stanley Range . The Kokoda Track campaign began on 22 July when the Japanese began their advance , opposed by an ill @-@ prepared CMF brigade designated ' Maroubra Force ' . This force was successful in delaying the South Seas Force but was unable to halt it . Two AIF battalions from the 7th Division reinforced the remnants of Maroubra Force on 26 August but the Japanese continued to make ground and reached the village of Ioribaiwa near Port Moresby on 16 September . The South Seas Force was forced to withdraw back along the track on this day , however , as supply problems made any further advance impossible and an Allied counter @-@ landing at Buna was feared . Australian forces pursued the Japanese along the Kokoda Track and forced them into a small bridgehead on the north coast of Papua in early November . The Allied operations on the Kokoda Track were made possible by native Papuans who were recruited by the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit , often forcibly , to carry supplies and evacuate wounded personnel . The RAAF and USAAF also played an important role throughout the campaign by attacking the Japanese force 's supply lines and airdropping supplies to Australian Army units .
Australian forces also defeated an attempt to capture the strategic Milne Bay area in August 1942 . During the Battle of Milne Bay two brigades of Australian troops , designated Milne Force , supported by two RAAF fighter squadrons and US Army engineers defeated a smaller Japanese invasion force made up of Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces units . This was the first notable Japanese land defeat and raised Allied morale across the Pacific Theatre .
Australian and US forces attacked the Japanese bridgehead in Papua in late November 1942 but did not capture it until January 1943 . The Allied force comprised the exhausted 7th Division and the inexperienced and ill @-@ trained US 32nd Infantry Division and was short of artillery and supplies . Due to a lack of supporting weapons and MacArthur and Blamey 's insistence on a rapid advance the Allied tactics during the battle were centred around infantry assaults on the Japanese fortifications . These resulted in heavy casualties and the area was not secured until 22 January 1943 . Throughout the fighting in Papua , most of the Australian personnel captured by Japanese troops were murdered . In response , Australian soldiers aggressively sought to kill their Japanese opponents for the remainder of the war . The Australians generally did not attempt to capture Japanese personnel , and some prisoners of war were murdered .
Following the defeats in Papua and Guadalcanal the Japanese withdrew to a defensive perimeter in the Territory of New Guinea . In order to secure their important bases at Lae and Salamaua they attempted to capture Wau in January 1943 . Reinforcements were flown into the town and defeated the Japanese force in its outskirts following heavy fighting . The Japanese force began to withdraw towards the coast on 4 February . Following their defeat at Wau the Japanese attempted to reinforce Lae in preparation for an expected Allied offensive in the area . This ended in disaster when , during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , a troop convoy was destroyed by USAAF and RAAF aircraft from the US Fifth Air Force and No. 9 Operational Group RAAF with the loss of about 3 @,@ 000 troops .
The Papuan campaign led to a significant reform in the composition of the Australian Army . During the campaign , the restriction banning CMF personnel from serving outside of Australian territory hampered military planning and caused tensions between the AIF and CMF . In late 1942 and early 1943 Curtin overcame opposition within the Labor Party to extending the geographic boundaries in which conscripts could serve to include most of the South West Pacific and the necessary legislation was passed in January 1943 . The 11th Brigade was the only CMF formation to serve outside of Australian territory , however , when it formed part of Merauke Force in the NEI during 1943 and 1944 .
= = = Attacks on Australian shipping = = =
The Japanese efforts to secure New Guinea included a prolonged submarine offensive against the Allied lines of communication between the United States and Australia and Australia and New Guinea . These were not the first Axis naval attacks on Australia ; during 1940 and 1941 five German surface raiders operated in Australian waters at various times . The German attacks were not successful in disrupting Australian merchant shipping , though Sydney was sunk with the loss her entire crew of 641 men in November 1941 in a battle with the German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran , off the coast of Western Australia .
Following the defeat of the Japanese surface fleet the IJN deployed submarines to disrupt Allied supply lines by attacking shipping off the Australian east coast . This campaign began with an unsuccessful midget submarine raid on Sydney Harbour on the night of 31 May 1942 . Following this attack , Japanese submarines operated along the Australian east coast until August 1942 , sinking eight merchant ships . The submarine offensive resumed in January 1943 and continued until June during which time a further 15 ships were sunk off the east coast . The 1943 sinkings included the hospital ship Centaur , which was torpedoed off Queensland on 14 May with the loss of 268 lives . The Japanese did not conduct further submarine attacks against Australia after June 1943 as their submarines were needed to counter Allied offensives elsewhere in the Pacific . A single German submarine , U @-@ 862 , operated in the Pacific Ocean during the war , cruising off the Australian coast and New Zealand in December 1944 and January 1945 . It sank two ships in Australian waters before returning to Batavia .
Considerable Australian and other Allied military resources were devoted to protecting shipping and ports from Axis submarines and warships . For instance , the RAN escorted over 1 @,@ 100 coastal convoys the Army established coastal defences to protect important ports and a high proportion of the RAAF 's operational squadrons were used to protect shipping at various times . Nevertheless , the use of these units for defensive tasks and the shipping casualties in Australian waters did not seriously affect the Australian economy or Allied war effort .
= = = New Guinea offensives = = =
After halting the Japanese advance , Allied forces went on the offensive across the SWPA from mid 1943 . Australian forces played a key role throughout this offensive , which was designated Operation Cartwheel . In particular , General Blamey oversaw a highly successful series of operations around the north @-@ east tip of New Guinea which " was the high point of Australia 's experience of operational level command " during the war .
After the successful defence of Wau the 3rd Division began advancing towards Salamaua in April 1943 . This advance was mounted to divert attention from Lae , which was one of the main objectives of Operation Cartwheel , and proceeded slowly . In late June the 3rd Division was reinforced by the US 162nd Regimental Combat Team which staged an amphibious landing to the south of Salamaua . The town was eventually captured on 11 September 1943 .
In early September 1943 Australian @-@ led forces mounted a pincer movement to capture Lae . On 4 September 9 Division made an amphibious landing to the east of the town and began advancing to the west . The following day , the US 503rd Parachute Regiment made an unopposed parachute drop at Nadzab , just west of Lae . Once the airborne forces secured Nadzab Airfield the 7th Division was flown in and began advancing to the east in a race with the 9th Division to capture Lae . This race was won by the 7th Division , which captured the town on 15 September . The Japanese forces at Salamaua and Lae suffered heavy losses during this campaign , but were able to escape to the north .
After the fall of Lae the 9th Division was given the task of capturing the Huon Peninsula . The 20th Brigade landed near the strategic harbour of Finschhafen on 22 September 1943 and secured the area . The Japanese responded by dispatching the 20th Division overland to the area and the remainder of the 9th Division was gradually brought in to reinforce the 20th Brigade against the expected counter @-@ attack . The Japanese mounted a strong attack in mid @-@ October which was defeated by the 9th Division after heavy fighting . During the second half of November the 9th Division captured the hills inland of Finschhafen from well dug in Japanese forces . Following its defeat the 20th Division retreated along the coast with the 9th Division and 4th Brigade in pursuit . The Allies scored a major intelligence victory towards the end of this campaign when Australian engineers found the 20th Division 's entire cipher library , which had been buried by the retreating Japanese . These documents led to a code breaking breakthrough which enabled MacArthur to accelerate the Allied advance by bypassing Japanese defences .
While the 9th Division secured the coastal region of the Huon Peninsula the 7th Division drove the Japanese from the inland Finisterre Range . The Finisterre Range campaign began on 17 September when the 2 / 6th Independent Company was air @-@ landed in the Markham Valley . The company defeated a larger Japanese force at Kaiapit and secured an airstrip which was used to fly the Division 's 21st and 25th Brigades in . Through aggressive patrolling the Australians forced the Japanese out of positions in extremely rugged terrain and in January 1944 the division began its attack on the key Shaggy Ridge position . The ridge was taken by the end of January , with the RAAF playing a key supporting role . Following this success the Japanese withdrew from the Finisterre Range and Australian troops linked up with American patrols from Saidor on 21 April and secured Madang on 24 April .
In addition to supporting the Army 's operations on the New Guinea mainland , the RAN and RAAF took part in offensive operations in the Solomon Islands . This involvement had begun in August 1942 when both of the RAN 's heavy cruisers , Australia and Canberra , supported the US Marine landing at Guadalcanal . On the night after the landing , Canberra was sunk during the Battle of Savo Island and the RAN played no further role in the Guadalcanal Campaign . RAAF aircraft supported several US Army and Marine landings during 1943 and 1944 and a RAAF radar unit participated in the capture of Arawe . The Australian cruisers Australia and Shropshire and destroyers Arunta and Warramunga provided fire support for the US 1st Marine Division during the Battle of Cape Gloucester and the US 1st Cavalry Division during the Admiralty Islands campaign in late 1943 and early 1944 . The landing at Cape Gloucester was also the first operation for the RAN amphibious transport Westralia .
= = = North Western Area Campaign = = =
The attack on Darwin in February 1942 marked the start of a prolonged aerial campaign over northern Australia and the Japanese @-@ occupied Netherlands East Indies . Following the first attack on Darwin the Allies rapidly deployed fighter squadrons and reinforced the Army 's Northern Territory Force to protect the town from a feared invasion . These air units also attacked Japanese positions in the NEI and the Japanese responded by staging dozens of air raids on Darwin and nearby airfields during 1942 and 1943 , few of which caused significant damage . These raids were opposed by US , Australian and British fighters and suffered increasingly heavy casualties as Darwin 's defences were improved . The Japanese also conducted a number of small and ineffective raids on towns and airfields in northern Queensland and Western Australia during 1942 and 1943 .
While the Japanese raids on northern Australia ceased in late 1943 , the Allied air offensive continued until the end of the war . During late 1942 Allied aircraft conducted attacks on Timor in support of the Australian guerrillas operating there . From early 1943 United States heavy bomber squadrons operated against Japanese targets in the eastern NEI from bases near Darwin . The Allied air offensive against the NEI intensified from June 1943 in order to divert Japanese forces away from New Guinea and the Solomons and involved Australian , Dutch and United States bomber units . These attacks continued until the end of the war , with the US heavy bombers being replaced by Australian B @-@ 24 Liberator @-@ equipped squadrons in late 1944 . From 1944 several RAAF PBY Catalina squadrons were also based at Darwin and conducted highly effective mine @-@ laying sorties across South East Asia .
= = = Advance to the Philippines = = =
The Australian military 's role in the South @-@ West Pacific decreased during 1944 . In the latter half of 1943 the Australian Government decided , with MacArthur 's agreement , that the size of the military would be reduced to release manpower for war @-@ related industries which were important to supplying Britain and the US forces in the Pacific . Australia 's main role in the Allied war effort from this point forward was supplying the other Allied countries with food , materials and manufactured goods needed for the defeat of Japan . As a result of this policy , the Army units available for offensive operations were set at six infantry divisions ( the three AIF divisions and three CMF divisions ) and two armoured brigades . The size of the RAAF was set at 53 squadrons and the RAN was limited to the ships which were in service or planned to be built at the time . In early 1944 all but two of the Army 's divisions were withdrawn to the Atherton Tableland in north Queensland for training and rehabilitation . Several new battalions of Australian @-@ led Papuan and New Guinea troops were formed during 1944 and organised into the Pacific Islands Regiment , however , and largely replaced the Australian Army battalions disbanded during the year . These troops had seen action alongside Australian units throughout the New Guinea campaign .
After the liberation of most of Australian New Guinea the RAAF and RAN participated in the US @-@ led Western New Guinea campaign , which had the goal of securing bases to be used to mount the liberation of the Philippines . Australian warships and the fighter , bomber and airfield construction squadrons of No. 10 Operational Group RAAF participated in the capture of Hollandia , Biak , Noemfoor and Morotai . After western New Guinea was secured No. 10 Operation Group was renamed the First Tactical Air Force ( 1TAF ) and was used to protect the flank of the Allied advance by attacking Japanese positions in the NEI and performing other garrison tasks . The losses incurred whilst performing these relatively unimportant roles led to a decline in morale , and contributed to the ' Morotai Mutiny ' in April 1945 .
Elements of the RAN and RAAF also took part in the liberation of the Philippines . Four Australian warships and the assault transports Kanimbla , Manoora and Westralia — along with a number of smaller warships and support ships — took part in the US landing at Leyte on 20 October 1944 . Australian sources state that Australia became the first Allied ship to be struck by a kamikaze when she was attacked during this operation on 21 October , though this claim was disputed by US historian Samuel Eliot Morison . Australian ships also participated in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , with Shropshire and Arunta engaging Japanese ships during the Battle of Surigao Strait on 25 October . The Australian naval force took part in the Invasion of Lingayen Gulf in January 1945 ; during this operation Australia was struck by a further five Kamikazes which killed 44 of her crew and forced her to withdraw for major repairs . RAN ships also escorted US supply convoys bound for the Philippines . The RAAF 's No. 3 Airfield Construction Squadron and No. 1 Wireless Unit also landed in the Philippines and supported US operations there , and 1TAF raided targets in the southern Philippines from bases in the NEI and New Guinea .
While the Australian Government offered MacArthur I Corps for service in Leyte and Luzon , nothing came of several proposals to utilise it in the liberation of these islands . The Army 's prolonged period of relative inactivity during 1944 led to public concern , and many Australians believed that the AIF should be demobilised if it could not be used for offensive operations . This was politically embarrassing for the government , and helped motivate it to look for new areas where the military could be employed .
= = = Mopping up in New Guinea and the Solomons = = =
In late 1944 , the Australian Government committed twelve Australian Army brigades to replace six US Army divisions which were conducting defensive roles in Bougainville , New Britain and the Aitape @-@ Wewak area in New Guinea . While the US units had largely conducted a static defence of their positions , their Australian replacements mounted offensive operations designed to destroy the remaining Japanese forces in these areas . The value of these campaigns was controversial at the time and remains so to this day . The Australian Government authorised these operations for primarily political reasons . It was believed that keeping the Army involved in the war would give Australia greater influence in any post @-@ war peace conferences and that liberating Australian territories would enhance Australia 's influence in its region . Critics of these campaigns argue that they were unnecessary and wasteful of the lives of the Australian soldiers involved as the Japanese forces were already isolated and ineffective .
The 5th Division replaced the US 40th Infantry Division on New Britain during October and November 1944 and continued the New Britain Campaign with the goals of protecting Allied bases and confining the large Japanese force on the island to the area around Rabaul . In late November the 5th Division established bases closer to the Japanese perimeter and began aggressive patrols supported by the Allied Intelligence Bureau . The division conducted amphibious landings at Open Bay and Wide Bay at the base of the Gazelle Peninsula in early 1945 and defeated the small Japanese garrisons in these areas . By April the Japanese had been confined to their fortified positions in the Gazelle Peninsula by the Australian force 's aggressive patrolling . The 5th Division suffered 53 fatalities and 140 wounded during this campaign . After the war it was found that the Japanese force was 93 @,@ 000 strong , which was much higher than the 38 @,@ 000 which Allied intelligence had estimated remained on New Britain .
The II Corps continued the Bougainville Campaign after it replaced the US Army 's XIV Corps between October and December 1944 . The corps consisted of the 3rd Division , 11th Brigade and Fiji Infantry Regiment on Bougainville and the 23rd Brigade which garrisoned neighbouring islands and was supported by RAAF , RNZAF and USMC air units . While the XIV Corps had maintained a defensive posture , the Australians conducted offensive operations aimed at destroying the Japanese force on Bougainville . As the Japanese were split into several enclaves the II Corps fought geographically separated campaigns in the north , centre and southern portions of the island . The main focus was against the Japanese base at Buin in the south , and the offensives in the north and centre of the island were largely suspended from May 1945 . While Australian operations on Bougainville continued until the end of the war , large Japanese forces remained at Buin and in the north of the island .
The 6th Division was assigned responsibility for completing the destruction of the Japanese Eighteenth Army , which was the last large Japanese force remaining in the Australian portion of New Guinea . The division was reinforced by CMF and armoured units and began arriving at Aitape in October 1944 . The 6th Division was also supported by several RAAF squadrons and RAN warships . In late 1944 the Australians launched a two @-@ pronged offensive to the east towards Wewak . The 17th Brigade advanced through the inland Torricelli Mountains while the remainder of the division moved along the coast . Although the Eighteenth Army had suffered heavy casualties from previous fighting and disease , it mounted a strong resistance and inflicted significant casualties . The 6th Division 's advance was also hampered by supply difficulties and bad weather . The Australians secured the coastal area by early May , with Wewak being captured on 10 May after a small force was landed to the east of the town . By the end of the war the Eighteenth Army had been forced into what it had designated its ' last stand ' area which was under attack from the 6th Division . The Aitape @-@ Wewak campaign cost Australia 442 lives while about 9 @,@ 000 Japanese died and another 269 were taken prisoner .
= = = Borneo Campaign = = =
The Borneo Campaign of 1945 was the last major Allied campaign in the SWPA . In a series of amphibious assaults between 1 May and 21 July , the Australian I Corps , under Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead , attacked Japanese forces occupying the island . Allied naval and air forces , centred on the US 7th Fleet under Admiral Thomas Kinkaid , 1TAF and the US Thirteenth Air Force also played important roles in the campaign . The goals of this campaign were to capture Borneo 's oilfields and Brunei Bay to support the US @-@ led invasion of Japan and British @-@ led liberation of Malaya which were planned to take place later in 1945 . The Australian Government did not agree to MacArthur 's proposal to extend the offensive to include the liberation of Java in July 1945 , however , and its decision to not release the 6th Division for this operation contributed to it not going ahead .
The campaign opened on 1 May 1945 when the 26th Brigade Group landed on the small island of Tarakan off the east coast of Borneo . The goal of this operation was to secure the island 's airstrip as a base to support the planned landings at Brunei and Balikpapan . While it had been expected that it would take only a few weeks to secure Tarakan and re @-@ open the airstrip , intensive fighting on the island lasted until 19 June and the airstrip was not
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opened until 28 June . As a result , the operation is generally considered to have not been worthwhile .
The second phase of the Borneo Campaign began on 10 June when the 9th Division conducted simultaneous assaults on the north @-@ west on the island of Labuan and the coast of Brunei . While Brunei was quickly secured , the Japanese garrison on Labuan held out for over a week . After the Brunei Bay region was secured the 24th Brigade was landed in North Borneo and the 20th Brigade advanced along the western coast of Borneo south from Brunei . Both brigades rapidly advanced against weak Japanese resistance , and most of north @-@ west Borneo was liberated by the end of the war . During the campaign the 9th Division was assisted by indigenous fighters who were waging a guerrilla war against Japanese forces with the support of Australian special forces .
The third and final stage of the Borneo Campaign was the capture of Balikpapan on the central east coast of the island . This operation had been opposed by General Blamey , who believed that it was unnecessary , but went ahead on the orders of Macarthur . After a 20 @-@ day preliminary air and naval bombardment the 7th Division landed near the town on 1 July . Balikpapan and its surrounds were secured after some heavy fighting on 21 July but mopping up continued until the end of the war . The capture of Balikpapan was the last large @-@ scale land operation conducted by the Western Allies during World War II . Although the Borneo Campaign was criticised in Australia at the time , and in subsequent years , as pointless or a waste of the lives of soldiers , it did achieve a number of objectives , such as increasing the isolation of significant Japanese forces occupying the main part of the Dutch East Indies , capturing major oil supplies and freeing Allied prisoners of war , who were being held in deteriorating conditions .
Australia 's leadership changed again during the Borneo Campaign . Prime Minister Curtin suffered a heart attack in November 1944 and Deputy Prime Minister Frank Forde acted in his place until 22 January 1945 . Curtin was hospitalised with another bout of illness in April 1945 and Treasurer Ben Chifley became acting Prime Minister as Forde was attending the San Francisco Conference . Curtin died on 5 July 1945 and Forde was sworn in as Prime Minister . Forde did not have the support of his party , however , and was replaced by Chifley after a leadership ballot was held on 13 July .
= = = Intelligence and special forces = = =
Australia developed large intelligence services during the war . Prior the outbreak of war the Australian military possessed almost no intelligence gathering facilities and was reliant on information passed on by the British intelligence services . Several small signals intelligence units were established in 1939 and 1940 , which had some success intercepting and deciphering Japanese transmissions before the outbreak of the Pacific War .
MacArthur began organising large scale intelligence services shortly after his arrival in Australia . On 15 April 1942 , the joint Australian @-@ US Central Bureau signals intelligence organisation was established at Melbourne . Central Bureau 's headquarters moved to Brisbane in July 1942 and Manila in May 1945 . Australians made up half the strength of Central Bureau , which was expanded to over 4 @,@ 000 personnel by 1945 . The Australian Army and RAAF also provided most of the Allied radio interception capability in the SWPA , and the number of Australian radio interception units was greatly expanded between 1942 and 1945 . Central Bureau broke a number of Japanese codes and the intelligence gained from these decryptions and radio direction finding greatly assisted Allied forces in the SWPA .
Australian special forces played a significant role in the Pacific War . Following the outbreak of war commando companies were deployed to Timor , the Solomon and Bismarck islands and New Caledonia . Although the 1st Independent Company was swiftly overwhelmed when the Japanese invaded the Solomon Islands in early 1942 , the 2 / 2nd and 2 / 4th Independent Companies waged a successful guerrilla campaign on Timor which lasted from February 1942 to February 1943 when the Australian force was evacuated . Other commando units also played an important role in the New Guinea , New Britain , Bougainville and Borneo campaigns throughout the war where they were used to collect intelligence , spearhead offensives and secure the flanks of operations conducted by conventional infantry .
Australia also formed small @-@ scale raiding and reconnaissance forces , most of which were grouped together as the Allied Intelligence Bureau . Z Special Unit conducted raids far behind the front line , including a successful raid on Singapore in September 1943 . M Special Unit , coastwatchers and smaller AIB units also operated behind Japanese lines to collect intelligence . AIB parties were often used to support Australian Army units and were assigned to inappropriate tasks such as tactical reconnaissance and liaison . AIB missions in Timor and Dutch New Guinea were also hampered by being placed under the command of unpopular Dutch colonial administrators . The RAAF formed a specially @-@ equipped unit ( No. 200 Flight ) in 1945 to support these operations by transporting and supplying AIB parties in areas held by the Japanese .
= = = Operations against the Japanese home islands = = =
Australia played a minor role in the Japan campaign in the last months of the war and was preparing to participate in the invasion of Japan at the time the war ended . Several Australian warships operated with the British Pacific Fleet ( BPF ) during the Battle of Okinawa and Australian destroyers later escorted British aircraft carriers and battleships during attacks on targets in the Japanese home islands . Despite its distance from Japan , Australia was the BPF 's main base and a large number of facilities were built to support the fleet .
Australia 's participation in the planned invasion of Japan would have involved elements of all three services fighting as part of Commonwealth forces . It was planned to form a new 10th Division from existing AIF personnel which would form part of the Commonwealth Corps with British , Canadian and New Zealand units . The corps ' organisation was to be identical to that of a US Army corps , and it would have participated in the invasion of the Japanese home island of Honshū which was scheduled for March 1946 . Australian ships would have operated with the BPF and US Pacific Fleet and two RAAF heavy bomber squadrons and a transport squadron were scheduled to be redeployed from Britain to Okinawa to join the strategic bombardment of Japan as part of Tiger Force . Planning for operations against Japan ceased in August 1945 when Japan surrendered following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
General Blamey signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender on behalf of Australia during the ceremony held on board USS Missouri on 2 September 1945 . Several RAN warships were among the Allied ships anchored in Tokyo Bay during the proceedings . Following the main ceremony on board Missouri , Japanese field commanders surrendered to Allied forces across the Pacific Theatre . Australian forces accepted the surrender of their Japanese opponents at ceremonies conducted at Morotai , several locations in Borneo , Timor , Wewak , Rabaul , Bougainville and Nauru .
= = Australians in other theatres = =
In addition to the major deployments , Australian military units and service men and women served in other theatres of the war , typically as part of British @-@ led Commonwealth forces . About 14 @,@ 000 Australians also served in the Merchant Navy and crewed ships in many areas of the world .
Australia played a minor role in the British @-@ led campaigns against Vichy French colonial possessions in Africa . In late September 1940 , the heavy cruiser Australia took part in the unsuccessful British and Free French attempt to capture Dakar in which she sank a Vichy French destroyer . The Australian Government was not informed of the cruiser 's involvement in this operation prior to the battle and complained to the British Government . Three Australian destroyers also took part in the invasion of Madagascar in September 1942 . Closer to home , Adelaide played a significant role in ensuring that New Caledonia came under Free French control in September 1940 by escorting a pro @-@ Free French Governor to Nouméa and taking station off the city during the popular protests which resulted in the Governor replacing the pro @-@ Vichy authorities .
Australian warships served in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf through much of the war . From June to October 1940 HMAS Hobart took part in the East African Campaign , and played an important role in the successful evacuation of Berbera . In May 1941 , Yarra supported an operation in which Gurkha troops were landed near Basra during the Anglo @-@ Iraqi War . In August 1941 Yarra and Kanimbla took part in the Anglo @-@ Soviet invasion of Iran , with Yarra sinking the Iranian sloop Babr near Kohorramshahr and Kanimbla landing troops at Bandar Shapur . A dozen Bathurst class corvettes also escorted Allied shipping in the Persian Gulf during 1942 .
While most Australian units in the Pacific Theatre fought in the SWPA , hundreds of Australians were posted to British units in Burma and India . These included 45 men from the 8th Division who volunteered to train Chinese guerrillas with the British Mission 204 in southern China and served there from February to September 1942 . Hundreds of Australians also served with RAF units in India and Burma , though no RAAF units were deployed to this theatre . In May 1943 , some 330 Australians were serving in forty @-@ one squadrons in India , of which only nine had more than ten Australians . In addition , many of the RAN 's corvettes and destroyers served with the British Eastern Fleet where they were normally used to protect convoys in the Indian Ocean from attacks by Japanese and German submarines .
= = Prisoners of war = =
Just under 29 @,@ 000 Australians were taken prisoner by the Axis during the war . Only 14 @,@ 000 of the 21 @,@ 467 Australian prisoners taken by the Japanese survived captivity . The majority of the deaths in captivity were due to malnutrition and disease .
The 8 @,@ 000 Australians captured by Germany and Italy were generally treated in accordance with the Geneva Conventions . The majority of these men were taken during the fighting in Greece and Crete in 1941 , with the next largest group being 1 @,@ 400 airmen shot down over Europe . Like other western Allied POWs , the Australians were held in permanent camps in Italy and Germany . As the war neared its end the Germans moved many prisoners towards the interior of the country to prevent them from being liberated by the advancing Allied armies . These movements were often made through forced marches in harsh weather and resulted in many deaths . Four Australians were also executed following a mass escape from Stalag Luft III in March 1944 . While the Australian prisoners suffered a higher death rate in German and Italian captivity than their counterparts in World War I , it was much lower than the rate suffered under Japanese internment .
Like the other Allied personnel captured by the Japanese , most of the thousands of Australians captured in the first months of 1942 during the conquest of Malaya and Singapore , the NEI and New Guinea were held in harsh conditions . Australians were held in camps across the Asia @-@ Pacific region and many endured long voyages in grossly overcrowded ships . While most of the Australian POWs who died in Japanese captivity were the victim of deliberate malnutrition and disease , hundreds were deliberately killed by their guards . The Burma @-@ Thai Railway was the most notorious of the prisoner of war experiences , as 13 @,@ 000 Australians worked on it at various times during 1942 and 1943 alongside thousands of other Allied POWs and Asians conscripted by the Japanese ; nearly 2 @,@ 650 Australians died there . Thousands of Australian POWs were also sent to the Japanese home islands where they worked in factories and mines in generally harsh conditions . The POWs held in camps at Ambon and Borneo suffered the highest death rates ; 77 percent of those at Ambon died and few of the 2 @,@ 500 Australian and British prisoners in Borneo survived ; almost all were killed by overwork and a series of death marches in 1945 .
The treatment of the POWs prompted many Australians to remain hostile towards Japan after the war . Australian authorities investigated the abuses against Allied POWs in their country 's zone of responsibility after the war , and guards who were believed to have mistreated prisoners were among those tried by Australian @-@ administered war crimes trials .
Thousands of Axis POWs were held in Australia during the war . A total of 25 @,@ 720 POWs were held in Australia : 18 @,@ 432 Italians , 5 @,@ 637 Japanese and 1 @,@ 651 Germans . These prisoners were housed in purpose @-@ built camps and were treated in accordance with the Geneva Convention . A total of 16 @,@ 798 civilians were also interned . These included 8 @,@ 921 Australian @-@ resident " enemy aliens " , while the remainder were civilians sent to Australia for internment by other Allied countries . On the morning of 5 August 1944 , approximately half of the 1 @,@ 104 Japanese held at a camp near Cowra , New South Wales attempted to escape . The prisoners overwhelmed their guards and over 400 broke through the wire fences ; however , every escapee was either recaptured or killed within 10 days .
= = Home front = =
During the war the Australian Government greatly expanded its powers in order to better direct the war effort , and Australia 's industrial and human resources were focused on supporting the Allied armed forces . The expansion of the government 's powers began on 9 September 1939 when the National Security Act became law . This act enabled the government to introduce industrial conscription , and both men and women were ordered into essential industries . Rationing was first introduced in 1940 and was greatly expanded during 1942 . The Government also strongly encouraged austerity and war bonds as a means of reducing demand for scarce resources .
Government policies to develop war @-@ related industries were successful in increasing the sophistication of Australia 's industrial sector and self @-@ sufficiency in most categories of weapons . In the decades leading up to the war successive Australian governments had provided subsidies , tariffs and other incentives encourage the development of military @-@ related manufacturing sectors such as the production of aircraft , automobiles , electronics and chemicals . These secondary industries were integrated into a war economy during 1940 and 1941 and were able to meet most of the Army 's needs by 1942 . Government @-@ led efforts to develop and manufacture advanced technology enjoyed some notable successes , including the development of lightweight radar sets , optical devices for artillery and equipment adapted for use in the tropics . Australian industry also developed new weapons which were mass @-@ produced for the military , including the Owen submachine gun and a shortened version of the Ordnance QF 25 pounder . In addition , Australian scientists and pharmaceutical companies made important advances in the treatment of tropical diseases . Not all development projects were successful though : efforts to develop an Australian tank ( the Sentinel ) did not cease until after it had been rendered obsolete and unnecessary , and the development of Australian @-@ designed advanced bomber and fighter aircraft ( the CAC Woomera and CAC CA @-@ 15 respectively ) were abandoned as the engines these aircraft required were not available and adequate US and British designs were produced under licence instead .
The massive expansion of the military led to a critical shortage of male workers and increased female participation in the labour force . The number of Australian women in paid employment increased from 644 @,@ 000 in 1939 to 855 @,@ 000 in 1944 . While this was only a 5 percentage point increase in the proportion of all Australian women who were working , large numbers of women moved from traditionally " female " roles such as domestic servants into " male " roles in industry . Female branches of the armed forces were established in 1941 , and by 1944 almost 50 @,@ 000 women were serving in the Women 's Royal Australian Naval Service , Australian Women 's Army Service and Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force . Thousands more served with the civilian Australian Women 's Land Army or undertook voluntary war work . Manpower shortages became an increasingly significant economic issue towards the end of the war , and the Australian military was reduced in size from 1944 to free up personnel for war industries and the civilian economy .
Industrial conscription and the drive to increase productivity led to an increasing degree of industrial unrest over time . Many workers were required to work long hours in poor conditions and were not able to change their employment due to the manpower laws . Poor work conditions were exacerbated by the Government 's austerity measures reducing workers ' standards of living . As a result , strikes and other forms of protest disrupted Australian production , especially from 1943 onwards . These protests attracted considerable criticism from other civilians and members of the military . In May 1943 the Government introduced policies which enabled workers who were undertaking unlawful industrial action to be conscripted into the military , but this had little impact due to the shortage of skilled labour in the industries most prone to industrial disputes .
World War II marked the beginning of a long period of Australian economic growth . The war greatly increased the size and importance of the Australian manufacturing sector and stimulated the development of more technologically advanced industries . As part of this trend many workers acquired relatively high skill levels and female labour force participation rates greatly increased . Many women were forced out of traditionally male @-@ dominated industries after the war , however .
= = After the war = =
World War II cost thousands of Australian lives and consumed a large portion of the national income . During the war , 27 @,@ 073 members of the Australian military were either killed , died of wounds or died while prisoners of war . Of these , 9 @,@ 572 were killed in the war against Germany and Italy and 17 @,@ 501 in the war against Japan . Prisoners of war held by the Japanese made up nearly half of Australia 's deaths in the Pacific . At least 386 Australian civilian seamen were killed during the war . Total Australian war expenditure was £ 2 @,@ 949 @,@ 380 @,@ 000 and at its peak in 1942 – 43 , military costs accounted for 40 @.@ 1 percent of national income .
In the months after the war , Australian authorities were responsible for administering all of Borneo and the NEI east of Lombok until the British and Dutch colonial governments were re @-@ established . While British and Indian forces in the west of the NEI became caught up in the Indonesian National Revolution , the Australians were able to avoid clashes with local nationalists . Australian forces were also responsible for guarding the 344 @,@ 000 remaining Japanese in the NEI and Australian territories and administering war crimes trials in these areas . A volunteer force was formed as Australia 's contribution to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) in Japan , and Australia provided the BCOF 's headquarters and a high proportion of its personnel . This force later formed the nucleus of the post @-@ war Australian Army , which included permanent combat units for the first time .
The Australian military was rapidly demobilised after the Japanese surrender . At the end of the war the military had a strength of nearly 600 @,@ 000 personnel , of whom 224 @,@ 000 were serving in the Pacific and 20 @,@ 000 in Britain and other places . Demobilisation planning had begun at the end of 1942 with the final scheme being approved by the Government in March 1945 . General demobilisation started on 1 October 1945 and was completed in February 1947 . The process generally ran smoothly , though there were protests over delays at Morotai and Bougainville . Personnel were provided with training while they waited to be demobilised and the government provided post @-@ demobilisation assistance with employment , loans , education and other benefits . Service women were given similar assistance to their male counterparts , but were placed under pressure to return to ' traditional ' family roles .
World War II led to significant changes to Australian society . Economically , the war accelerated the development of Australia 's manufacturing industry and led to a large fall in unemployment . The impact of World War II changed Australian society , and contributed to the development of a more cosmopolitan society in which women were able to play a larger role . The war also resulted in a greater maturity in Australia 's approach to international affairs , as demonstrated by the development of a more independent foreign policy and the encouragement of mass immigration after the war .
= Rock Springs massacre =
The Rock Springs massacre , also known as the Rock Springs Riot , occurred on September 2 , 1885 , in the present @-@ day United States city of Rock Springs in Sweetwater County , Wyoming . The riot , between Chinese immigrant miners and white immigrant miners , was the result of racial tensions and an ongoing labor dispute over the Union Pacific Coal Department 's policy of paying Chinese miners lower wages than white miners . This policy caused the Chinese to be hired over the white miners , which further angered the white miners and contributed to the riot . Racial tensions were an even bigger factor in the massacre . When the rioting ended , at least 28 Chinese miners were dead and 15 were injured . Rioters burned 75 Chinese homes resulting in approximately US $ 150 @,@ 000 in property damage ( $ 3 @.@ 95 million in present @-@ day terms ) .
Tension between whites and Chinese immigrants in the late 19th century American West was particularly high , especially in the decade preceding the violence . The massacre in Rock Springs was the violent outburst of years of anti @-@ Chinese sentiment in the United States . The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act suspended Chinese immigration for ten years , but not before thousands of immigrants came to the American West . Most Chinese immigrants to Wyoming Territory took jobs with the railroad at first , but many ended up employed in coal mines owned by the Union Pacific Railroad . As Chinese immigration increased , so did anti @-@ Chinese sentiment from whites . The Knights of Labor , one of the foremost
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voices against Chinese immigrant labor , formed a chapter in Rock Springs in 1883 , and most rioters were members of that organization . However , no direct connection was ever established linking the riot to the national Knights of Labor organization .
In the immediate aftermath of the riot , federal troops were deployed in Rock Springs . They escorted the surviving Chinese miners , most of whom had fled to Evanston , Wyoming , back to Rock Springs a week after the riot . Reaction came swiftly from the era 's publications . In Rock Springs , the local newspaper endorsed the outcome of the riot , while in other Wyoming newspapers , support for the riot was limited to sympathy for the causes of the white miners . The massacre in Rock Springs touched off a wave of anti @-@ Chinese violence , especially in the Puget Sound area of Washington Territory .
= = Background = =
Chinese immigration to the United States at that time was neither uniform nor widespread . J.R. Tucker , writing for The North American Review in 1884 , stated that the vast majority of the nearly 100 @,@ 000 Chinese immigrants resided within the American West : California , Nevada , Oregon , and the Washington Territory . The U.S. Minister to China , George Seward , had asserted similar numbers in Scribner 's Magazine five years earlier .
The first jobs Chinese laborers took in Wyoming were on the railroad , working for the Union Pacific company ( UP ) as maintenance @-@ of @-@ way workers . Chinese workers soon became an asset to Union Pacific and worked along UP lines and in UP coal mines from Laramie to Evanston . Most Chinese workers in Wyoming ended up working in Sweetwater County , but a large number settled in Carbon and Uinta counties . Most Chinese people in the area were men working in the mine . Racism against Chinese immigrants was widespread and largely uncontroversial at the time . Tucker , in the aforementioned 1884 article , referred to Asian immigrants as " ... the Asiatic race , alien in blood , habits , and civilization " . He also noted , " Chinese are the chief element in this Asiatic population . "
In 1874 – 75 , after labor unrest disrupted coal production , the Union Pacific Coal Department hired Chinese laborers to work in their coal mines throughout southern Wyoming . Even so , the Chinese population rose slowly at first ; however , where there were Chinese immigrants , they were generally concentrated in one area . At Red Desert , a remote section camp in Sweetwater County , there were 20 inhabitants , of whom 12 were Chinese . All 12 were laborers who worked under an American foreman . To the east of Red Desert was another remote section camp , Washakie . An American section foreman lived there amongst 23 others , including 13 Chinese laborers and an Irish crew foreman . In the various section camps along the main line of the Union Pacific Railroad , Chinese workers far outnumbered any other nationality . Though the 79 Chinese in Sweetwater County in 1870 represented only 4 % of the total population , they were , again , concentrated . In Rock Springs and Green River , the largest towns along the UP line , there were no Chinese residents reported in 1870 .
Throughout the 1870s , the Chinese population in Sweetwater County and all of Wyoming steadily increased . During the decade , Wyoming 's total population rose from 9 @,@ 118 to 20 @,@ 789 . In the 1870 U.S. Census , what the government today calls " Asian and Pacific Islanders " represented 143 members of the population of Wyoming . The increase during the 1870s was the largest percentage increase in the Asian population of Wyoming of any decade since ; the increase represented a 539 % jump in the Asian population . By 1880 , most Chinese residents in Sweetwater County lived in Rock Springs . At that time , Wyoming was home to 914 " Asians " ; that number fell significantly during the 1880s to 465 .
Although most Chinese workers in 1880 were employed in the coal mines around Wyoming and Sweetwater County , the Chinese in Rock Springs worked mostly in occupations outside of mining . In addition to Chinese laborers and miners , a professional gambler , a priest , a cook , and a barber resided in the city . In Green River , Wyoming , there was a Chinese doctor . Chinese servants and waiters found work in Green River and in Fort Washakie . In Atlantic City , Miner 's Delight , and Red Canyon , Wyoming , Chinese gold miners were employed . However , the majority of the 193 Chinese residing in Sweetwater County by 1880 worked in the coal mines or on the railroad .
= = Causes = =
The riot was the result of a combination of race prejudice and general resentment against Union Pacific . In 1882 , the Chinese Exclusion Act required that " … from and after the expiration of ninety days next after the passage of this act , and until the expiration of ten years next after the passage of this act , the coming of Chinese laborers to the United States be , and the same is hereby , suspended ; and during such suspension it shall not be lawful for any Chinese laborer to come . " In the years preceding the Rock Springs massacre , the importation of Chinese labor was seen as a " system worse than slavery " . The white miners at Rock Springs , being mostly Cornish , Irish , Swedish , and Welsh immigrants , believed lower @-@ paid Chinese laborers drove down their wages .
The Chinese at Rock Springs were aware of the animosity and rising racial tension with white miners , but had not taken any precautions , as no prior events indicated there would be any race riots . Underlying the outbreak of violence were racism and resentment of the policies of the Union Pacific Coal Department . Until 1875 , the mines in Rock Springs were worked by whites ; in that year , a strike occurred , and the strikers were replaced with Chinese strikebreakers less than two weeks after the strike began . The company resumed mining with 50 white miners and 150 Chinese miners in its employ . As more Chinese arrived in Rock Springs , bitterness from the white miners increased . At the time of the massacre , there were about 150 white miners and 331 Chinese miners in Rock Springs .
In the two years before the massacre , a " Whitemen 's Town " was established in Rock Springs . By 1883 , the Knights of Labor organized a chapter in Rock Springs . The Knights were one of the major groups which spearheaded opposition to Chinese labor during the 1880s ; in 1882 , the Knights had worked for the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act . No evidence has been uncovered to prove that the national Knights of Labor organization was behind the massacre at Rock Springs . In August 1885 , notices were posted from Evanston to Rock Springs , demanding the expulsion of Chinese immigrants , and on the evening of September 1 , 1885 , one day before the violence , white miners in Rock Springs held a meeting regarding the Chinese immigrants . It was rumored that threats were made that night against the Chinese , according to immigrants then residing there .
= = Massacre = =
= = = Chronology = = =
At 7 : 00 a.m. on September 2 , 1885 , ten white men , in ordinary garb and miner 's uniforms , arrived at coal pit number six at the Rock Springs mine . They declared that the Chinese laborers had no right to work in a particularly desirable " room " in the mine ; miners were paid by the ton , thus location was important to the miners . A fight broke out , and two Chinese workers at pit number six were badly beaten . One of the Chinese workers later died due to his injuries . The white miners , most of whom were members of the Knights of Labor , walked out of the mine .
After the work stoppage at pit number six , more white miners assembled near the town . They marched to Rock Springs by way of the railroad , carrying firearms . At about 10 : 00 a.m. , the bell in the Knights of Labor meeting hall tolled , and the miners inside the building joined the already large group . There were white miners who opted to go to saloons instead of joining the gathering mob , but by 2 : 00 p.m. , the saloons and grocers were persuaded by a Union Pacific official to close .
With the saloons and grocers closed , about 150 men , armed with Winchester rifles , moved toward Chinatown in Rock Springs . They moved in two groups and entered Chinatown by crossing separate bridges . The larger group entered by way of the railroad bridge and was divided into squads , a few of which remained standing on the opposite side of the bridge outside Chinatown . The smaller group entered by way of the town 's plank bridge .
Squads from the larger group broke off and moved up the hill toward coal pit number three . One squad took up a position at the pit number three coal shed ; another , at the pump house . A warning party was sent ahead of the squads into Chinatown . They warned the Chinese they had one hour to pack up and leave town . After only 30 minutes , the first gunshots were fired by the squad at the pump house , followed by a volley from those at the coal shed . Lor Sun Kit , a Chinese laborer , was shot and fell to the ground . As the group at coal pit number three rejoined them , the crowd pressed on toward Chinatown , some men firing their weapons as they went . The smaller group of white miners at the plank bridge divided itself into squads and surrounded Chinatown . One squad stayed at the plank bridge to cut off any Chinese escape .
As the white miners moved into Chinatown , the Chinese became aware of the riot and that Leo Dye Bah and Yip Ah Marn , residents from the west and east sides of Chinatown , had already been killed . As the news of the murders spread , the Chinese fled in fear and confusion . They ran in every direction : up the hill behind coal pit number three ; others , along the base of the hill at coal pit number four ; others still , from the eastern end of town , fled across Bitter Creek to the opposite hill ; and more fled the western end of Chinatown across the base of the hill to the right of coal pit number five . The mob came from three directions by this time , from the east and west ends of town and from the wagon road . The Chinese immigrants present at the Rock Springs massacre presented their own grisly account of the mêlée to the Chinese consul in New York City :
Whenever the mob met a Chinese they stopped him and , pointing a weapon at him , asked him if he had any revolver , and then approaching him they searched his person , robbing him of his watch or any gold or silver that he might have about him , before letting him go . Some of the rioters would let a Chinese go after depriving him of all his gold and silver , while another Chinese would be beaten with the butt ends of the weapons before being let go . Some of the rioters , when they could not stop a Chinese , would shoot him dead on the spot , and then search and rob him . Some would overtake a Chinese , throw him down and search and rob him before they would let him go . Some of the rioters would not fire their weapons , but would only use the butt ends to beat the Chinese with . Some would not beat a Chinese , but rob him of whatever he had and let him go , yelling to him to go quickly . Some , who took no part either in beating or robbing the Chinese , stood by , shouting loudly and laughing and clapping their hands .
By 3 : 30 p.m. the massacre was well under way . A group of women in Rock Springs had gathered at the plank bridge , where they stood and cheered on the rampage . Two of the women reportedly fired shots at the Chinese . As the riot wore on into the night , the Chinese miners scattered into the hills , lying in the grass to hide . Between four and nine p.m. , rioters set fire to the camp houses belonging to the coal company . By nine p.m. , all but one Chinese camp house was burned completely . In all , 79 Chinese homes were destroyed by fire . Damage to Chinese @-@ owned property was estimated at around $ 147 @,@ 000 .
Some Chinese died on the banks of Bitter Creek as they fled , others near the railroad bridge as they attempted to escape Chinatown . The rioters threw Chinese bodies into the flames of burning buildings . Other Chinese immigrants , who had hidden in their houses instead of fleeing , were murdered , and then their bodies were burned with their houses . Those who could not run , including the sick , were burned alive in their camp houses . Many of the Chinese who were burned in their houses apparently tried " to dig a hole in the cellar to hide themselves . But the fire overtook them when about half way in the hole , burning their lower limbs to a crisp and leaving the upper trunk untouched . " One remaining Chinese immigrant was found dead in a laundry house in Whitemen 's Town , his home demolished by rioters .
The attacks at Rock Springs were extraordinarily violent , revealing a long @-@ held , almost " feral " , hatred of the victims . The sheer brutality of the violence " startled " the entire country . Besides those who were burned alive , Chinese miners were scalped , mutilated , branded , decapitated , dismembered , and hanged from gutter spouts . One of the Chinese miners ' penis and testicles were cut off and toasted in a nearby saloon as a " trophy of the hunt " . The events amounted to racial terrorism .
There were 28 confirmed deaths , and at least 15 miners were wounded . But various sources assert that 40 to 50 fatalities might be a more accurate number , as some of those who fled were never accounted for . The Chinese consul in New York City compiled a detailed list of the massacre 's victims .
= = = Names of the dead = = =
= = = = Bodies found mutilated = = = =
Leo Sun Tsung , 51 : found in his hut with multiple wounds , including a bullet wound to the face
Leo Kow Boot , 24 : found between mines three and four with a bullet wound to the neck
Yii See Yen , 36 : found near Bitter Creek with a bullet wound to the temple
Leo Dye Bah , 56 : found near the plank bridge with a bullet wound to the chest
= = = = Bodies found burned = = = =
Choo Bah Quot , 23 : found in a hut adjoining Camp No. 34 , partially burned
Sia Bun Ning , 37 : head , neck and shoulders found in a hut near the Chinese temple , the rest of the body had been burned off
Leo Lung Hong , 45 : upper torso found in a hut near Camp No. 27 , the rest of the body was burned off
Leo Chih Ming , 49 : head and chest found in a hut , the rest of the body was burned off
Liang Tsun Bong , 42 : upper torso found in a hut , the rest of the body was burned off
Hsu Ah Cheong , 32 : skull found in a hut , no other remains were available
Lor Han Lung , 32 : sole and heel of left foot found in a hut near Camp No. 34
Hoo Ah Nii , 43 : right half of head and backbone found in a hut
Leo Tse Wing , 39 : lower half bones found in a hut near Camp No. 14
= = = = Bone fragments only or no bodies found = = = =
Leo Jew Foo , 35
Leo Tim Kwong , 31
Hung Qwan Chuen , 42
Tom He Yew , 34
Mar Tse Choy
Leo Lung Siang
Yip Ah Marn
Leo Lung Hon
Leo Lung Hor
Leo Ah Tsun
Leang Ding
Leo Hoy Yat
Yuen Chin Sing
Hsu Ah Tseng
Chun Quan Sing
= = Outcome = =
= = = Immediate aftermath = = =
In the days following the riot , surviving Chinese immigrants in Rock Springs fled and were picked up by Union Pacific trains . By September 5 , almost all survivors were in Evanston , Wyoming , 100 miles ( 160 km ) west of Rock Springs . Once there , they were subjected to threats of murder and other crimes ; Evanston was another area in Wyoming where anti @-@ Chinese sentiment was high .
Rumors of the return of the Chinese to Rock Springs circulated since immediately after the riots . On September 3 , the Rock Springs Independent published an editorial which confirmed the rumors of " the return " , as a few Chinese began to trickle back into town to search for valuables . The Independent said of the return of Chinese laborers to Rock Springs , " It means that Rock Springs is killed , as far as white men are concerned , if such program is carried out . " The massacre was defended in the local newspaper , and , to an extent , in other western newspapers . In general , however , Wyoming newspapers disapproved of the acts of the massacre while supporting the cause of white miners .
Wyoming 's territorial Governor Francis E. Warren visited Rock Springs on September 3 , 1885 , the day after the riot , to make a personal assessment . After his trip to Rock Springs , Warren traveled to Evanston , where he sent telegrams to U.S. President Grover Cleveland appealing for federal troops . Back in Rock Springs , the riot had calmed , but the situation was still unstable . Two companies of the United States Army 's 7th Infantry arrived on September 5 , 1885 . One company , under the command of a Lieutenant Colonel Anderson , was stationed in Evanston , Wyoming ; the other , under a Colonel Chipman , was stationed in Rock Springs . At Camp Murray , Utah Territory , Colonel Alexander McDowell McCook was ordered to augment the garrison sent to Wyoming with six more companies .
On September 9 , 1885 , one week after the massacre , six companies of soldiers arrived in Wyoming . Four of the six companies then escorted the Chinese back to Rock Springs . Once back in Rock Springs , the Chinese laborers found scorched tracts of land where their homes once stood . The mining company had buried only a few dead ; others remained lying in the open , mangled , decomposing , and partially eaten by dogs , hogs , or other animals .
The situation in Rock Springs was stabilized as early as September 15 , when Warren first requested the removal of federal troops , but the mines at Rock Springs remained closed for a time . On September 30 , 1885 , white miners , mostly Finnish immigrants who were members of the Knights of Labor , walked out of mines in Carbon County , Wyoming , in protest of the company 's continued use of Chinese miners . In Rock Springs , the white miners were not back at work in late September , because the company still used Chinese labor . Rock Springs steadily became quieter , and , on October 5 , 1885 , emergency troops , except for two companies , were removed . However , the temporary posts of Camp Medicine Butte , established in Evanston , and of Camp Pilot Butte , in Rock Springs , remained long after the riot . Camp Pilot Butte closed in 1899 after the onset of the Spanish – American War .
The labor strike was unsuccessful , and the miners went back to work within a couple of months . The national Knights of Labor organization refused to support the Carbon strike and the hold out by white miners in Rock Springs following the Rock Springs Riot . The organization avoided supporting the miners along the Union Pacific Railroad , because it did not want to be seen as condoning the violence at Rock Springs . When the Union Pacific Coal Department reopened the mines , it fired 45 white miners connected to the violence .
= = = Arrests = = =
After the riot in Rock Springs , sixteen men were arrested , including Isaiah Washington , a member @-@ elect to the territorial legislature . The men were taken to jail in Green River , where they were held until after a Sweetwater County grand jury refused to bring indictments . In explaining its decision , the grand jury declared that there was no cause for legal action , stating , in part : " We have diligently inquired into the occurrence at Rock Springs .... [ T ] hough we have examined a large number of witnesses , no one has been able to testify to a single criminal act committed by any known white person that day . "
Those arrested as suspects in the riot were released a little more than a month later , on October 7 , 1885 . On their release , they were " ... met ... by several hundred men , women and children , and treated to a regular ovation " , according to The New York Times . The defendants in the Rock Springs case enjoyed the same broad community consent that lynch mobs often received . No person or persons were ever convicted in the violence at Rock Springs .
= = = Diplomatic and political issues = = =
After the riot , the U.S. government hesitated to make amends to the Chinese for the massacre . In China , the governor @-@ general of the Guangdong region suggested that Americans in China might be the target of revenge for the events in Rock Springs . The American envoy to China , Charles Harvey Denby , and others in the diplomatic corps reported rising anti @-@ American sentiment in Hong Kong and in Canton , Guangdong , following the riot . American diplomats warned their government that the backlash from the massacre could ruin U.S. trade with China ; they also reported that British merchants and newspapers in China were encouraging the Chinese to " stand up for their oppressed countrymen in America . " Denby advised that U.S. Secretary of State Thomas Bayard obtain compensation for the victims of the massacre .
The United States government agreed to pay compensation for the damaged property but not for the actual victims of the massacre , although Bayard was inclined to resist the requests for payments . In a letter to the minister of China 's Washington legation dated February 18 , 1886 , he expressed a personal view that the violence against Chinese immigrants was precipitated by their resistance to cultural assimilation , and that racism against Chinese was typically found among other immigrants rather than the majority of the populace :
Chinese immigrants ... segregate themselves from the rest of the residents and citizens of the United States and ... refuse to mingle with the mass of population ... As a consequence , race prejudice has been more excited against them , notably among aliens of other nationalities ...
Denby 's predictions caused Bayard to seek a Congressionally appropriated indemnity . At Bayard 's urging , the U.S. Congress provided US $ 147 @,@ 748 @.@ 74 as an indemnity . The compensation was made as a monetary gift and not as a legal decree of responsibility for the massacre and the outcome amounted to a minor diplomatic victory for China .
Correspondence between Wyoming 's territorial Governor , Francis Warren , and Union Pacific officials during Warren 's term in office indicate that he petitioned the company for years to clear the titles on land he owned . He condemned the riot as " the most brutal and damnable outrage that ever occurred in any country . "
= = = Reaction = = =
After the riot , rhetoric and reaction came from publications and key political figures concerning the events . The New York Times blasted the city of Rock Springs in the first of at least two editorials on the topic , stating , " the appropriate fate for a community of this kind would be that of Sodom and Gomorrah " . In another Times editorial on November 10 , 1885 , the paper continued to assail not only the residents of Rock Springs who were involved in the violence , but those who stood by and let the mob continue its behavior . Newspapers in Wyoming , such as the Cheyenne Tribune and the Laramie Boomerang , reacted with sympathy toward the white miners . The Boomerang stated it " regretted " the riot but found extenuating circumstances surrounding the violence .
In addition to newspapers , anti @-@ Chinese sentiment and stereotypes came from other publications . Religious publications , such as Baptist Missionary Magazine , depicted the Chinese as " heathens . " The Chautauquan : A Weekly Newsmagazine characterized the Chinese as weak and defenseless , stating in its coverage of the massacre : " To murder an industrious Chinaman is the same kind of fiendish work as the murder of women and children – it is equally a violation of the rights of the defenceless . "
Knights of Labor leader Terence Powderly wrote in a letter to W.W. Stone ( excerpts of which he included in a report to the U.S. Congress ) that , " It is not necessary for me to speak of the numerous reasons given for the opposition to this particular race – their habits , religion , customs and practices ... " Powderly blamed the " problem " of Chinese immigration on the failings of the 1882 Exclusion Act . He faulted lax law enforcement , not those involved in the riots , for the attacks at Rock Springs . Powderly wrote that the U.S. Congress should stop " winking at violations of this statute " and reform the laws which barred Chinese immigration , which he believed could have prevented incidents such as " the recent assault upon the Chinese at Rock Springs " .
In December 1885 , U.S. President Grover Cleveland presented his State of the Union report to Congress , and in it , his reaction to the Rock Springs massacre . Cleveland 's report pointed out that the United States was interested in good relations with China . He stated , " All of the power of this government should be exhorted to maintain the amplest good faith towards China in the treatment of these men , and the inflexible sternness of the law ... must be insisted upon ... race prejudice is the chief factor to originating these disturbances " .
= = Post @-@ massacre violence = =
The massacre at Rock Springs led to other incidents of anti @-@ Chinese aggression , primarily in Washington Territory , though there were incidents in Oregon and other states as well . Near Newcastle , Washington a mob of whites burned down the barracks of 36 Chinese coal miners . Throughout the Puget Sound area , Chinese workers were driven out of communities and subject to violence in Washington cities and towns , including Tacoma , Seattle , Newcastle , and Issaquah . Chinese workers were driven out of other Washington towns , but sources indicated , as early as 1891 , that the above events were specifically connected to the wave of violence touched off at Rock Springs .
The wave of anti @-@ Chinese violence in the western United States following the Rock Springs Riot spread further , to the state of Oregon . Mobs drove Chinese workers out of small towns throughout the state in late 1
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885 and mid @-@ 1886 . Other states reported incidents as well : As far away as Augusta , Georgia , anger was expressed against the Chinese in response to the massacre at Rock Springs . According to The New York Times , the rioting in Rock Springs fueled the desire of anti @-@ Chinese Georgians in Augusta to air their grievances .
= = Significance and context = =
The Rock Springs massacre was seen by observers at the time , and by historians today , as the worst , most significant instance of anti @-@ Chinese violence in the 19th century United States . The riot received widespread media coverage from publications such as The National Police Gazette and The New York Times . Among the events of anti @-@ Chinese violence in the American west , the Rock Springs massacre is considered the most widely publicized .
Today , nearly all historians hold the view that the prime factor which contributed to the riot was race prejudice . However , a 1990 work on the Rock Springs massacre , written by journalist Craig Storti , marginalized the racial factor and put a stronger emphasis on the economic factors which contributed to violence . His book , Incident at Bitter Creek : The Rock Springs Massacre , was widely criticized in reviews , though Storti stated he represented the historical record as it stood . There were labor considerations that contributed to the violence in Rock Springs , though they are generally seen as less significant . The use of Chinese workers by the railroad during an 1875 strike created widespread resentment among the white miners , which continued to build until the Rock Springs massacre . Storti 's book described anti @-@ Chinese racism as " pervasive " even while downplaying its significance to the riot . The view that the Chinese refused to assimilate into American culture was held historically and still carries some weight in present @-@ day interpretations of the historical record .
Present @-@ day Rock Springs has a population pushing 20 @,@ 000 . The former settlement is a full @-@ fledged city . The area that once encompassed Camp Pilot Butte is located on the north bank of Bitter Creek , in the northwest part of the city . The camp covered 5 1 ⁄ 2 acres of Union Pacific property ; the parade ground was in the center of a present @-@ day city block bounded by Soulsby Street on the west , Pilot Butte Avenue on the east , Bridger Avenue on the north and Elias Avenue on its south . In 1973 , the area where the army post once existed was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places as an historic district . At that time , there were only two remaining original structures . The two buildings were owned by the Saints Cyril and Methodius Catholic Church in Rock Springs . The buildings are no longer extant , and the property is no longer listed on the National Register . The area that was once Chinatown , just north of where Camp Pilot Butte once stood , had a public elementary school built over part of it . In general , the locations in Rock Springs associated with the massacre have been surrounded and absorbed by the city 's growth .
= SMS Freya =
SMS Freya was a protected cruiser of the Victoria Louise class , built for the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) in the 1890s , along with her sister ships Victoria Louise , Hertha , Vineta , and Hansa . Freya was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig in 1895 , launched in April 1897 , and commissioned into the Navy in October 1898 . The ship was armed with a battery of two 21 cm guns and eight 15 cm guns and had a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Freya served in the German fleet for the initial years of her career , unlike her sister ships , all of which served abroad on foreign stations . As a result , she led a fairly uneventful career in the fleet . After a modernization in 1905 – 1907 , Freya was used as a school ship for cadets . At the outbreak of World War I , Freya was mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , but served in front @-@ line duty only briefly . She was used as a barracks ship after 1915 , and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1921 .
= = Design = =
Freya was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Freya " and was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig in 1895 . She was launched on 27 April 1897 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the German navy on 20 October 1898 . The ship was 110 @.@ 6 meters ( 363 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 17 @.@ 4 m ( 57 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 58 m ( 21 @.@ 6 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 491 t ( 6 @,@ 388 long tons ; 7 @,@ 155 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of three vertical 4 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers . Her engines provided a top speed of 19 kn ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) and a range of approximately 3 @,@ 412 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 319 km ; 3 @,@ 926 mi ) at 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 31 officers and 446 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with two 21 cm SK L / 40 guns in single turrets , one forward and one aft . The guns were supplied with 58 rounds of ammunition each . They had a range of 16 @,@ 300 m ( 53 @,@ 500 ft ) . Vineta also carried eight 15 cm SK L / 40 guns . Four were mounted in turrets amidships and the other four were placed in casemates . These guns had a range of 13 @,@ 700 m ( 44 @,@ 900 ft ) . She also carried ten 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 35 guns . The gun armament was rounded out by machine guns . She was also equipped with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes , two launchers were mounted on the broadside and the third was in the bow , all below the waterline .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Freya served with the German fleet . On 1 September 1902 , Freya joined the Cruiser Division of the I Squadron of the German home fleet . The Division consisted of the armored cruiser Prinz Heinrich , the flagship , Victoria Louise , and the light cruisers Hela , Amazone , and Niobe . The Division participated in the summer fleet maneuvers of August – September 1902 . In 1905 , Freya went into drydock at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven for modernization . During the refit she was re @-@ boilered ; she had been built originally with three stacks , and during the modernization they were trunked into two funnels . The refit was finished in 1907 , after which Freya was used as a training ship for naval cadets .
In 1907 , Günther Lütjens served aboard the ship as a cadet ; Lütjens went on to command the task force composed of Bismarck and Prinz Eugen in World War II . In August 1908 , Freya represented Germany at celebrations in Halifax , Canada , commemorating the 150th anniversary of the opening of the Canadian Parliament . While entering the port at around midnight on 9 August , she inadvertently rammed a schooner in heavy fog . Nine sailors were killed in the accident .
Freya had a short career during World War I. At the outbreak of hostilities , she was briefly mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , which was tasked with training cadets in the Baltic Sea . By the end of 1914 , however , the ships were again removed from service . She was then put into service as a coastal defense ship . After 1915 , she was withdrawn from front @-@ line duty again and returned to service as a training ship based in Flensburg . She served in this capacity through to the end of the war . In 1915 , Bernhard Rogge , who would go on to command the raider Atlantis during World War II , served aboard the ship as a cadet . The old aviso Grille became Freya 's tender starting in July 1915 . She was stricken on 25 January 1920 and used briefly as a barracks ship for police in Hamburg . She was ultimately broken up for scrap in Harburg in 1921 .
= 1989 North Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1989 North Indian Ocean cyclone season was a below @-@ average season in annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation . The season has no official bounds but cyclones tend to form between April and December . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northern Indian Ocean . There are two main seas in the North Indian Ocean — the Bay of Bengal to the east of the Indian subcontinent and the Arabian Sea to the west of India . The official Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre in this basin is the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) releases unofficial advisories . An average of five tropical cyclones form in the North Indian Ocean every season with peaks in May and November . Cyclones occurring between the meridians 45 ° E and 100 ° E are included in the season by the IMD .
Throughout the season , the IMD monitored ten depressions , three of which became cyclonic storms . The strongest storm of the year was Super Cyclonic Storm Gay . Crossing the Malay Peninsula into the Bay of Bengal on November 4 , Gay became one of the most powerful systems on record in the basin , attaining an estimated pressure of 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . Collectively , the storms were responsible for at least 1 @,@ 785 fatalities , 1 @,@ 445 of which were due the disastrous flooding triggered by the July Cyclonic Storm , and more than $ 25 million in damage .
= = Storms = =
= = = Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 01 / 01B = = =
In mid @-@ May , a monsoon trough situated over the Bay of Bengal began showing signs of cyclonic development . By May 20 , synoptic data indicated the presence of a weak circulation ; however , the system remained disorganized . Following a dramatic increase in convection and organization , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on May 23 and subsequently began monitoring the system as a tropical depression hours later . Initially , the depression tracked slowly towards the north @-@ northwest before abruptly turning westward and slowing due to weak mid @-@ level steering currents . During this time , the storm gradually intensified and was limited by northwesterly wind shear . By May 26 , the storm turned northward and accelerated . Later that day , 01B attained its peak intensity with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) shortly before making landfall in eastern India . The system quickly weakened once inland and was last noted on May 27 as a dissipating low .
Striking India on May 26 , the storm brought wind gusts up to 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) and torrential rains , amounting to 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) , which caused widespread damage . The hardest hit area was Midnapore where more than 10 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed . At least 17 people were killed in the district alone and more than 50 @,@ 000 were left homeless . Communications across Orissa were severely disrupted as broadcast stations , government buildings , and hundreds of telephone poles were destroyed . Further inland , heavy rains from the storm triggered several landslides that killed at least two people in Darjeeling Hills . Throughout eastern India , 61 people were killed and more than 500 @,@ 000 were left homeless by the storm .
In nearby Bangladesh , strong winds produced by the storm destroyed 500 homes across 11 villages . Areas devastated by a tornado a month prior were severely affected by the cyclone . In Tangail , a powerful tornado spawned by the storm destroyed 2 @,@ 000 homes and killed 10 people . At least 60 people perished and 2 @,@ 000 others were injured across the country . Offshore , 150 fishermen went missing during the storm and were feared dead . In the wake of the storm , widespread search and rescue missions took place in cities flattened by the cyclone .
= = = Depression ARB 01 / 02A = = =
On June 7 , small area of low pressure developed off the west coast of India . Over the following two days , convection associated with the low gradually organized and by June 9 , satellite intensity estimates from the JTWC reached 55 km / h ( 30 mph ) . A TCFA was subsequently issued for the system before it made landfall in Gujarat early on June 10 . Although overland , the low maintained significant convection as it turned westward and through its re @-@ emergence into the Arabian Sea on June 11 . Once back over water , convection rapidly spread westward in response to an anticyclone over the Arabian Peninsula and Afghanistan . Early on June 12 , the cyclone was estimated to have attained tropical storm status based on a ship report near the center of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) sustained winds and a surface pressure of 998 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 47 inHg ) . Later that day , strong wind shear stemming from the anticyclone displaced convection from the tropical storm by more than 110 km ( 70 mi ) , prompting the final advisory from the JTWC . The remnants of the system were last noted on June 13 dissipating over the Arabian Sea .
= = = Cyclonic Storm BOB 04 = = =
On July 22 , the IMD began monitoring a depression over the Bay of Bengal . Tracking west @-@ northwest , the system intensified into a cyclonic storm later that day before making landfall in Andhra Pradesh , just north of Vishakhapatnam . Once onshore the storm accelerated towards the northwest and weakened . By July 24 , the remnants of the cyclone were located over the state of Maharashtra . The system was last noted the following day over Gujarat and moving into Pakistan .
Across Andhra Pradesh , Orissa , and Uttar Pradesh heavy rains produced by the storm triggered flash flooding and mudslides that killed at least 414 people . According to Chief Minister Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao , approximately 70 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed in Andhra Pradesh . While over Maharashtra , the storm produced torrential rainfall , reaching 280 mm ( 11 in ) in 24 hours in Bombay , which caused deadly flash flooding and mudslides . Most of the railway tracks in metropolitan Bombay were left underwater , paralyzing the city and forcing businesses to close for several days . The city 's stock exchange remained open , though only sparse trading was observed . Flood waters isolated 46 villages in the region , prompting the deployment of the Indian Army for rescue missions . At least 500 people were killed throughout Maharashtra , more than 200 of which took place in the Raigad district . An unknown number of people were killed after a bridge collapsed with two train carriages on it . Additionally , 75 others were reported missing in the district according to local police . Offshore , 500 fishermen went missing in connection to the storm and are believed to have died .
Flooding rains extended into Pakistan by July 26 . Flash floods in the slums outside Karachi killed at least 16 people and washed away 500 huts . An estimated 20 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the city . Communication and transportation throughout Karachi was reportedly paralyzed as well due to widespread power outages . Further north in Hyderabad , six others were killed by the storm . Throughout the country , at least 31 people were killed .
= = = Super Cyclonic Storm Gay = = =
On November 2 , a tropical depression , later named Gay , developed in the Gulf of Thailand and favorable atmospheric conditions allowed the system to undergo rapid intensification . By November 3 , Gay had intensified to a Category 3 @-@ equivalent typhoon before striking Thailand . Crossing the Kra Isthmus in approximately six hours , the system emerged into the Bay of Bengal as a Category 1 @-@ equivalent cyclone and assumed a west @-@ northwesterly track towards India . For the next four days , the storm gradually reorganized before reaching a small area favorable for more significant intensification late on November 6 . Hours before making landfall in India , Gay attained its peak intensity as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent cyclone with winds estimated at 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . Additionally , the IMD estimated that the storm had three @-@ minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 145 mph ) , classifying Gay as a modern @-@ day Super Cyclonic Storm . The powerful storm soon made landfall near Kavali , India , in Andhra Pradesh before rapidly weakening onshore . The system eventually dissipated over Maharashtra on November 10 .
In Thailand , the storm caused extensive damage both onshore and off , killing 833 people and inflicting approximately ฿ 11 billion ( US $ 497 million ) in damage . Striking India as a powerful cyclone , Gay damaged or destroyed about 20 @,@ 000 homes in Andhra Pradesh , leaving 100 @,@ 000 people homeless . In that country , 69 deaths and ₹ 410 million ( US $ 25 @.@ 3 million ) in damage were attributed to Gay .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the storms listed above , the IMD monitored six other depressions throughout the year .
June 12 – 14
Formed in the northern Bay of Bengal and made landfall in Orissa , India .
June 20 – 21
Formed in the northern Bay of Bengal and made landfall in West Bengal , India .
August 16 – 17
Formed in the Bay of Bengal and made landfall in Andhra Pradesh , India .
October 17 – 18
Formed in the Bay of Bengal and made landfall near the India / Bangladesh border . In Bangladesh , heavy rains and high winds , estimated at 60 to 70 km / h ( 37 to 43 mph ) , caused significant damage . At least 100 people were injured and 1 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed , mainly in the Chandpur District . Following the storm , the Bangladesh Red Crescent Society dispatched four medical teams and relief materials to the affected regions .
November 11
Brief depression formed over the Bay of Bengal before dissipating just north of Sri Lanka the same day .
November 17 – 20
A slow moving depression formed over the Bay of Bengal , northeast of Sri Lanka , and meandered in the same general area for three days before dissipating .
= Hurricane Florence ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane Florence was the first North Atlantic hurricane to produce hurricane force winds on the island of Bermuda since Hurricane Fabian in September 2003 . The seventh tropical storm and second hurricane of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season , Florence developed from a tropical wave in the eastern Atlantic Ocean on September 3 . Due to unfavorable conditions , the system failed to organize initially , and as a result , the storm grew to an unusually large size . After several days , Florence encountered an area of lesser wind shear and intensified into a hurricane on September 10 . It passed just west of Bermuda while recurving northeastward , and on September 13 it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
Florence produced wind gusts of up to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on Bermuda , which caused several power outages and minor damage . Florence then brought heavy rains across Newfoundland as an extratropical storm , destroying one house and causing minor damage to several others . There were no fatalities as a result of the hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 29 . It tracked slowly westward , and first showed signs of development two days later . On August 31 , a second tropical wave exited the coast of Africa at a faster speed than its predecessor . The two waves interacted , and by September 2 combined to form a large area of disturbed weather across the eastern Atlantic Ocean . Convection increased within the system , and it developed a concentrated area of convection in conjunction with a well @-@ defined low pressure area . By late on September 3 , the system maintained a broad closed circulation and enough convective organization to be classified Tropical Depression Six while located about midway between the Lesser Antilles and Africa .
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression maintained multiple cloud swirls within a common center . Banding features increased , though southwesterly wind shear and the lack of a well @-@ defined circulation prevented initial strengthening . Dry air encountered the depression , and as such it developed very slowly ; forecasters maintained considerable difficulty in determining a center of circulation . It continued its motion to the west @-@ northwest while tracking around the southern periphery of a deep @-@ layer subtropical ridge to its north . Though convection remained focused near the outer periphery of the system , the overall organized continued to steadily increase , and it is estimated the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Florence on September 5 while located about 1 @,@ 120 miles ( 1 @,@ 800 km ) east @-@ northeast of Anguilla .
After attaining tropical storm status , the maximum sustained winds fluctuated for three days between 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . This was due to the large size of Florence ; the overall wind field reached a diameter of 460 miles ( 745 km ) , and the radius of maximum winds reached about 110 miles ( 170 km ) . By September 6 , a well @-@ defined cloud swirl became evident , with thin rainbands developing in the southeast and northwest quadrants . As a result , hurricane forecasters anticipated Florence would develop significantly and attain major hurricane status . Though convection gradually migrated closer to the center of the storm , forecasters could not detect a well @-@ defined center of circulation by late on September 6 . On September 7 , convection developed over and to the west of the
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( Andy Buckley ) , former CFO of Dunder Mifflin . Wallace , who is also attending the fundraiser , reveals to Andy that after his firing , he sold his toy @-@ vacuum invention " Suck It " to the military for $ 20 million .
= = Cultural references = =
The cold opening references several notable bands and musicians : the scene consists of Ryan complaining because he recently heard – erroneously – that notable musician Smokey Robinson died . Initially , Ryan refers to him as only " Smokey " , which causes Pam to believe he is talking about Smokey the Bear . However , Ryan , on the bequest of Pam , is only able to name one song that Robinson sung , " The Tracks of My Tears " . Pam , however , is later able to remember that he sang " Tears of a Clown " , and Jim references " I Second That Emotion " . After Jim proves that Robinson is both still alive and playing at a local venue , Ryan tells him that he will be unable to attend because the opening band is Paul Anka , and that is " not what Smokey would have … does want ! " During his pontificating rant , Ryan mentions that popular music is not all about " Jason Mraz and The Beatles " , which shocks Dwight . Dwight lists of " Eleanor Rigby " and " Paperback Writer " and asks Ryan if he truly does not like those songs .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Fundraiser " originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 26 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 17 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode finished third in its time slot , being beaten by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 % share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode beat the Fox series Touch and The CW drama series The Secret Circle . Despite this , " Fundraiser " was the highest @-@ rated NBC television episode of the night . The episode was the 25th most watched episode in the 18 – 49 demographic for the week ending April 29 .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics , with critiques ranging from largely positive to very negative . Myles McNutt from The A.V. Club gave the episode a slightly positive review and gave it a B- rating . He wrote , " The Office is far from a profound show when it just throws its characters in a room and observes their behavior , but there ’ s a certain charm to it . " McNutt noted that , despite feeling that the episode 's description of " Darryl teaches Nellie how to eat a taco " was a poor move on NBC 's part , he thought they " could have spent more time with Nellie learning how to eat a taco . " Craig McQuinn from The Faster Times wrote positively of the episode , noting , " For the first time in forever this is an episode of The Office that actually has a lot going on . Whether the stuff that ’ s happening is actually meaningful or significant in any way is up for debate , but I actually enjoyed most of this episode . "
Not all reviews were positive . Dan Forcella from TV Fanatics gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . Forcella noted " It has been four episodes now since the super team returned from Florida , and The Office still hasn 't found its footing back in Scranton " , and he called the outing " another lackluster effort " . A review from CliqueClack was largely critical of the episode , calling it " worse than usual " and noting that the show had finally hit " rock bottom " . WhatCulture ! Reviewer Joseph Kratzer felt that the episode 's setting – outside of the office building – was detrimental to the episode . He wrote , " The thing is , I in no way felt like any of what occurred in ' Fundraiser ' needed to take place outside the Scranton branch and that ’ s really why a sitcom should move locations for an episode – because the story couldn 't function without it . But this time it just felt like a cheap way to liven up a clearly very boring , uninspired , weak episode of television . " Screen Crave wrote , " Those viewers of The Office that have scolded the show throughout the season for its varying degrees of sucking , are not likely to be changing their thinking after watching the latest episode . "
However , many reviews were extremely happy about the return of Andy Buckley , who portrayed David Wallace . A review from TV Equals noted that " I ’ m not totally convinced that David Wallace ’ s story is as simple as the one he tells , but maybe that ’ s just because I ’ d love any excuse for him to work his way back into the story lines for The Office . " Michael Tedder from Vulture called Wallace 's character " always @-@ welcome " .
= Pinkan Mambo =
Pinkan Ratnasari Mambo ( born 11 November 1980 ) , also spelled Pingkan Mambo , is an Indonesian pop singer . She achieved success as the vocalist in the Indonesian music duo Ratu between 2000 and 2004 , then continued her career as a soloist .
Born and raised in Jakarta , Mambo began singing at an early age but only began to sing in public as a teenager . While still in senior high school , she found a job as a café singer and performed in numerous venues throughout Jakarta . In 2000 she joined songwriter and music producer Maia Estianty as part of Ratu after she met Estianty 's husband Ahmad Dhani , the singer for the band Dewa 19 ; after six casting calls , Dhani invited her to join the band , which he had established for his wife and let her manage . The duo was successful , but because of conflict between the two members and Mambo 's unintended pregnancy , she left the group . She then began a solo career with Sony BMG , releasing three solo albums as of 2012 . She also acted in one film , Selimut Berdarah , in 2010 .
Onstage Mambo is known as an energetic performer who often includes her audience in her act . She generally collaborates with other artists , working with local bands when she performs and has other people write her songs . The mother of two children , as of 2013 , she 's married to music @-@ video director Steve Wantania .
= = Early life = =
Mambo was born in Jakarta on 11 November 1980 to Yoke F. Mambo and his wife Deetje Syarif . She was the eldest , and only girl , of three children born to the couple . When she was five years old , her parents divorced . Not long afterwards , Mambo was sent to live with her grandmother because her mother , who received custody , could not afford to send Mambo to school . The two boys stayed with their mother .
Life with her grandmother was strict and , as Mambo felt depressed without her father , she became withdrawn , sticking to a daily routine of prayers and studying . However , she performed well at school , ranking amongst the top five in her class at Yapenka Elementary School in South Jakarta . She later became more outgoing and was known among her family and friends as a very feminine child , enjoying dresses and make @-@ up . While in elementary school she began singing along with songs by her favourite singers Mariah Carey and Whitney Houston in her bedroom . Her mother , believing that Mambo had the ability to be a professional singer , convinced Mambo to try and sing in public while the latter was still in junior high school .
Mambo began her studies at Cendrawasih Senior High School in Cilandak , South Jakarta , in 1997 . In 1998 , while visiting a friend at Amigos Café , where she worked , Mambo was asked to sing and later booked as a singer at the café ; her mother supported the decision . Mambo held the job while continuing her studies . She changed venues often , telling the entertainment magazine Tabloid Nova that within a year she had sung at almost every café in the city .
= = Ratu = =
In 1999 Maia Estianty and her husband Ahmad Dhani established a musical duo consisting of a singer and musician , based on concepts pioneered by international bands such as Roxette and Savage Garden . They began looking for a singer . Mambo convinced Dhani to hire her by calling " at all hours of the day " after meeting him while at a café in Pondok Indah Mall in South Jakarta ; she had chosen to seek out Dhani because of his previous experience with new singers , including Reza Artamevi , and had heard that he frequented the mall . After her sixth audition for the band , named Ratu , meaning Queen , she was chosen to be its vocalist . Although Mambo begun studying economics at Trisakti University , owing to the pressures of her contract she dropped out .
After three years of training , during which time Mambo joined Dhani 's band Dewa 19 as a backing singer , Ratu released its first album , Bersama ( Together ) , in 2003 . It had an rhythm and blues ( R & B ) flavour and featured Mambo on vocals and Estianty on instruments . The album was a commercial success , selling 250 @,@ 000 copies . With her portion of the proceeds , Mambo paid for both of her brothers to attend university and bought a car .
Although Mambo and Estianty began work on another album , Mambo withdrew from the group in 2004 after widespread reports that she was pregnant and unmarried ; Mambo said that she had been fired by Estianty , although she admitted that her pregnancy had been a factor . She was officially replaced on 7 April 2005 by Mulan Jameela , a café singer from Bandung who took the stage name Mulan Kwok .
= = Solo career = =
Mambo had long nurtured a desire to become a solo singer . After she left Ratu , she was signed by Sony BMG for six solo albums . Distancing herself from her former band , she found inspiration for her first album from a doll named she saw in a magazine . Considering herself as coquettish and pampered as the doll , she decided to base her album on the concept . Her debut solo album , Aku Tahu Rasanya ( I Know How It Feels ) and its singles " Kasmaran " ( " Passion " ) , " Aku Tahu Rasanya " , and " Dirimu Dirinya " ( " You and He " ) , a mix of pop and R & B , were successful . That year she recorded tracks for the compilation albums Portrait of Yovie Widianto and Best Female Idol .
Mambo began drifting toward a rock sound . She moved away from her on @-@ stage overly feminine persona , her previous " girly " look and her known affection for the colour pink , and marketed herself as a sexy , sensual singer . She released her second album , Wanita Terindah ( The Most Beautiful Woman ) , on 2 July 2008 .
Mambo acted in the 2010 film Selimut Berdarah ( The Bloody Blanket ) , playing a young woman who unknowingly sends her younger sister to an organ harvesting ring . Despite the film 's lack of success , Mambo received numerous acting offers , which she refused . Also in 2010 she recorded " Kau Tercipta Untukku " ( " You Were Made For Me " ) for The Masterpiece of Rinto Harahap , a tribute album to songwriter Rinto Harahap . On 30 November 2011 she released her third solo album , Tentang Cinta ( About Love ) .
= = Music style = =
Mambo does not write her own songs ; rather she uses the works of numerous Indonesian songwriters , including Melly Goeslaw and Glenn Fredly . Since leaving Ratu , Mambo has successfully distanced herself from her coquettish , ultra @-@ feminine look . Her on @-@ stage performance is characterised as very " energetic " ; she dances and mingles with the audience off stage , and invites them to sing with her on stage . She often performs at clubs , using local bands for the music .
= = Personal life = =
Mambo 's 2004 pregnancy led to her cancelling her wedding to Meiza Reza Tobroni , as the father of her unborn child was another man . Mambo gave birth to a boy , Muhammad Alfa Rezel , on 28 January 2005 . That year Mambo 's cousin introduced her to a classmate named Sandy Sanjaya . Mambo and Sanjaya , after three months dating , agreed to be married . On 17 April 2006 they had a daughter , named Michele Ashley Rezya . She and Sanjaya divorced on 14 October 2009 , after having been separated for several months ; towards the end of their relationship , Sanjaya spent more time in Bali than in the couple 's home in Jakarta . Mambo was romantically involved with the association football player Febrianto Wijaya , and they considered marrying . The relationship , however , fell through , and in 2013 Mambo married Steve Wantania , a music @-@ video maker in the United States .
= = Discography = =
Bersama ( Together ; 2003 , with Ratu )
Aku Tahu Rasanya ( I Know How It Feels ; 2006 )
Wanita Terindah ( The Most Beautiful Woman ; 2008 )
Tentang Cinta ( About Love ; 2011 )
= = Filmography = =
Selimut Berdarah ( The Bloody Blanket ; 2010 )
= = Awards = =
= Lisa the Skeptic =
" Lisa the Skeptic " is the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 23 , 1997 . On an archaeological dig with her class , Lisa discovers a skeleton that resembles an angel . All of the townspeople believe that the skeleton actually came from an angel , but skeptical Lisa attempts to persuade them that there must be a rational scientific explanation . The episode 's writer , David X. Cohen , developed the idea after visiting the American Museum of Natural History , and decided to loosely parallel themes from the Scopes Monkey Trial . The episode received generally positive reviews .
It has been discussed in the context of virtual reality , ontology , existentialism , and skepticism ; it has also been used in Christian religious education classes to initiate discussion about angels , skepticism , science , and faith .
= = Plot = =
Homer attempts to claim a motorboat from a " police raffle " that turns out to be a sting operation . While returning home , the family passes a new mall in Springfield that is being built on an area where a large number of fossils were found . Lisa protests strongly , which prompts the school to conduct an archaeological dig . During the excavations , Lisa finds a human skeleton with wings . Springfield 's residents are convinced it is an angel , and Homer cashes in by moving the skeleton into the family 's garage . Lisa remains skeptical , and asks Stephen Jay Gould to test a sample . When Dr. Gould appears at the Simpson house the next day to tell Lisa that the tests were inconclusive , Lisa goes on television to compare the belief in angels to the belief in unicorns and leprechauns . In response , Springfield 's religious zealots go on a rampage to destroy all scientific institutions . Appalled with the violence , Lisa goes into the garage to destroy the skeleton , but finds that it has disappeared . The mob soon converges on the Simpson household , and Lisa is promptly arrested and put on trial for destroying the skeleton .
Before the trial begins , the courtroom 's attention is diverted when the skeleton appears outside , carrying a foreboding message that " The End " will come at sundown . Sundown approaches , and Springfield 's citizens are frightened , but nothing catastrophic occurs . As Lisa starts to reprimand them , the skeleton suddenly silences her and is hoisted over to the entrance of the new Heavenly Hills Mall . Lisa realizes that whole saga was a publicity stunt for the mall . The bargain @-@ loving public ignores Lisa and goes shopping . Marge says that , for a few seconds while it was rising , Lisa believed the angel was real . Lisa denies this , but admits she was frightened and thanks her mother for her support .
= = Production = =
" Lisa the Skeptic " was written by David X. Cohen , and directed by Neil Affleck . Cohen was inspired to write the episode after a trip to Manhattan 's American Museum of Natural History , where he decided to turn the visit into a " business trip " , and think of a possible episode connection to the museum . He initially wanted Lisa to find a " missing link " skeleton , and do an episode reminiscent of the Scopes Monkey Trial . Writer George Meyer convinced him instead to have the focus be on an angel skeleton , while keeping an emphasis on the conflict between religion and science . Both Cohen and Meyer acknowledged how silly the " angel skeleton " idea was owing to simple questions raised such as why an angel died and why bones were left behind , but they went forward with the idea anyway .
In an early draft of the script , the skeleton was made of pastry dough baked by the mall 's window dresser . Cohen had initially written the Stephen Jay Gould role as a generic scientist or paleontologist , not knowing that they would eventually get Gould . He had taken Gould 's Introduction to Paleontology class at Harvard University . The only phrase Gould had objected to in the script was a line that introduced him as the " world 's most brilliant paleontologist " . His original final line was " I didn 't do the test . I had more important work to do " but was cut because the writers felt it would be funnier to give him a short final line . In an earlier version of the episode , Marge would have ended up apologizing to Lisa for not supporting her , letting the ending be more of a nod to Lisa 's correct assumptions all along .
= = Themes = =
Author Joley Wood compared " Lisa the Skeptic " to an alternate reality game , in analyzing the effects of watching the television program Lost on contemporary culture and our own perceptions of reality . Dan O 'Brien cited the episode in a discussion of ontology , skepticism , and religious faith , in his book An Introduction to the Theory of Knowledge . O 'Brien leaves it up to the reader to decide whether or not Lisa was justified in her skepticism . In The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer , " Lisa the Skeptic " is cited as a prime example of why Lisa is seen as the epitome of a nerd . The book also cited the episode in noting that Lisa is not infallible , for when the Angel appeared to speak at the end of the episode she became as frightened as everyone else . Lisa 's frustration with the marketing gimmick used by the mall developers is seen by Turner 's Planet Simpson : How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented Defined a Generation as yet another example of her conflict with corporations throughout the series . Like O 'Brien , Turner also analyzed the episode in the context of Lisa 's questions about existentialism , self @-@ absorption , and consumption . In The Psychology of the Simpsons : D 'oh ! , the authors discuss Lisa 's level of anger displayed in the episode , noting that in this particular case her anger gave her the wherewithal both to confront social injustice , and keep her mind clear for critical thinking . Mark Demming of Allmovie noted that Lisa symbolically stood for the side of reason , while her mother Marge symbolized belief and spirituality in the episode .
In their 2010 book The Simpsons in the Classroom , Karma Waltonen and Denise Du Vernay note that the episode is one of the best for teachers and professors to use in religion or cultural studies courses , noting the irony that though Lisa is the only skeptic through most of the episode , she is the only one who is offended at the publicity stunt . Parvin 's The Gospel According to the Simpsons : Leader 's Guide for Group Study is a group study guide companion to Pinsky 's The Gospel According to the Simpsons . In the section pertaining to " Lisa the Skeptic " , a skeptic is defined as : " a person who doubts , questions , or suspends judgment on ideas generally accepted by others " . The study group is asked to debate the episode in the context of skepticism as related to other unexplained phenomena , including UFOs , the Loch Ness Monster , the Abominable Snowman , the Bermuda Triangle , Atlantis , near @-@ death experiences , reincarnation , mediumship , psychics , and fortune @-@ telling . In Pinsky 's book itself , he noted that Lisa faced the difficult task of confronting religious hysteria and blind faith , and also attempted to reconcile science within her own belief system . He also wrote that when Lisa asks Stephen Jay Gould to estimate the age of the skeleton , the issue is never raised of why angels or other spiritual entities would even leave skeletons behind in the first place .
= = Cultural references = =
The scene in the courtroom where Lisa is put on trial for stealing the skeleton is seen as a reference to the 1920s Scopes Monkey Trial in Dayton , Tennessee , which dealt with issues of separation of church and state and the debate between creationism and evolution . The publicity stunt created by the mall developers in the episode has been compared to scientific hoaxes such as the Cardiff Giant and the Piltdown Man . When Lisa asks if the townspeople are outraged at the end of the episode for being fooled by a publicity stunt , Chief Wiggum is about to answer her but is distracted when he catches sight of a Pottery Barn in the new Heavenly Hills mall . A shot of the diggers in silhouette against the sunset is modeled after Raiders of the Lost Ark ( 1981 ) .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Lisa the Skeptic " finished 37th in ratings for the week of November 17 – 23 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 3 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files and King of the Hill .
Donald Liebenson wrote for the Amazon.com movie review that " Bart Sells His Soul " and " Lisa the Skeptic " were among the best episodes of The Simpsons . He also noted , " Without being preachy ( or particularly funny ) , this episode is pretty potent stuff " , citing the theme of Apocalypticism towards the end of the episode . In the July 26 , 2007 issue of Nature , the scientific journal 's editorial staff listed the episode among " The Top Ten science moments in The Simpsons " . " Lisa the Skeptic " was utilized in a Salt Lake City Episcopal Church Sunday School class in 2003 , to stimulate a discussion among fourteen @-@ year @-@ olds about belief in angels , and the juxtaposition of science and faith . The episode was compared and contrasted with Proverbs 14 : 15 .
The episode is used by the Farmington Trust ( UK ) for Christian religious education , to teach children about skepticism . The episode is used as a tool , to involve the students in a debate about religion and science , as well as to discuss Lisa 's own skepticism , and her respect towards others . A group of The Simpsons enthusiasts at Calvin College have also analyzed the religious and philosophical aspects of the episode , including the issue of faith versus science . The episode has been compared with Gabriel García Márquez 's short story " A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings " and utilized as a teaching tool in a Saugerties , New York grade school class . In an exam on the subject , students were asked to use details from both " A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings " and " Lisa the Skeptic " , in order to analyze the quotation " Appearances can be deceiving " .
= Yoga =
Yoga ( / ˈjoʊɡə / ; Sanskrit , योग Listen ) is a physical , mental , and spiritual practice or discipline which originated in ancient India . There is a broad variety of Yoga schools , practices , and goals in Hinduism , Buddhism , and Jainism . Among the most well @-@ known types of yoga are Hatha yoga and Rāja yoga .
The origins of yoga have been speculated to date back to pre @-@ Vedic Indian traditions , it is mentioned in the Rigveda , but most likely developed around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE , in ancient India 's ascetic and śramaṇa movements . The chronology of earliest texts describing yoga @-@ practices is unclear , varyingly credited to Hindu Upanishads and Buddhist Pāli Canon , probably of third century BCE or later . The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali date from the first half of the 1st millennium CE , but only gained prominence in the West in the 20th century . Hatha yoga texts emerged around the 11th century with origins in tantra .
Yoga gurus from India later introduced yoga to the west , following the success of Swami Vivekananda in the late 19th and early 20th century . In the 1980s , yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world . Yoga in Indian traditions , however , is more than physical exercise , it has a meditative and spiritual core . One of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism is also called Yoga , which has its own epistemology and metaphysics , and is closely related to Hindu Samkhya philosophy .
Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer , schizophrenia , asthma , and heart disease . The results of these studies have been mixed and inconclusive , with cancer studies suggesting none to unclear effectiveness , and others suggesting yoga may reduce risk factors and aid in a patient 's psychological healing process .
= = Etymology = =
In Vedic Sanskrit , yoga ( from the root yuj ) means " to add " , " to join " , " to unite " , or " to attach " in its most common literal sense . By figurative extension from the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses , the word took on broader meanings such as " employment , use , application , performance " ( compare the figurative uses of " to harness " as in " to put something to some use " ) . All further developments of the sense of this word are post @-@ Vedic . More prosaic moods such as " exertion " , " endeavour " , " zeal " , and " diligence " are also found in Indian epic poetry .
There are very many compound words containing yoga in Sanskrit . Yoga can take on meanings such as " connection " , " contact " , " union " , " method " , " application " , " addition " and " performance " . In simpler words , Yoga also means " combined " . For example , guṇáyoga means " contact with a cord " ; chakráyoga has a medical sense of " applying a splint or similar instrument by means of pulleys ( in case of dislocation of the thigh ) " ; chandráyoga has the astronomical sense of " conjunction of the moon with a constellation " ; puṃyoga is a grammatical term expressing " connection or relation with a man " , etc . Thus , bhaktiyoga means " devoted attachment " in the monotheistic Bhakti movement . The term kriyāyoga has a grammatical sense , meaning " connection with a verb " . But the same compound is also given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutras ( 2 @.@ 1 ) , designating the " practical " aspects of the philosophy , i.e. the " union with the supreme " due to performance of duties in everyday life
According to Pāṇini , a 6th @-@ century BCE Sanskrit grammarian , the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots , yujir yoga ( to yoke ) or yuj samādhau ( to concentrate ) . In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali , the root yuj samādhau ( to concentrate ) is considered by traditional commentators as the correct etymology . In accordance with Pāṇini , Vyasa who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras , states that yoga means samādhi ( concentration ) .
According to Dasgupta , the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots , yujir yoga ( to yoke ) or yuj samādhau ( to concentrate ) . Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a yogi ( may be applied to a man or a woman ) or yogini ( traditionally denoting a woman ) .
= = Goals = =
The ultimate goal of Yoga is moksha ( liberation ) , although the exact definition of what form this takes depends on the philosophical or theological system with which it is conjugated .
According to Jacobsen , " Yoga has five principal meanings :
Yoga , as a disciplined method for attaining a goal ;
Yoga , as techniques of controlling the body and the mind ;
Yoga , as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy ( darśana ) ;
Yoga , in connection with other words , such as " hatha- , mantra- , and laya- , " referring to traditions specialising in particular techniques of yoga ;
Yoga , as the goal of Yoga practice . "
According to David Gordon White , from the 5th century CE onward , the core principles of " yoga " were more or less in place , and variations of these principles developed in various forms over time :
Yoga , is a meditative means of discovering dysfunctional perception and cognition , as well as overcoming it for release from suffering , inner peace and salvation ; illustration of this principle is found in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and Yogasutras , in a number of Buddhist Mahā
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March . She was then assigned to the Atlantic Fleet . Five days after her commissioning , the ship steamed out of Philadelphia for her shakedown cruise , which took the ship to the Caribbean Sea and included stops in the Danish West Indies and Cuba , before returning to the United States for a visit to Charleston in her namesake state , which lasted from 10 to 15 April . Sea trials followed ; they were conducted off the Virginia Capes and outside Provincetown , Massachusetts . South Carolina then visited New York City on 17 – 18 June to take part in a reception for former President Theodore Roosevelt . The ship spent most of the rest of the year conducting fleet maneuevers , training naval militia , and receiving repairs at Norfolk , Virginia .
On 1 November 1910 , South Carolina left the United States for a trip to Europe with the 2nd Battleship Division . During the tour , the Division stopped in Cherbourg and Portland . The ships arrived back in Norfolk on 12 January 1911 , where South Carolina entered the shipyard for maintenance . She then returned to the fleet , which conducted battle training off the coast of New England . The ship made a short stop in New York City before joining the 2nd Battleship Division for another tour of Europe . This trip included stops in Copenhagen , Stockholm , and Kronstadt . On the way back from Kronstadt , South Carolina stopped in Kiel , where the German Kaiser Wilhelm II was hosting the annual Kieler Woche ( Kiel Week ) sailing regatta . South Carolina arrived off Provincetown on 13 July and continued to the Chesapeake Bay , where she conducted battle practice .
In late 1911 , South Carolina was present for a naval review in New York City before conducting training exercises with the 1st Squadron off Newport , Rhode Island . The ship then steamed south on 3 January 1912 for training exercises off Guantanamo Bay , Cuba before returning to Norfolk on 13 March . She cruised the east coast of the United States from March to late June . That month , she participated in a reception for a visit by the German battlecruiser SMS Moltke and the light cruisers Bremen and Stettin in New York . On 30 June , South Carolina returned to Norfolk for an overhaul . In early October , the ship steamed to New York for a visit that lasted from 11 to 15 October . The first half of November was spent conducting training exercises off New England and the Virginia Capes . She then steamed south with the Special Service Division for a tour of the Caribbean ; stops included Pensacola , New Orleans , Galveston , and Veracruz .
= = = Unrest in the Caribbean and World War I = = =
South Carolina was back in Norfolk by 20 December , where she remained until 6 January 1913 . She then departed for another trip south , this time to Colón , Panama , at the entrance to the recently completed Panama Canal . The ship then took part in maneuvers off Guantanamo Bay before returning to Norfolk on 22 March . Another cruise off the east coast of the United States followed , and included a stop in New York from 28 to 31 May , where the USS Maine National Monument was dedicated . The ship briefly trained midshipmen from the US Naval Academy in June before departing at the end of the month for Mexico . There , she cruised off Tampico and Veracruz to protect American interests during the Mexican Civil War . She returned to Norfolk for an overhaul in September that lasted until January 1914 .
South Carolina then took part in training exercises off Culebra Island . On 28 January , the ship sent a contingent of Marines ashore in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Haiti , to secure the American embassy during a period of unrest in the country , as well as to set up a radio station there . She left the city on 14 April after tensions calmed following the election of President Oreste Zamor . South Carolina coaled at Key West before continuing on to Veracruz , where she took part in the occupation of the city . The ship left Veracruz in July and spent the next several months cruising off the Dominican Republic and Haiti to monitor the political situations in the neighboring countries . She returned to Norfolk on 24 September ; by this time , World War I had broken out in Europe , though the United States initially remained neutral .
On 14 October , the ship went to Philadelphia for an overhaul that lasted until 20 February 1915 . She thereafter steamed to Cuba for the routine peacetime training maneuvers . At the time , tensions between the United States and Germany were high due to the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania by a U @-@ boat , though the Germans agreed to suspend their unrestricted submarine warfare campaign . For the next two years , she followed the same pattern : training exercises off Cuba in the first quarter of the year , followed by maneuvers off Newport , and periodic maintenance at the end of the year at Philadelphia . On 6 April 1917 , the United States declared war on Germany over the latter 's resumption of the unrestricted submarine campaign earlier that year . South Carolina continued to cruise off the east coast of the United States through August 1918 .
Starting in September , South Carolina and the pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the Atlantic Fleet began escorting convoys to France . On 6 September , she departed with the pre @-@ dreadnoughts Kansas and New Hampshire to protect a fast HX troopship convoy . On 16 September , the three battleships left the convoy in the Atlantic and steamed back to the United States , while other escorts brought the convoy into port . On the 17th , South Carolina lost her starboard propeller , which forced her to reduce speed to 11 kn ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) using only the port shaft . On 20 September , the port engine stopped after a throttle valve broke down . She got underway temporarily using an auxiliary throttle before severe vibration forced her to stop for six hours while the main throttle was fixed . Four days later , the ships reached the United States and South Carolina made her way to Philadelphia for repairs . After South Carolina returned to service , she participated in gunnery training , which continued until Germany signed the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ended the fighting in Europe . In mid @-@ February 1919 , South Carolina began the first of four round trips between the United States and Brest , France to bring American soldiers back from Europe . In the course of the voyages , the last of which concluded in late July , the ship had carried over 4 @,@ 000 soldiers home . She then went to the Norfolk Navy Yard for a lengthy overhaul .
= = = Later career = = =
After returning to service , the ship took on a contingent of midshipmen for a training cruise to the Pacific . On 5 June 1920 , South Carolina began the voyage , crossing into the Pacific via the Panama Canal . She stopped in Hawaii before continuing on to the west coast of the United States , with visits in Seattle , San Francisco , and San Diego . She left the last port on 11 August and arrived back in Annapolis on 2 September . After disembarking the midshipmen there , she went to Philadelphia , where she remained for seven months . South Carolina returned to sea in early April 1921 for training off Culebra Island , followed by exercises in Chesapeake Bay . Another training cruise for midshipmen began on 29 May , this time to Europe . Ports of call included Christiana , Norway , and Lisbon , Portugal . She returned to Annapolis via Guantanmo Bay on 30 August before proceeding to Philadelphia the next day .
In the years immediately following the end of the Great War , the United States , Britain , and Japan all launched huge naval construction programs . All three countries decided that a new naval arms race would be ill @-@ advised , and so convened the Washington Naval Conference to discuss arms limitations , which produced the Washington Naval Treaty , signed in February 1922 . Under the terms of Article II of the treaty , South Carolina and her sister Michigan were to be scrapped . The ship was decommissioned on 15 December , but was not formally stricken from the Naval Vessel Register until 10 November 1923 . She was sold for scrap on 24 April 1924 and subsequently dismantled .
The ship 's silver service was commissioned by the state of South Carolina and was presented on 11 April 1910 . After South Carolina was withdrawn from service in 1922 , the service was given to the South Carolina chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution for display at the Old Exchange . Following the outbreak of World War II , the service was hidden in the basement of the Old Exchange for safekeeping . In 1947 , they were retrieved and sent to the South Carolina Governor 's Mansion , where they are currently on display .
= 1999 FA Charity Shield =
The 1999 FA Charity Shield ( also known as the One 2 One FA Charity Shield for sponsorship reasons ) was the 77th FA Charity Shield , an annual English football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Premier League and FA Cup competitions . The teams involved were Manchester United , who had won both the Premier League and FA Cup as part of the Treble the previous season , and Arsenal , who finished runners @-@ up in the league . Watched by a crowd of 70 @,@ 185 at Wembley Stadium , Arsenal won the match 2 – 1 .
This was Arsenal 's 15th Charity Shield appearance and Manchester United 's 19th . Leading up to the match , both clubs were embroiled in controversy : Manchester United withdrew from English football 's primary cup competition , the FA Cup , in order to take part in the 2000 FIFA Club World Championship ; Arsenal were entangled in a transfer saga involving their own player , striker Nicolas Anelka , who vowed to never play for the club again and cited the English media as a reason for wanting to leave .
Brazilian midfielder Sylvinho made his debut for Arsenal , while Ukrainian defender Oleh Luzhny was named on the substitutes ' bench . Manchester United goalkeeper Mark Bosnich , signed as a replacement for Peter Schmeichel during the summer , made the first appearance of his second spell with the club . Midfielder Roy Keane was absent with an ankle injury , so Denis Irwin stood in as captain . Manchester United went ahead seven minutes before the end of the first half , when David Beckham 's free @-@ kick hit the underside of the crossbar and narrowly crossed the line before Dwight Yorke made sure . Arsenal were awarded a penalty in the second half , which Nwankwo Kanu converted . Kanu then set up Ray Parlour to score the winning goal in the 77th minute .
This result marked Manchester United 's first defeat of 1999 . It was the second consecutive year that Arsenal beat United to win the Charity Shield . Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger described it as psychological boost to beat his opponents and felt it showed that his team were ready for the upcoming season . Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson , on the other hand , believed the defeat highlighted his players needed more game time .
= = Background = =
Founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield , the FA Charity Shield began as a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , although in 1913 , it was played between an Amateurs XI and a Professionals XI . In 1921 , it was played by the league champions of the top division and FA Cup winners for the first time . Wembley Stadium acted as the host of the Shield from 1974 .
Manchester United qualified for the 1999 FA Charity Shield as winners of the 1998 – 99 FA Premier League . The team overcame close competition from Arsenal to win their fifth league title in seven years . In the 1999 FA Cup Final , Manchester United beat Newcastle United by two goals to nil and completed the domestic double . The team later went on to win the UEFA Champions League after defeating Bayern Munich in the season 's final and became the first English team to acclaim a treble of trophies in one season . Given United won both domestic honours , the other Charity Shield place went to league runners @-@ up Arsenal . United appeared in 18 previous Shields , winning 10 outright ( 1908 , 1911 , 1952 , 1956 , 1957 , 1983 , 1993 , 1994 , 1996 , 1997 ) , sharing four ( 1965 , 1967 , 1977 , 1990 ) and losing four ( 1948 , 1963 , 1985 , 1998 ) . In contrast , Arsenal won eight previous Shields ( 1930 , 1931 , 1933 , 1934 , 1938 , 1948 , 1953 , 1998 ) , shared one with Tottenham Hotspur in 1991 and lost five ( 1935 , 1936 , 1979 , 1989 , 1993 ) .
The last league meeting between the teams was at Old Trafford on 17 February 1999 . A goal scored by Andy Cole cancelled out Nicolas Anelka 's opener for Arsenal ; the match ended 1 – 1 after both teams spurred chances to win . Both teams were also drawn together in the FA Cup semi @-@ final two months later , the tie was decided by a replay as the initial game controversially finished goalless . Giggs ran the length of the pitch and evaded several Arsenal players to score the winning goal in extra time . In the close season , Anelka was involved in a protracted transfer saga and vowed to never play for Arsenal again . He cited the media in England as a reason for wanting to leave the club : " The one thing I can tell you is that I can 't stand the English Press , who cause me enormous problems on a personal level , " but it was implied that his " gold @-@ digging brothers " wanted Anelka to move abroad to make more money – they served as his agents .
In June 1999 , United accepted an offer from the FA to withdraw from the FA Cup in order to participate in the 2000 FIFA Club World Championship , staged in Brazil . It was criticised by the new Sports minister Kate Hoey , who suggested the club were treating its supporters in a " shabby way " . Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson however replied that United had been pressurised to make the decision , which aimed to solidify England 's 2006 FIFA World Cup bid : " The Government are saying that we should be in the FA Cup , but they are the very people that were saying originally that we have to go to Brazil . They could tell us quite clearly : ' Do not bother about the World Cup bid , leave that to us . It should not be Manchester United 's responsibility . ' "
= = Pre @-@ match = =
Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger revealed before the Charity Shield game that he was not overly concerned with Anelka leaving , rather the injuries that were depleting his squad : " I cannot forget that it was because of a poor start to last season that we lost the championship to Manchester United . " He refused to categorise the match as a " friendly " much like it is traditionally viewed as : " There is a trophy and medals at stake . We won it last season and our players want to win it again . " Ferguson described the 3 – 0 defeat in the previous season 's Shield as a " humiliation " , before discussing how it made the team prepare for the challenges ahead : " I have reminded the players how hard it is to lose when you are playing for United these days – it makes so many other people happy . " Indeed , United only lost five matches of the whole of last season , with their last defeat coming at home to Middlesbrough in December 1998 .
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
Both teams were without several first team players because of injury problems . Manchester United midfielder Roy Keane was absent , which meant defender Denis Irwin took responsibility as the team captain . Ryan Giggs was also ruled out of the game , though his injury was unspecified . Forwards Andy Cole and Dwight Yorke started upfront for United , in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation where David Beckham and Jordi Cruyff acted as the two wide midfield players . Goalkeeper Mark Bosnich , signed as a replacement for Peter Schmeichel , also started , having rejoined the club after a nine @-@ year spell with Aston Villa .
For Arsenal , defender Tony Adams was ruled out with injury , as was Dennis Bergkamp , Marc Overmars , and goalkeeper David Seaman . Anelka did not partake , given his transfer to Real Madrid was on the verge of being completed . New signings Oleh Luzhny and Sylvinho were both named in the squad , but whereas Sylvinho started the game , Luzhny was selected as a substitute . Arsenal , like United , lined up in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation . Up front , Fredrik Ljungberg was paired with the club 's only available recognised striker , Nwankwo Kanu .
= = = Summary = = =
The severe heat meant Manchester United and Arsenal found it hard to find any rhythm early on . Sylvinho fashioned an early chance for Arsenal , though his shot was deflected over . Although midfield pair Patrick Vieira and Emmanuel Petit did well to contain their opponents in the opening half @-@ hour , Arsenal 's lack of pace and incisiveness upfront was evident – Ljungberg missed three chances before half @-@ time . Midway through the first half , Beckham was booked by referee Graham Barber for dissent . Moments after Nicky Butt was involved in a brawl with Martin Keown , after the latter nearly caught Butt 's face with his boot . Both players were booked for confronting each other , as was Vieira for getting involved . United performed better as the match went on and scored the opening goal . Beckham 's 30 @-@ yard free @-@ kick hit the underside of the crossbar and bounced out ; Yorke headed the rebounded ball past goalkeeper Alex Manninger . Although replays suggested the goal was Beckham 's as his free @-@ kick crossed the goal line , it was given to Yorke . Arsenal responded for a short while , but missed " three half @-@ chances " .
Defender Jaap Stam , " nursing an Achilles injury all summer " , was substituted in the second half for David May . Arsenal began the half the better of the two teams and Vieira believed he earnt his team a penalty in the 49th minute – it was turned down by Barber . The substitution of Sylvinho for Luis Boa Morte in the 64th minute allowed Ljungberg to play in a natural midfield role . Two minutes later , Arsenal were awarded a penalty . Vieira , chasing down the ball was adjudged to have his shirt tugged by Irwin in the 18 @-@ yard box . Kanu converted the penalty , sending Bosnich the wrong way . Yorke soon after mistimed his goal effort after being sent clear by Cole . Substitute Ole Gunnar Solskjær then put Cole through , only for Manninger to produce a one @-@ handed save . Arsenal scored what proved to be the match winner in the 78th minute . A goal @-@ kick by Bosnich was headed back into United 's half by Vieira ; Kanu controlled the ball " deftly " and set up Parlour , whose shot went into the net . Teddy Sheringham was brought on by Ferguson for Butt with nine minutes of normal time remaining , but with a fourth striker on the field , United were unable to score an equaliser . Luzhny later came on for Parlour , the final substitution of the match .
= = = Details = = =
Source :
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
The result marked the first time that Manchester United had lost in the calendar year , ending a 33 @-@ match unbeaten run . Wenger believed the result showed that Arsenal were " ready for the season " , albeit admitting that the defence had trouble coping with Yorke . He thought it was " ... psychologically important to beat United , especially after the great run they have had " . Wenger confirmed afterwards that Anelka would sign for Real Madrid : " I hope everything will be finalised in the next couple of days . In any case , he is not coming back here , and although the contract is not signed yet , I hope it will be after his medical and that is the end of it . " Kanu , who scored Arsenal 's equaliser and set up the match winner , was pleased with his performance and relished the opportunity of establishing himself in the first team , after Anelka 's departure .
Ferguson said the defeat showed that Manchester United needed more games to be ready , " particularly , in the second half " and felt travelling " half way across the world " for pre @-@ season did not aid their preparation . In terms of the result , he said it was " about as significant " as it was last year . Bosnich 's performance in goal received mixed reviews in the English press ; The Sun questioned his positioning and said his kicking was " poor " . The player himself assessed : " My kicking has been atrocious and , generally , my distribution from the back has to improve . "
= Ray of Light =
Ray of Light is the seventh studio album by American singer Madonna . It was released on February 22 , 1998 by the Maverick and Warner Bros. Records . After giving birth to her first child , Lourdes , Madonna started working on the album with producers Babyface and Patrick Leonard . Following failed sessions with them , Madonna pursued a new musical direction with English producer William Orbit . The recording took place over four months and experienced problems with Orbit 's hardware Pro Tools arrangement , which would break down , and recording would have to be delayed until they could be repaired .
A major departure from her previous work , Ray of Light is an electronica record which incorporates several genres , including techno , trip hop , drum and bass , ambient , rock , and classical music . Vocally , the album saw Madonna sing with greater breadth and a fuller tone . Mystical themes are also strongly present in both lyrics and music as a result of Madonna embracing Kabbalah , her study of Hinduism and Buddhism , as well as her daily practice of Hatha Yoga .
The album received universal acclaim with reviews commending the singer 's new musical direction . Called her " most adventurous " record , Ray of Light has been noted for its mature , restrained nature ; reviewers also praised Madonna 's vocals . Ray of Light won four Grammy Awards from a total of six nominations . Commercially , the album peaked at number one in many countries such as Australia , Canada , Germany , and the United Kingdom . On the US Billboard 200 , the album debuted and peaked at number two , with the biggest first week sales by a female artist at the time . Ray of Light has sold more than 20 million copies worldwide .
Five singles were released from the album including the international hits " Frozen " and " Ray of Light " . The album 's promotion was later supported by the Drowned World Tour in 2001 . Academics noted the album 's influence on popular music , and how it introduced electronica into mainstream pop culture . They also noted Madonna 's musical re @-@ invention with the album , which helped her remain contemporary among the teenage artists of the period . Ray of Light has been ranked among lists of greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
Following the release of her compilation album Something to Remember ( 1995 ) , Madonna started taking vocal lessons in preparation for her role in Evita ( 1996 ) . She also gave birth to her daughter , Lourdes , the same year . These events inspired a period of introspection . " That was a big catalyst for me . It took me on a search for answers to questions I 'd never asked myself before , " she said to Q magazine , in 2002 . During the same period , she embraced Kabbalah and started studying Hinduism and yoga , all of which helped her " step outside [ myself ] and see the world from a different perspective . " Madonna felt that there was a " whole piece " of her voice left unused , which she decided to utilize for the album . By May 1997 , Madonna had started writing songs for the album . She began collaborating with Babyface , who had first worked with her on her previous album Bedtime Stories . The two wrote a couple of songs together before Madonna decided the collaborations were not going in the musical direction she wanted for the album . According to Babyface , the songs " had a ' Take a Bow @-@ ish ' kind of vibe , and Madonna didn 't want , or need , to repeat herself . "
After abandoning the songs she had written with Babyface , Madonna turned to musician Rick Nowels , who had previously co @-@ written songs with Stevie Nicks and Celine Dion . The collaboration produced seven songs in nine days , but those songs also did not display the album 's future electronic musical direction . Three of the songs , called : " The Power of Good @-@ Bye " , " To Have and Not to Hold " and " Little Star " , appear on the album . Madonna then began writing songs with Leonard , who had produced many songs for Madonna in the late 1980s . Unlike her previous albums , Leonard 's song writing collaborations were accompanied by very little studio input . Madonna believed that Leonard 's production " would have lent the songs more of a Peter Gabriel vibe " , a sound that she did not want for the album . Guy Oseary , chairman of Maverick Records , then phoned British electronic musician William Orbit , and suggested that he send some songs to Madonna . Orbit sent a 13 @-@ track digital audio tape to Madonna . " I was a huge fan of William 's earlier records , Strange Cargo 1 and 2 and all that . I also loved all the remixes he did for me and I was interested in fusing a kind of futuristic sound but also using lots of Indian and Moroccan influences and things like that , and I wanted it to sound old and new at the same time , " Madonna said .
= = Recording = =
In early June before starting recording , Orbit met Madonna at her house in New York , and she played him the music she had worked on with other producers up to May 1997 , which he felt sounded " slick " . They visited the Hit Factory later that week , where Madonna invited the producer to work on Ray of Light . Orbit then sent her a tape of musical snippets he was working on , which were usually eight or sixteen @-@ bar phrases and stripped down versions of tracks that would later be heard on the album . Madonna listened to the samples , over and over again , until she was inspired to write lyrics . Once she had an idea about the lyrical direction of the song , she would take her ideas back to Orbit , and they would expand on the original music ideas . As most of the tracks pre @-@ existed , Madonna worked on the lyrics while at home or while travelling .
The album was recorded over four and a half months at Larrabee North Studio in North Hollywood , California , beginning in mid @-@ June 1997 , the longest Madonna had ever worked on an album . For most of the recording process , only three other people were in the studio with Madonna : William Orbit , engineer named Pat McCarthy , and his assistant engineer , Matt Silva . They started recording in Los Angeles , but the recording process was initially plagued with machinery problems , as Orbit preferred to work with samples , synth sounds , and Pro Tools , and not with live musicians . The computers would break down , and recording would have to be delayed until they could be repaired . Orbit recorded the bulk of the album 's instrumentation over a four @-@ month period . Orbit recalls playing the guitar and having his fingers bleed during the long hours he spent in the studio .
After some errors in her pronunciation of Sanskrit shloka " Yoga Taravali " during the song " Shanti / Ashtangi " , the BBC arranged for Madonna to take telephonic lessons to learn the basic correct pronunciation of Sanskrit words from eminent scholar Dr B P T Vagish Shastri . She then made the necessary pronunciation corrections on the album . In an interview with MTV , Madonna recalled the recording of the album , and said her business partner Guy Oseary was a helpful friend , and that she and Orbit played him the tracks , and , to their dismay , he said nothing and left the studio . " He really hates those icy strings . Right when I think the track 's done , he sort of pushes us another step further . ' Maybe we should try this ' , or ' I really don 't want to hear that ' . And then of course , later on , it creeps in my brain , and I 'm like , ' maybe I should have done a background vocal on that ' . And then she comes in and happily does it , right ? " , Madonna said . Orbit also recalled during an interview with Q magazine that Madonna recorded " Swim " the day her friend and fashion designer Gianni Versace was killed in Miami , Florida . He also commented that this is probably why the track has an emotional impact .
= = Title and artwork = =
According to spokesperson Liz Rosenberg , Madonna considered titling the album Mantra , which she thought was a " really cool title " . However , she changed the title to Ray of Light , as her albums were always titled after one of the songs from that album . The artwork was shot by Peruvian photographer Mario Testino . They had previously collaborated for a Versace brand collection . Madonna was impressed with the natural look Testino had captured and she booked him again for the album 's photoshoot . He recalled , " At 2pm she said , ' OK , I 'm tired . We 're done ' . And I said , ' But I don 't have the pictures yet ' . She said , ' You 're working for me and I say we 're done ' . I said , ' No , we carry on ' . The picture she used on the cover came after that " .
= = Composition = =
Ray of Light was a notable departure from Madonna 's previous work , and has been described her most " adventurous " record . It contains elements of several different types of music , including techno , trance , drum and bass , trip hop , ambient , rock , new wave , eastern and classical music . Vocally , the album was also a marked change from Madonna 's previous work ; as the singer underwent vocal training lessons for her 1996 film Evita , her vocals exhibited greater breadth and range , as well as a fuller timbre . In many songs , she also abandoned the vibrato which was present in her previous work . Critically , it is said to have Madonna 's most full @-@ bodied vocals .
The album 's opening track and third single , " Drowned World / Substitute For Love " is a downtempo ballad drawing influences from jungle , drum and bass and trip hop music . The title is inspired by J.G. Ballard 's post @-@ apocalyptic science fiction novel The Drowned World ( 1962 ) . " Swim " , the second song , has a spiritual tone . She sings : " Swim to the ocean floor / So that we can begin again / Wash away all our sins / Crash to the other shore " . " Ray of Light " , the third track and album 's second single , is an up @-@ tempo electronic dance @-@ pop song which contains strong techno tendencies and influences of trance music . A " sonically progressive " track , it also incorporates elements of rock music , with a prominent electric guitar riff . The melody also has several sound effects , including whistles and bleeps . " Candy Perfume Girl " has a grunge intro and continues to pair post @-@ modern beeps and beats with old @-@ fashioned electric guitar flare ups . In the next song , " Skin " , Madonna sings " Do I know you from somewhere ? " in a yearning voice over the beats of an electronic orchestra . The sixth track " Nothing Really Matters " is an up @-@ tempo dance track which contains influences of techno .
" Sky Fits Heaven " focuses on Madonna 's spiritual studies and her daughter Lourdes . Some lyrics include : " Sky fits heaven so fly it , that 's what the prophet said to me / Child fits mother so hold your baby tight , that 's what my future can see " . Elements of the lyric are taken from the poem What Fits ? by poet Max Blagg , the poem used for a 1993 advertisement for Gap Inc . " Shanti / Ashtangi " is a Hindu Sanskrit prayer and up @-@ tempo techno song sung by Madonna with an Indian accent over a driving dance rhythm . The techno dance track features Madonna singing the adapted version of Shankaracharya entirely in Sanskrit with lines such as " Vunde gurunam caranaravinde / Sandarsita svatma sukhavabodhe " .
" Frozen " , the ninth track and album 's first single , is a mid @-@ tempo electronic ballad which has a layered sound enhanced by synthesizers and strings . The song additionally contains ambient qualities , a moderate dance rhythm during the chorus and techno @-@ influenced beats towards the end . Madonna 's vocals throughout the song lack vibrato , and have drawn comparisons to medieval music . Lyrically , the song is about a cold and emotionless man ; nevertheless , subtexts have been noticed . According to Jarman @-@ Ivens , lyrics such as " You 're frozen , when your heart 's not open " reflected an artistic palette , " encompassing diverse musical , textual and visual styles in its lyrics . " " The Power Of Good @-@ Bye " is an emotional ballad which lyrically meditates on loss and longing . It was released as the album 's fourth single . " To Have and Not to Hold " is about a distant lover and " Little Star " is about her daughter , Lourdes . Both are superficially vibrant but with underlying subtlety and restrained arrangements prevailing . " Mer Girl " , the album 's final track , is a surreal meditation on mortality and the death of Madonna 's mother , in which she sings , " And I smelled her burning flesh / Her rotting bones , her decay / I ran and I ran / I 'm still running away . "
= = Release and promotion = =
Ray of Light was released in Japan on February 22 , 1998 , with an additional Japan @-@ only bonus track " Has to Be " . The album was later released in the United States on March 3 , 1998 . In New Zealand , a box set of Ray of Light and
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The Immaculate Collection was released to accompany the album . It reached number 12 on the albums chart and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipment of 7 @,@ 500 copies . A promotional instore VHS compilation titled Rays of Light was released in the United Kingdom in 1999 , compiling all the music videos to all five singles from the album . All five videos were later included on the compilation The Video Collection 93 : 99 ( 1999 ) . " Sky Fits Heaven " was released as a promotional single in the United States . It peaked at number 41 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart .
To promote the album , Madonna made a number of televised appearances and live performances of the album 's songs . On February 14 , 1998 , she debuted " Sky Fits Heaven " , " Shanti / Ashtangi " and " Ray of Light " at Roxy NYC nightclub . " Frozen " was performed on The National Lottery Show in the UK ( February 21 ) , 1998 Sanremo Music Festival in Italy ( February 24 ) , Wetten , dass .. ? in Germany ( February 28 ) and Rosie O 'Donnell Show in the United States ( March 13 ) . On April 27 , Madonna made an unannounced appearance at Rock for the Rainforest benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in New York City to sing " Frozen " . She also joined the other stars of the concert , including Sting , Elton John , and Billy Joel to perform " With a Little Help From My Friends " and " Twist and Shout " with them . On May 29 , Madonna appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show and sang " Little Star " and " Ray of Light " there . On September 10 , she opened 1998 MTV Video Music Awards in New York City with the performance of " Shanti / Ashtangi " and " Ray of Light " featuring Lenny Kravitz on guitar . " The Power of Good @-@ bye " was sung at 1998 MTV Europe Music Awards in Italy ( November 12 ) and Top of the Pops in the UK ( November 19 ) . On February 24 , 1999 , Madonna performed " Nothing Really Matters " at the 41st Grammy Awards ceremony at Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles .
Madonna performed " Drowned World / Substitute For Love " , " Ray Of Light " , " Candy Perfume Girl " , " Sky Fits Heaven " , " Frozen " and " Mer Girl " on the Drowned World Tour , her fifth concert tour , which promoted Ray of Light and its successor album . It started in June 2001 and was Madonna 's first tour in eight years . The tour was to be started before the new millennium , but she had become pregnant with her son Rocco Ritchie , released Music that year , and married Ritchie in December 2000 . The show was divided into five sections , Cyber @-@ Punk , Geisha , Cowgirl , Spanish and Ghetto . The Drowned World Tour received positive reviews . The tour was a commercial success , grossing a total of US $ 75 million , and it was the top concert tour of a solo artist in 2001 . The concert was broadcast live on HBO from The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills , Michigan on August 26 , 2001 . The Drowned World Tour 2001 DVD was released in all regions on November 13 , 2001 . Like the original airing of the show , the DVD received very good reviews . The photographs used on the DVD packaging were taken by Madonna 's friend Rosie O 'Donnell .
= = Singles = =
" Frozen " was released as the lead single from the album on February 23 , 1998 . It peaked inside the top five in most musical markets worldwide , while topping the singles chart in Finland , Italy , Spain and the United Kingdom , where it became Madonna 's first single to debut at number one . It became her sixth single to peak at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 , setting a record for Madonna as the artist with most number @-@ two hits in the chart history . The song received critical acclaim , and was labelled a masterpiece whose sound was described as " cinematic " . However , the Belgian court in 2005 ruled that the opening four @-@ bar theme to the song was plagiarized from the song " Ma vie fout le camp " , composed by Salvatore Acquaviva . The ruling forbade the sale of the single and the entire Ray of Light album , as well as other compilations that included the track in Belgium . The album 's second single , " Ray of Light " , was released on May 6 , 1998 . It peaked at number one in Spain and attained the top five position in Canada , Finland , Italy , the United Kingdom and the United States . It entered the Hot 100 at number five , becoming Madonna 's highest debut on the chart ever . The song was also a hit on Hot Dance Club Play chart , remaining at number one for four weeks , and became the " Top Hot Dance Club Play Single " of 1998 . Critically , it also received positive reviews , being praised for its club @-@ perfect , yet " sonically progressive " sound , as well as her powerful vocals .
" Drowned World / Substitute for Love " was released on August 24 , 1998 as the third single outside the United States . It reached number one in Spain and the top ten in Italy and the United Kingdom . The music video , directed by Walter Stern , caused controversy due to scenes that featured Madonna being chased by paparazzi on motor @-@ bikes , a scenario similar to Princess Diana 's death in 1997 . The fourth single , " The Power of Good @-@ Bye " , was released on September 22 , 1998 . It reached the top @-@ ten peaks in Austria , Canada , Netherlands , Finland , Germany , Italy , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , the United Kingdom . In the United States , the song peaked at number eleven on the Hot 100 . Its music video was directed by Matthew Rolston . " Nothing Really Matters " was released as the album 's fifth and final single on March 2 , 1999 . It became a top @-@ ten hit in Canada , Finland , Italy , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . In the United States , it became Madonna 's lowest @-@ charting single on the Hot 100 , peaking at number 93 , but was a number @-@ one hit on its dance chart . Its music video , directed by Johan Renck , was inspired by Arthur Golden 's book Memoirs of a Geisha , and featured Madonna dressed as a geisha .
= = Critical reception = =
Ray of Light received widespread acclaim from music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic called Ray of Light Madonna 's " most adventurous record " and her " most mature and restrained album . " In his review he gave the album four and a half out of five stars . Paul Verna from Billboard commented : " Easily her most mature and personal work to date , Ray of Light finds Madonna weaving lyrics with the painstaking intimacy of diary entries and wrapping them in hymn @-@ like melodies and instrumentation swathed in lush , melancholy ambience — with forays into classic house , trance , and even guitar pop . Of course , she balances the set 's serious tone with chewy pop nuggets that allow her to flex her immeasurably widened vocal range to fine effect . " He finished the review by calling the album " a deliciously adventurous , ultimately victorious effort from one of pop music 's most compelling performers . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described the album as " one of the great pop masterpieces of the ' 90s " and stated that : " Its lyrics are uncomplicated but its statement is grand " and " Madonna hasn 't been this emotionally candid since Like a Prayer " . Sheffield 's review for Rolling Stone called the album " brilliant " , but was critical of Orbit 's production , saying that he doesn 't know enough tricks to produce a whole album , and so becomes repetitive .
David Browne of Entertainment Weekly wrote , " For all her grapplings with self @-@ enlightenment , Madonna seems more relaxed and less contrived than she 's been in years , from her new Italian earth @-@ mother makeover to , especially , her music . Ray of Light is truly like a prayer , and you know she 'll take you there . " Roni Sarig , in a review for City Pages , was most impressed by Madonna 's vocal range , depth , and clarity and called Ray of Light " her richest , most accomplished record yet . " Music critic Robert Hilburn from Los Angeles Times wrote , " One reason why her new Ray of Light is the most satisfying album of her career is that it reflects the soul @-@ searching of a woman who is at a point in her life where she can look at herself with surprising candor and perspective . " Writing for Melody Maker in February 1998 , Mark Roland drew comparisons with the music of St Etienne and Björk 's Homogenic album , highlighting Ray of Light 's lack of cynicism as its most positive aspect : " It 's not an album turned on the lathe of cynical pop manipulation , rather it 's been squished out of a lump of clay on a foot @-@ powered wheel . Lovingly teased into life , Ray of Light is like the ugly mug that doesn 't match but is all the more special because of it . " Joan Anderman from The Boston Globe said that Ray of Light is a remarkable album . He described it as a deeply spiritual dance record , ecstatically textured , a serious cycle of songs that goes a long way toward liberating Madonna from a career built on scavenged images and cultivated identities . Robert Christgau was less impressed in Playboy , deeming Ray of Light a " great @-@ sounding " but average record because of enlightenment themes that always yield awkward results for pop entertainers , although he praised sensual songs such as " Skin " and " Candy Perfume Girl " .
= = Accolades = =
At the 41st Annual Grammy Awards , Ray of Light received four awards out of six nominations . The album won Best Pop Album and Best Recording Package , and was nominated for Album of the Year , while the title track won Best Dance Recording and Best Short Form Music Video , and was nominated for Record of the Year . The album gave Madonna her first musical Grammy of her career as previously she only won in the video category . Madonna also became the biggest winner of the 1998 MTV Video Music Awards , winning six awards from nine nominations . " Frozen " won Best Special Effects ; " Ray of Light " won Best Choreography , Best Direction , Best Editing , Best Female Video and Video of the Year , and was also nominated for Best Cinematography , Best Dance Video and Breakthrough Video . American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) honored Madonna two awards of Most Performed Song for " Frozen " and " Ray of Light " at the 1999 ASCAP Pop Music Awards , as well as Top Dance Song for " Ray of Light " at the 1999 ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards .
Ray of Light also gave Madonna several trophies from various international award shows — including two Danish Grammy Awards for Best International Album and Best International Female Vocalist from IFPI Denmark , a Fryderyk award for Best Foreign Album from Związek Producentów Audio Video ( ZPAV ) in Poland , a Golden Giraffe Award for International Pop Album of the Year from Mahasz in Hungary , two Porin awards for Best International Album and Best International Video ( " Frozen " ) in Croatia , and two Rockbjörnen awards for Best International Album and Best International Artist in Sweden .
In Canada , Madonna won Best International Video for " Ray of Light " at the 1999 MuchMusic Video Awards and was nominated for Best Selling Album ( Foreign or Domestic ) at the 1999 Juno Awards . She also received Best Female and Best Album trophies at the 1998 MTV Europe Music Awards . At the 14th annual International Dance Music Awards , Madonna won Best Dance Solo Artist and
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With the aid of two independent women , Felice and Graciela , she is able to leave her life of abuse and escape back to Mexico .
Clemencia is the Chicana protagonist of the story " Never Marry a Mexican " , who experiences rejection by her white lover . She takes revenge on this man by luring his naïve son into a lover ’ s role , and makes it known that in due time , this young man will inevitably pay for his father ’ s transgressions .
" Eyes of Zapata " is a story that looks into the life of female protagonist , Inés , who offers a reflection on her life in the context of her illegitimate relationship with Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata . She struggles with being constantly abandoned by her lover , who is off " revolutionizing the country " , and she describes her efforts to raise a family on her own despite hardships such as famine , disease , and poverty . In the end , she speaks about Zapata 's assassination , revealing his failure to the revolution and Inés makes it evident that essentially , Zapata , her unfaithful lover , has failed her and this protagonist is left clinging to dreams that can no longer exist .
= = Characters = =
As this book is a collection of short stories and contains many different protagonists , the following is a selection of the book 's main characters who most exemplify the qualities of the three sections of the book ( youth , adolescence , and adulthood ) , or who have the most impact on Cisneros 's use of female archetypes :
Lucy Anguiano , the childhood friend of the narrator in " My Lucy Friend Who Smells Like Corn " , is a dark skinned , Texas girl with eyes like knife slits . She is from a family with nine children , an exhausted mother and an absent father . She influences the narrator ’ s desire to share in the unadulterated and simple pleasures that childhood can bring .
Ixchel , the self @-@ named protagonist of " One Holy Night " , is a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old girl who lives in Chicago with her uncle and grandmother who immigrated from Mexico . Employed by her uncle , every Saturday , this young teen sells produce from his pushcart . Ixchel being a foolish girl , ignorantly gives herself to one of her customers , a captivating , yet dangerous 37 @-@ year @-@ old man . Over time , she realises that she has been seduced by a mass murderer but remains unable to reconcile herself with the fact that she is still in love with him .
Chaq Uxmal Paloquín is another self @-@ named character in the story " One Holy Night " , nicknamed Boy Baby , but whose real name is Chato , which means fat @-@ face . He was born on the streets , along with numerous brothers and sisters , in a Mexican town called Miseria . In this story he has grown up and is now a 37 @-@ year @-@ old serial killer who seduces and then abandons the young , naïve protagonist by romanticizing her with a lie about being from an ancient line of Mayan kings .
Inés , the protagonist in " Eyes of Zapata " , whose mother was raped and murdered for living an illegitimate lifestyle , is the mistress of Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata . Inés struggles with being defined by the different roles she must play in her relationship with her lover . She is frustrated with the power of the male patriarchy that pushes her to be not only Zapata 's lover , but also the mother to two of his children and his " political sister " in their shared fight for freedom .
Cleófilas is the protagonist of the title story " Woman Hollering Creek " , who recreates the image of la llorona . She is a traditional Mexican woman who naïvely allows her father to give her in marriage to a man who would become her abusive , unfaithful husband . However , through the hardships of her marriage , she is empowered , to fight for her rights . This is solidified when she meets Felice and Graciela , two independent , wage @-@ earning women who act as new role models for Cleófilas . In the end , they help her escape this abusive lifestyle .
Clemencia is the Chicana protagonist of " Never Marry a Mexican " , whose life choices can be related to those of the historical figure La Malinche , an indigenous woman who befriended the Spanish Conquistadors in the 16th century . Both La Malinche and Clemencia were mistresses to men of a different ethnicity than their own , " doomed to exist within a racial and class @-@ cultural wasteland , unanchored by a sense of ever belonging either to [ their ] ethnic or [ their ] natal homeland " . Clemencia 's final revenge in this vignette is not only a triumph in the memory of La Malinche , but also for the women who feel that their value depreciates if they do not have a husband .
Rosario ( Chayo ) De Leon is a character who writes the last prayer note in " Little Miracles , Kept Promises " ; a collection of letters in Cisneros 's book , from Mexican @-@ Americans to the Virgin of Guadalupe , the patron saint of Mexico who symbolizes female virginity . Chayo 's letter provides a contrast between the Virgin of Guadalupe and La Malinche . She illustrates the difficulties of living as a modern Chicana with her beliefs on religion , race , and gender being constantly challenged . In attempts to free herself from being caught in between her modern day Chicana lifestyle and her Mexican heritage she begins to redefine who she is as a woman . In order to do this Chayo must accept that she is not quite malinche or virgin and she does this by acknowledging " the Virgin 's pacifism and Malinche 's sexuality through knowledge of her own Indian heritage " .
= = Themes = =
There are many themes found in this book ; some that are recurring are roles in society , religion , relationships , and also hybrid nature of American and Mexican ethnicities . Within these short stories Cisneros concentrates on the identities which women appropriate as a result of relationships , and how these are connected with their roles in society . Critic Mary Reichart observes that in Cisneros 's previous work as well as " in Woman Hollering Creek ( 1991 ) , the female characters break out of the molds assigned to them by the culture in search of new roles and new kinds of relationships . Cisneros portrays women who challenge stereotypes and break taboos , sometimes simply for the sake of shocking the establishment , but most often because the confining stereotypes prevent them from achieving their own identity . " An example of this is Cleófilas , who had hoped for a better life after leaving her home in Mexico to live in the United States . The soap operas she had seen had led her to believe that her life was going to be a fairy tale . Instead , with a failing marriage and another child on the way she sees that her life resembles only the saddest aspects of a soap opera . Another example of this is found in the final section of this book , entitled " There Was A Man , There Was A Woman " , where Cisneros illustrates how women can use their bodies as political instruments in their attempts to fight against male domination . The two female protagonists in " Never Marry a Mexican " and " Eyes of Zapata " use their bodies in attempts to gain recognition and acceptance from husband and lover . However , in doing so , they face the problems of objectification and oppression ; two issues which end up adversely shaping the characters ' identities . In the end , the illegitimate societal roles of these women influence their quest for female identity . For example , Inés , in " Eyes of Zapata " , talks about the role she plays as lover , not a wife : " You married her , that woman from Villa de Ayala , true . But see , you came back to me . You always come back . In between and beyond the others . That 's my magic . You come back to me . "
The protagonists are examined not only as individuals , but also by how they connect to people in their lives , such as in the conflicting love and failed relationships between man and woman ; mother and daughter . For example , critic Elizabeth Brown @-@ Guillory notes of the story " Never Marry a Mexican " : " Cisneros portrays the mother as a destructive emotional force , alienating and condemning her daughter to repeating her own mother ’ s destructive powers . " This unsuccessful relationship between daughter and mother also affects the ways in which the women relate to men , as the mother is left at fault for any problematic situations with the daughter 's male companions . For example , the daughter Clemencia remembers : " Never marry a Mexican , my ma said once and always . She said this because of my father . ... I ’ ll [ Clemencia ] never marry . Not any man . "
Cisneros also incorporates religion as she " pays tribute to the faith of simple people who express their petitions and gratitude . " This is especially apparent in her story " Little Miracles , Kept Promises " , where people make petitions to the Virgen Mary , such as : " Madrecita de Dios , Thank you . Our child is born healthy ! Rene y Janie Garza , Hondo , TX . "
From the experience of growing up within two cultures Cisneros was able to combine both ethnicities , and in her stories she develops a major theme of hybridity between the American and Mexican cultures . She draws upon her life experience as she " depicts the situation of the Mexican @-@ American woman : typically caught between two cultures , she resides in a cultural borderland . The topics of the stories range from the confusions of a bicultural and bilingual childhood to the struggles of a dark @-@ skinned woman to recognize her own beauty in the land of Barbie dolls and blond beauty queens . " Because these issues are complex , Cisneros does not try to resolve all of them . Instead , she attempts to find neutral ground where the characters can try to meld their Mexican heritage with an American lifestyle , without feeling homesick for a country which , in some cases , the women have not even experienced .
Although the book has recurring themes such as , ( Chicana ) feminism , Cisneros uses her power of observation so her stories and narrative are not overwhelmed by these themes . This feminism is portrayed as " women who establish identities for themselves , but also develop an independent , confident , even exultant sexuality " . Not only this , but they learn to " love ... [ men ] as they wish , and to establish sisterhood , mutually supportive relationships with other women . "
Cisneros displays an abundance of poetic prose which uses frankness to captivate an audience . Reviewer Susan Wood suggests the reader sees that " Cisneros is a writer of power and eloquence and great lyrical beauty " . Critic Deborah L. Madsen has said that " the narrative techniques of her fiction demonstrate daring technical innovations , especially in her bold experimentation with literary voice and her development of a hybrid form that weaves poetry into prose to create a dense and evocative linguistic texture of symbolism and imagery that is both technically and aesthetically accomplished " . Madsen emphasizes Cisneros 's creative ability to combine both prose and poetry .
She also changes her narrative mode according to the demands of the story . For example , her narrative point of view almost continually changes , sometimes using first person , as we see in the story " Little Miracles , Kept Promises " , and sometimes third person , as in " La Fabulosa : a Texas Operetta " . Additionally , " Never Marry a Mexican " is characterized by the consistent use of interior monologue . Cisneros used this style in her previous novel The House on Mango Street where she mastered writing from the point of view of Esperanza ; however , " moving on meant experimenting with many voices " . She accomplished this in Woman Hollering Creek where she uses " a complex variety of voices and points of view . " Moore Campbell states that " [ it ] is this deluge of voices that Ms. Cisneros so faithfully taps in her work . "
Cisneros intertwines the American and Mexican cultures linguistically , as " [ her ] stories are full of Spanish words and phrases . She clearly loves her life in two worlds , and as a writer is grateful to have ' twice as many words to pick from ... two ways of looking at the world . ' A sometime poet , Cisneros uses those words so precisely that many of her images stick in a reader 's mind . Of two people kissing , for instance , she writes : ' It looked as if their bodies were ironing each other 's clothes . ' "
= = Reception = =
Cisneros has been honored with several awards as a result of Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories , including the PEN Center West Award for best fiction , the Lannan Foundation Literary Award , the Quality Paperback Book Club New Voices Award , and , in 1993 , the Anisfield @-@ Wolf Book Award . K. Prescott states that once the book was published , Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories was well @-@ received because women of many cultures could relate to the stories : " Cisneros surveys woman 's condition — a condition that is both precisely Latina and general to women everywhere . Her characters include preadolescent girls , disappointed brides , religious women , consoling partners and deeply cynical women who enjoy devouring men . They are without exception strong girls , strong women . " Marcia Tager comments again on the characters , saying that Cisneros " writes with humour and love about people she knows intimately " . For critic Ilan Stavans , the stories are not just words , but " a mosaic of voices of Mexican @-@ Americans who joke , love , hate and comment on fame and sexuality ... They are verbal photographs , memorabilia , reminiscences of growing up in a Hispanic milieu . " The American Library Journal and The New York Times honoured Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories as a noteworthy book of the year . The New York Times reviewer Bebe Moore Campbell wrote in 1991 that " [ these ] stories about women struggling to take control of their lives traverse geographical , historical and emotional borders and invite us into the souls of characters as unforgettable as the first kiss " . Apart from much praise , one criticism is that Cisneros stereotypes Hispanic men and women in her stories . Stavans argues that the males " are always abusive , alcoholic and egotistical " , while the women are " naïve [ and ] doll @-@ like " .
Susan Wood comments on the publication of Woman Hollering Creek by Random House : " Despite the growing number and influence of Latinos in the USA , the only identifiably Latin 's names – with a few exceptions like Oscar Hijuelos – on books published by major houses are those translations of Latin American novels . "
= USS Blakeley ( DD @-@ 150 ) =
The second USS Blakeley ( DD – 150 ) was a Wickes @-@ class destroyer in the United States Navy , named for Captain Johnston Blakeley .
Built in 1918 , she saw patrol duty along the East Coast of the United States during the interwar era . Decommissioned for several years , she returned to duty at the outset of World War II . She spent much of the war on convoy patrol duty in the Caribbean . On 25 May 1942 , while on patrol , she was struck by a torpedo fired by German submarine U @-@ 156 , which blew off her forward 60 feet ( 18 m ) . Fitted with temporary measures , she steamed to Philadelphia Naval Yard where she was fitted with the forward section of sister ship USS Taylor . She spent much of the rest of the war on convoy patrol duty before being sold for scrap in 1945 .
= = Design and construction = =
Blakely was one of 111 Wickes @-@ class destroyers built by the United States Navy between 1917 and 1919 . She , along with 20 of her sisters , were constructed at William Cramp and Sons shipyards in Philadelphia using specifications and detail designs drawn up by Bath Iron Works .
She had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 154 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 136 long tons ; 1 @,@ 272 short tons ) an overall length of 314 feet 5 inches ( 95 @.@ 83 m ) , a beam of 31 feet 8 inches ( 9 @.@ 65 m ) and a draught of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . On trials , Blakeley reached a speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . She was armed with four 4 " / 50 caliber guns , two 3 " / 23 caliber gun , and twelve 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . She had a regular crew complement of 122 officers and enlisted men . She was driven by two Curtis steam turbines powered by four Yarrow boilers .
Specifics on Blakeley 's performance are not known , but she was one of the group of Wickes @-@ class destroyers known unofficially as the ' Liberty Type ' to differentiate them from the destroyers constructed from detail designs drawn up by Bethlehem Steel , which used Parsons or Westinghouse turbines . The ' Liberty ' type destroyers deteriorated badly in service , and in 1929 all 60 of this group were retired by the Navy . Actual performance of these ships was far below intended specifications especially in fuel economy , with most only able to make 2 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 600 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) instead of the design standard of 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The class also suffered problems with turning and weight .
She was the second ship to be named for Johnston Blakeley , the first was a torpedo boat commissioned in 1904 . A subsequent USS Blakely would be commissioned , this one a Knox @-@ class frigate . This third ship would also be named for Charles Adams Blakely .
= = History = =
Blakeley was launched 19 September 1918 by William Cramp and Sons Ship and Engine Building Company in Philadelphia and sponsored by the wife of Charles Adams Blakeley . The ship was commissioned 8 May 1919 , under the command of Commander W. Brown , Jr .. She immediately joined the Atlantic Fleet . Blakely patrolled along the East Coast of the United States until she was decommissioned on 29 June 1922 , and returned to Philadelphia . She was recommissioned from 1932 to 1937 to serve with the Scouting Fleet , and then was again decommissioned in Philadelphia . Low military budgets were the cause of these periods of inactivity , as the Navy did not have the funds or manpower to maintain a number of ships , including Blakeley .
Blakeley was again commissioned on 16 October 1939 . She then joined the Neutrality Patrol until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the U.S. entrance into World War II . She then began convoy duty in the Caribbean , including a February 1942 mission to guard a convoy carrying troops to garrison Curaçao in the Netherlands West Indies .
On 25 May 1942 , Blakeley was on a patrol off Martinique , inspecting all incoming ships for evidence of activities by Vichy French collaborators alongside her sister USS Ellis . At 08 : 30 a.m. , she altered course to pursue a sound ping on her sonar . Nothing was found at the site of the ping , and the crew assumed it was caused by a school of blackfish . As the ship turned to resume its course , it was struck by a torpedo fired by the unnoticed German submarine U @-@ 156 under the command of Werner Hartenstein . The torpedo struck between frames 18 and 24 at about 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) below her water line . The force of the impact blew off 60 feet ( 18 m ) of her forward bow and forecastle . After several minutes , the crew determined they could still operate the ship , and it was brought back under control and sailed for Fort @-@ de @-@ France . The ship was steered with a combination of rudder and varying shaft speeds , and four hours after the attack , she was moored in Fort @-@ de @-@ France . Six men died and twenty one were wounded during the attack . Hartstein radioed a U @-@ boat headquarters in Lorient requesting permission to finish Blakeley off , but permission was denied . Destroyers Breckinridge , Greer , Tarbell and two PBY Catalina planes from VP @-@ 53 were scrambled to assist the stricken Blakeley .
At Fort @-@ de @-@ France , she was fitted with a wooden bulkhead to cover the area blown off by the torpedo , and an anchor was improvised out of a truck 's axle and differential housing . She then sailed under her own power to San Juan , Puerto Rico where a steel stub bow was attached . From there , the steamed for Philadelphia Naval Yard for permanent repairs . During mid @-@ 1942 , Blakeley was fitted with the forward section of her decommissioned sister ship , Taylor . She was also fitted with newer weapons and electronics systems , such as updated radar . Repairs were completed in September 1942 and she resumed her convoy duties in the Caribbean .
Blakeley spent most of the rest of the war on convoy escort duty in the Caribbean Sea Frontier , except for two short deployments in the Atlantic Ocean . On 1 January to 23 February 1943 she was assigned to hunter @-@ killer duty with Task Group 21 @.@ 13 in the North Atlantic , and from 24 March to 11 May 1943 , she escorted a convoy to Bizerte , Tunisia . From 18 March to 13 June 1945 , she was stationed in New London , Connecticut , training U.S. submarines in Long Island Sound to avoid destroyers .
Following this duty , Blakeley was decommissioned at Philadelphia Naval Yard on 21 July 1945 and sold for scrap on 30 November 1945 . She received one battle star for her wartime convoy duty .
= Juan Fernández ( basketball ) =
Juan Manuel " Lobito " Fernández ( born July 22 , 1990 ) is an Argentine professional basketball player . His father , Gustavo , was a point guard for a number of professional basketball teams in Argentina . Pepe Sánchez convinced Fernández to play basketball at his alma mater , Temple University , and Fernández joined the Temple Owls team in December 2008 . As a sophomore , he was named Atlantic 10 Tournament Most Valuable Player . After struggling through a prolonged shooting slump as a junior , he hit an off @-@ balance 18 @-@ foot shot with .4 seconds to play to defeat Penn State in the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament and was named to the All @-@ Atlantic 10 Third Team . In addition to his college exploits , he led Argentina to a gold medal in the 2008 Under @-@ 18 World Championship .
= = Early life = =
Fernández was born on July 22 , 1990 in Rio Tercero , Argentina to Gustavo Fernández and Nancy Fiandrino . His father was a point guard for a number of professional basketball teams in Argentina . He earned the nickname " Lobito " ( Spanish for " little wolf " ) after starring on a basketball team with a wolf mascot . Juan Fernández 's little brother , also named Gustavo , fell out of a chair when he was a toddler and used a wheelchair for life . He is one of the top wheelchair tennis players in the world under the age of 18 . The family operates the Pinot Grigio restaurant in Río Tercero .
At the urging of his father , Juan Fernández began playing basketball when he was six years old . He described himself as a " fat little kid " who was more interested in being a soccer goalie at first . When Fernández showed star potential on junior club teams , he was given the " Lobito " nickname , while his father became known as " Lobo " .
As a teenager , Fernández was offered deals to play in the Spanish B and C league when he graduated from Dr. Alexis Carrel High School . At the same time , he was considering playing college basketball in the United States . His mother went to Connecticut for six months to learn English , and she persuaded him that it would be a good place to be a student @-@ athlete . Pepe Sánchez , an Argentine basketball player who played college basketball at Temple University , offered some advice in an e @-@ mail :
" I 'm not the kind of guy who preaches about what people should do . But when kids like Juan ask me , I tell them my two greatest experiences in basketball was playing for my college team and my national team – the two times that money wasn 't involved . It was about the chance to represent your school and your country . More than that , it just opened my mind to so much .
" When I spoke with Juan , it just struck me he was the same and that college was the right situation to him . I told him regardless of what happens in basketball – whether he plays in the NBA , in Europe , whatever – going to college would make the biggest difference in his life . "
Sánchez had recommended Fernández to the coach of his alma mater , Fran Dunphy . Dunphy dispatched assistant Matt Langel to recruit Fernández to Temple . On one recruiting trip , Langel drove for 10 hours on the backroads of Argentina searching for Fernández , who was practicing with the national team instead of home in Rio Tercero as Langel had thought . After his official visit to the Philadelphia campus in September 2008 , Fernández signed his letter of intent . He graduated high school in December , and enrolled at Temple .
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
Fernández played college basketball with the Temple Owls men 's basketball team . At Temple , Fernández drew immediate comparisons to Sánchez ; he was dubbed " Pepe Sánchez with a jump shot . " He chose Sánchez 's jersey , number 4 , but Fernández said this was to honor his father . Unfamiliar with the practice of lifting weights , Fernández wore gloves to his first session , drawing the laughs of his teammates . Against Kent State , Fernández contributed eight points and four assists in his Temple debut , three days after arriving in the United States . He scored a season @-@ high 19 points on February 15 , 2009 , to power Temple past Duquesne 78 – 73 . The Owls reached the 2009 NCAA Tournament after winning the Atlantic 10 tournament title . In 23 games , he averaged 5 @.@ 5 points and 2 @.@ 7 assists per game on the basketball court , and earned a 3 @.@ 0 grade point average in the classroom .
= = = Sophomore = = =
In his sophomore year , Fernández was moved to shooting guard in the Temple starting lineup , a change that felt strange for him as he was used to playing point guard . He was still in frequent playmaking positions , and led the team in assists with 3 @.@ 6 per game . He increased his scoring average to 12 @.@ 6 points per game , second on the team , and led the Atlantic 10 in three @-@ point percentage ( 45 @.@ 3 % ) . Fernández scored in double figures in 23 games . On December 13 , he netted a career best 33 points to upset local rival and third @-@ ranked Villanova 75 – 65 ; he shot 7 @-@ for @-@ 10 from beyond the arc . This earned him Philadelphia Big Five Player of the Week honors for the week of December 7 – 14 . As a result of his performance against Villanova and his 21 points versus Seton Hall , Fernández was named Atlantic 10 Player of the Week on December 20 . In the Fordham game on January 23 , 2010 , he took a blow to the head and was forced to leave in the second half . He missed the February 2 game against Richmond with post @-@ concussive symptoms .
Fernández became a fan favorite at Temple . Every time he made a three @-@ pointer against Bowling Green , the Temple student section chanted " Ole , ole , ole ! " Seton Hall fans were not so kind , mocking him with " Messi , Messi . " Little did they realize that Lionel Messi was one of his favorite soccer players , and their comments only served as inspiration . On his return flights to Argentina , strangers frequently went up to Fernández to congratulate him on his recent performances .
Fernández helped Temple to a 29 – 5 season , capture a share of the Atlantic 10 conference regular season championship with a 14 – 2 record , and earn a third consecutive Atlantic 10 conference tournament title and an automatic bid to the NCAA Tournament . He was named Atlantic 10 Tournament Most Valuable Player after scoring 18 points in the final versus Richmond . In the NCAA Tournament , Temple was seeded fifth and matched up with 12 seed Cornell in the first round . Fernández had 14 points , but his Owls were upset by the Big Red 78 – 65 . Following the season , Fernandez was an All @-@ Atlantic 10 Honorable Mention selection .
= = = Junior = = =
With the graduation of Luis Guzmán , Fernández switched back to his natural position at point guard in his junior campaign . Fernandez was a preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 Second Team selection . He was on the watchlist for the Bob Cousy Award honoring the top point guard in college basketball . A shooting slump that lasted the majority of the season saw his field goal percentage drop to 35 @.@ 5 % , his three point percentage drop to 33 @.@ 3 % , and his scoring average drop to 11 @.@ 2 points per game . He still led the team in assists , with 3 @.@ 9 per game . Fernández did miss four games in the middle of the season due to a bone bruise in his knee , but the shooting slump was more devastating and caused him to consult a sports psychologist . One of the worst games of his career was in an Atlantic 10 Tournament loss to Richmond , in which he went 3 @-@ for @-@ 17 from the field and committed three turnovers . After the game Fran Dunphy convinced Fernández that he had to take less shots and get his teammates involved .
Fernández led Temple to a 26 – 8 record and a seven seed in the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . In the Round of 64 , he hit an off @-@ balance 18 @-@ foot shot with .4 seconds to play to defeat Penn State , 66 – 64 , and finished with a season @-@ high 23 points . In the timeout that preceded the shot , teammate Khalif Wyatt convinced coach Dunphy to draw up a play for Fernández , despite his struggles during the season . Fernández finished with 14 points against San Diego State , but the Owls fell in double overtime . He was named to the All @-@ Atlantic 10 Third Team and Academic Team at the conclusion of the regular season and was a Philadelphia Big Five Second Team honoree .
= = = Senior = = =
Fernández was a preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team selection as a senior . He was named to the All @-@ Atlantic 10 Third Team and Academic Team at the conclusion of the regular season .
= = Professional career = =
Fernández began his professional career in 2012 , after signing with the Italian League club Olimpia Milano . At the beginning of the 2012 – 13 season he was loaned to Centrale del Latte Brescia of the Italian Second Division . In 40 games played in the Italian 2nd Division , he averaged 28 @.@ 2 minutes , 8 @.@ 8 points and 4 @.@ 8 assists per game .
He was then released by Olimpia Milano , and signed with the first division Italian League club Dinamo Sassari .
For the next season he returned to Centrale del Latte Brescia of the Italian Second Division . Posting 12 @.@ 7 PPG and 5 APG in 23 games of the 2014 @-@ 15 regular season .
In the 2
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, which means that the interaction between the atoms is independent of direction , or isotropic .
= = Chemical properties = =
The noble gases are colorless , odorless , tasteless , and nonflammable under standard conditions . They were once labeled group 0 in the periodic table because it was believed they had a valence of zero , meaning their atoms cannot combine with those of other elements to form compounds . However , it was later discovered some do indeed form compounds , causing this label to fall into disuse .
= = = Configuration = = =
Like other groups , the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration , especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior :
The noble gases have full valence electron shells . Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom and are normally the only electrons that participate in chemical bonding . Atoms with full valence electron shells are extremely stable and therefore do not tend to form chemical bonds and have little tendency to gain or lose electrons . However , heavier noble gases such as radon are held less firmly together by electromagnetic force than lighter noble gases such as helium , making it easier to remove outer electrons from heavy noble gases .
As a result of a full shell , the noble gases can be used in conjunction with the electron configuration notation to form the noble gas notation . To do this , the nearest noble gas that precedes the element in question is written first , and then the electron configuration is continued from that point forward . For example , the electron notation of phosphorus is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 , while the noble gas notation is [ Ne ] 3s2 3p3 . This more compact notation makes it easier to identify elements , and is shorter than writing out the full notation of atomic orbitals .
= = = Compounds = = =
The noble gases show extremely low chemical reactivity ; consequently , only a few hundred noble gas compounds have been formed . Neutral compounds in which helium and neon are involved in chemical bonds have not been formed ( although there is some theoretical evidence for a few helium compounds ) , while xenon , krypton , and argon have shown only minor reactivity . The reactivity follows the order Ne < He < Ar < Kr < Xe < Rn .
In 1933 , Linus Pauling predicted that the heavier noble gases could form compounds with fluorine and oxygen . He predicted the existence of krypton hexafluoride ( KrF
6 ) and xenon hexafluoride ( XeF
6 ) , speculated that XeF
8 might exist as an unstable compound , and suggested xenic acid could form perxenate salts . These predictions were shown to be generally accurate , except that XeF
8 is now thought to be both thermodynamically and kinetically unstable .
Xenon compounds are the most numerous of the noble gas compounds that have been formed . Most of them have the xenon atom in the oxidation state of + 2 , + 4 , + 6 , or + 8 bonded to highly electronegative atoms such as fluorine or oxygen , as in xenon difluoride ( XeF
2 ) , xenon tetrafluoride ( XeF
4 ) , xenon hexafluoride ( XeF
6 ) , xenon tetroxide ( XeO
4 ) , and sodium perxenate ( Na
4XeO
6 ) . Xenon reacts with fluorine to form numerous xenon fluorides according to the following equations :
Xe + F2 → XeF2
Xe + 2F2 → XeF4
Xe + 3F2 → XeF6
Some of these compounds have found use in chemical synthesis as oxidizing agents ; XeF
2 , in particular , is commercially available and can be used as a fluorinating agent . As of 2007 , about five hundred compounds of xenon bonded to other elements have been identified , including organoxenon compounds ( containing xenon bonded to carbon ) , and xenon bonded to nitrogen , chlorine , gold , mercury , and xenon itself . Compounds of xenon bound to boron , hydrogen , bromine , iodine , beryllium , sulphur , titanium , copper , and silver have also been observed but only at low temperatures in noble gas matrices , or in supersonic noble gas jets .
In theory , radon is more reactive than xenon , and therefore should form chemical bonds more easily than xenon does . However , due to the high radioactivity and short half @-@ life of radon isotopes , only a few fluorides and oxides of radon have been formed in practice .
Krypton is less reactive than xenon , but several compounds have been reported with krypton in the oxidation state of + 2 . Krypton difluoride is the most notable and easily characterized . Under extreme conditions , krypton reacts with fluorine to form KrF2 according to the following equation :
Kr + F2 → KrF2
Compounds in which krypton forms a single bond to nitrogen and oxygen have also been characterized , but are only stable below − 60 ° C ( − 76 ° F ) and − 90 ° C ( − 130 ° F ) respectively .
Krypton atoms chemically bound to other nonmetals ( hydrogen , chlorine , carbon ) as well as some late transition metals ( copper , silver , gold ) have also been observed , but only either at low temperatures in noble gas matrices , or in supersonic noble gas jets . Similar conditions were used to obtain the first few compounds of argon in 2000 , such as argon fluorohydride ( HArF ) , and some bound to the late transition metals copper , silver , and gold . As of 2007 , no stable neutral molecules involving covalently bound helium or neon are known .
The noble gases — including helium — can form stable molecular ions in the gas phase . The simplest is the helium hydride molecular ion , HeH + , discovered in 1925 . Because it is composed of the two most abundant elements in the universe , hydrogen and helium , it is believed to occur naturally in the interstellar medium , although it has not been detected yet . In addition to these ions , there are many known neutral excimers of the noble gases . These are compounds such as ArF and KrF that are stable only when in an excited electronic state ; some of them find application in excimer lasers .
In addition to the compounds where a noble gas atom is involved in a covalent bond , noble gases also form non @-@ covalent compounds . The clathrates , first described in 1949 , consist of a noble gas atom trapped within cavities of crystal lattices of certain organic and inorganic substances . The essential condition for their formation is that the guest ( noble gas ) atoms must be of appropriate size to fit in the cavities of the host crystal lattice . For instance , argon , krypton , and xenon form clathrates with hydroquinone , but helium and neon do not because they are too small or insufficiently polarizable to be retained . Neon , argon , krypton , and xenon also form clathrate hydrates , where the noble gas is trapped in ice .
Noble gases can form endohedral fullerene compounds , in which the noble gas atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule . In 1993 , it was discovered that when C
60 , a spherical molecule consisting of 60 carbon atoms , is exposed to noble gases at high pressure , complexes such as He @ C
60 can be formed ( the @ notation indicates He is contained inside C
60 but not covalently bound to it ) . As of 2008 , endohedral complexes with helium , neon , argon , krypton , and xenon have been obtained . These compounds have found use in the study of the structure and reactivity of fullerenes by means of the nuclear magnetic resonance of the noble gas atom .
Noble gas compounds such as xenon difluoride ( XeF
2 ) are considered to be hypervalent because they violate the octet rule . Bonding in such compounds can be explained using a three @-@ center four @-@ electron bond model . This model , first proposed in 1951 , considers bonding of three collinear atoms . For example , bonding in XeF
2 is described by a set of three molecular orbitals ( MOs ) derived from p @-@ orbitals on each atom . Bonding results from the combination of a filled p @-@ orbital from Xe with one half @-@ filled p @-@ orbital from each F atom , resulting in a filled bonding orbital , a filled non @-@ bonding orbital , and an empty antibonding orbital . The highest occupied molecular orbital is localized on the two terminal atoms . This represents a localization of charge which is facilitated by the high electronegativity of fluorine .
The chemistry of heavier noble gases , krypton and xenon , are well established . The chemistry of the lighter ones , argon and helium , is still at an early stage , while a neon compound is yet to be identified .
= = Occurrence and production = =
The abundances of the noble gases in the universe decrease as their atomic numbers increase . Helium is the most common element in the universe after hydrogen , with a mass fraction of about 24 % . Most of the helium in the universe was formed during Big Bang nucleosynthesis , but the amount of helium is steadily increasing due to the fusion of hydrogen in stellar nucleosynthesis ( and , to a very slight degree , the alpha decay of heavy elements ) . Abundances on Earth follow different trends ; for example , helium is only the third most abundant noble gas in the atmosphere . The reason is that there is no primordial helium in the atmosphere ; due to the small mass of the atom , helium cannot be retained by the Earth 's gravitational field . Helium on Earth comes from the alpha decay of heavy elements such as uranium and thorium found in the Earth 's crust , and tends to accumulate in natural gas deposits . The abundance of argon , on the other hand , is increased as a result of the beta decay of potassium @-@ 40 , also found in the Earth 's crust , to form argon @-@ 40 , which is the most abundant isotope of argon on Earth despite being relatively rare in the Solar System . This process is the base for the potassium @-@ argon dating method . Xenon has an unexpectedly low abundance in the atmosphere , in what has been called the missing xenon problem ; one theory is that the missing xenon may be trapped in minerals inside the Earth 's crust . After the discovery of xenon dioxide , a research showed that Xe can substitute for Si in the quartz . Radon is formed in the lithosphere as from the alpha decay of radium . It can seep into buildings through cracks in their foundation and accumulate in areas that are not well ventilated . Due to its high radioactivity , radon presents a significant health hazard ; it is implicated in an estimated 21 @,@ 000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States alone .
For large @-@ scale use , helium is extracted by fractional distillation from natural gas , which can contain up to 7 % helium .
Neon , argon , krypton , and xenon are obtained from air using the methods of liquefaction of gases , to convert elements to a liquid state , and fractional distillation , to separate mixtures into component parts . Helium is typically produced by separating it from natural gas , and radon is isolated from the radioactive decay of radium compounds . The prices of the noble gases are influenced by their natural abundance , with argon being the cheapest and xenon the most expensive . As an example , the table to the right lists the 2004 prices in the United States for laboratory quantities of each gas .
= = Applications = =
Noble gases have very low boiling and melting points , which makes them useful as cryogenic refrigerants . In particular , liquid helium , which boils at 4 @.@ 2 K ( − 268 @.@ 95 ° C ; − 452 @.@ 11 ° F ) , is used for superconducting magnets , such as those needed in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance . Liquid neon , although it does not reach temperatures as low as liquid helium , also finds use in cryogenics because it has over 40 times more refrigerating capacity than liquid helium and over three times more than liquid hydrogen .
Helium is used as a component of breathing gases to replace nitrogen , due its low solubility in fluids , especially in lipids . Gases are absorbed by the blood and body tissues when under pressure like in scuba diving , which causes an anesthetic effect known as nitrogen narcosis . Due to its reduced solubility , little helium is taken into cell membranes , and when helium is used to replace part of the breathing mixtures , such as in trimix or heliox , a decrease in the narcotic effect of the gas at depth is obtained . Helium 's reduced solubility offers further advantages for the condition known as decompression sickness , or the bends . The reduced amount of dissolved gas in the body means that fewer gas bubbles form during the decrease in pressure of the ascent . Another noble gas , argon , is considered the best option for use as a drysuit inflation gas for scuba diving . Helium is also used as filling gas in nuclear fuel rods for nuclear reactors .
Since the Hindenburg disaster in 1937 , helium has replaced hydrogen as a lifting gas in blimps and balloons due to its lightness and incombustibility , despite an 8 @.@ 6 % decrease in buoyancy .
In many applications , the noble gases are used to provide an inert atmosphere . Argon is used in the synthesis of air @-@ sensitive compounds that are sensitive to nitrogen . Solid argon is also used for the study of very unstable compounds , such as reactive intermediates , by trapping them in an inert matrix at very low temperatures . Helium is used as the carrier medium in gas chromatography , as a filler gas for thermometers , and in devices for measuring radiation , such as the Geiger counter and the bubble chamber . Helium and argon are both commonly used to shield welding arcs and the surrounding base metal from the atmosphere during welding and cutting , as well as in other metallurgical processes and in the production of silicon for the semiconductor industry .
Noble gases are commonly used in lighting because of their lack of chemical reactivity . Argon , mixed with nitrogen , is used as a filler gas for incandescent light bulbs . Krypton is used in high @-@ performance light bulbs , which have higher color temperatures and greater efficiency , because it reduces the rate of evaporation of the filament more than argon ; halogen lamps , in particular , use krypton mixed with small amounts of compounds of iodine or bromine . The noble gases glow in distinctive colors when used inside gas @-@ discharge lamps , such as " neon lights " . These lights are called after neon but often contain other gases and phosphors , which add various hues to the orange @-@ red color of neon . Xenon is commonly used in xenon arc lamps which , due to their nearly continuous spectrum that resembles daylight , find application in film projectors and as automobile headlamps .
The noble gases are used in excimer lasers , which are based on short @-@ lived electronically excited molecules known as excimers . The excimers used for lasers may be noble gas dimers such as Ar2 , Kr2 or Xe2 , or more commonly , the noble gas is combined with a halogen in excimers such as ArF , KrF , XeF , or XeCl . These lasers produce ultraviolet light which , due to its short wavelength ( 193 nm for ArF and 248 nm for KrF ) , allows for high @-@ precision imaging . Excimer lasers have many industrial , medical , and scientific applications . They are used for microlithography and microfabrication , which are essential for integrated circuit manufacture , and for laser surgery , including laser angioplasty and eye surgery .
Some noble gases have direct application in medicine . Helium is sometimes used to improve the ease of breathing of asthma sufferers . Xenon is used as an anesthetic because of its high solubility in lipids , which makes it more potent than the usual nitrous oxide , and because it is readily eliminated from the body , resulting in faster recovery . Xenon finds application in medical imaging of the lungs through hyperpolarized MRI . Radon , which is highly radioactive and is only available in minute amounts , is used in radiotherapy .
= = Discharge color = =
The color of gas discharge emission depends on several factors , including the following :
discharge parameters ( local value of current density and electric field , temperature , etc . – note the color variation along the discharge in the top row ) ;
gas purity ( even small fraction of certain gases can affect color ) ;
material of the discharge tube envelope – note suppression of the UV and blue components in the bottom @-@ row tubes made of thick household glass .
= The Judge ( Millennium ) =
" ' The Judge " is the fourth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on November 15 , 1996 . The episode was written by Ted Mann , and directed by Randall Zisk . " The Judge " featured guest appearances by Marshall Bell , John Hawkes and C. C. H. Pounder .
Forensic profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) , a member of the private investigative organisation Millennium Group , is asked to investigate a vigilante ( Bell ) who uses newly released convicts to execute those he deems guilty .
" The Judge " begins with a quotation from Moby @-@ Dick , a novel that the episode has been compared to thematically . Guest star Pounder would reappear several times in the series , while fellow guest Ellis made the last of his three appearances in this episode . The episode received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
In a bowling alley , ex @-@ convict Carl Nearman ( J. R. Bourne ) watches another man eat his meal before following him outside , where he approaches and kills him . Elsewhere , Annie Tisman ( Donna White ) receives a human tongue in a package . The Millennium Group sends offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and pathologist Cheryl Andrews ( C. C. H. Pounder ) to investigate , as several people have received body parts in the post over the past few years . No connection between the recipients has been found , nor have the bodies the parts have been culled from .
Mike Bardale ( John Hawkes ) is a violent recidivist who has recently been released from prison again . He is approached by a man calling himself The Judge ( Marshall Bell ) , who offers Bardale a position in his " court " . The Judge is a vigilante , hiring convicts to mete out his version of justice against those he perceives as criminals . Bardale 's first " execution " is that of his forebear , Nearman .
The body of the man killed outside the bowling alley is discovered , missing a tongue . It is identified as a retired police officer , Detective Mellen , who had given false testimony that had sent Annie Tisman 's late husband to prison . Black realizes that the killer is motivated by the need to right wrongs such as this , killing those who have gotten away with crimes . Meanwhile , The Judge passes sentence on another victim — a slumlord whose negligence caused a tenant 's death . Bardale is ordered to cut the landlord 's leg off while he is still alive ; the leg is later found in a postal depot in a package .
Forensic evidence on the package eventually leads to Bardale , and then to The Judge . The Judge is arrested for questioning , and knowing that there is not enough evidence to warrant sentencing him , he offers Black a job with him . Black refuses , but The Judge is released . Bardale is incensed that The Judge has manipulated the law to his own ends , and passes sentence on him for hypocrisy . Finding Bardale alone in a farmhouse , Black discovers that the convict had fed The Judge to his pigs .
= = Production = =
" The Judge " is the first of four episodes of Millennium to be written by Ted Mann , who would go on to write " Loin Like a Hunting Flame " , " Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " and the first season finale " Paper Dove " . The episode marks director Randall Zisk 's only work for the series .
The episode features the first appearance by C. C. H. Pounder as Millennium Group pathologist Cheryl Andrews . Pounder would go on to make another four appearances as the character , appearing across all three seasons . " The Judge " also marked the final appearance by Chris Ellis as Group member Jim Penseyres ; Ellis had previously appeared in " Gehenna " and " Dead Letters " . John Hawkes , who portrays killer Mike Bardale in the episode , would later go on to work with Mann again on the series Deadwood , first reuniting on that series ' first season finale " Sold Under Sin " .
The episode opens with a quotation from Herman Melville 's 1851 novel Moby @-@ Dick , taken from chapter forty @-@ two , " The Whiteness of the Whale " . Both Millennium and Moby @-@ Dick have been described as " a basic conflict between good and evil " . In addition , both are " focused on a then @-@ modern view of the world " .
= = Reception = =
" The Judge " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on November 15 , 1996 ; and earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 6 , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode .
" The Judge " received mixed reviews from critics . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one star out of five , finding its " contrived " plot to be " barely a subtle premise " , and noting that " the script unfortunately elevates the lead villain to high camp " . Shearman and Pearson felt that the subject of vigilantism was a suitable one for the series , and that it had " been bubbling under the surface every since the concept of the Millennium Group ... was first mentioned " ; however , they ultimately felt that the episode contained " very little to engage the brain " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated " The Judge " 4 out of 5 , describing it as being " a fine , moody episode " . However , Gibron felt that Marshall Bell 's character may have been better suited to a recurring role , rather than being killed off during the episode . Writing for The A.V. Club , Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a B- , praising the acting of both Bell and John Hawkes . However , VanDerWerff felt that " The Judge " showed Millennium to be struggling with its own concept , growing " staid " as a result of only having " the one color to play with " .
= Grass Fight =
The Grass Fight was a small battle during the Texas Revolution , fought between the Mexican Army and the Texan Army . The battle took place on November 26 ,
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's seat would be up for election in January 1892 . McKinley was defeated for re @-@ election to Congress in November 1890 ; his stature in Ohio politics was not diminished by the loss , as he was seen as a victim of gerrymandering . When the former congressman ran for governor the following year , he asked Foraker to place his name in nomination , which he did . Although some saw this as a rapprochement between the Sherman and Foraker factions , the former governor 's supporters , such as Kurtz and millionaire Springfield manufacturer Asa Bushnell , were already campaigning for Foraker for Senate .
McKinley was elected governor in November 1891 , and the Republicans took a two @-@ thirds majority in the legislature . During the campaign , supporters of both Foraker and Sherman had sought pledges from candidates , and in the aftermath of the legislative elections , both men expressed confidence . Sherman was handicapped by his age ( 68 ) , unpopularity , and a cold personality ; according to Horner , " Foraker was simply more of a man of the people than Sherman could ever hope to be . " Sherman 's aide , Jacob C. Donaldson , later wrote , " the situation was bad , almost desperate " . Hanna had made significant campaign contributions to legislative candidates , and was outraged when legislators believed to favor Sherman instead announced that they would vote for Foraker ; according to his biographer , Herbert Croly , " The situation looked desperate ; but it was saved , so Mr. Sherman himself stated to his friends , by Mr. Hanna 's energy , enthusiasm and ability to bend other men to his will . Three of the Cleveland representatives , who had gone into hiding , were unearthed and forced into line . " Donaldson noted , " Several of them were ruined by their perfidy . " Foraker was defeated narrowly in the Republican caucus , first on a vote to hold a secret ballot ( which would have benefited him ) , and then on the endorsement vote , which supported Sherman , who was subsequently elected by the legislature . According to Horner , " It is difficult to know which mattered more to Hanna — making sure his old friend Sherman kept his job or making sure that Foraker did not get it . "
Sherman was not magnanimous in victory , telling friends that he would not rest until he " tomahawked the last of Foraker 's crowd " . Nevertheless , at the Republican state convention , Foraker and his supporters were able to gain their goal of half the delegates @-@ at @-@ large to the 1892 Republican National Convention in Minneapolis , free to vote as they pleased . President Harrison was seeking renomination ; other men spoken of as possible candidates were Blaine ( who had again disclaimed any interest in running ) and McKinley . Prior to the Minneapolis convention , Hanna wrote to Foraker for the first time in four years , seeking to put aside differences in support of McKinley . Foraker agreed ; he disliked Harrison and did not feel he could be re @-@ elected . McKinley finished third for the nomination , a fraction of a vote behind Blaine . Harrison was defeated by Cleveland in the November election , and McKinley was spoken of as the most likely Republican presidential contender for 1896 .
= = = Election to the Senate ; involvement in presidential race = = =
Foraker had little involvement in politics in 1893 and 1894 , concentrating on the law . He still sought a Senate seat , however , and carefully planned his strategy for the 1895 state convention in Zanesville . Foraker forces gained full control , nominating Bushnell for governor to succeed McKinley , and Foraker allies for other state offices . The convention also endorsed Foraker for Senate , the first time a specific individual had been backed for Senate by an Ohio Republican convention . According to Walters , " The Zanesville convention represented the highest pinnicle of Foraker 's power in Ohio politics . He had selected the platform , chosen the next governor and the complete ticket , and had secured for himself virtual election to the United States Senate . " Foraker took a leading role as a speaker in the campaign , and the November election resulted in victory for Bushnell and a Republican majority in the legislature . That majority , on January 15 , 1896 , elected Joseph Foraker to the Senate .
Even before the senatorial election , the rival factions in the Ohio Republican Party were battling less than usual , but it was not until the day of the senatorial election that McKinley and Foraker reached a definite understanding for peace during the 1896 campaign . Foraker agreed to support McKinley 's presidential bid , and to travel to New York to approach that state 's Republican political boss , Senator Thomas C. Platt , hoping to gain Platt 's support for McKinley . In March , Foraker addressed the state convention in support of McKinley in a widely publicized speech . However , he was reluctant to be a delegate to the national convention , fearing that he would be blamed if anything went wrong with McKinley 's candidacy . It was only after considerable prodding from the presidential candidate that Foraker agreed to be a delegate , and to place McKinley 's name in nomination . McKinley desired that Foraker nominate him to show that he had the united support of the state Republican Party . Senator @-@ elect Foraker eventually agreed , and gave the nominating speech , part of which was heard by McKinley via telephone line to Canton .
The Democrats nominated former Nebraska congressman William Jennings Bryan , who had electrified the Democratic National Convention with his Cross of Gold speech . When Bryan accepted his nomination with a lengthy address in New York , the senator @-@ elect commented , " Mr. Bryan made himself by one speech , and now he has unmade himself by one speech " . Although Foraker went to Europe for four weeks ( his sole trip abroad ) , he gave almost 200 speeches for the Republicans once he returned . McKinley was elected president with a comfortable majority in the Electoral College .
= = Senator ( 1897 – 1909 ) = =
On March 4 , 1897 , the same day William McKinley became president , Joseph Foraker was sworn in as senator from Ohio . The new legislator was escorted to the bar of the Senate by Sherman ; his swearing @-@ in helped cement a modest Republican majority . Foraker continued his private legal work , which was not unusual at the time as many senators maintained business interests . Wealthy through his law practice , Foraker did not stand out in that regard either , as the " rich man 's club " of the Senate of that era contained about 25 millionaires .
= = = Rivalry with Hanna = = =
During the 1896 campaign , Hanna served as chairman of the Republican National Committee , in charge of McKinley 's campaign , and obtained millions for his presidential candidate by soliciting donations from wealthy businessmen . After the November election , Foraker met with Hanna and was surprised to learn that President @-@ elect McKinley and Hanna planned that Sherman would be appointed Secretary of State and that the industrialist would take Sherman 's place in the Senate . Foraker objected to both components of this plan , feeling that Hanna was not qualified as a legislator , and that Sherman , whose faculties were starting to fail , should not become Secretary of State . Foraker met with McKinley , but failed to convince him .
Bushnell ( who would get to appoint a temporary replacement ) and Foraker ( a close political ally of the governor ) did not want to appoint Hanna ; their faction had several candidates , including Bushnell himself , for the next election for Sherman 's seat in 1898 . Bushnell and Foraker resisted for a month once the pending appointment of Sherman became known in January 1897 , during which time the governor offered the seat to Congressman Theodore E. Burton , who declined . It was not until February 21 that Bushnell finally announced Hanna 's appointment , effective upon Sherman 's resignation . This controversy to some extent overshadowed Foraker 's swearing @-@ in as senator on March 4 — Hanna adherents claimed that Bushnell had delayed the effective date of the industrialist 's appointment until Foraker took his seat so that Hanna would be the junior senator . In his memoirs , Foraker denied this , noting that Sherman was unwilling to resign until the afternoon of March 4 , after the new president and Congress were sworn in and the new Cabinet , including Sherman , was confirmed by the Senate . Hanna was given his commission as senator by Bushnell on the morning of March 5 .
Foraker had known that with McKinley in the Executive Mansion ( as the White House was still formally known ) and Sherman expected to be senior senator , he could expect only limited patronage appointments for his supporters . With McKinley 's close friend Hanna instead in the Senate , Foraker was allowed to recommend appointees to the President , but McKinley allowed Hanna to exercise a veto over Foraker 's candidates .
Foraker was not visibly involved in the unsuccessful efforts to deny Hanna re @-@ election in 1898 , but several of his allies , including Bushnell and Kurtz , were part of the opposition . Foraker nominated McKinley again at the 1900 convention ; his florid praise of the president pleased the delegates . As McKinley 's original vice president , Garret Hobart , had died in 1899 , he required a new running mate for the 1900 campaign , and the convention chose the popular Spanish – American War hero , New York Governor Theodore Roosevelt . Foraker had maintained friendly relations with Roosevelt since the two men met at the 1884 convention , but Hanna bitterly opposed the choice . Foraker spoke widely during McKinley 's successful re @-@ election campaign .
After President McKinley was assassinated in September 1901 , Foraker attended the funeral services and addressed a large memorial meeting at the Cincinnati Music Hall . When politics resumed after the mourning , Foraker spoke in defense of President Roosevelt 's inviting Booker T. Washington , a black man , to the White House . This helped ensure support from the black community in Foraker 's successful re @-@ election bid in January 1902 , which was not opposed by the Hanna faction .
Both Hanna and Foraker had been spoken of as possible Republican presidential candidates in 1904 ; with President Roosevelt now likely to be the nominee , both men 's presidential ambitions were pushed back four years . Hanna in particular was reluctant to publicly put aside his presidential candidacy , believing that keeping it alive would help assure his re @-@ election by the legislature in 1904 . In 1903 , Foraker saw an opportunity to embarrass Hanna and boost his own chances for 1908 by getting the Republican state convention to pass a resolution endorsing Roosevelt for re @-@ election . If Hanna supported the resolution , he made it clear he would not be a candidate ; if he opposed it , he risked Roosevelt 's wrath . Hanna sent Roosevelt a telegram that he would oppose the resolution ; Roosevelt replied that he expected his administration 's supporters to vote for such a resolution , and Hanna gave in .
In February 1904 , Hanna died of typhoid fever , and his Senate seat and factional leadership were won by Charles Dick , a four @-@ term congressman who had received favorable publicity due to his Spanish – American War service . Dick was able to work out an accommodation with Foraker 's faction and was thereafter considered the leader of Ohio 's Republican " stand @-@ patters " , who saw no immediate need for social change .
= = = War and territorial gain = = =
In the year between his swearing @-@ in and the 1898 Spanish – American War , Foraker was an enthusiastic supporter of Cuban independence from Spain . A special session of Congress , called at the request of President McKinley , met beginning in March 1897 to consider new tariff legislation ; hawkish senators , including Foraker ( who was made a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee ) , took the opportunity to press resolutions in support of the Cuban insurgents . Foraker was impatient with McKinley 's policy towards Spain , decrying the President 's State of the Union communication to Congress in December 1897 and his so @-@ called " war message " , which some deemed insufficiently bellicose , in April 1898 . The senator stated to a reporter of the latter , " I have no patience with the message and you may say so . I have heard nothing but condemnation of the message on all hands . "
Foraker had introduced a resolution calling for Spain to withdraw from Cuba , and for the recognition of the rebels as the legitimate government of an independent Cuba . The resolution that passed Congress in April called for all those things except recognition ( deleted at the request of the administration ) and authorized the President to use force to achieve those aims . McKinley 's signature on the joint resolution caused Spain to break off diplomatic relations and war was quickly declared . Foraker followed the war closely — his elder son was fighting in it — and was an early proponent of the US keeping Spanish colonies it had captured , such as the Philippines and Puerto Rico .
McKinley had attempted to annex Hawaii , but the annexation treaty failed to be ratified by the Senate . Congressional leaders decided to try again , this time using a joint resolution that would bypass the need for a two @-@ thirds vote in the Senate . The American victory at the Battle of Manila Bay in early May revived interest in the Hawaiian matter . Foraker was a major proponent of the resolution in the Foreign Relations Committee and was the only committee member to speak in the debate . Opposition was mostly from Democrats , who objected to the revolution by which American interests had taken control of the islands in 1893 , a seizure defended by Foraker . In early July , proponents were able to get the resolution through both houses of Congress , and President McKinley signed it on July 8 .
The new American possession of Puerto Rico found itself in financial woes soon after its acquisition — its principal export , coffee , was now barred by high tariffs from both Spanish and American markets . Foraker took the lead in drafting and pressing legislation establishing a civil government for the island . Although Foraker had proposed to eliminate tariffs on imports from Puerto Rico , to secure passage of the legislation he had to accept a rate of 15 % for two years as the island developed a taxation system , after which there would be no tariff , and the money would be used to develop the island . The Foraker Act was signed by President McKinley on April 12 , 1900 . It required an American @-@ appointed governor and a legislature in which a majority of the upper house would be American @-@ appointed , and did not grant Puerto Ricans American citizenship . Foraker had wanted to give the islanders US citizenship , but neither the administration nor much of the Congress agreed with him . In 1901 , the Foraker Act was upheld by the Supreme Court , which ruled in Downes v. Bidwell that the Constitution did not apply to Puerto Rico and that Congress could legislate for it ( or , in the phrase then current , the Constitution did not follow the flag ) .
= = = Opposition to Roosevelt = = =
Foraker maintained generally friendly relations with Roosevelt in the president 's first term : lacking an electoral mandate , Roosevelt had pledged after the assassination to carry out McKinley 's policies . Elected in his own right in November 1904 , President Roosevelt felt more free to support progressive policies . When Roosevelt told Foraker his plans after the election , Foraker initially took no alarm , but according to Walters , " the resulting antagonism led to the political elimination of Foraker in 1908 . "
Their relationship began to break down over the question of railroad regulation . The President in 1905 sought legislation to give the Interstate Commerce Commission ( ICC ) the power to set freight rates ; Foraker considered the proposed law unconstitutional , and introduced a bill by which the railroad would set the rates , and if the ICC found they were excessive , it could ask the Attorney General to bring suit . Foraker spoke repeatedly against the administration @-@ favored bill as it moved through the Senate , and was one of only three senators ( and the only Republican ) to oppose the resulting Hepburn Act on final Senate passage . As the Ohio legislature had passed a resolution urging Foraker and Dick to vote for the bill , he faced anger at home ; one newspaper wrote that Foraker had extinguished his chances of becoming president with his vote . The following year , Foraker also broke with the administration on the question of statehood for Arizona Territory and New Mexico Territory , feeling that the two territories should not be combined into one state unless a merger was approved in referenda . Foraker 's position prevailed in Congress ; despite his stance , Roosevelt signed the resulting bill . The two men also differed on issues of patronage , and on a series of treaties requiring Senate ratification that allowed for international agreements without the need for Senate approval . Roosevelt wrote to a friend that Foraker seemed determine to fight him on every point , good or bad .
= = = = Brownsville case = = = =
On the night of August 14 , 1906 , gunshots were heard in the border town of Brownsville , Texas ; one resident was killed and a police officer wounded . Various military items , including discharged rifle shells , were presented by the local mayor as evidence that troops of the 25th Infantry Battalion , stationed outside of town and consisting of blacks , were responsible . When questioned , all denied involvement . Nevertheless , their white officers reported to the War Department that undetermined men belonging to the 25th Infantry were responsible , and that others of the battalion were aware of who had done it , but were remaining silent . Despite an almost total lack of evidence , on November 5 , 1906 ( just after the midterm congressional elections ) , Roosevelt ordered 167 soldiers dishonorably discharged and made ineligible for federal employment , including such decorated soldiers as First Sergeant Mingo Sanders , who had fought alongside Roosevelt in Cuba . The President adhered to his decision despite appeals from both whites and blacks .
Foraker was initially convinced of the guilt of the men , but reconsidered after evidence obtained in a private investigation by progressive organizations was presented to him ( the black attorney presenting it was denied an audience with Roosevelt ) . According to Roosevelt biographer Edmund Morris , " Foraker had a passion for racial justice . " Recalling Foraker 's desire , as a soldier , to see slavery abolished and the black man given the same civil and political rights as the white man , Morris explains , " Senator Foraker merely felt the same about the Constitution in 1906 as Private Foraker had felt in 1862 . " In addition to his desire to see justice done , Foraker also saw political advantage in opposing Roosevelt over the Brownsville issue ; he might boost his own presidential ambitions for 1908 by making both Roosevelt and his designated heir apparent , Secretary of War William Howard Taft , look bad .
Foraker battled to have the Senate investigate the Brownsville case , and got the body to pass a resolution requiring Taft to turn over information . By late January 1907 , after further investigation , Roosevelt had rescinded the part of the order barring the soldiers from federal employment , and had stated that he would reconsider the case of anyone who could present proof of his innocence . Foraker had claimed that the president lacked the authority to discharge the men ; to get a resolution passed for an investigatory committee , he had to withdraw that assertion .
Matters came to a head at the Gridiron Dinner on January 27 ; the program showed cartoons of the leading attendees and accompanying verses . Foraker 's read " All coons look alike to me " , suggesting his Brownsville stance was to attract the black vote . According to Walters , " the jests had been pointed and the cartoons biting " ; Roosevelt was seen to be angry . Nevertheless , when the President rose to speak , all that was expected was a few minutes of humorous comments . Instead , in his speech , Roosevelt attacked Foraker and defended his own conduct in the Brownsville case . Although it was not customary to permit anyone to follow a president 's speech , Foraker was allowed to reply . The Washington Post reported that Foraker " gave the President the plainest talk he has probably ever listened to . " Foraker stated that Sergeant Sanders had been dishonorably discharged even though " he was as innocent of any offense against the law of any kind whatever as the President himself " — and , he charged , Roosevelt was fully aware the soldiers had been wronged . He denied that he was after votes with his position , " I was seeking to provide for those men an opportunity to be heard in their own defense , to give them a chance to confront their accusers and cross @-@ examine their witnesses , and establish the real facts in the case . " Roosevelt spoke in angry rebuttal , but according to his biographer Morris , " Never before , at the Gridiron or anywhere else , had a President been challenged before an audience . "
= = = 1908 defeat for re @-@ election = = =
In the aftermath of the Gridiron Dinner , Foraker was increasingly ostracized , both politically and socially . Unwelcome at the White House , he was excluded from patronage . Nevertheless , the Committee on Military Affairs , on which Foraker sat , went ahead and held hearings into the Brownsville matter between February and June 1907 . Author John Weaver , in his 1997 book on the Brownsville case , takes note of " Foraker 's masterful presentation of fact and law " , including his cross @-@ examination of witnesses who sought to convince the committee of the soldiers ' guilt . In March 1908 , the committee issued its report , by a vote of 9 – 4 endorsing the President 's action . While the official minority report found the evidence inconclusive , Foraker and Connecticut Senator Morgan Bulkeley signed a separate report stating that " the weight of the testimony shows that none of the soldiers of the Twenty @-@ fifth U.S. Infantry participated in the shooting affray " .
Although he knew he had little chance of winning , Foraker challenged Taft , his fellow Cincinnatian , for the Republican nomination for president . He hoped to secure a deal whereby he would endorse Taft in exchange for support in the senatorial election to be held in January 1909 . Roosevelt was determined to drive Foraker from politics , and Taft refused to deal . Taft won at each stage of the delegate @-@ selection process , gaining all but two delegates from Ohio . At the 1908 Republican National Convention , Taft received 702 votes and was nominated ; Foraker received 16 , of which 11 came from blacks .
After failing to capture the Republican presidential nomination , Foraker concentrated on campaigning for re @-@ election to the Senate . His vote on the Hepburn Act and his opposition to Roosevelt had provoked opposition to him within the Ohio Republican Party ; in addition , both he and Dick were seen by some as the face of the old guard of the party , out of place in the Progressive Era . Many of those who opposed him proposed Congressman Theodore E. Burton for the Senate seat ; Foraker stated that the first thing to do was secure a Republican legislature , with the question of who should be senator left until victory was obtained .
Amid speculation as to Taft 's position on Foraker , the two men met , to all appearances cordially , on September 2 at the Grand Army of the Republic encampment at Toledo , and later that day , the two men appeared on the same platform . Taft spoke in appreciation of Foraker , who , as governor , had appointed him as a judge , giving him his start in public life . Foraker , for his part , stated that Taft would be his party leader during the campaign , and called on the presidential candidate at his headquarters in Cincinnati a week later . The Taft campaign asked Foraker to preside , and to introduce Taft , at a rally to be held at the Cincinnati Music Hall on September 22 . In a letter to a newspaper publisher , Taft pointed out that Foraker " can be useful with the colored
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vote and the Grand Army vote " .
The seeming rapprochement was shattered when publisher William Randolph Hearst , giving a speech in Columbus , read from letters to Foraker by Standard Oil Company vice president John D. Archbold . During Foraker 's first term in the Senate , he had done legal work for Standard Oil . In the letters , Archbold referred to legislation he considered objectionable , and also mentioned the substantial fees to Foraker . The publisher suggested the fees were a bribe for the killing of the legislation . Foraker quickly denied any impropriety , stating that the relationship was not secret and the excerpts had been read out of context . Foraker noted that when he was retained by the corporation in December 1898 , it had not yet come under federal scrutiny , and when Archbold had sought to retain him in 1906 , he had declined . Standard Oil was wildly unpopular , and the controversy put Taft in a difficult position . Foraker sent a letter to Taft , hand @-@ delivered by Senator Dick , expressing his willingness to avoid the Music Hall meeting . Taft said only that he hoped Foraker would meet with the organizers of the event and follow their recommendation , which Foraker took to mean that Taft was giving credence to Hearst 's charges and did not want him there . Foraker cancelled all remaining campaign speeches . Ohio helped elect Taft and elected a Democratic governor , but returned a Republican legislature , which would elect a senator in January 1909 .
Through December , Foraker worked to try to retain his Senate seat , which required action by the Ohio legislature in the era before direct election of senators . His rivals were Burton and the President @-@ elect 's brother , former congressman Charles Phelps Taft , though near the end of the contest , former lieutenant governor Warren G. Harding asked for his name to be considered . Both Foraker and Burton opposed Charles Taft 's call for a caucus of the Republican legislators to determine the party 's candidate . On December 29 , President Roosevelt weighed in on the question . Roosevelt " lost no time in putting the Republican members of the Ohio legislature on notice that to re @-@ elect Mr. Foraker to the Senate would be regarded as nothing less than treason to the party " . Roosevelt accused Foraker of seeking to make a bargain with the Democrats to secure his re @-@ election in exchange for a Democratic replacement for Dick in 1911 . Faced with this presidential intervention and Charles Taft 's withdrawal from the race , Foraker saw no path to victory and conceded on December 31 . The Republican caucus two days later selected Burton , whom the legislators duly selected on January 12 .
Foraker continued to work on Brownsville in his remaining time in office , guiding a resolution through Congress to establish a board of inquiry with the power to reinstate the soldiers . The bill , which the administration did not oppose , was less than Foraker wanted . He had hoped for a requirement that unless specific evidence was shown against a man , he would be allowed to re @-@ enlist . The legislation passed both houses and was signed by Roosevelt on March 2 , 1909 . On March 6 , 1909 , shortly after he left the Senate , Joseph Foraker was the guest of honor at a mass meeting at Washington 's Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church . Though both whites and blacks assembled to recognize the former senator , all the speakers were blacks , save Foraker . Presented with a silver loving cup , he addressed the crowd ,
I have said that I do not believe that a man in that battalion had anything to do with the shooting up of " Brownsville " , but whether any one of them had , it was our duty to ourselves as a great , strong , and powerful nation to give every man a hearing , to deal fairly and squarely with every man ; to see to it that justice was done to him ; that he should be heard .
= = Final years = =
As with his defeat for governor twenty years earlier , Foraker returned after losing re @-@ election to Cincinnati and the full @-@ time practice of law . He found a number of well @-@ paying corporations willing to retain him as counsel . Foraker represented the American Multigraph Company before the Supreme Court , seeking to overturn a Taft @-@ backed law imposing an excise tax on corporations . Several cases were consolidated into Flint v. Stone Tracy Company ( 1911 ) , in which the Supreme Court upheld the law .
Although he expressed bitterness upon leaving office , wishing he had never left the farm in Highland County , he soon resumed his involvement in politics , speaking for the unsuccessful Republican candidate for governor , Harding , in 1910 . The gubernatorial candidate had previously supported Foraker , though he had backed Taft in 1908 . In 1912 , Foraker made speeches in support of Taft 's re @-@ election bid , although he felt he had been badly treated by Taft in 1908 . Foraker refused , however , to attack the third @-@ party candidate , former president Roosevelt , whose candidacy split the party and led to the election of Democrat Woodrow Wilson .
In 1913 , ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution changed the method of choosing senators from legislative vote to election by the people . Buoyed by positive reviews of his participation in the 1912 campaign , and wishing to avenge his defeat for re @-@ election , Foraker entered the 1914 Republican primary against Senator Burton and former congressman Ralph D. Cole . When Burton withdrew , Foraker became the favorite . However , Foraker had made enemies , and others believed that his " old guard " Republicanism was out of date , Harding was reluctant , but was eventually persuaded to enter the primary . Although Harding did not attack Foraker , his supporters , including Cleveland publisher Dan R. Hanna ( son of the late senator ) , had no such scruples . Harding won the primary with 88 @,@ 540 votes to 76 @,@ 817 for Foraker and 52 @,@ 237 for Cole , and subsequently won the general election . Harding sent Foraker a letter regretting the primary result , but Foraker was more bitter towards the electorate , feeling they returned ingratitude for his previous public service .
With his political career at an end , Foraker began work on his memoirs , Notes of a Busy Life , published in 1916 . Roosevelt , after reading Foraker 's autobiography , wrote that he regretted his attacks . Roosevelt concluded his letter with an invitation to visit him at his home in New York . Foraker treasured this letter , which he felt re @-@ established his friendship with Roosevelt , although the two men did not meet in the short time remaining to Foraker .
Foraker supported President Wilson as he moved the nation closer to intervention in World War I. In April 1917 , Foraker was one of a group of Cincinnatians who organized to support Wilson when the President asked Congress to declare war on Germany . The former senator 's ill @-@ health ( he had suffered several heart attacks during the preceding winter ) limited his participation . On May 7 , Foraker experienced another heart attack in downtown Cincinnati . Taken home , he lapsed in and out of consciousness for three days before dying on May 10 , 1917 . Hundreds of prominent Cincinnatians attended his interment at Spring Grove Cemetery on May 13 .
= = Assessment = =
Historian Allan Nevins , in his foreword to Walters ' biography of Foraker , suggested that Foraker did not attain the presidency , as he had hoped , because of the ambitions of other Ohio politicians . While Foraker might have secured the nomination in 1888 as a compromise candidate , had not his pledges to Sherman prevented it , having " stood aside for an older man [ , ] year after year he was compelled to stand aside for younger leaders . First McKinley , with Hanna at his side , was given precedence ; then Taft , whom Foraker had given a start in public life , scaled the peak . Foraker , for all his administrative capacity , his wide popular appeal , and his unflinching courage , had the tragic lot of seeing a succession of associates go above him . " Even Foraker 's final defeat , in 1914 , proved to be part of the political rise of another president from Ohio , Harding . Nevins noted the aggressive nature of Foraker 's political style , and commented , " How much of his failure to reach high office was attributable to ill fortune and how much to some of his traits , readers … may judge for themselves . " Cincinnati editor Murat Halstead , a contemporary , attributed the fact that Foraker did not get nominated in 1888 to the surplus of ambitious Ohio men at the convention : in addition to Sherman , Foraker , and McKinley , even Harrison had been born in Ohio .
According to Nevins , " in the era which began after McKinley 's assassination he did not show the progressive qualities which the electorate increasingly demanded ; indeed , he seemed positively reactionary . " Walters agreed , noting that Foraker 's 1914 defeat was caused in part by fears that his " uncompromising Republicanism of an earlier era would injure the party . The stirring principles of the New Freedom called for new leaders . " Historian Benjamin Kendrick noted that " Mr. Foraker was among the first of prominent politicians to be retired because of their too close connection with ' Big Business . ' "
Historian Louis L. Gould , who wrote a study of the McKinley administration , stated that Foraker " may well have been too close to some large corporations , but he also retained some vestiges of the commitment of the Civil War generation in the North to the idea of human equality ... This prompted him to champion the cause of the Negro soldiers . " According to historian Percy Murray in his journal article on the relationship between Foraker and black newspaper editor Harry Smith , Foraker 's " political career ended partially because of his support for and espousal of black rights ... Perhaps Smith best summed up his alliance with Foraker when he stated that it was time for Afro @-@ Americans to ... show full support for Foraker and men like him who supported the efforts of Afro @-@ Americans . " Walter Rucker and James Upton , in their Encyclopedia of American Race Riots , write favorably of Foraker :
Senator Foraker is acknowledged as the key person in Congress to keep the issue of the Brownsville soldiers alive . He made speeches about it and wrote about it . His statement in defense of the soldiers was summed up appropriately when he said that the soldiers " ask [ ed ] no favors because they are Negroes , but only justice because they are men " .
= Jim Baxter =
James Curran Baxter ( 29 September 1939 – 14 April 2001 ) was a left @-@ footed Scottish footballer who played as a left half . He is generally regarded as one of the country 's greatest ever players . He was born , educated and started his career in Fife , but his peak playing years were in the early 1960s with the Glasgow club Rangers , whom he helped to win ten trophies between 1960 and 1965 , and where he became known as " Slim Jim " . However , he started drinking heavily during a four @-@ month layoff caused by a leg fracture in December 1964 , his fitness suffered , and he was transferred to Sunderland in summer 1965 . In two and a half years at Sunderland he played 98 games and scored 12 goals , becoming known for drinking himself unconscious the night before a match and playing well the next day . At the end of 1967 Sunderland transferred him to Nottingham Forest , who gave him a free transfer back to Rangers in 1969 after 50 games . After a further year with Rangers Baxter retired from football in 1970 , at the age of 31 .
From 1961 to 1967 , he was a leading member of a strong Scottish international team that lost only once to England , in 1965 , shortly after he recovered from the leg fracture . He thought his best international performance was a 2 – 1 win against England in 1963 , when he scored both goals after Scotland were reduced to 10 players – left back Eric Caldow had his leg broken in a tackle with Bobby Smith . In the 1967 match against England , who had won the 1966 World Cup , he taunted the opposition by ball juggling while waiting for his team @-@ mates to find good positions . Although he was given most of the credit for the 3 – 2 win , some commentators wished he had made an effort to run up a bigger score .
In his prime , Baxter was known for his ability to raise a team 's morale , his good tactical vision , precise passing and ability to send opponents the wrong way – and for being a joker on the pitch . He also broke with Glasgow tradition by becoming friendly with several members of their major Glasgow rivals , Celtic .
Although he gained a reputation as a womaniser when he moved to Glasgow , he married in 1965 and had two sons . The marriage broke up in 1981 , and in 1983 he formed another relationship that lasted the rest of his life . After retiring from football he became manager of a pub , and his continued heavy drinking damaged his liver so badly that he needed two transplants at the age of 55 , after which he swore off alcohol . Baxter was also addicted to gambling , and is estimated to have lost between £ 250 @,@ 000 and £ 500 @,@ 000 . After he died of pancreatic cancer in 2001 , his funeral was held in Glasgow Cathedral and his ashes were buried at Rangers ' Ibrox Stadium . In 2003 , a statue was erected in his honour at his hometown , Hill of Beath .
= = Early life = =
Baxter was born in Hill of Beath , Fife , on 29 September 1939 and was educated and started his career there . After leaving school he spent eight months as an apprentice cabinet maker , and then worked as a coal miner .
His former headmaster James Carmichael took an interest in ex @-@ pupils and encouraged Baxter to join local football team Halbeath Juveniles instead of one of the glamour clubs . Baxter went on to play for the Fife junior team , Crossgates Primrose . Baxter joined Raith Rovers as a part @-@ timer in 1957 . He later said of his time with the two Fife clubs , " I would never have made it in today 's circumstances . I needed bastards like Carmichael , Buckard , Ferrier , Herdman and McNaught . Young players like I was would simply tell them to get stuffed and take their talent elsewhere . I owe them . "
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Baxter joined Raith Rovers as a part @-@ timer in 1957 .
In June 1960 , he joined the Glasgow team Rangers for a transfer fee of £ 17 @,@ 500 , a Scottish record at the time .
His first two seasons at Ibrox were coupled with two years ' National service as a Black Watch soldier .
Baxter played for Rangers from 1960 to 1965 , mainly as an attacking left half . During this period the team won the Scottish League Championship in 1961 , 1963 and 1964 , and the Scottish Cup in 196
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A Byzantine army under a certain Constantine tried to confront the Muslims , but al @-@ Battal defeated Constantine and took him prisoner . Al @-@ Battal 's next and last appearance is in 740 , when a major campaign involving several tens of thousands of men was launched by the Umayyads against Byzantium . Along with Malik ibn Shu 'ayb , deputy governor of Malatya , al @-@ Battal commanded a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ strong cavalry force while Sulayman ibn Hisham led the main force behind them . Al @-@ Battal and Malik 's force reached as far as Akroinon , but there they were confronted and defeated by the Byzantines under Emperor Leo III the Isaurian ( r . 717 – 741 ) in person . Both Arab generals and two thirds of their army perished .
= = Legend = =
If his military career was not particularly distinguished , Abdallah al @-@ Battal quickly became the subject of popular tales and his fame grew , so that by the 10th century he was well established as one of the heroic figures of the Arab – Byzantine Wars : al @-@ Mas 'udi ( The Meadows of Gold , VIII , 74 – 75 ) ranks him among the " illustrious Muslims " whose portraits were displayed in Byzantine churches as a mark of respect . In the 10th – 12th centuries his alleged role in the siege of Constantinople was embellished by the Persian historian Bal 'ami and the Andalusian mystic Ibn Arabi . A number of fictional anecdotes became part of the accepted historical corpus around al @-@ Battal from the time of Ibn ' Asakir ( 1106 – 1175 ) on : the use of his name to frighten children by the Byzantines ; his entry into Amorion pretending to be a messenger and discovery of the Byzantine plans ; his stay at a convent , whose abbess shielded him from Byzantine soldiers and whom he took with him and married ; and finally his death in battle and burial , attended by Emperor Leo himself . On the other hand , beginning with Ibn ' Asakir 's contemporary al @-@ Samaw 'al ibn Yahya al @-@ Maghribi , a succession of Muslim chroniclers were critical of the various fabrications introduced into the accounts of al @-@ Battal 's life . Ibn Kathir in particular regarded it as " poor and confused material suitable only for the unsophisticated " .
Al @-@ Battal 's exploits became the subject of two romances , the Arabic @-@ language " Tale of Delhemma and al @-@ Battal " ( Sīrat Ḏāt al @-@ Himma wa @-@ l @-@ Baṭṭāl ) and the Turkish epic tradition of Sayyid Baṭṭāl Ghāzī . Although both were composed in the 12th century and draw upon a common Arabic tradition , they show significant differences , with the Turkish tale including many uniquely Turkic and Persian influences , including supernatural elements from folk tradition or motifs from the Shahname and the Romance of Abu Muslim . Both romances place al @-@ Battal in the mid @-@ 9th century and associate him with the epic cycle of Malatya and its emir , Umar al @-@ Aqta ( died 863 ) , with the result that he became particularly associated with the city of Malatya and its region . In the Delhemma , his own role in the Umayyad wars with Byzantium is taken over by the Kilabite hero al @-@ Sahsah . In these tales al @-@ Battal is presented as an Islamic analogue to Ulysses , to the extent that his name became a byword for cunning . The Turks adopted al @-@ Battal following the Danishmendid conquest of Malatya in 1102 , and he became prominent as a Turkish national hero and symbol of their conquest of Asia Minor . His stories ( Battalname ) were reworked throughout the Seljuk and Ottoman periods , and he became the subject of a considerable body of folk tales . A cult developed around him as a saintly figure ( " sayyid " ) , especially among the Alevi and Bektashi sects , and his supposed tomb at Seyitgazi became a major centre of pilgrimage until the early 20th century , drawing pilgrims from as far as Central Asia .
= Don Kindt =
Donald John " Don " Kindt , Sr. ( July 2 , 1925 – May 5 , 2000 ) was an American defensive back and halfback who played nine seasons from 1947 to 1955 for the Chicago Bears in the National Football League . Kindt played college football for the University of Wisconsin Badgers primarily as an halfback from 1943 – 1946 , missing the 1944 and half of the 1945 season because of World War II . He was the starting halfback for the Badgers for most of his college career .
Kindt decided to forgo his senior season at Wisconsin in order to be eligible for the 1947 NFL Draft . He was selected with the last pick of the first round ( eleventh overall ) by the Bears despite having an history with injuries , and recovering from an off @-@ season knee surgery he suffered while playing a basketball game at Wisconsin . After playing dual positions in his first few seasons with the Bears , Kindt was used primarily on defense for his last six seasons in the league . Considered to be a defensive standout during his playing career , Kindt was selected to participate in one Pro Bowl , and led the team in interceptions several times .
His son Don Kindt , Jr. also played in the National Football League , as a tight end for the Bears during the 1987 season .
= = Early career = =
Kindt was born in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . He played football for Washington High School in Milwaukee where he named to the All @-@ City squad . He also played guard for Washington 's high school basketball team .
= = = 1943 season = = =
After graduating from high school , Kindt received a scholarship to the University of Wisconsin . He became the starter at right halfback in his first year , while fellow freshman Clarence Self started at left halfback . In the season opener against Camp Grant , Kindt scored his first career touchdown on a six @-@ yard run in the fourth quarter , which tied the game 7 – 7 . Wisconsin went on to lose the game 10 – 7 after Camp Grant scored a field goal with five seconds left . In his third game , Kindt became a " hero of the game " for his playing tactics against the Iowa Hawkeyes . He scored the only touchdown of the game , a two @-@ yard run , and managed to force the Hawkeyes to score a safety with time expiring when he did a quarterback kneel , and purposely fell down in the end zone , getting an Iowa defender to touch him for the safety . It prevented the Hawkeyes from potentially scoring a game @-@ winning score as the Badgers won the game 7 – 5 . Wisconsin temporarily managed to be in first place in the Big Ten conference play standings , though it was the lone highlight of the season for the Badgers , as they lost all their remaining games , mostly by blowouts and finished with a 1 – 9 record . After his first three games Kindt was impressing Wisconsin 's coaches with his " ball carrying and defensive abilities " , while scoring two of Wisconsin 's three touchdowns so far for the season . In the next game against the University of Illinois , head coach Harry Stuhldreher named Kindt as the captain of the team . He missed the next two games due to a leg infection suffered prior to a game against the University of Notre Dame . He returned for the homecoming game against Northwestern University , where he played a " couple of minutes " as he was still recovering from his injury . He came back to full form against the University of Michigan . Overall , Kindt scored four of Wisconsin 's six touchdowns of the season .
= = = World War II and 1945 season = = =
Kindt was drafted into the United States Army in 1943 while at Wisconsin , in the mist of World War II . He reported to active duty on February 1 , 1944 , receiving basic training at Fort Wolters , Texas . After training , Kindt was assigned to the Army 's 10th Mountain Division . He missed the 1944 season and half of the 1945 season while participating in the Italian Campaign . He was rewarded with two Bronze Stars , and a Victory Medal for his actions in Italy . Kindt returned to play for the Badgers in October 1945 . In his return , Kindt shared the halfback position with Ben Bendrick , and Jerry Thompson . Kindt only managed to play three games that season , mainly because of a late release he received while returning from the Army . When Kindt returned to the squad , one journalist took it as far as hailing Kindt 's return as a " godsend " who inspired the Badgers with his " inspirational play " . He scored two touchdowns against Iowa upon his return . In the season finale on November 24 against the Minnesota Golden Gophers , Kindt scored three touchdowns despite being used as a " blocking back " in a 26 – 12 win . The Badgers finished the season with a 3 – 4 – 2 record .
= = = 1946 season = = =
Prior to the 1946 season , Kindt was involved in a skiing accident when he fell down a flight of stairs , hurting his leg . He regained his job as the primary starter at the halfback position in time for the season opener . Kindt battled injuries with his ankle , leg and thigh throughout the season , which hampered his play at times . He rushed for 42 yards on 14 carries and one touchdown in a 20 – 7 upset over 14th ranked Ohio State Buckeyes on October 13 , the first time Wisconsin beat Ohio State in football since 1942 . The next game , a 27 – 21 loss against the University of Illinois , Kindt suffered a left knee injury after getting " kicked in the shins " during the fourth quarter and left the game , not playing on a regular basis afterwards . He rushed only for 21 yards on five carries in a 21 – 7 loss against Iowa on November 9 . After the season , Kindt injured his right knee while playing a game of intramural basketball , requiring surgery at a time in which knee surgery wasn 't as technologically advanced as today .
During his career in Wisconsin , Kindt was considered to be the team 's best all @-@ around player , a person who could run , throw , and kick efficiently , as well as playing defense . He also punted and played safety for Wisconsin . Kindt was named to the Wisconsin Athletic Hall of Fame in 1988 and the University of Wisconsin Athletic Hall of Fame in 1997 .
= = NFL career = =
Kindt forfeited his last year of eligibility at Wisconsin after the 1946 season to play in the National Football League . It was reported that the Chicago Bears had Kindt as its top player in their draft wish list . By the time the 1947 NFL Draft was held , the Bears managed to get Kindt with the eleventh overall pick . He soon signed a three @-@ year contract at a reported $ 25 @,@ 000 to play for head coach George Halas . After starting in a dual offensive / defensive role , Kindt decided to focus on playing only as a defensive back for the last few seasons of his career .
During his rookie season , Kindt joined a backfield which contained quarterback Sid Luckman and George McAfee , the primary starter at halfback . That season Kindt rushed for 266 yards and two touchdowns on 61 carries . One of his touchdowns was a meaningless three @-@ yard run while the game was out of reach , a 49 – 7 blowout against the Chicago Cardinals on November 23 . The next season Kindt rushed for 189 yards on 54 carries and two touchdowns , as the Bears acquired former Heisman Trophy winner Johnny Lujack and Bobby Layne to join Kindt , Luckman and McAfee in the backfield . A highlight of the season happened against the Detroit Lions on October 17 when he had a 66 @-@ yard run for a touchdown in a 28 – 0 Bears victory . After running for 118 yards on 41 carries , an average of 2 @.@ 9 yards per carry during the 1949 season , Kindt contributions to the offense were limited despite Layne getting traded to the New York Yanks , Lujack being injured and both McAfee and Luckman retiring . In his final six seasons , he only carried the ball 16 times for 13 yards and no touchdowns .
Kindt was a starter at defensive back for most of his career . An outspoken player , Kindt was the defensive captain of the team by 1952 . He was not afraid to criticize head coach George Halas on some of his coaching decisions , at times having to get separated from each other . One notable incident was during a 1952 loss against the Dallas Texans which Halas decided to start his second sting unit because the Texans were winless prior to the game . Kindt and Halas had to be separated after the final play of the game because Kindt " laughed " at something to his teammates after the Texans won and Halas ran across the field and kicked him . He later blamed Halas for the loss stating " poor defensive strategy " . They had a similar incident during a game against the Green Bay Packers after Kindt miscalculated a play which led to touchdown and Halas kicked him in his knees . Kindt later claimed that Halas apologized for the incidents . He was selected to the 1954 Pro Bowl as a member of the West team , where he scored a safety after tackling Cleveland Browns quarterback Otto Graham during the second quarter .
In his career , Kindt appeared in 108 games with the Bears , intercepting 21 passes with 10 forced fumbles and one defensive touchdown . As a running back , Kindt had 172 carries for 586 yards and four touchdowns while as a receiver , he had 43 receptions for 506 yards and
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Examples of these include the cover of the Animal Cracker box and Homer and Dr. Joan Bushwell 's discussion about the smell of feces in the doctor 's hut . After Swarzwelder wrote the first draft , the writing staff rewrote the script . When writing the episode , the writers deliberately included factual errors to annoy viewers who wanted the series to seem realistic . Commenting on the episode , Selman said " It 's kind of a combination of really nice , observational designs and then just [ ... ] things that are deliberately wrong . To anger people who care about things being real . "
Mark Kirkland , who had visited Africa before , served as the director for " Simpson Safari " . When he was sixteen years old , Kirkland spent six weeks in Kenya with a film crew that was making a documentary film called A Visit to a Chief 's Son . When he first read the script , he found that the episode was " all over the place " geographically . " It would be like in the United States , saying : ' I walked out of Grand Central Station and then I turned left and was standing on the south rim of the Grand Canyon . ' The locations are just all over the place " he said in the episode 's DVD commentary . Still , Kirkland strove to make the episode look as realistic as possible by drawing influence from his experience in Kenya .
For example , the steering column on Kitenge 's Land Rover is placed on the right side of the car . At one point in the episode , the Simpsons visit the Maasai people , a Nilotic ethnic group of semi @-@ nomadic people located in Kenya and northern Tanzania . The way that some of the Maasai people in the episode are dancing is also true to a traditional dance performed by Maasai people in real life , and although the drinking of cow blood is faithful to the Maasai people 's culture , the use of lip plates and neck rings are not . " That was kind of fun for me to try to make this stuff [ ... ] as crazy as the story is , [ to ] make it realistic " , Kirkland commented on directing the episode .
In a scene in the episode , the Simpsons are floating down a river on a shield . At one point , the family is seen by two Africans , who speak in Kiswahili . Additionally , the song that Kitenge sings when driving the Simpsons ( " Wé @-@ Wé " by Angélique Kidjo ) was a popular song in Africa . In order to make it sound accurate , Hank Azaria , who portrays Kitenge in the episode , was taught to sing the song phonetically by a professor in Swahili in the University of California , Los Angeles . Dr. Joan Bushwell , the " Jane Goodall @-@ type " character in the episode , was portrayed by American voice actress Tress MacNeille , who also voices Lindsey Naegle among other characters in the series . All animals ' noises ( except for Santa 's Little Helper , who is voiced by main cast member Dan Castellaneta ) were done by American voice actor Frank Welker .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast on April 1 , 2001 , " Simpson Safari " received a 7 @.@ 5 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 7 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode finished in 42nd place in the ratings for the week of March 26 @-@ April 1 , 2001 , tying with an episode of the television newsmagazine Dateline NBC . Later that year , the episode was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in the category of Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) . It ultimately lost to an episode of the science fiction series Star Trek : Voyager . Since its broadcast , the episode has been released twice on home video . On May 23 , 2005 , it was released along with the season 10 episode " Thirty Minutes over Tokyo " , the season 13 episode " Blame It on Lisa " and the season 15 episode " The Regina Monologues " as part of a DVD set called Simpsons Around The World In 80 D 'ohs .
On August 18 , 2009 , the episode was released as part of a DVD set called The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season . Mike Scully , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Matt Selman , Tim Long , Yeardley Smith , Mark Kirkland and Michael Marcantel participated in the audio commentary for the episode .
Former The Simpsons ' showrunner Mike Reiss stated , at an April 2007 talk in Bristol , Connecticut , that " Simpson Safari " is one of two of the show 's episodes that he dislikes . Following its home video release , " Simpson Safari " received mixed reviews from critics . In his review of The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide described the episode as " lousy " . While he admitted that he found a couple of scenes funny , he argued that the episode over relied on broad gags and " never threatens to become inspired or amusing " . He concluded by describing the episode as " disappointing " .
Writing for Bullz @-@ Eye.com , Will Harris gave the episode a negative review as well . He argued that the premise was " ridiculous " , and that the episode " remind [ s ] longtime fans that the show 's days of complete comedic perfection are behind them . " On the other hand , DVD Verdict 's Mac McEntire was entertained by the episode .
Although he mostly enjoy episodes that are " down @-@ to @-@ Earth " and emphasize the Simpson family , McEntire wrote that the " less realistic , more over @-@ the @-@ top crazy " episodes like " Simpson Safari " comprises the season 's best episodes . DVD Talk 's Jason Bailey wrote that " Simpson Safari " makes use of one of his favorite story elements that he called a " wandering storyline " . " Their habit of using the first act as a red herring , only semi @-@ connected to the rest of the show , is ingenious and hilarious " , he wrote .
" ' Simpson Safari ' , for example , begins with an extended bit about a bagboy strike , which leads the family to desperate culinary measures , which then leads Homer to a box of animal crackers in the attic , which then leads to the discovery of a prize inside the box for the safari trip that encompasses the rest of the episode . They 'd been doing this kind of thing for years , but it still plays " .
= Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa =
The Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa ( AFM ) is a classical Pentecostal Christian denomination in South Africa . With 1 @.@ 2 million adherents , it is South Africa 's largest Pentecostal church and the fifth largest religious grouping in South Africa representing 7 @.@ 6 percent of the population . Dr. Isak Burger has led the AFM as president since 1996 when the white and black branches of the church were united . It is a member of the Apostolic Faith Mission International , a fellowship of 23 AFM national churches . It is also a member of the South African Council of Churches .
The AFM is one of the oldest Pentecostal movement is South Africa with roots in the Azusa Street Revival , the Holiness Movement teachings of Andrew Murray and the teachings of John Alexander Dowie . The AFM had an interracial character when it started , but , as in American Pentecostalism , this interracial cooperation was short @-@ lived . The decades from the 1950s to the 1980s were marked by the implementation of apartheid . After 1994 , the white AFM moved rapidly towards unification with the black churches . By 1996 , all the AFM churches were united in a single multi @-@ racial church .
The constitution of the AFM blends at the national level the elements of a presbyterian polity with an episcopal polity . Decentralization is a major feature of its constitution , which allows local churches to develop their own policies . The Apostolic Faith Mission displays a variety of identities and ministry philosophies , including seeker @-@ sensitive , Word of Faith , Presbyterian , and classical Pentecostal .
= = History = =
= = = Early history : 1908 – 1912 = = =
While the Apostolic Faith Mission was founded in 1908 and Pentecostalism brought to South Africa by American missionaries , several factors helped create a favorable climate for the Pentecostal movement to spread in the country . First , revivals in the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa ( DRC ) in 1860 , 1874 and 1884 were characterized by deep conviction of sin followed by conversion , fervent prayer and some ecstatic phenomenon . Thus in 1908 , some older DRC members were familiar and open to Pentecostalism . Second , the Dutch Reformed minister Andrew Murray was a prominent holiness teacher and helped create a climate for revival . A third factor was the Zionist churches , led by John Alexander Dowie from Zion City , Illinois , United States .
In May 1908 , five American missionaries — John G. Lake and Thomas Hezmalhalch , along with their wives , and A. Lehman — arrived in South Africa from Indianapolis . Lake and Hezmalhalch had links to Dowie 's Zion City and had been baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Azusa Street Mission in Los Angeles . Despite these influences , however , the missionaries had no organizational affiliation . Arriving in Pretoria , Lake felt that the Holy Spirit was leading him to Johannesburg because they found no doors open in Pretoria . In Johannesburg , a Mrs Goodenough met them and invited them to stay in her house . She witnessed that the Holy Spirit had sent her to the train station to meet the American missionaries . They first began ministry at a rental hall in Doornfontein , a Johannesburg suburb , on 25 May 1908 . The services consisted of a mixed racial group , and many who attended the first services were Zionists . The missionaries moved to the Central Tabernacle , Bree Street , Johannesburg as the young Pentecostal movement grew . It was there that the Apostolic Faith Mission developed , initially as a committee first meeting in September 1908 . It was not registered as a legal entity until 1913 , however .
By 1909 , it had spread to the Orange River Colony . In South Africa , as at Azusa Street , the movement was initially multi @-@ racial , appealing to both Boers and blacks . It expanded rapidly among African farm workers in the Orange River Colony and Wakkerstroom , where Pentecostal beliefs in divine healing through prayer would have made it an attractive alternative to traditional or medical treatment . Lake made contact with the Wakkerstroom Zionists led by Pieter Louis Le Roux , and many Zionists joined the Apostolic Faith Mission . Their influence can be seen in the AFM 's practice of baptism by triple immersion , once each in the name of the Father , and the Son , and the Holy Spirit . There was also interaction with other churches , such as the Plymouth Brethren and International Holiness movement , which often resulted in individuals or whole congregations joining the AFM . Most AFM converts , however , came from the Dutch Reformed churches .
The AFM was a self @-@ propagating movement early on due to the successful evangelism of Boer and African converts . In 1909 , Lake wrote to The Upper Room , an American Pentecostal journal , that missionaries were not needed as the AFM had men " far superior to any that can come from America . . . who can speak English , Dutch , Zulu , and Basuto " . Towns and mining compounds were prime areas for missionary activity , reflected by the fact that 69 percent of AFM members lived in urban areas in 1928 . From urban centers , the AFM spread to rural areas through returning labor migrants or native preachers .
The interracial character of the AFM was , like American Pentecostalism , short @-@ lived . One explanation for this shift was tensions over economic competition between poorer whites and blacks . In July 1909 , it was decided that baptisms of whites , blacks , and coloureds would be separate . Lake even addressed the South African Parliament , which he advised to adopt a policy of racial segregation similar to the policy for Native Americans in the United States . An all white executive council controlled the movement , and a separate committee , also white controlled , was responsible for coordinating the " black work " . This situation would lead to many black secessions from the AFM resulting in the formation of African Initiated Churches , but the church would continue to have a large black constituency , who continued to exercise considerable autonomy in their local churches . As the AFM adopted the " daughter churches " approach to missions from the Dutch Reformed churches , eventually the AFM was divided into four main groupings : the white parent church , a large black daughter church , a coloured daughter church and an Indian daughter church .
According to Barry Morton , " An analysis of the missionary career of John G. Lake shows that the initial spread of Pentecostalism and Zionism in southern Africa was facilitated by the systematic use of fraud and deception " . Morton cites examples of misappropriation of AFM funds and the staging of miraculous healings .
= = = 1913 – 1969 : Divisions , institutionalization , accommodation = = =
The return of Lake and Hezmalhalch to America was an important turning point for the AFM . Le Roux was elected its president in 1913 , a role he filled until 1943 . During his leadership , the AFM distanced itself from the black Zionist movement with its distinctive taboos and dress and began looking to the Dutch Reformed heritage and respectability . During his leadership a large portion of the AFM 's African constituency withdrew in 1919 . Another schism occurred in 1928 when Maria Fraser led a number of AFM members to withdraw and form the Latter Rain Mission in South Africa . She and her followers , known as Blourokkies ( Blue Dresses ) for the dresses worn by female adherents , emphasized Holy Spirit @-@ inspired prophecy to a degree seen as unbiblical , excessive and dangerous by AFM officials . The movement did , however , contribute to a re @-@ emphasis on the work and presence of the Holy Spirit in the church and ministry .
Upon becoming general secretary in 1935 , David du Plessis oversaw a process of institutionalization from which a strong bureaucracy developed , directed by an increasingly educated leadership . It also had the effect of decreasing the role of the laity in the governance of the denomination . He is seen as the father of the " New Order " of AFM liturgy which called for more " respectable " and less extroverted Pentecostal church services . By the 1940s , the simple halls that once housed AFM congregations had been replaced by buildings modeled on Dutch Reformed architecture . Elders and deacons were introduced in 1945 , and by the 1960s relations between the AFM and Dutch Reformed churches had improved .
While du Plessis advocated closer ties with the other Afrikaans churches in the 1950s and 60s , the AFM accommodated itself to South Africa 's apartheid system . This move toward Afrikaner Nationalist support was led by AFM vice @-@ president Gerrie Wessels , who became a National Party senator in 1955 . During this time , the AFM ( despite its large black , coloured , English and Indian membership ) began to be spoken of as the " Fourth Afrikaans church " after South Africa 's three Reformed churches .
However , not everyone was satisfied with the new liturgical and political directions of the AFM . Wessel 's political ties led to the radicalization of younger black pastors , the loss of the majority of the English membership , and a major division of Afrikaner members who did not share his political views . These Afrikaners not only disagreed with Wessel politically but also with du Plessis liturgically . In 1958 , they broke from the AFM and formed the Pentecostal Protestant Church .
= = = Recent history = = =
Since 1919 , the black , coloured , and Indian sections of the AFM had developed as separate " daughter churches " or " mission churches " . These were , however , dependent on the white church ; the AFM 's missions superintendent was the ex officio chairman of the daughter churches ' Workers and Executive councils . After 1991 , the white and black churches remained separate , but blacks were made legal members for the first time . In 1996 , the two sections came together to become one operational unit , and the church 's newly elected president , Isak Burger , apologized for the past treatment of non @-@ whites .
The AFM is a growing church that prioritize church planting and growth . It has spread to all towns and villages in South Africa . More than 2000 assemblies and branch assemblies have been established .
= = Beliefs = =
Local churches within the Apostolic Faith Mission display a variety of identities and ministry philosophies , including seeker @-@ sensitive , Word of Faith , Presbyterian , and classical Pentecostal . The beliefs of the Apostolic Faith Mission are articulated in its Confession of Faith :
God is the eternal and triune .
God the Father is the author of creation and salvation .
Jesus Christ is the only Son of God the Father . For the sake of humanity and its salvation , he became flesh , lived on earth and was crucified , died and was buried ; rose from the dead and ascended to heaven , seated at the right hand of the Father .
The Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son , convicts the world of sin , righteousness and judgement and leads in all truth .
The Bible is the word of God , written by men inspired by the Holy Spirit . It authoritatively proclaims the will of God and teaches all that is necessary for salvation .
All human beings are created in the image of God , but because of sin , this image is marred . It is the will of God that all people should receive salvation through faith in Jesus Christ .
The baptism in the Holy Spirit with the initial evidence of speaking in tongues is promised to all believers . The gifts and fruit of the Spirit will be manifested in the life of a Christian , and a Christian should be a disciple of Jesus Christ living a consecrated and holy life .
Jesus Christ is the Head of the Church which is constituted by the Holy Spirit and consists of born again believers . The Church is responsible for the proclamation and demonstration of the gospel and God ’ s will to all people . As a charismatic community they fellowship with and edify one another .
Believer 's baptism by immersion and the Lord 's Supper are instituted by Jesus Christ to be observed by the Church .
At the time appointed by God , Jesus Christ will come to take away his Church .
Jesus Christ will judge the living and the dead . There will be a resurrection of the body and eternal life for the righteous and eternal punishment for the wicked . There will be the new heaven and the new earth where God will reign in glory .
= = Worship = =
The AFM is a Pentecostal church and its liturgy reflects the ecstatic and experiential practices found in similar churches world @-@ wide . Shouting , antiphonal singing , simultaneous and spontaneous prayer and dance are still commonly found in the worship services .
The order of service is similar to other Pentecostal churches , for example the Assemblies of God . There is no formal order of service , but most churches follow a routine of congregational singing , an offering / tithe collection , prayer , a sermon and an altar call . During the service , congregants may operate in various spiritual gifts , such as a message in tongues , a prophecy and words of wisdom or knowledge , as inspired by the Holy Spirit . During the congregational singing part of a service , a believer ’ s attitude of worship is often expressed through raising their hands in the orans posture .
Regular services are generally held on Sunday mornings and evenings . During the week , there are sometimes prayer or small group meetings and other types of gatherings .
= = Organization = =
In 2000 , the Apostolic Faith Mission adopted a new constitution which at the national level blends elements of its preexisting presbyterian polity with the " New Apostolic Paradigm " , which moved it towards an episcopal polity . According to this philosophy , successful , proven Christian leaders and pastors fulfill the role of apostles . At the local level , decentralization is the major effect of this new constitution , which allows local churches to develop their own policies . In the adoption of its new constitution , the AFM looked to the Assemblies of God in Australia as a model .
= = = Local and regional = = =
Qualifications for membership are that one be born again , baptized , recognized as a member of a local assembly ( church ) and adhere to the Confession of Faith . Local assemblies are led by a pastor and governing body , of which the pastor is a member . In addition to being a member of the governing body , the pastor is the assembly 's leader and " vision carrier " . The governing body appoints pastors .
Local assemblies are organized into geographical regions . Regional leadership forums are representative bodies consisting of pastors and delegates from each local assembly . Every three years , each forum elects a regional committee from among its members and a regional leader from among its pastors . The committee acts as an executive and advisory body to the regional leadership forum . Each region is represented by its leader on the National Leadership Forum . Non @-@ geographical regions , in the form of networks of local churches that share a peculiar ministry philosophy , also exist . These are normally led by the senior pastors of urban mega @-@ churches , who network with a number of local assemblies nationwide that look to them for leadership and mentorship .
= = = National = = =
The AFM 's national representative body is the triennial General Business Meeting . Its main function is the election of the national officers : president , deputy president , general secretary and general treasurer . The four national officers always represent the significant ethnic groups within the church . Each local assembly is entitled to send a pastor and a delegate as voting members . Additional voting members are members of the National Leadership Forum , members of standing committees , one additional member representing each church department and one additional representative of the church 's theological training institutions . Before 2000 , the General Business Meeting was known as the Workers Council , met annually , and possessed greater power . After the adoption of the new constitution , most of the body 's power was transferred to the National Leadership Forum .
The National Leadership Forum , formerly known as the Executive Council , is the AFM 's policy making body and the " guardian of doctrinal , ethical and liturgical matters in the church " . It licenses pastors , sets standards for ministerial training and settles disputes . It also convenes the annual National Leadership Conference and the General Business Meeting . While it has power to create and implement regulations , over 50 percent of the regional leadership forums can veto a regulation within 90 days of its passage by the National Leadership Forum . The National Leadership Forum 's members are the national officers , the regional leaders , leaders of church departments and a representative of the AFM 's theological training institutions . It may appoint additional members at its discretion . The administrative affairs of the national church are under the oversight of the national officers .
= = Theological Training = =
Theological training in the AFM is presently done at four campuses . Pastor M.A. Vilakazi is rector of the Theological Institute of Soshanguve north of Pretoria . Pastor . A. Govender is the rector of the AFMTS Covenant Campus in Durban . Pastor J.R. de Beer is principal of the Sarepta Theological College in Kuils Rivier , Cape Town . Prof. Jan Hattingh is rector of the Auckland Park Theological Seminary in Auckland Park , Johannesburg . These training institutions are in the process of being united , as decided by the General Business meeting of the AFM in 2007 . The Apostolic Faith Mission Seminary is now in partnership with the North @-@ West University .
= Enter the Void =
Enter the Void is a 2009 English @-@ language French drama film written and directed by Gaspar Noé and starring Nathaniel Brown , Paz de la Huerta , and Cyril Roy . Set in the neon @-@ lit nightclub environments of Tokyo , the story follows Oscar , a young American drug dealer who gets shot by the police , but continues to watch subsequent events during an out @-@ of @-@ body experience . The film is shot from a first @-@ person viewpoint , which often floats above the city streets , and occasionally features Oscar staring over his own shoulder as he recalls moments from his past . Noé labels the film a " psychedelic melodrama " .
Noé 's dream project for many years , the production was made possible after the commercial success of his previous feature film , Irréversible ( 2002 ) . Enter the Void was primarily financed by Wild Bunch , while Fidélité Films led the actual production . With a mix of professionals and newcomers , the film makes heavy use of imagery inspired by experimental cinema and psychedelic drug experiences . Principal photography took place on location in Tokyo , and involved many complicated crane shots . Co @-@ producers included the visual effects studio BUF Compagnie , which also provided the computer @-@ generated imagery . The film 's soundtrack is a collage of electronic pop and experimental music .
A rough cut premiered at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival , but post @-@ production work continued , and the film was not released in France until almost a year later . A cut @-@ down version was released in the United States and United Kingdom in September 2010 . The critical response was sharply divided : positive reviews described the film as captivating and innovative , while negative critics called it tedious and puerile . The film performed poorly at the box office .
= = Plot = =
Oscar ( Nathaniel Brown ) lives in Tokyo with his younger sister Linda ( Paz de la Huerta ) and supports himself by dealing drugs , against the advice of his friend Alex ( Cyril Roy ) , who attempts to turn Oscar 's interest toward The Tibetan Book of the Dead , a Buddhist book about the afterlife . The first segment begins with Linda leaving for work ( at a local strip club ) and then follows Oscar 's nightly routine through strict point @-@ of @-@ view shots , including momentary blackouts that represent blinking , private internal thoughts , and extended sequences of a drug @-@ induced hallucination .
Next , Alex meets Oscar at the apartment and they leave so that Oscar can deliver drugs to his friend Victor ( Olly Alexander ) . On the way , Alex explains parts of The Tibetan Book of the Dead to Oscar : how the spirit of a dead person sometimes stays among the living until it begins to experience nightmares , after which it attempts to reincarnate . They arrive at a bar called The Void . Oscar enters alone and sits down with a distressed Victor , who mutters " I 'm sorry " before they are swarmed by police officers . Oscar seals himself in a bathroom stall and attempts to flush his drugs . When the flush does not work , he yells through the door that he has a gun and will shoot . In response , a police officer opens fire and hits Oscar , who falls to the floor .
Oscar 's viewpoint rises and looks at his body from above , and then we begin to witness his life in a roughly chronological order . His loving parents were killed in a violent car crash ; Oscar and Linda , devoted to each other , were sent to different foster homes ; Oscar moved to Tokyo and earned money through drug dealing until he could afford to bring Linda to live with him ; Linda found work as a stripper for the nightclub owner Mario , to Oscar 's distress ; Oscar increased the scope of his dealing operations and started
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= Filming = = =
Principal photography began in September 2012 in Los Angeles . Although some scenes were originally planned to be shot in Queensland , Australia , all filming took place in the Southern California area , including the Walt Disney Studios lot in Burbank , Disneyland Park in Anaheim , Big Sky Ranch in Simi Valley , the Los Angeles County Arboretum and Botanic Garden in Arcadia , Heritage Square Museum in Montecito Heights , Ontario International Airport in San Bernardino , Courthouse Square at Universal Studios , and the TCL Chinese Theatre in Hollywood . The largest set built for the film was the interior of the Walt Disney Studios ' Animation Building , which production designer Michael Corenblith referred to as " a character in the story " . The exterior of the Beverly Hills Hotel and Disney 's personal office were also recreated , with the Langham Huntington in Pasadena acting as an interior double for the Beverly Hills Hotel . To ensure authenticity , Corenblith used photographs and a furniture display from the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library as references for Disney 's office ; the set was also adorned with Disney 's personal Academy Awards loaned from a Walt Disney World Resort exhibit . For the Disneyland sequences , scenes were shot during the early morning with certain areas cordoned off during the park 's operation , including the park 's entrance courtyard , Main Street U.S.A. , Sleeping Beauty Castle , Fantasyland , and the King Arthur Carrousel attraction . Extra roles were filled by Disneyland Resort cast members . In order for the park to be portrayed accurately in the story 's time period , Corenblith had the Main Street storefronts redressed to reflect their 1961 appearance ; post @-@ 1961 attractions were kept obstructed so they would not show up on camera . To recreate the original film 's premiere at the Chinese Theatre , set designers closed Hollywood Boulevard and recreated the street and theater to resemble their 1964 appearances . After scheduled filming in Australia had been scrapped , such cinematographer John Schwartzman compared the landscape of Queensland with that of rural Southern California , and realized that both had similar traits in natural lighting .
Emma Thompson prepared for her role by studying Travers ' own recordings conducted during the development of Mary Poppins , and also styled her natural hair after Travers ' , due to the actress 's disdain for wigs . To accurately convey Walt Disney 's midwestern dialect , Tom Hanks listened to archival recordings of Disney and practiced the voice while reading newspapers . Hanks also grew his own mustache for the role , which underwent heavy scrutiny , with the filmmakers going so far as to match the dimensions of Hanks ' mustache to that of Disney 's . Jason Schwartzman and B. J. Novak worked closely with Richard M. Sherman during pre @-@ production and filming . Sherman described the actors as " perfect talents " for their roles as himself and his brother , Robert . Costume designer Daniel Orlandi had Thompson wear authentic jewelry borrowed from the Walt Disney Family Museum , and ensured that Hanks ' wardrobe included the Smoke Tree Ranch emblem from the Palm Springs property embroidered on his neckties , which Disney always wore . The design department also had to recreate several of the costumed Disney characters as they appeared in the 1960s . Filming lasted nine weeks and was completed on November 22 , 2012 . Walt Disney Animation Studios reproduced an animation of Tinker Bell for the scene that recreates an opening segment from an episode of Walt Disney Presents .
= = = Music = = =
Thomas Newman composed the film 's original score . In regards to incorporating his own musical style to the film 's period setting , Newman stated that " there was room for a real tune @-@ based score here that could reflect the basic joy in that kind of writing that the Sherman Brothers brought to Mary Poppins . Newman , however , refrained from creating an " adaptation score " of the Shermans ' music from the original film . Newman 's process of scoring the film included playing themes to filmed scenes , so that he could " listen to what the music does to an image " , and not wanting to " clutter the proceedings with music . " The flashback sequences to Travers ' childhood provided the most work for Newman . He explains that , " You had to turn on a dime to make the transition back to the ' present , ' when Travers and the Sherman brothers are working on the script for Mary Poppins . And that was fun , but also musically challenging . ” For the score 's instrumentation , Newman primarily employed a string orchestra with some woodwinds and brass , as well as including piano and hammered instruments that were " appropriate to the time period " , such as dulcimers . The film 's score was recorded at the Newman Scoring Stage in Los Angeles , while the cast recorded several of the Shermans ' songs at Capitol Studios for use as playback during the film 's diegetic music scenes , including " Chim Chim Cher @-@ ee " , " Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious " , " A Spoonful of Sugar " , " Fidelity Fiduciary Bank " , " Feed the Birds " , and Let 's Go Fly a Kite " . Walt Disney Records released two editions of the soundtrack on December 10 , 2013 : a single @-@ disc and a two @-@ disc digipak deluxe edition , containing original demo recordings by the Shermans and selected songs from Mary Poppins .
= = Historical accuracy = =
Saving Mr. Banks depicts several events that differ from recorded accounts . The premise of the script — that Walt Disney had to convince P.L. Travers to hand over the film rights , including the scene when he finally persuades her — is fictionalized , as Disney had already secured the film rights ( subject to Travers ' approval of the script ) when Travers arrived to consult with the Disney staff . Disney , in fact , left Burbank to vacation in Palm Springs a few days into Travers ' visit and was not present at the studio when several of the film 's scenes depicting him to be present actually took place . Therefore , many of the dialogue scenes between Travers and Disney are adapted from letters , telegrams , and telephone correspondence between the two . Although Travers was assigned a limousine driver , the character of Ralph is fictionalized and intended to be an amalgamation of the studio 's drivers . In real life , Disney story editor Bill Dover was assigned as Travers ' guide and companion during her time in Los Angeles .
The film also depicts Travers coming to amicable terms with Disney , implying her approval of his changes to the story . In reality , she never approved of softening the harsher aspects of Mary Poppins ' character , remained ambivalent about the music , and never came around to the use of animation . Disney overruled her objections to portions of the final film , citing contract stipulations that he had final cut privilege . Travers had initially not been invited to the film 's premiere , until she " embarrassed " a Disney executive into extending her an invitation ; this is depicted in the film as coaxing Disney himself . After the premiere , she reportedly approached Disney and told him that the animated sequences had to be removed . Disney dismissed her request , saying , " Pamela , the ship has sailed . "
Although the film portrays Travers as being emotionally moved during the premiere of Mary Poppins — overlaid with images of her childhood , which is implied to be attributed to her feelings about her father — co @-@ screenwriter Kelly Marcel and several critics note that in real life , Travers ' show of emotion was actually a result of anger and frustration over the final product . Reportedly , Travers felt that in the end , the film betrayed the artistic integrity of her work and story 's characters . Resentful over what she considered poor treatment at the hands of Walt Disney , Travers vowed to never permit Disney to adapt her other novels for any purpose . Travers ' last will bans all American adaptation of her works to any form of media . According to the Chicago Tribune , Disney was " indulging in a little revisionist history with an upbeat spin " , adding , " the truth was always complicated " and that Travers subsequently viewed the film multiple times .
English writer Brian Sibley found Travers still gun @-@ shy from her experiences with Disney when he was hired in the 1980s to write a possible Mary Poppins sequel . Sibley reported that Travers told him , " I could only agree if I could do it on my own terms . I 'd have to work with someone I trust . " Regardless , while watching the original film together — the first time Travers had seen it since the premiere — she became excited at times and thought certain aspects were excellent , while others were unappealing . The sequel never went to production , and when approached to do a stage adaptation in the 1990s , she only acquiesced on the condition that English @-@ born writers and no one from the film production were to be directly involved with the musical 's development .
The film also depicts Travers ' Aunt Ellie ( her mother 's sister ) , who comes to help the family when her father becomes terminally ill , as Travers ' model for Mary Poppins , with her even using several of Poppins ' catchphrases from the film . In fact , Travers identified her great aunt Helen Morehead ( her mother 's aunt ) , as the model for Poppins .
= = Release = =
Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures released a trailer for the film on July 10 , 2013 . Saving Mr. Banks held its world premiere at the London Film Festival on October 20 , 2013 . On November 7 , 2013 , Walt Disney Pictures held the film 's U.S. premiere at the TCL Chinese Theatre during the opening night of the 2013 AFI Film Festival , the same location where Mary Poppins premiered . The original film was also screened for its 50th anniversary .
Saving Mr. Banks also served as the Gala Presentation at the 2013 Napa Valley Film Festival on November 13 , and was screened at the AARP Film Festival in Los Angeles on November 17 , as Disney heavily campaigned Saving Mr. Banks for Academy Awards consideration . On December 9 , 2013 , the film was given an exclusive corporate premiere in the Main Theater of the Walt Disney Studios lot in Burbank . The film was released theatrically in the United States on December 13 , 2013 , and in general theatrical release on December 20 .
Saving Mr. Banks grossed $ 83 @.@ 3 million in North America and $ 34 @.@ 6 million in other countries , for a worldwide total of $ 117 @.@ 9 million , against a budget of $ 35 million . The film grossed $ 9 @.@ 3 million in its opening weekend in the United States , finishing 5th at the box office behind The Hobbit : The Desolation of Smaug ( $ 31 @.@ 5 million ) , Anchorman 2 : The Legend Continues ( $ 26 @.@ 2 million ) , Frozen ( $ 19 @.@ 6 million ) , and American Hustle ( $ 19 @.@ 1 million ) .
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Saving Mr. Banks on Blu @-@ ray , DVD , and digital download on March 18 , 2014 . The film debuted at No. 2 in Blu @-@ ray and DVD sales in the United States according to Nielsen 's sales chart . The home media release included three deleted scenes that were cut from the film .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Saving Mr. Banks received positive reviews from film critics , with major praise directed to the acting ; particularly Thompson , Hanks , and Farrell 's performances . Film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 79 % " Certified Fresh " approval rating from critics , based on 231 reviews with an average score of 7 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads : " Aggressively likable and sentimental to a fault , Saving Mr. Banks pays tribute to the Disney legacy with excellent performances and sweet , high @-@ spirited charm . " Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 65 ( out of 100 ) based on 46 reviews from mainstream critics , considered to be " generally favorable " .
Leslie Felprin of The Hollywood Reporter praised the film as an " affecting if somewhat soft @-@ soaped comedy drama , elevated by excellent performances . " The Reporter wrote that " Emma Thompson takes charge of the central role of P. L. Travers with an authority that makes you wonder how anybody else could ever have been considered . " Scott Foundas of Variety wrote that the film " has all the makings of an irresistible backstage tale , and it 's been brought to the screen with a surplus of old @-@ fashioned Disney showmanship ... " , and that Tom Hanks 's portrayal captured Walt Disney 's " folksy charisma and canny powers of persuasion — at once father , confessor and the shrewdest of businessmen . " Overall , he praised the film as " very rich in its sense of creative people and their spirit of self @-@ reinvention . "
The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday rated the film three out of four stars , writing : " Saving Mr. Banks doesn 't always straddle its stories and time periods with the utmost grace . But the film — which John Lee Hancock directed from a script by Kelly Marcel and Sue Smith — more than makes up for its occasionally unwieldy structure in telling a fascinating and ultimately deeply affecting story , along the way giving viewers tantalizing glimpses of the beloved 1964 movie musical , in both its creation and final form . " The New York Times ' A. O. Scott gave a positive review , declaring the film as " an embellished , tidied @-@ up but nonetheless reasonably authentic glimpse of the Disney entertainment machine at work . "
Mark Kermode writing for The Observer awarded the film four out of five stars , lauding Thompson 's performance as " impeccable " , elaborating that " Thompson dances her way through Travers ' conflicting emotions , giving us a fully rounded portrait of a person who is hard to like but impossible not to love . " Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune felt similarly , writing : " Thompson 's the show . Each withering put @-@ down , every jaundiced utterance , lands with a little ping . " In regard to the screenplay , he wrote that " screenwriters Kelly Marcel and Sue Smith treat everyone gently and with the utmost respect . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone also gave the film three out of four stars and equally commended the performances of the cast .
Alonso Duralde of TheWrap described the film as a " whimsical , moving and occasionally insightful tale ... director John Lee Hancock luxuriates in the period detail of early- ’ 60s Disney @-@ ana " . Entertainment Weekly gave the film a " B + " grade , explaining that " the trick here is how perfectly Thompson and Hanks portray the gradual thaw in their characters ' frosty alliance , empathizing with each other 's equally miserable upbringings in a beautiful three @-@ hankie scene late in the film . " Kenneth Turan of Los Angeles Times wrote that the film " does not strictly hew to the historical record where the eventual resolution of this conflict is concerned , " but admitted that it " is easy to accept this fictionalizing as part of the price to be paid for Thompson 's engaging performance . "
David Gritten of The Daily Telegraph described the confrontational interaction between Thompson and Hanks as " terrific " , singling out Thompson 's " bravura performance " , and calling the film itself " smart , witty entertainment " . Kate Muir of The Times spoke highly of Thompson and Hanks 's performances . Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal , however , considered Colin Farrell to be the film 's " standout performance " . IndieWire 's Ashley Clark wrote that the film " is witty , well @-@ crafted and well @-@ performed mainstream entertainment which , perhaps unavoidably , cleaves to a well @-@ worn Disney template stating that all problems — however psychologically deep @-@ rooted — can be overcome . " Another staff writer labeled Thompson 's performance as her best since Sense and Sensibility , and stated that " she makes the Australian @-@ born British transplant a curmudgeonly delight . " Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian enjoyed Hanks ' role as Disney , suggesting that , despite its brevity , the film would have been largely " bland " without it .
The film did receive some criticism . Geoffrey Macnab of The Independent gave the film a mixed review , writing : " On the one hand , Saving Mr. Banks ( which was developed by BBC Films and has a British producer ) is a probing , insightful character study with a very dark undertow . On the other , it is a cheery , upbeat marketing exercise in which the Disney organization is re @-@ promoting one of its most popular film characters . " Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle concluded that if the film " " were 100 percent false and yet felt true , that would be fine . But this has the self @-@ conscious whiff , if not of mendacity , then of public relations . " Lou Lumenick of The New York Post criticized the accuracy of the film 's events , concluding that " Saving Mr. Banks is ultimately much less about magic than making the sale , in more ways than one . " American history lecturer John Wills praised the film 's attention to detail , such as the inclusion of Travers ' original recordings , but doubted that the interpersonal relations between Travers and Disney were as amicable as portrayed in the film . Landon Palmer of Film School Rejects also described several moments where the film had a " shrewd consumption of [ the company 's ] own criticisms " , only to later negate them and Disney @-@ fy Travers as a character .
= = = Accolades = = =
Saving Mr. Banks was nominated for several awards and earned accolades from various organizations , critics ' groups and circles , particularly in recognition of Emma Thompson . The film received five nominations at the 67th British Academy Film Awards , including Best British Film , Best Actress in a Leading Role , Outstanding Debut by a British Writer , Director or Producer , Best Film Music , and Best Costume Design .
The film received a Best Original Score nomination at the 86th Academy Awards , where — despite not earning a nomination — the film was widely considered by pundits to be a front @-@ runner for Best Picture . The film also received single nominations at the 71st Golden Globe Awards and 20th Screen Actors Guild Awards , where Thompson was nominated for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama and Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role , respectively . Additionally , Thompson won both the Empire Award for Best Actress and the National Board of Review Award for Best Actress for her performance , while the film itself was selected by the National Board of Review as one of the year 's top 10 films . Saving Mr. Banks was named by the American Film Institute as one of the top ten films of 2013 .
= Sudan women 's national football team =
The Sudan women 's national football team is an unofficial , non @-@ Fédération Internationale de Football Association ( FIFA ) recognised team called The Challenge that plays in a domestic competition in Khartoum against teams wearing traditional Muslim garb . It played its first competitive match in 2006 . No FIFA recognised senior national team has played a single FIFA @-@ recognised game . The development of a national team faces several challenges common to much of Africa , along with Sudan @-@ specific issues such as religion . There is an additional problem of a fatwa banning the creation of women 's teams .
= = The team = =
In 1985 , few countries in the world had a women 's national football team , including Sudan . A FIFA recognised Sudanese national team has never participated in a major regional and international event . As of June 2012 , the team has not played a single FIFA sanctioned game . The country has never entered the Women 's World Cup , competed in the 2010 African Women 's Championships , or participated in the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games . As of March 2012 , no team from the country appears on FIFA 's worldwide ranking , and a national team did not officially exist .
Sudan is one of the only two Muslim countries in the region to have a women 's league . According to Mårtensson and Bailey in Fundamentalism in the Modern World Vol 2 : Fundamentalism and Communication : Culture , Media and the Public Sphere , the fact that Sudan has a women 's league could be critical for the development of a national team . An informal national team called " The Challenge " has been created inside the league . This team refuses to wear the hijab or wear traditional Muslim clothing while playing and is based in Khartoum . The unofficial national team is not recognised by , nor receives support , from the Sudan Football Association . In 2006 , the team played its first competitive match . The team was captained by Sara Edward and played against a side from Sudan University that wore traditional garb . The quality of play was not high and the game ended in a 2 @-@ 0 win for the Challenge team .
The national team continues to lack FIFA recognition . In 2012 , the " Islamic Fiqh Council in Sudan issued a fatwa ( religious order ) saying that it is forbidden for the country to create a women 's soccer team , deeming it an immoral act " , in response to a question from FIFA regarding the feasibility of creating a team . The fatwah suggested that football is a men 's sport and women should not participate in it because it challenges the differences between men and women .
= = Background and development = =
Women 's football in Africa in general faces many challenges , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women in the wider society , and fundamental inequality that occasionally allows for female specific human rights abuses . At the same time , if quality female players in Africa are developed , many leave their home countries to seek greater football opportunities in places such as Northern Europe or the United States . Funding for women 's football in Africa is also an issue ; most of the funding for women 's football and for the women 's national teams comes from FIFA , not the national football association .
Inside the Sudan , religion is an issue with growing the game . Most footballers wanting to play are required to wear the hijab and play while fully covered . While football was organised inside the country with 440 men 's clubs in 2006 , and the first ever women 's game being played in the country that year in February between Tahadi and Sudan University at Sports ’ City , Sudan University , development was hindered because a fatwa by the Fiqh Council of Islamic in 2006 condemning the creation of a women 's league in Sudan . Still , in the South Sudan in 2006 , the local government was indicating their support of women 's football . By 2009 , women 's football programmes had been established in the Sudan . That year , there were ten senior women 's teams , a school @-@ based competition and a regional competition established . Young girls informally play the game in refugee camps in the Darfur region . Rights to broadcast the 2011 Women 's World Cup in the country were bought by Al Jazeera .
The Sudan Football Association , which was founded in 1946 , and FIFA affiliated in 1948 , was one of the founding members of Confederation of African Football , and continues to be a member of the Confederation . In November 2011 , a female association member , Laila Khalid , attended a meeting in South Africa where women 's football was discussed , specifically mentioning the problems faced in growing the game in Africa .
= Congo Crisis =
The Congo Crisis ( French : Crise congolaise ) was a period of political upheaval and conflict in the Republic of the Congo ( today the Democratic Republic of the Congo ) between 1960 and 1965 . It began almost immediately after the Congo became independent from Belgium and ended , unofficially , with the entire country under the rule of Joseph @-@ Désiré Mobutu . Constituting a series of civil wars , the Congo Crisis was also a proxy conflict in the Cold War in which the Soviet Union and United States supported opposing factions . Around 100 @,@ 000 people are believed to have been killed during the crisis .
A nationalist movement in the Belgian Congo demanding the end of colonial rule led to the country 's independence on 30 June 1960 . Minimal preparations had been made and many issues , such as the questions of federalism and ethnicity , remained unresolved . In the first week of July , a mutiny broke out in the army and violence erupted between black and white civilians . Belgium sent troops to protect fleeing whites and two areas of the country , Katanga and South Kasai , seceded , with Belgian support . Amid continuing unrest and violence , the United Nations deployed peacekeepers , but the UN Secretary @-@ General Dag Hammarskjöld refused to use these troops to help the central government in Léopoldville fight the secessionists . Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba , the charismatic leader of the largest nationalist faction , reacted by calling for assistance from the Soviet Union , which promptly sent military advisors and other support .
The involvement of the Soviets split the Congolese government and led to impasse between Lumumba and the President , Joseph Kasa @-@ Vubu . Mobutu , in command of the army , broke this deadlock with a coup d 'état , expelled the Soviet advisors and established a new government effectively under his control . Lumumba was placed in captivity and subsequently executed in 1961 . A rival government , founded by Antoine Gizenga and Lumumba supporters in the eastern city of Stanleyville , gained Soviet support but was crushed in 1962 . Meanwhile , the UN took a more aggressive stance towards the secessionists after Hammarskjöld was killed in a plane crash in late 1961 . Supported by UN troops , Léopoldville defeated the secessionist movements in Katanga and South Kasai by the start of 1963 .
With Katanga and South Kasai back under the government 's control , a reconciliatory compromise constitution was adopted and the exiled Katangese leader , Moise Tshombe , was recalled to head an interim administration while fresh elections were organised . Before these could be held , however , Maoist @-@ inspired militants calling themselves the " Simbas " rose up in the east of the country . The Simbas took control of a significant amount of territory and proclaimed a communist " People 's Republic of the Congo " in Stanleyville . Government forces gradually retook territory and , in November 1964 , Belgium and the United States intervened militarily in Stanleyville to recover hostages from Simba captivity . The Simbas were defeated and collapsed soon after . Following the elections in March 1965 , a new political stalemate developed between Tshombe and Kasa @-@ Vubu , forcing the government into near @-@ paralysis . Mobutu mounted a second coup d 'état in November 1965 , now taking personal control . Under Mobutu 's rule , the Congo ( renamed Zaire in 1971 ) was transformed into a dictatorship which would endure until his deposition in 1997 .
= = Background = =
= = = Belgian rule = = =
Colonial rule in the Congo began in the late 19th century . King Leopold II of Belgium , frustrated by Belgium 's lack of international power and prestige , attempted to persuade the Belgian government to support colonial expansion around the then @-@ largely unexplored Congo Basin . The Belgian government 's ambivalence about the idea led Leopold to eventually create the colony on his own account . With support from a number of Western countries , who viewed Leopold as a useful buffer between rival colonial powers , Leopold achieved international recognition for a personal colony , the Congo Free State , in 1885 . By the turn of the century , however , the violence of Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction had led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country , which it did in 1908 , creating the Belgian Congo .
Belgian rule in the Congo was based around the " colonial trinity " ( trinité coloniale ) of state , missionary and private company interests . The privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that large amounts of capital flowed into the Congo and that individual regions became specialised . On many occasions , the interests of the government and private enterprise became closely tied and the state helped companies break strikes and remove other barriers imposed by the indigenous population . The country was split into nesting , hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions , and run uniformly according to a set " native policy " ( politique indigène ) — in contrast to the British and the French , who generally favoured the system of indirect rule whereby traditional leaders were retained in positions of authority under colonial oversight . There was also a high degree of racial segregation . Large numbers of white immigrants who moved to the Congo after the end of World War II came from across the social spectrum , but were nonetheless always treated as superior to blacks .
During the 1940s and 1950s , the Congo experienced an unprecedented level of urbanisation and the colonial administration began various development programmes aimed at making the territory into a " model colony " . One of the results of the measures was the development of a new middle class of Europeanised African " évolués " in the cities . By the 1950s the Congo had a wage labour force twice as large as that in any other African colony . The Congo 's rich natural resources , including uranium — much of the uranium used by the U.S. nuclear programme during World War II was Congolese — led to substantial interest in the region from both the Soviet Union and the United States as the Cold War developed .
= = = Politics and radicalisation = = =
An African nationalist movement developed in the Belgian Congo during the 1950s , primarily among the évolués . The movement was divided into a number of parties and groups which were broadly divided on ethnic and geographical lines and opposed to one another . The largest , the Mouvement National Congolais ( MNC ) , was a united front organisation dedicated to achieving independence " within a reasonable " time . It was created around a charter which was signed by , among others , Patrice Lumumba , Cyrille Adoula and Joseph Iléo , but others accused the party of being too moderate . Lumumba became a leading figure within the MNC , and by the end of 1959 , the party claimed to have 58 @,@ 000 members .
The MNC 's main rival was the Alliance des Bakongo ( ABAKO ) , led by Joseph Kasa @-@ Vubu , who advocated a more radical ideology than the MNC , based around calls for immediate independence and the promotion of regional identity . ABAKO 's stance was more ethnic nationalist than the MNC 's ; it argued that an independent Congo should be run by the Bakongo as inheritors of the pre @-@ colonial Kingdom of the Kongo . The Confédération des Associations Tribales du Katanga ( CONAKAT ) , a localist party led by Moise Tshombe , was the third major organisation ; it advocated federalism and primarily represented the southern province of Katanga . These were joined by a number of smaller parties which emerged as the nationalist movement developed , including the radical Parti Solidaire Africain ( PSA ) , and factions representing the interests of minor ethnic groups like the Alliance des Bayanzi ( ABAZI ) .
Although it was the largest of the African nationalist parties , the MNC had many different factions within it that took differing stances on a number of issues . It was increasingly polarised between moderate évolués and the more radical mass membership . A radical faction headed by Iléo and Albert Kalonji split away in July 1959 , but failed to induce mass defections by other MNC members . The dissident faction became known as the MNC @-@ Kalonji ( MNC @-@ K ) , while the majority group became the MNC @-@ Lumumba ( MNC @-@ L ) . The split divided the party 's support base into those who endured with Lumumba , chiefly in the Stanleyville region in the north @-@ east , and those who backed the MNC @-@ K , which became most popular around the southern city of Élisabethville and among the Luba ethnic group .
Major riots broke out in Léopoldville , the Congolese capital , on 4 January 1959 after a political demonstration turned violent . The Force Publique , the colonial gendarmerie , used force against the rioters — at least 49 people were killed , and total casualties may have been as high as 500 . The nationalist parties ' influence expanded outside the major cities for the first time , and nationalist demonstrations and riots became a regular occurrence over the next year , bringing large numbers of black people from outside the évolué class into the independence movement . Many blacks began to test the boundaries of the colonial system by refusing to pay taxes or abide by minor colonial regulations . The bulk of the ABAKO leadership was arrested , leaving the MNC in an advantageous position .
These developments led to the white community also becoming increasing radicalised . Some whites planned to attempt a coup d 'état if a black majority government took power . As law and order began to break down , white civilians formed militia groups known as Corps de Voluntaires Européens ( " European Volunteer Corps " ) to police their neighbourhoods . These militias frequently attacked blacks .
= = = Independence = = =
In the fallout from the Léopoldville riots , the report of a Belgian parliamentary working group on the future of the Congo was published in which a strong demand for " internal autonomy " was noted . August de Schryver , the Minister of the Colonies , launched a high @-@ profile Round Table Conference in Brussels in January 1960 , with the leaders of all the major Congolese parties in attendance . Lumumba , who had been arrested following riots in Stanleyville , was released in the run @-@ up to the conference and headed the MNC @-@ L delegation . The Belgian government had hoped for a period of at least 30 years before independence , but Congolese pressure at the conference led to 30 June 1960 being set as the date . Issues including federalism , ethnicity and the future role of Belgium in Congolese affairs were left unresolved after the delegates failed to reach agreement .
Belgians began campaigning against Lumumba , whom they wanted to marginalise ; they accused him of being a communist and , hoping to fragment the nationalist movement , supported rival , ethnic @-@ based parties like CONAKAT . Many Belgians hoped that an independent Congo would form part of a federation , like the French Community or British Commonwealth of Nations , and that close economic and political association with Belgium would continue . As independence approached , the Belgian government organised Congolese elections in May 1960 . These resulted in a broad MNC majority .
The proclamation of the independent Republic of the Congo , and the end of colonial rule , occurred as planned on 30 June 1960 . In a ceremony at the Palais de la Nation in Léopoldville , King Baudouin gave a speech in which he presented the end of colonial rule in the Congo as the culmination of the Belgian " civilising mission " begun by Leopold II . After the King 's address , Lumumba gave an unscheduled speech in which he angrily attacked colonialism and described independence as the crowning success of the nationalist movement . Although Lumumba 's address was acclaimed by figures such as Malcolm X
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gun rounds were fired in addition to a total of 528 six @-@ inch shells between the three battleships .
On 9 May 1915 , Tri Sviatitelia and Panteleimon returned to bombard the Bosphorus forts , covered by the remaining pre @-@ dreadnoughts . Goeben intercepted the three ships of the covering force , although no damage was inflicted by either side . Tri Sviatitelia and Pantelimon rejoined their consorts and the latter scored two hits on Goeben before she broke off the action . The Russian ships pursued her for six hours before giving up the chase . Tri Sviatitelia was fitted with a pair of 63 @.@ 5 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 50 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns on top of each of her turrets during 1915 and screens were added on top of her funnels to keep out light bombs . On 12 August 1915 she , and all the other pre @-@ dreadnoughts , were transferred to the 2nd Battleship Brigade , after the dreadnought Imperatritsa Mariya had entered service . During 1916 she conducted coast bombardment and anti @-@ shipping missions off the Anatolian coast .
Tri Sviatitelia was refitting in Sevastopol during the February Revolution of 1917 . Immobile , she was captured by the Germans in Sevastopol in May 1918 and handed over to the Allies in December 1918 after the Armistice . The British wrecked her engines on 24 April 1919 when they left the Crimea to prevent the advancing Bolsheviks from using her against the White Russians . The ship was captured by both sides during the Russian Civil War , but was abandoned by the White Russians when they evacuated the Crimea in November 1920 . Tri Sviatitelia was scrapped in 1923 , although she was not stricken from the Navy List until 21 November 1925 .
= Akane Tsunemori =
Akane Tsunemori ( 常守 朱 , Tsunemori Akane ) is a fictional female character in the anime television series Psycho @-@ Pass , which was produced by Production I.G. Akane is a young adult who has just graduated from college ; she is a new member of Unit One of the Public Safety Bureau 's Criminal Investigation Division , which follows several crime investigations . Akane befriends the unit 's Enforcers and becomes involved in several crime scenes , which makes her question her views on society and causes her to become a strong detective . Akane has also appeared in manga and novel adaptations of the series . In the animated series , she is voiced by Kana Hanazawa in Japanese and by Kate Oxley in English .
Akane was created to be a relatable character who would question the setting and answer the viewer 's questions . Early in the show 's development , the production staff planned the way Akane would mature throughout the story . Early critical reception to Akane has been mixed . Some critics saw her as typical new cop often seen in dramas ; others criticized her as uninteresting . However , her growth in the story earned praise for becoming a highly appealing protagonist .
= = Appearances = =
Akane is the 20 @-@ year @-@ old main female protagonist of Psycho @-@ Pass . Akane is the newly assigned Inspector of Unit One of the Public Safety Bureau 's Criminal Investigation Division . She passes the exams with the highest score for employment on several public sectors and private corporations . Of more than 500 students , Akane was the only one to get an " A " ranking for the Public Safety Bureau and decided to join it because she thought she would be able to accomplish something that only she could do and find her purpose in life . She is initially uncomfortable with her job because it involved attacking and subduing potentially violent criminals before they can act . Enforcer Shinya Kogami 's recognizes and is curious by Akane 's views on these criminals . Akane befriends Kogami and Enforcer Tomomi Masaoka , which makes the veteran Inspector Nobuchika Ginoza — with whom Akane often argues — angry . In one case , Akane 's best friend is murdered by criminal mastermind Shogo Makishima . However , her acceptance of society and will to fight to against conflicts prevent her from becoming a latent criminal , despite the trauma of seeing her best friend 's death . Akane then resolves to arrest Makishima .
Akane and Kogami arrest Makishima but he escapes . Akane is disappointed when Kogami leaves the police force to hunt him alone . Akane soon discovers that members of the Sibyl System , a private organization that manages the Psycho @-@ Pass technology , want to use her to capture Makishima alive . Akane agrees on the condition they rescind their orders to kill the defecting Kogami . Despite her efforts , Akane fails to stop Kogami from killing Makishima . The Sibyl System members allow her to live on condition she does not reveal the truth about them . In the epilogue , Akane becomes the de facto leader of Unit One ; she is seen briefing a newly recruited Inspector in the finale of season one .
Akane returns as the leading character from Psycho @-@ Pass 2 working with Inspector Mika Shimotsuki to arrest a criminal named Kirito Kamui . After a betraying Enforcer Sakuya Tōgane attempts to raise her Crime Coefficient , Kamui calms Akane down before sacrificing himself in order to shoot Togane as he is intent in lowering people 's Crime Coefficients .
Akane also appears in the printed adaptations of the series , which include a manga in which she is the titular character . Additionally , a novel expands on the ending and Akane starts having hallucinations of the people who died during the story . In the audio drama After Stories , she contacts Kogami after the events of the series and promises to meet him again as equals .
= = Creation and design = =
Akane Tsunemori was created by the Production I.G staff to be the most relatable character in the series . She would question the setting from the audience 's point of view and have it explained to them . She was written as the heroine , who would come between Shinya Kogami and Shogo Makishima and see their conflict from her own viewpoint . One of the staff 's main objectives was Akane 's growth . Akane appears at the start of the first season as an innocent rookie who matures through her experiences . This was affirmed by Japanese female actor Kana Hanazawa , who voices Akane in Japanese . Hanazawa said one of the focal points of the series after the third episode was the changes Akane would undergo ; she would be influenced by many unfamiliar , traumatic experience she must endure as part of her policing role .
Akane was designed by manga artist Akira Amano . The series is " anti @-@ moe " , so the production team decided to avoid having the Akane remove her clothes during episodes and instead had Kogami remove his . Akane is voiced in the English @-@ dubbed version by Kate Oxley .
= = Reception = =
Initial reactions to Akane were mixed . Hiroko Yamamura from Japanator liked the way the first episode focused on Akane 's first day as a police officer and her opinions of it . Thomas Zoth from The Fandom Post said Akane 's personality is typical of those in dramas ; he called her a " naive waif who gets over her head with her first case " . Zoth said that in later episodes , he liked the relationship Akane established with Masaoka and Ginoza , which resulted in several interesting scenes . Zoth said he grew to care about Akane during the first half of the series in " a somewhat ironically ' moe ' way , as she 's grown as a character " . In a similar review , Rebecca Silverman from Anime News Network said Akane 's actions in the first episode " [ set ] her up as the clear @-@ eyed , albeit naïve , outsider of the story , willing to look at things differently " .
Bamboo Dong from Anime News Network was more critical of the character , calling her " a blank slate " . She said Akane is " uninteresting and forgettable , and her previous role in the show as the moral compass seems to have waned as well " . Chris Beveridge from The Fandom Post was more optimistic ; he said , " Akane provides a good voice for this , since she ’ s new to it all and wants to bring nuance to the numbers and the situations , but we see how experience plays out against her at times , but also that she does have something to offer with it " .
Despite mixed reactions to the character , her growth during the series earned praise . Silverman said that ever since her best friend 's death at Shogo Makishima 's hands , Akane underwent major character development as she " further distances herself from the bright @-@ eyed rookie she began as , recognizing the flaws in the system while not being entirely certain that she can be the force for change in it " . Silverman also praised the impact Akane brought to the climax and her relationship with Shinya Kogami . In a later review , Dong said the character 's uninteresting traits stop appearing in the second half of the series .
Zoth said episode 20 , in which " Akane finally snaps " , was one of his most expected parts from the story . Zoth also said , " Akane has grown as a character , and a detective , and in a bit of a heavy @-@ handed move , she ’ s shown transforming into Kogami in Ginoza 's eyes " . Similarly , Bamboo Dong said , " No longer the dull and meek woman she was for over half the series , [ Akane 's ] now confident and capable , doling out commands that are instantly followed and respected by her comrades " . Dong said Akane is an appealing main character who is " worth paying attention to , and her presence on screen is the perfect complement to the much more complex side characters that populate the show " . Richard Eisenbeis from Kotaku said he found Akane more interesting than Kogami because her overall development . Akane also won the " Miss Noitamina " award in an official poll involving characters that appeared in noitamina television series . In the 2013 Newtype anime awards , Akane was voted the third @-@ best female character . In 2015 , she once again took that place . The same year , a Charapedia poll , which asked fans to list their favourite " cool " women in anime , had Akane placed 10th with 257 votes .
= The Boat Race 1908 =
The 65th Boat Race took place on 4 April 1908 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge were reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race . In a race umpired by Frederick I. Pitman , Cambridge won by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 19 minutes 20 seconds . It was their third consecutive victory and their sixth win in seven races , taking the overall record in the event to 34 – 30 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2015 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1907 race by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , while Oxford led overall with 34 victories to Cambridge 's 29 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge 's coaches were L. H. K. Bushe @-@ Fox , Francis Escombe ( for the fifth consecutive year ) , Stanley Muttlebury , five @-@ time Blue between 1886 and 1890 , and David Alexander Wauchope ( who had rowed in the 1895 race ) . Oxford were coached by Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four @-@ time Blue ) and R. P. P. Rowe , who had rowed four
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times between 1889 and 1892 . For the fifth year the umpire was old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who rowed for Cambridge in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 3 @.@ 25 lb ( 77 @.@ 5 kg ) , 3 @.@ 5 pounds ( 1 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained four members with previous Boat Race experience , including Alister Kirby and Albert Gladstone who were rowing in their third race . Six of the Dark Blue crew were educated at Eton College . Cambridge also saw four members return , with Douglas Stuart and Eric Powell making their third appearances in the event . Light Blue number two George Eric Fairbairn was following in his uncle 's footsteps : Steve Fairbairn rowed for Cambridge four times in the 1880s . Oxford 's number three , Australian Collier Cudmore , was the only non @-@ British participant registered in the race .
Former Oxford rower and author George Drinkwater assessed the Cambridge crew as " better and stronger than in the previous year " . Conversely , " misfortune dogged the [ Oxford ] crew " : firstly their number five of 1907 , James Angus Gillan was available but forbidden to row by his doctors . Influenza then swept through the crew , before Kirby was struck down by jaundice ; despite not fully recovering , he took part in the race .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . In a strong head @-@ wind , umpire Pitman started the race at 3 : 30 p.m. The Light Blues made the better start , and slightly out @-@ rating Oxford , began to pull away . Rough water favoured Cambridge 's style of rowing , and they were clear of Oxford by the time they passed the Mile Post . The crews passed Harrods Furniture Depository with the Light Blues two lengths ahead and although the Dark Blues spurted again and again , they failed to make any inroads in the Cambridge lead , who began to pull away once again after passing under Barnes Bridge . They passed the finishing post leading by two and a half lengths in a time of 19 minutes 20 seconds . It was Cambridge 's third consecutive victory , and their sixth in seven years , and took the overall record to 34 – 30 in Oxford 's favour . The winning time was the fastest since the 1902 race and it was the narrowest margin of victory since the 1901 race . Drinkwater described the race as " a much finer struggle than those of the two previous years " .
= Life on the Fast Lane =
" Life on the Fast Lane " , also known as " Jacques to Be Wild " , is the ninth episode of The Simpsons ' first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 18 , 1990 . It was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by David Silverman . Albert Brooks guest starred as Jacques , a French bowling instructor , with him being credited as " A. Brooks " .
The episode deals with how Homer 's thoughtlessness precipitates Marge 's infatuation with her bowling instructor Jacques , leading to a marriage crisis between her and Homer . In the original plan for the episode , Brooks ( who improvised much of his dialogue ) was to voice a Swedish tennis coach called Björn , with the episode to be titled " Björn To Be Wild " . The episode features a parody of the film An Officer and a Gentleman and won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) in 1990 .
= = Plot = =
Homer , unaware that it is Marge 's birthday , rushes out to buy her a present at the Springfield Mall . He finds a bowling ball and decides to buy it for her . During the night of her birthday dinner at Singing Sirloin , Marge is happy with the kids ' presents of French perfume from Bart and a macaroni and glue card of her as the Mona Lisa from Lisa . However , she is deeply offended by Homer 's gift as it is another demonstration of his thoughtless gift giving history , and her sisters , Patty and Selma sit by smugly . To make matters worse , as he presents his ' gift ' , it falls out of his hands and squashes Marge 's birthday cake . Deeply resentful with Homer for ruining her birthday again , Marge reminds him that not only has she never gone bowling in her life , but the ball is also inscribed with his name on it .
Realizing that Homer only bought the ball so that he could use it himself , she is determined to learn how to bowl to spite him and heads to Barney 's Bowl @-@ a @-@ Rama . But Marge has trouble how to until she meets a French bowling instructor named Jacques , who offers to give her lessons . Jacques proves to be a patient and charming instructor - the opposite of Homer in every way . When he asks about the name inscribed on her ball , she tells him that Homer is actually the ball 's name , neglecting to mention that she is married . Homer is faintly aware that something is wrong , but is unsure what is happening . After having passed several bowling lessons , Jacques and Marge agree to meet each other for brunch .
Their brunch goes well until they run into Helen Lovejoy , who seems delighted to not find Marge with Homer . After deflecting Helen 's interest by pretending to discuss bowling theory , Jacques asks Marge to meet him the next day away from the gossips of the world at his apartment , causing Marge to faint . In her dream , she imagines a romantic fantasy where she dances with Jacques in his luxurious , bowling @-@ themed apartment . When she comes to , she accepts the invitation .
At home , Homer finds the personalized bowling glove given to Marge by Jacques and realizes he may be losing her . It is not long until Bart realizes that Lisa 's suspicions are proving to be true about their parents drifting apart and offers Homer some advice in keeping his mouth shut so it does not get worse . At work the next day , he cannot bring himself to eat the sandwich she made for him , saying that it is all he has left of her . Marge leaves for her meeting with Jacques , but finds herself reminded of lifetime commitment throughout the drive . She comes to a fork in the road , one way leading to the nuclear plant , the other to Jacques ' apartment . After an agonized hesitation at the crux of the decision , she surprises Homer at the plant and kisses him warmly . An ecstatic Homer abandons his work post to carry Marge away in his arms . His co @-@ workers want to know what to tell the boss . To the sound of their cheers , he says to say that they are going to the backseat of his car and will not be back for ten minutes .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by David Silverman . When the episode was originally planned , it called for Albert Brooks to voice " Björn " , a Swedish tennis instructor , but Brooks thought it would be funnier to make the character French and so the change was made . The title was originally to be " Bjorn to Be Wild " , thus accounting for the episode 's alternate title " Jacques to Be Wild " . Brooks improvised almost all of his dialogue , producing over three hours of material . Marge 's laugh during her bowling lesson was an ad @-@ libbed , natural laugh by Julie Kavner , who was laughing at something Albert Brooks has just said . The line " four onion rings ! " was one of the many lines that Brooks ad @-@ libbed and when saying it , Jacques loses his French accent . An extended audio clip of Albert Brooks ' unused dialogue was made available on Disc Three of The Simpsons The Complete First Season DVD .
The episode features the first appearance of the bowling alley Barney 's Bowlarama . The original backstory for Barney 's Bowlarama was that it was owned by Barney Gumble . Over time it changed to Barney just being an employee , as the writers could not imagine Barney owning anything . It was later revealed that Barney 's uncle was the owner . The exterior of the Bowlarama was designed by No Doubt member Eric Stefani . The episode also marks the first appearances of Lenny Leonard and Helen Lovejoy .
The sequence in which the family throws the pizza box away was specifically designed by John Swartzwelder to look surreal , with the family panning into each other . The moon was designed to resemble a bowling ball in the scene in which Jacques drops Marge home . The restaurant that Jacques and Marge attend is called " Shorty 's " ; it was originally intended that a chef 's hat would be shown moving around in the background , implying that the owner was short , but the concept was dropped as it seemed to be too much of a silly idea . The episode 's conclusion is a reference to An Officer and a Gentleman , which David Silverman had to watch first , so that he knew how to set the scene out . Homer 's line , " too exciting " , when he sees the lingerie store was written by James L. Brooks . During Marge 's phone conversation with Patty and Selma , Maggie can be seen sucking her pacifier repeatedly , a concept dropped in later episodes as it was deemed too much of a distraction from the dialogue .
= = Cultural references = =
Marge 's dream resembles a dance number from The Gay Divorcee . The end scene , in which Marge walks into the power plant , and Homer carries her away , is a reference to the film An Officer and a Gentleman , and features the same music , " Up Where We Belong " .
The title is taken from the song form the Eagles song " Life in the Fast Lane " .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Life on the Fast Lane " finished 11th in ratings for the week of March 12 – 19 , 1990 , with a Nielsen rating of 17 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 16 @.@ 1 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Married ... with Children . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , called it " A very good , very assured episode that has seen some viewers ( particularly female ones ) tearing out their hair at the conclusion . " Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club praised the episode , stating : " There would be many funnier and faster episodes of The Simpsons but few can match " Life on the Fast Lane " for emotional depth and characterization . " IGN.com named Albert Brooks ' guest performance in this episode , along with his four other appearances , the best guest appearance in the show 's history . In a DVD review of the first season David B. Grelck gave the episode a rating of 4 / 5 , placing it as , along with " Homer 's Night Out " , his favorite of the season . Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that it was " another good but not great episode " and added that " Albert Brooks seriously enlivened " Life [ on the Fast Lane ] " ... Jacques becomes funny not so much due to the lines themselves ; it ’ s Brooks ’ readings that make them work . " Another DVD review from The Digital Bits called it " one of the first season 's best loved episodes " .
This episode won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming One Hour or Less ) in 1990 , defeating fellow Simpsons episode " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " , and becoming the first The Simpsons episode to win the award . In a 2000 Entertainment Weekly article , Matt Groening ranked this episode as his second favorite episode of all time , behind " Bart the Daredevil " . Entertainment Weekly placed the episode twenty @-@ first on their top 25 The Simpsons episode list , calling it " a showcase for the series ' bedrock of character and heart . " The Orlando Sentinel 's Gregory Hardy named it the fifteenth best episode of the show with a sports theme . The episode 's reference to An Officer and a Gentleman was named the 23rd greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
= = = Legacy = = =
The March 15 , 2004 edition of the Dear Abby column was pulled , as it had emerged that one of the letters was a fake . A newspaper editor noticed that the problem cited in the letter was identical to the plot of " Life on the Fast Lane " . Kathie Kerr , a spokeswoman for the Universal Press Syndicate stated that " It did sound too similar not to be a hoax " .
= 2011 Kobalt Tools 400 =
The 2011 Kobalt Tools 400 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race that was held on March 6 , 2011 at Las Vegas Motor Speedway in Clark County , Nevada . Contested over 267 laps , it was the third race of the 2011 season . Carl Edwards , driving for Roush Fenway Racing , won the race . Tony Stewart finished second and Juan Pablo Montoya finished third .
Polesitter Matt Kenseth maintained his lead on the first lap to begin the race , as Greg Biffle , who started in the fourth position on the grid , remained behind him . On the 8th lap , the first caution was given because Robby Gordon spun sideways . Following the second caution , Stewart became the leader , and increased his lead to 6 @.@ 5 seconds by lap 95 . Late in the race , Stewart was given a penalty for speeding on pit road , giving the lead to Edwards . Edwards remained the leader to win for the second time at Las Vegas Motor Speedway .
There were seven cautions and 22 lead changes among 15 different drivers throughout the course of the race . It was Edwards ' first win in the 2011 season and the 20th of his career . The result moved Edwards up to the third position in the Drivers ' Championship , seven points behind Stewart while being tied with Montoya . Ford maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , three points ahead of Chevrolet and five ahead of Toyota , with 33 races remaining in the season . A total of 152 @,@ 000 people attended the race , while 10 @.@ 1 million watched it on television .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Las Vegas Motor Speedway is one of ten intermediate tracks to hold NASCAR races . The race was scheduled to be held on the standard track at Las Vegas Motor Speedway ; a four @-@ turn D @-@ shaped oval track that is 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked at 20 degrees , while the front stretch , the location of the finish line , and the back stretch on the opposite side of the track are banked at nine degrees . The racetrack has seats for 142 @,@ 000 spectators .
Before the race , Kyle Busch was leading the Drivers ' Championship with 80 points , and Kurt Busch stood in second with 77 points . Tony Stewart and A. J. Allmendinger followed tied for third and fourth with 69 points , four ahead of Jeff Gordon and Mark Martin , who were tied for fifth . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Ford , Toyota and Chevrolet were leading with twelve points , four points ahead of Dodge . Jimmie Johnson was the race 's defending winner from 2010 .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Two practice sessions were held in prepartation for the race ; one on Friday and the other on Saturday . The first session lasted 90 minutes long , while the second was 75 minutes long . Matt Kenseth was quickest with a time of 28 @.@ 939 seconds in the first session , 0 @.@ 047 seconds faster than David Ragan . Montoya was just off Ragan 's pace , followed by Carl Edwards , Greg Biffle , and Marcos Ambrose . Stewart was seventh , still within a second of Kenseth 's time . Also in the first practice session , Jeff Gordon spun sideways after the fourth
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turn .
Forty @-@ four cars were entered for qualifying ; however , only forty @-@ three could qualify for the race because of NASCAR 's qualifying procedure . Kenseth clinched the fifth pole position of his career , with a time of 28 @.@ 589 seconds . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Ambrose . Edwards qualified third , Biffle took fourth , and Kyle Busch started fifth . Joey Logano , Allmendinger , Newman , Martin Truex , Jr. and Martin rounded out the top ten . The only driver that failed to qualify for the race was Brian Keselowski . Once the qualifying session completed , Kenseth commented , " Qualifying is not my strong suit , but I knew we had a really fast car today when we did our last qualifying run [ in practice ] . Honestly , this is the most nervous I 've been before qualifying in probably five years at least , because I knew we had a shot at the pole , and I knew last week we really messed up . I didn 't want to mess up a fast car today , so I was really happy with that . "
In the second and final practice , Kenseth remained quickest with a time of 29 @.@ 330 seconds . Kyle Busch followed in second , ahead of Newman and Edwards . Biffle was fifth quickest , with a time of 29 @.@ 393 seconds . David Reutimann , Truex , Stewart , Logano , and Denny Hamlin rounded out the top ten positions . Ragan , who was second in the first session , could only manage 12th .
= = = Race = = =
The race , the third in the season , began at 3 : 00 p.m. EST and was televised live in the United States on Fox . The conditions on the grid were dry before the race with the air temperature at 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) . Las Vegas Motor Speedway Chaplain Joe Freiburger began pre @-@ race ceremonies , by giving the invocation . Next , Kristen Hertzenberg , from Phantom @-@ Las Vegas Spectacular , performed the national anthem , and Gray Abercrombie , Lowe 's sports marketing manager , gave the command for drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , Hamlin had to move to the rear of the grid because of him changing his engine .
Kenseth retained his pole position lead into the first corner , followed by Biffle , who started fourth . Over the following two laps , Edwards fell to the fourth position , while Biffle passed Kenseth for the lead . After starting 16th on the grid , Trevor Bayne moved up to 11th by the fifth lap . On the following lap , Truex fell three positions to ninth . At lap eight , the first caution was given after Robby Gordon spun sideways . Most of the front runners made pit stops during the caution , while Jeff Gordon stayed out to become the leader . During the lap 12 restart , Jeff Gordon was the leader ahead of Stewart and Montoya . However , Stewart passed Gordon to become the leader on the next lap . Also on the same lap , Kenseth drove to pit road after having a flat tire . On the 14th lap , Stewart remained the leader , while Kurt Busch moved to the second position ahead of Jeff Gordon . Afterward , Andy Lally spun sideways , prompting the second caution . Few drivers made pit stops during the caution . At the lap 18 restart , Stewart was first , followed by Busch , Gordon , and Montoya . By the 20th lap , Reutimann , who started 25th on the grid , had moved up 18 positions .
By lap 24 , Stewart maintained a 1 @.@ 7 second lead over Busch , as Gordon fell to sixth . Stewart continued to increase his lead over the next ten laps , while Busch remained in the second position . On the 35th lap , Reutimann moved up to the sixth position . Seven laps later , Jamie McMurray and Keselowski made contact with each other . On the following lap , Paul Menard moved up to 12th . At the 45th lap , Stewart had a 3 @.@ 6 second lead over Busch , as Johnson fell to 23rd . On the next lap , Biffle claimed second away from Busch . During lap 49 , green flag pit stops began with Kurt Busch and Reutimann . On lap 51 , Gordon , Montoya , made pit stops , as Biffle became the leader . Once green flag pit stops concluded on lap 62 , Stewart reclaimed the first position ahead of Kyle Busch . Two laps later , Biffle claimed moved up to the fourth position . On the next lap , Bill Elliott claimed the fifth position . Stewart increased his lead to 1 @.@ 6 seconds by the 67th lap . At lap 74 , Gordon moved up into the tenth position after passing Logano . Four laps later , Kevin Harvick moved up to the 14th position . On lap 81 , Harvick claimed the 13th position .
During lap 87 , Gordon moved up to the tenth position . By the 95th lap , Stewart had increased his lead to 6 @.@ 5 seconds over second place . On the next lap , the third caution was given after Kyle Busch collided into the wall because of a flat tire . Most of the frontrunners made pit stops during the caution . At the 101 restart , Stewart was the leader . On the following lap , Kurt Busch and Kahne spun sideways , prompting the fourth caution to be given . On the lap 106 restart , Stewart remained the leader ahead of Edwards and Biffle in second and third . On the 107th lap , Biffle passed Edwards for the second position . Afterward , Kyle Busch 's engine failed , causing the fifth caution to come out . At lap 115 , Stewart led Biffle on the restart . During lap 121 , Edwards passed Biffle to claim second , as Stewart increased his lead . Ten laps later , Harvick moved up to the sixth position . On lap 138 , Dale Earnhardt , Jr. claimed the seventh position , while Truex fell to sixth . Eleven laps later , the sixth caution was given because Gilliland collided into the wall after having a flat tire . During the caution , most of the teams made pit stops . Also on the same lap , Stewart and Harvick received a penalty after having speeding on pit road .
At the lap 156 restart , Edwards became the leader ahead of Truex . Edwards maintained the lead on the next lap , as Montoya moved up into third . By lap 159 , Edwards had a 1 @.@ 25 second lead over Truex . Five laps later , Johnson passed Gordon for the ninth position . Edwards continued to increase his lead to 2 @.@ 6 seconds by lap 171 . After having a speed penalty , Stewart had moved up to 18th by the 178th lap . On lap 185 , Clint Bowyer moved up to 16th , while Edwards increased his lead to 2 @.@ 9 seconds . Nine laps later , the seventh caution was given after Gordon collided into the wall after having a flat tire . Most of the drivers made pit stops during the caution , as Stewart reclaimed the first position at the lap 202 restart . By the 214th lap , Stewart had a lead of 2 @.@ 45 seconds . Four laps later , Menard moved up to the tenth position after passing Brian Vickers . On lap 220 , Edwards passed Truex to claim third , as Stewart increased his lead to 3 seconds . Five laps later , Hamlin moved up to the seventh position . On lap 234 , green flag pit stops began with Stewart and Montoya . Two laps later , Harvick and Johnson made pit stops , five laps before Edwards and Truex .
Once the green flag pit stops concluded , Edwards was the leader , 1 @.@ 1 seconds ahead of Montoya . By the 250th lap , Edwards increased his lead to 1 @.@ 6 seconds . On the following lap , Kurt Busch moved into the tenth position , as Newman moved up to fifth . With four laps remaining , Stewart passed Montoya for the second position . Edwards maintained the lead to win his first race of the 2011 season . Stewart finished second , ahead of Montoya in third and Ambrose in fourth . Newman clinched the fifth position , after starting eighth .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Edwards appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his first win of the season , in front of a crowd of 152 @,@ 000 people . " These guys are unbelievable . It means a lot coming off Phoenix . I went home last week and didn ’ t know how things were going to go . You don ’ t get a good race car like that often . We had another one today , " said Edwards of his triumph .
Although Stewart was leading the race near the end , Edwards passed him after the final pit stops . Stewart , who finished second , said , " I don 't know what happened on the pit stop there , but we had a miscue and had a penalty and had to go to the back , and unfortunately it kind of dealt our cards for us . [ Crew chief ] Darian Grubb made a good call getting us the track position back , but it also showed everybody else that they could do it , too , and we couldn 't run two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half runs on a set of left @-@ side tires . " In the subsequent press conference , Kyle Busch stated his frustration from his accident , " On the restart there [ on Lap 107 ] , I was going to bide my time and try to get back through traffic with plenty of time to go , and ' kablooey ' – it just broke . " Doug Yates , the engine builder for Roush Fenway Racing , expressed his enjoyment of winning the race :
" This is an exciting win for Roush Yates Engines . We ran great all week long . I think this says a lot about our program and how we plan to run at 1 @.@ 5 mile tracks throughout the 2011 season . I want to thank Ford again for their support as we continue to excel with the FR9 engine . "
Stewart also commented , " It kills me to throw a race away like that , especially at a place we haven 't won at yet . This was a big deal [ Sunday ] , and when you lead that many laps and have a car that 's that fast and you lose it ... I 'm sure [ Monday ] when the emotion dies down we 'll look back and say it was a great weekend . But , man , it does not sit good right now . " The race result moved Stewart into the first position in the Driver 's Championship with 113 points , tied with Kurt Busch in second . Edwards , the winner of the race , and Montoya followed in third and fourth on 106 , three points ahead of Newman in fifth . Ford maintained their lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship with 21 points . Chevrolet and Toyota placed second and third with 18 and 16 points , while Dodge was fourth with 11 . 10 @.@ 1 million people watched the race on television . The race took two hours , fifty @-@ seven minutes and twenty seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 1 @.@ 246 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
= Tyrone Wheatley =
Tyrone Anthony Wheatley , Sr. ( born January 19 , 1972 ) is the running backs coach of Michigan and a former professional American football player who played 10 seasons in the National Football League ( NFL ) and was one of the most successful high school and collegiate athletes in Metropolitan Detroit history . In high school , he was a member of state @-@ champion teams in both track and field and football , and he was named Michigan 's track and field athlete of the year and football athlete of the year in the same academic year . He earned All @-@ America track honors in both high school and college . Following his graduation as one of Michigan 's best high school athletes , he attended the University of Michigan on an athletic scholarship and earned first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten Conference honors on Big Ten Champion football and track teams .
At the University of Michigan , Wheatley earned the Big Ten Offensive Player of the Year Award during the 1992 football season . In the Michigan Wolverines ' post @-@ season bowl game , he was named the Most Valuable Player for his performance in the team 's Rose Bowl victory . Wheatley continued his track success as well , earning first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten Conference and All @-@ American honors . He ranks among the Wolverines ' all @-@ time rushing leaders in numerous categories , and his name appears in several places in the Big Ten football record book . He was named to All @-@ Big Ten teams in football and track and field a total of four times , and he earned portions of seven Big Ten championships ( two team awards for football , one team award for indoor track , one award for 110 meter hurdles , and three awards for individual football statistical performances ) .
Following his graduation from the University of Michigan , Wheatley was selected by the New York Giants of the NFL in the first round of the 1995 NFL Draft . As a running back for the Giants , he was the team 's all @-@ purpose yards leader in 1996 and their leading ballcarrier in 1997 . Despite his success on the field , he developed a reputation for indolence . He was traded to the Miami Dolphins , but cut before the 1999 season began . He signed with the Oakland Raiders and flourished , leading the team in rushing three times and twice finishing among the NFL 's top ten players in rushing touchdowns . With Wheatley , the Raiders went to the playoffs three years in a row , including one Super Bowl appearance . During his NFL career ( 1995 – 2004 ) , he totaled over 6 @,@ 500 all @-@ purpose yards as a running back and kickoff returner .
After retiring from the NFL , Wheatley returned to his hometown to coach his high school alma mater , Dearborn Heights ' Hamilton J. Robichaud High School , where he had previously made a name for himself as a nine @-@ time Michigan High School Athletic Association ( MHSAA ) state champion athlete . As a player , he had led the school to its only state football championship . In 2007 , during his first year as head football coach , his team rebounded from an 0 – 9 record to compile a 9 – 2 record , reaching the playoffs for the first time since 1994 . He coached at Ohio Northern University in 2008 , and in 2009 he became an assistant coach for Eastern Michigan University . He served as the running backs coach for the Syracuse Orange football team from 2010 to 2012 . He was hired by the Buffalo Bills to coach the running backs in 2013 .
= = Early life = =
Wheatley was born in Inkster , Michigan . Inkster is located in Metropolitan Detroit , east of both Ann Arbor and University of Michigan . Wheatley 's father ( also named Tyrone ) suffered a mortal gunshot wound to the head in 1974 when Wheatley was two years old . Wheatley 's stepfather died of a heart attack when he was 13 , leaving behind Wheatley , his sister , and half @-@ brother , two @-@
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in the Indian Ocean , the Peace of Amiens coming into effect in October .
= = Background = =
In 1801 the French Revolutionary Wars were drawing to a close . The conflict , which had begun in 1792 , had seen the new French Republic and its allies fighting against a shifting coalition of European powers , of which only Great Britain , recently renamed the United Kingdom , had been consistently opposed to France . In the Indian Ocean , where Britain maintained a lucrative trading Empire centred on British India , the Royal Navy had enjoyed almost continual supremacy under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Peter Rainier . Only between 1796 and 1799 had the French Navy , in the form of a squadron of frigates operating from the island base of Île de France under the command of Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey , offered any resistance . Gradually this force had either returned to France or been defeated in battle , and the destruction of the frigate Preneuse at the Battle of Port Louis in December 1799 had restored absolute British control .
= = = Bonaparte in Egypt = = =
The importance of the East Indies to British trade encouraged a number of French plans to threaten the region , of which the most advanced was the invasion , in 1798 , of Egypt by a French Army under General Napoleon Bonaparte . Although the campaign saw initial success , the annihilation of the French Mediterranean Fleet by Sir Horatio Nelson at the Battle of the Nile on 1 August 1798 effectively doomed the campaign to failure . Later in the year Bonaparte considered building a squadron at Suez in the Red Sea , but the plans were abandoned when a British squadron , operating from Jeddah under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral John Blankett assumed control of the region . Bonaparte returned to France the following year , but the British Red Sea squadron remained in operation .
In 1801 , a British army landed in Northern Egypt , sparking a short campaign which ended with the Capitulation of Alexandria and the complete surrender of French forces in the country . Blankett 's squadron provided distant support for this effort , sending an army from the garrison of India up the Nile , although this force arrived too late to influence the campaign . The French however wished to disrupt British operations in the Red Sea , and considered a number of schemes including diverting Ganteaume 's expedition to the Indian Ocean . Eventually however the only warship available was the newly constructed 36 @-@ gun frigate Chiffonne , which sailed from Nantes on 14 April 1801 under the command of Commander Pierre Guiyesse . Also on board were 32 political prisoners condemned to exile , who Guiyesse was ordered to land at Mahé .
= = = Guiyesse 's journey = = =
Chiffonne had an eventful voyage to the Indian Ocean , capturing a Portuguese merchant schooner off Brazil on 15 May and then encountering a Portuguese frigate Andorinha on 18 May . Armed with 24 24 @-@ pounder carronades , Andorinha was no match for Chiffone 's 36 12 @-@ pounder long guns and surrendered after a short fight . Guiyesse subsequently released the warship , although not before throwing the guns overboard and forcing the officers to agree parole . Passing the British @-@ held Cape of Good Hope , Guiyesse captured the East Indiaman Bellona on 16 June , placing a prize crew aboard and sending the ship to Île de France , where it arrived without incident . Chiffone however was not sailing for the naval base at Port Louis , but to the small French harbour on Mahé in the Seychelles . The Seychelles were a French colony administered by Île de France , although they had supposedly been declared neutral following an attack on Mahé by HMS Orpheus . More importantly for Guiyesse , Mahé was well situated as a base from which to prey on the British shipping routes to the Red Sea .
Rainier had been campaigning in the Indian Ocean since 1794 , and had anticipated that the French might send a naval force to disrupt operations in the Red Sea . He surmised that the Seychelles were ideally situated for this type of operation and issued orders for one of his largest frigates to cruise in the area to intercept any French raiders . This ship was HMS Sibylle , a 38 @-@ gun frigate captured from the French in 1794 at the Battle of Mykonos . The commander was Charles Adam , who had replaced Edward Cooke after Cooke was mortally wounded during the capture of the French frigate Forte in the Bay of Bengal at the Action of 28 February 1799 .
On arriving at Mahé , Guiyesse landed his prisoners and ordered his men to make repairs to their frigate following their long journey . The foremast in particular needed work , and it was consequently removed , Guiyesse carefully anchoring Chiffone at the centre of a complex series of coral reefs . The captured schooner and a small ketch were anchored alongside assisting with repairs and Guiyesse had ordered his men to establish a supporting gun battery on the shore , positioned to inflict raking fire on any ship attempting to engage the French frigate . This battery was composed of guns taken from the forecastle of Chiffone , stabilised on wooden planks and protected by fascines . Behind the battery a furnace had been constructed to allow the guns to fire specially heated shot , designed to set fire to attacking ships .
= = Battle of Mahé = =
In the early morning of 19 August , Sybille was reconnoitering the Seychelles when flag signals were observed over Ste . Anne Island , a small island to the east of Mahé . Adam felt this was an unusual circumstance and ordered his ship to investigate . Passing Ste . Anne flying false French colours , Chiffone could be clearly seen at anchor close inshore at Mahé . Adam ordered the main topsail backed and prepared his ship with springs on the anchor cables to provide more maneuverability in shallow waters . The main batteries of 24 @-@ pounder long guns were cleared for action and , with his preparations made , Adam gave orders for the foresail set , gliding slowly forward into the complex system of reefs which sheltered the French ship . Passage through these obstacles was only possible by stationing a man at the masthead who was tasked with observing the colour of the water ahead of the ship : darker water indicated deeper water , but the gradations in color were so slight that they could only be observed from the vantage point on top of the mainmast .
Adam 's slow progress took more than an hour , reaching the safer waters of the inner roads at 10 : 15 . Guiyesse was prepared , and at 10 : 00 he had fired a warning shot at the distant Sybille and raised the French tricolor . Adam was still separated from Chiffone by an impenetrable reef , but had now closed the distance between the ships to approximately 200 yards ( 180 m ) , well within effective range . At 10 : 25 Sybille was aligned correctly and Adam raised his ensign and fired the first broadside , followed instantly by fire from Chiffone , the schooner and the battery on shore , which as planned was positioned correctly to rake Sybille . The exchange was a short one , lasting only 17 minutes . At 10 : 42 , with casualties mounting and his ship damaged , Guiyesse struck his colours and cut his ship 's anchor cables , allowing Chiffone to drift onto the reef . The schooner had been sunk by well placed shot from the quarterdeck . Adam responded by swinging Sybille about to fire on the battery , sending ship 's boats to take possession of Chiffone and attack the shore party manning the battery . When the boats reached the beach however , the French gunners retreated inland , leaving their guns behind .
Sybille 's loss was light , with two men killed and a junior officer lightly wounded . Casualties on Chiffone were far heavier , reported as 23 killed and 30 wounded . Approximately 160 of the surviving crew were captured , with as many as 100 escaping inland from the grounded frigate or the battery . In the aftermath of the battle Adam of the Sybille demanded an explanation from the Governor of Mahé Jean @-@ Baptiste Queau de Quincy as to why the neutrality terms had been violated by Chiffone . Quincy was able however to persuade Adam that he was not responsible and reached an agreement that Seychelles merchant vessels flying a flag bearing the words " Seychelles Capitulation " would be allowed to pass through the British blockade of Île de France unmolested . Chiffone was removed from the reef and repaired , Adam sailing with his prize and two captured schooners on 4 May and returning to Madras , arriving on 22 September , where Rainier authorised the purchase of the ship for the Royal Navy under the same name . Adam was subsequently presented with a commemorative sword by the Madras Insurance Company worth 200 guineas .
= = = Combatant summary = = =
In this table , " Guns " refers to all cannon carried by the ship , including the maindeck guns which were taken into consideration when calculating its rate , as well as any carronades carried aboard . Broadside weight records the combined weight of shot which could be fired in a single simultaneous discharge of an entire broadside .
= = Fighting in September = =
The action had a followup a few weeks later when the 18 @-@ gun French brig Flèche arrived in June from Nantes on a raiding operation with another 35 political prisoners . Flèche also used Mahé as a base to raid British shipping , under Lieutenant Jean @-@ Baptiste Bonami , but was discovered near the Seychelles at 11 : 30 on 2 September by the 18 @-@ gun British ship HMS Victor . Victor , commanded by Captain George Ralph Collier , was a small ship with an exceptionally heavy armament , mounting 16 32 @-@ pounder short @-@ ranged carronades and two 6 @-@ pounder long guns . Collier had been detached from the Red Sea squadron to hunt for Flèche and initially sailed to Diego Garcia to stock up on turtle meat before starting his cruise off the Seychelles . Sighting his quarry , Collier gave chase and caught the French brig at 17 : 30 , only to have his rigging badly damaged by two broadsides from Flèche , although his own guns caused considerable damage in return . Bonami used his advantage to pull away from Victor , but was unable to lose his opponent . Collier followed his elusive enemy for the next two days , occasionally pulling within range but never close enough for a decisive action . By dawn on 5 September however the French brig had escaped .
Collier assumed that Flèche was seeking shelter at Mahé and directed Victor towards the harbour . When the island came in sight at 15 : 30 on the same day , the French brig could be seen in the anchorage . Collier slowly approached his target , anchoring beyond the reef at 19 : 00 @.@ with night approaching Collier was unwilling to risk his vessel in the complex channels , and instead the ship 's master , James Crawford , took a boat out during the night and took soundings to locate a safe channel . Although the boat came under fire , a course was successfully plotted . The next morning Flèche lay ready for action at the mouth of the channel , a revolutionary red flag flying at the mast head and volunteers from the escaped crew of Chiffone helping to man the guns . Collier took Victor across the reef in the face of the French brig , which maintained a constant raking fire into the British ship as it advanced . The process took all day , Victor not reaching the safer waters of the inner road until 21 : 00 and gradually warping within close range of Flèche during the evening . At 23 : 45 Collier deemed his ship was close enough to the enemy and opened fire with his main broadside . A fierce close range duel began , lasting more than two hours , until at 02 : 20 on 7 September Flèche began to sink .
As British boat crews advanced on the brig to take possession , the French crew drove their brig onto the reef deliberately and set the vessel ablaze . As they departed the British crew arrived , lowered the flag and extinguished the fire . The damage to the French ship had been too great however and Flèche slowly rolled over into deeper water and sank below the surface . Although two men had been wounded in the fighting on 2 September , not a single British casualty was recorded on 7 September , despite heavy damage to the hull and rigging of Victor . Bonami later reported four of his men killed and did not specify the number of wounded , although British sailors reported seeing significantly higher casualties when they boarded the brig .
= = = Combatant summary = = =
In this table , " Guns " refers to all cannon carried by the ship , including the maindeck guns which were taken into consideration when calculating its rate , as well as any carronades carried aboard . Broadside weight records the combined weight of shot which could be fired in a single simultaneous discharge of an entire broadside .
= = Aftermath = =
The fighting at Mahé marked the final significant engagements of the war in the Indian Ocean ; Lord St Vincent described the capture of Chiffone as " the last and neatest frigate action of the war " . On 1 October the terms of the Peace of Amiens were agreed , and although news did not reach the Indian Ocean until February 1802 Rainier had been expecting the peace and had launched no offensive operations in the meantime . The Peace effectively returned the theatre to its pre @-@ war status , the only territory which permanently changed hands was Dutch Ceylon , which became a Crown Colony . Both sides sought to use the peace to rebuild their naval forces in the East Indies : no one in the theatre expected the Peace to last long , and when the Napoleonic Wars began in May 1803 both Britain and France maintained powerful squadrons in the Indian Ocean .
= Battlefield ( song ) =
" Battlefield " is a song by American recording artist Jordin Sparks , taken from her sophomore studio album of the same name . It was written by Louis Biancaniello , Ryan Tedder , Sam Watters and Wayne Wilkins , while production of the song was helmed by Tedder and The Runaways . " Battlefield " was released digitally in the United States on May 8 , 2009 , as the album 's lead single . " Battlefield " is a mid @-@ tempo ballad which draws from the genres of pop , R & B , pop rock and soft rock . The song 's lyrics revolve around " a tumultuous relationship where neither side wants to compromise . " The song 's lyrical theme received comparisons to Pat Benatar 's " Love Is a Battlefield " ( 1983 ) , and its production was compared to Benatar 's " We Belong " ( 1984 ) .
" Battlefield " was well received by most music critics who praised its production and lyrics . In the United States , " Battlefield " reached number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , and number six on the Pop Songs chart . Outside of the US , it reached number five in Canada and reached the top ten in Australia , Ireland and New Zealand , and the top twenty in the United Kingdom . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Philip Andelman . It features Sparks on a field and flanked by flashing lights and smoke . To promote the song , Sparks performed on televised shows which included American Idol and Good Morning America . The song has been covered by English alternative rock band Fightstar which was performed on the television show One Life to Live .
= = Background and release = =
" Battlefield " was written by Louis Biancaniello , Ryan Tedder , Sam Watters and Wayne Wilkins , and was produced by Tedder and The Runaways . The track was mixed by Biancaniello and Watters . The song was initially written with Christina Aguilera in mind , later it was also being considered as a duet for Rihanna and Chris Brown but the news broke that Brown had assaulted Rihanna , and Jive CEO Barry Weiss then decided to give " Battlefield " to Sparks . During an interview with Digital Spy , Sparks revealed that while she was in the studio working on another song with Wilkins , he asked her if he could play her a demo of " Battlefield " . Sparks was pleased with the demo that was presented to her and asked her A & R if she could have the song . She later received a phone call which confirmed that she was to record " Battlefield " . Sparks further elaborated about the song :
What grabbed me at first actually was the fact it was so big . The melody starts off very soft but then it gets massive and kinda angsty . I 've had lots of friends who 've gone through ' Battlefield ' situations in their relationships , so when I was singing the song I put myself in their position and tried to imagine what they were going through . I got so , so into it and I think you can tell .
" Battlefield " was released digitally in the United States on May 8 , 2009 , and was sent to US contemporary hit radios on May 25 . A digital EP with four remixes of the song was released in Australia , Germany , New Zealand and the United Kingdom on June 25 . A CD single of " Battlefield " , featuring an additional remix , was released in the United Kingdom on July 6 , and Canada and France on July 7 . " Battlefield " was released as a maxi single in Germany on July 17 .
= = Composition = =
" Battlefield " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and R & B ballad . It also derives from the genres of pop rock and soft rock . The instrumentation of " Battlefield " consists of a bass , piano , drums , percussion and guitar . " Battlefield " is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 144 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of G major with Sparks ' vocal range spanning from the note of A3 to C6 . The song 's lyrics revolve around " a tumultuous relationship where neither side wants to compromise " , as stated by Jocelyn Vena of MTV News . Nick Levine of Digital Spy noted that " Battlefield " is based on the " love is war " metaphor . During the chorus , Sparks sings : " I never meant to start a war / You know , I never wanna hurt you / Don 't even know what we 're fighting for / Why does love always feel like a battlefield , a battlefield , a battlefield . " Its bridge features the line : " I guess you 'd better go and get your armour " .
= = Critical reception = =
Bill Lamb of About.com awarded " Battlefield " four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , writing , " ' Battlefield ' is the kind of song that screams instant hit from the first time you listen [ to it ] . " Lamb also praised Sparks ' " exciting , declaiming vocals " and wrote that she " is no minor talent , and she proves it here . From the first notes she is clearly in a vocal zone . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy noted that the song bears similarities to Beyoncé 's " Halo " ( 2009 ) , but found the song " more bombastic , more overblown and , well , just plain better " . A writer for The Insider stated that it was one of the songs on the album that proved why she won the sixth season of American Idol . Ruth Harrison of Female First magazine called the song " incredible " , writing , " From the build @-@ up of the verses to the epic chorus that is just made to be sung in arena 's all over the world ; the greatness of this song can really not be summed up in words . " Adam Knott of Sputnikmusic called it " a massive , epic pop song " , that is Sparks ' best single release to date . Gavin Martin of Daily Mirror called " Battlefield " one of the most " epic metaphoric ballads " ever made by Tedder . Shereen Low of The Belfast Telegraph described it as a " radio @-@ friendly song " , while Ryan Brockington of New York Post called the song " simply pure pop magic " .
Michael Slezak of Entertainment Weekly described " Battlefield " as " gorgeous " , writing , " when Sparks hits that ' Better go and get your armor ' bridge , you can practically feel the wind whipping through your hair . " Johnny Dee of Virgin Media wrote that it was one of the song 's " you cannot help but reach for any available nearby hairbrush and sing along to " , despite calling the bridge a " clunking pedestrian pace and corny advice " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine stated that " Battlefield " is as catchy as " Halo " and Leona Lewis ' " Bleeding Love " ( 2007 ) , and noted that the song 's production was similar to Pat Benatar 's " We Belong " ( 1984 ) . This was echoed by Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian , who wrote that " there 's an inner Pat Benatar struggling to get out . " Nate Chinen of The New York Times stated that on " Battlefield " , Sparks ' " sounds vexed but in control , and undaunted by the copyright interests of Pat Benatar , who preferred her battlefield metaphors in declarative form " , referring to Benatar 's " Love Is a Battlefield " ( 1983 ) . Joanna Hunkin of The New Zealand Herald noted that the song 's lyrics were similar to Benatar 's " Love Is a Battlefield " , and criticized Sparks for plagiarism and not crediting Benatar as an inspiration .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Battlefield " entered the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 32 on the chart issue dated May 30 , 2009 . It peaked at number 10 on the chart issue dated August 8 , 2009 , and became Sparks ' third top 10 hit on the Hot 100 . As of July 2011 , the song has sold 1 @,@ 626 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States . In Canada , " Battlefield " debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 chart at number 34 on the chart issue dated May 30 , 2009 . After spending ten consecutive weeks on the chart , the song peaked at number five on August 8 , 2009 . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , it debuted at number 27 on June 8 , 2009 and peaked at number three on July 20 , 2009 . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting sales of 7 @,@ 500 copies . In Australia , " Battlefield " debuted at number 34 on the ARIA Singles Chart on June 22 , 2009 and peaked at number four on July 27 , 2009 . The song was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies . It also charted on the ARIA Urban Singles Chart , where it reached number one .
In the United Kingdom , " Battlefield " debuted at number 21 on June 20 , 2009 , and peaked at number 11 the following week . On the Irish Singles Chart , the song debuted and peaked at number nine on 25 June 2009 . On August 1 , 2009 , it entered The Netherlands Single Top 100 chart at number 81 . The following week , it ascended to its peak position at number 51 . In Switzerland , " Battlefield " debuted and peaked at number 81 on August 2 , 2009 . On the Swedish Singles Chart , it debuted at number 54 on August 21 , 2009 . The following week , the song peaked at number 39 and spent three weeks on the chart . In Austria , " Battlefield " reached number 47 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Battlefield " was directed by Philip Andelman and filmed at the Golden Oak Ranch in California . On June 3 , 2009 , a thirty @-@ second preview of the video was released online . The complete video premiered online on June 7 , 2009 . The video begins with a shot of a black car parked in the middle of a field . Sparks appears to be sitting in a car , dressed in black , as she sings the first verse . Intercut scenes of Sparks laying down in the field wearing a white dress are then shown . During the second verse , she exits the car and walks towards the camera . As the second chorus kicks in , Sparks is surrounded by smoke . During the song 's bridge , she warns her love interest to get his armour , as she appears to be surrounded by flashing lights and smoke . Then intercut scenes of Sparks singing into the camera in front of a black backdrop are shown . The video then shows Sparks lifting her right arm in the air as missiles shoot up into the sky . The video ends by showing Sparks covered in smoke . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News wrote that the video shows that Sparks is " definitely growing up " . Maura of Idolator wrote that the video " is a simple affair that allows her to get into maximum drama mode . "
= = Live performances and cover versions = =
On May 13 , 2009 , Sparks performed " Battlefield " on the American Idol top 3 results show , and accompanied by Ryan Tedder who played the piano during her performance . The performance was praised by Bob Payne of The Seattle Times , who wrote that " Jordin looks and sounds great ! " . In June 2009 , Sparks became a support act for the Jonas Brothers ' world tour and performed " Battlefield " with the band . On July 20 , 2009 , Sparks performed " Battlefield " on Good Morning America . The performance featured Sparks in a black and white dress , performing with a backup band . The following day , she performed the song on Live with Regis and Kelly and Late Night with Jimmy Fallon . In August 2009 , Sparks performed " Battlefield " during Britney Spears ' North American leg of her Circus Tour , in which she served as a support act . The song was included on the set @-@ list of her Battlefield Tour ( 2010 ) .
On July 23 , 2009 , " Battlefield " was covered by English alternative rock band Fightstar on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge . Their performance of the song was included on a live DVD titled Unplugged at the Picturedrome . In May 2010 , " Battlefield " was covered by the ABC television show One Life to Live in the musical episode " Starr X 'd Lovers " . In September 2010 , contestant India @-@ Rose Madderom sang a version of the song on the second season of The X Factor ( Australia ) .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Source :
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Spanish conquest of Chiapas =
The Spanish conquest of Chiapas was the campaign undertaken by the Spanish conquistadores against the Late Postclassic Mesoamerican polities in the territory that is now incorporated into the modern Mexican state of Chiapas . The region is physically diverse , featuring a number of highland areas , including the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and the Montañas Centrales ( Central Highlands ) , a southern littoral plain known as Soconusco and a central depression formed by the drainage of the Grijalva River .
Before the Spanish conquest , Chiapas was inhabited by a variety of indigenous peoples , including the Zoques , various Maya peoples , such as the Lakandon Ch 'ol and the Tzotzil , and an unidentified group referred to as the Chiapanecas . Soconusco had been incorporated into the Aztec Empire , centred in Valley of Mexico , and paid the Aztecs tribute . News of strangers first arrived in the region as the Spanish penetrated and overthrew the Aztec Empire . In the early 1520s , several Spanish expeditions crossed Chiapas by land , and Spanish ships scouted the Pacific coast . The first highland colonial town in Chiapas , San Cristóbal de los Llanos , was established by Pedro de Portocarrero in 1527 . Within a year , Spanish dominion extended over the upper drainage basin of the Grijalva River , Comitán , and the Ocosingo valley . Encomienda rights were established , although in the earlier stages of conquest these amounted to little more than slave @-@ raiding rights .
The colonial province of Chiapa was established by Diego Mazariegos in 1528 , with the reorganisation of existing encomiendas and colonial jurisdictions , and the renaming of San Cristóbal as Villa Real , and its relocation to Jovel . Excessive Spanish demands for tribute and labour caused a rebellion by the indigenous inhabitants , who attempted to starve out the Spanish . The conquistadores launched punitive raids , but the natives abandoned their towns and fled to inaccessible regions . Internal divisions among the Spanish led to a general instability in the province ; eventually the Mazariegos faction gained concessions from the Spanish Crown that allowed for the elevation of Villa Real to the status of city , as Ciudad Real , and the establishment of new laws that promoted stability in the newly conquered region .
= = Geography = =
The Mexican state of Chiapas occupies the extreme southeast of Mexico , covering an area of 74 @,@ 415 square kilometres ( 28 @,@ 732 sq mi ) . To the west , it borders with the Mexican states of Oaxaca and Veracruz , and to the north with Tabasco . It borders on the east with Guatemala ; the southern border consists of 260 kilometres ( 160 mi ) of Pacific coastline . Chiapas is geographically and culturally diverse . It features two principal highland regions : to the south is the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and in central Chiapas are the Montañas Centrales ( Central Highlands ) . They are separated by the Depresión Central , containing the drainage basin of the Grijalva River . The Sierra Madre highlands gain altitude from west to east , with the highest mountains near the Guatemalan border .
The littoral zone of Soconusco lies to the south of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas , and consists of a narrow coastal plain and the foothills of the Sierra Madre . Although the entire coastal strip is often referred to as Soconusco , Soconusco proper is the southeastern portion characterised by a humid tropical climate and rich agricultural lands . The northwestern portion of the coastal strip featuring a drier climate was historically referred to as El Despoblado ( " The Unpopulated " ) ; it is generally referred to now as the Isthmus Coast Region ( Spanish : Istmo @-@ Costa ) .
The Depresión Central consists of a drainage basin some 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) long and varying in width from 30 to 60 kilometres ( 19 to 37 mi ) . The Grijalva River is fed by drainage from the Cuchumatanes mountains of Guatemala and from both of the Chiapas highland regions , particlularly the Sierra Madre . The wide plains feature a hot climate with moderate rainfall . The Depresión Central is itself divided into two zones , the eastern is the Grijalva Valley stretching from the Guatemalan border to the Sumidero Canyon ; the western zone is the Meseta Central , or Central Plateau , in colonial times referred to as the Valle de Jiquipilas y Cintalapa . This region of high plains blocks the passage of the Grijalva River , which has cut its way through towards Tabasco by means of the Sumidero Canyon . Los Chimalapas is another highland region at the northern extreme of the Meseta Central and bordering with Oaxaca ; it is considered the first upthrust of the Sierra Madre .
The Central Highlands rise sharply to the north of the Grijalva , to a maximum altitude of 2 @,@ 400 metres ( 7 @,@ 900 ft ) , then descend gradually towards the Yucatán Peninsula . They are cut by deep valleys running parallel to the Pacific coast , and feature a complex drainage system that feeds both the Grijalva and the Lacantún River , which feeds into the Usumacinta River . The Central Highlands feature high rainfall and diverse vegetation dependent upon altitude , from high @-@ altitude pine forests to lowland tropical forest further north and east towards the plains of Tabasco and Petén . At the eastern end of the Central Highlands is the Lacandon Forest , which is largely mountainous with lowland tropical plains at its easternmost extreme .
= = Chiapas before the conquest = =
The earliest human inhabitants of Chiapas were foragers living in the northern highlands and along the coastal strip from approximately 6000 BC until about 2000 BC . For approximately the last two millennia BC , the majority of the territory that is now covered by the state of Chiapas was occupied by Zoque @-@ speaking peoples . Gradually , Mayan @-@ speakers began to make inroads from the east and , from about 200 AD , Chiapas was divided roughly equally between the Zoques in the western half and Maya in the eastern half ; this distribution continued up to the time of the Spanish conquest .
A broad swathe of western Chiapas was held by the Zoques , covering the Depresión Central , the middle Grijalva basin , the Chimalapas and parts of the Pacific coastline . The main Zoque settlements in the Depresión Central were Copainalá , Mezcalapa , Quechula and Tecapatán . Their settlements on the western side of the Grijalva River included Citalapa , Jiquipilas , Ocozocuautla and the Corzos valley . Coyatocmó was a small Zoque settlement that grew into the modern state capital , Tuxtla Gutiérrez . The Aztecs exacted tribute from the Zoques , and dominated trade routes running through their territory . In pre @-@ Columbian times , the Depresión Central featured two of the largest cities in the region , Chiapa and Copanaguastla . The area around Chiapa de Corzo was occupied by the Chiapanecas , whose ethnicity and language are unknown . The Chiapanecas were militarily powerful before the Spanish conquest ; they had forced a number of important Zoque settlements to pay them tribute , and had successfully resisted being incorporated into the Aztec Empire . The Chiapaneca territory lay between the territories of the Zoques and the Tzotzil Maya , in the upper and middle Grijalva basin ; their main settlements were Acala , Chiapa , Ostuta , Pochutla and Suchiapa .
The central highlands were occupied by a number of Maya peoples , including the Tzotzil , who were divided into a number of provinces ; the province of Chamula was said to have five small towns grouped closely together . The Tojolabal were another Maya people , with territory around Comitán . The Coxoh Maya held territory in the upper reaches of the Grijalva drainage , near the Guatemalan border , and were probably a subgroup of the Tojolabal . Soconusco was an important communication route between the central Mexican highlands and Central America . It had been
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5 @-@ megapixel , rear @-@ facing camera capable of 1080p video recording ; and a VGA front @-@ facing videophone camera designed for FaceTime . The display resolution is 2 @,@ 048 by 1 @,@ 536 ( QXGA ) with 3 @.@ 1 million pixels – four times more than the iPad 2 – providing even scaling from the prior model . The new iPad is thicker than its predecessor by 0 @.@ 6 mm and is heavier by 51 grams for the Wi @-@ Fi model ( 652 grams ) . The Wi @-@ Fi + Cellular models ( both at 662 grams ) are 49 grams heavier for the AT & T model and 55 grams heavier for the Verizon model compared to the respective iPad 2 3G models ( AT & T 3G iPad 2 is 613 grams , and Verizon 3G iPad 2 is 607 grams ) .
There are four physical switches on the third @-@ generation iPad , including a home button near the display that returns the user to the home screen , and three plastic switches on the sides : wake / sleep and volume up / down , plus a software @-@ controlled switch whose function varies with software update . The display responds to other sensors : an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3 @-@ axis accelerometer to sense orientation and to switch between portrait and landscape modes . Unlike the iPhone and iPod Touch 's built @-@ in applications , which work in three orientations ( portrait , landscape @-@ left and landscape @-@ right ) , the iPad 's built @-@ in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations , including upside @-@ down . Consequently , the device has no intrinsic " native " orientation ; only the relative position of the home button changes .
The tablet is manufactured either with or without the capability to communicate over a cellular network ; all models can connect to a wireless LAN . The third @-@ generation iPad optionally has 16 , 32 , or 64 GB of internal flash memory , with no expansion option . Apple sells a " camera connection kit " with an SD card reader , but it can only be used to transfer photos and videos .
The audio playback of the third @-@ generation iPad has a frequency response of 20 Hz to 20 @,@ 000 Hz . Without third @-@ party software it can play the following audio formats : HE @-@ AAC , AAC , Protected AAC , MP3 , MP3 VBR , Audible formats ( 2 , 3 , 4 , AEA , AAX , and AAX + ) , ALAC , AIFF , and WAV . A preliminary tear @-@ down of the third @-@ generation iPad by IHS iSuppli showed the likely costs for a 16 GB Wi @-@ Fi + Cellular model at $ 358 @.@ 30 , 32 GB at $ 375 @.@ 10 , and 64 GB at $ 408 @.@ 70 respectively .
This iPad uses an internal rechargeable lithium @-@ ion polymer ( LiPo ) battery . The batteries are made in Taiwan by Simplo Technology ( 60 % ) and Dynapack International Technology . The iPad is designed to be charged with a high current of 2 amps using the included 10 W USB power adapter and USB cord with a USB connector at one end and a 30 @-@ pin dock connector at the other end . While it can be charged by an older USB port from a computer , these are limited to 500 milliamps ( 0 @.@ 5 amps ) . As a result , if the iPad is in use while powered by a computer , it may charge very slowly , or not at all . High @-@ power USB ports found in newer computers and accessories provide full charging capabilities .
Apple claims that the battery can provide up to 10 hours of video , 140 hours of audio playback , or one month on standby ; people say the battery lasts about 8 hours doing normal tasks . Like any rechargeable battery , the iPad 's battery loses capacity over time . However , the iPad 's battery is not user @-@ replaceable . In a program similar to iPod and iPhone battery @-@ replacement programs , Apple promised to replace an iPad that does not hold an electrical charge with a refurbished unit for a fee of US $ 99 plus $ 6 @.@ 95 shipping . User data is not preserved / transferred . The refurbished unit comes with a new case . The warranty on the refurbished unit may vary between jurisdictions .
= = = Accessories = = =
The Smart Cover , introduced with the iPad 2 , is a screen protector that magnetically attaches to the face of the iPad . The cover has three folds which allow it to convert into a stand , which is also held together by magnets . The Smart Cover can also assume other positions by folding it . While original iPad owners could purchase a black case that included a similarly folding cover , the Smart Cover is simpler , easily detachable , and protects only the screen . Smart Covers have a microfiber bottom that cleans the front of the iPad , and wakes up the unit when the cover is removed . It comes in five colors of both polyurethane and the more expensive leather .
Apple offers several other accessories , most of which are adapters for the proprietary 30 @-@ pin dock connector , the only port besides the headphone jack . A dock holds the iPad upright at an angle , and has a dock connector and audio line @-@ out port . The iPad can use Bluetooth keyboards that also work with Macs and PCs . The iPad can be charged by a standalone power adapter ( " wall charger " ) compatible with iPods and iPhones , and a 10 Watt charger is included .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The third @-@ generation iPad received many positive reviews , receiving praise for its Retina display , camera , processor and LTE capabilities . According to Walt Mossberg of All Things Digital , the new model " has the most spectacular display ... seen in a mobile device " and holds the crown as " the best tablet on the planet . " Jonathan Spira , writing in Frequent Business Traveler , claimed that it " seems to make everything sharper and clearer . "
= = = = Issues = = = =
= = = = = Cellular Problems = = = = =
Criticism followed the news that in markets outside the US , the tablet cannot communicate with LTE due to its use of 700 MHz and 700 / 2 @,@ 100 MHz frequencies , respectively , versus 800 MHz , 1 @.@ 8 GHz and 2 @.@ 6 GHz used elsewhere . Soon after the launch , the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission ( ACCC ) took Apple to court for breaking four provisions of Australian consumer law . They alleged that Apple 's promotion of the tablet in Australia as the ' iPad Wi @-@ Fi + 4G ' misled customers , as the name indicates that it would work on Australia 's then @-@ current 4G network . Apple responded to this by offering a full refund to all customers in Australia who purchased the Wi @-@ Fi + Cellular model ( when it was previously named " Wi @-@ Fi + 4G " ) of the iPad .
On April 20 , 2012 , Apple stated that HSPA + networks in Australia are 4G , even though the speeds are slower than that of LTE . A month later , on June 21 , 2012 , Apple was sued for A $ 2 @.@ 25 million for false advertising in Australia . In its advertisements Apple claimed that the new iPad was 4G LTE compatible . However , it didn 't work with the Telstra LTE mobile data network in Australia . Apple was fined A $ 2 @.@ 25 million and was ordered to pay A $ 300 @,@ 000 in costs .
Apple agreed to remove all references to 4G ( LTE ) capability in its UK advertising but as of August had not done so . There was no widespread 4G ( LTE ) network in the UK at the time , and the third @-@ generation iPad would also be incompatible with future 4G ( LTE ) networks when they did roll @-@ out there . The Advertising Standards Authority received consumer complaints on the matter . Apple offered to refund customers who bought the device after being misled by the advertising . The result of numerous complaints and lawsuits against Apple regarding the use of the term 4G in their advertisements prompted Apple to rename its " 4G " service to " Cellular " , with this change appearing on Apple 's website on May 13 , 2012 .
= = = = = Overheating = = = = =
Many users reported abnormally high temperatures on the casing of the unit , especially after running 3D games . If used while plugged in , the rear of the new iPad became as much as 12 ° F ( 6 @.@ 7 ° C ) hotter than an iPad 2 . The difference unplugged was 13 ° F ( 7 @.@ 2 ° C ) . Thermal imaging tests revealed that the iPad can reach 116 ° F ( 47 ° C ) . At this temperature it was warm to touch but not uncomfortable when held for a brief period . In a follow @-@ up report , Consumer Reports said , they " don 't believe the temperatures we recorded in our tests of the new iPad represent a safety concern . "
= = = = = Performance = = = = =
The claimed superiority of the A5X over the Tegra 3 processor was questioned around launch time by competitor Nvidia ; some benchmarks later confirmed the iPad 's superiority in graphics performance , while other benchmarks show that the Tegra 3 has greater performance in some areas .
= = = = Criticism = = = =
Consumer Reports gave the third @-@ generation iPad a top rating and recommendation , claiming that the tablet was " superb " , " very good " , and " very fast " , and that the 4G network , the Retina display , and overall performance were positive attributes . They elaborated on the display quality , stating that the third @-@ generation iPad was " the best we ’ ve seen . " The iPad 's new display was a large enough improvement to prompt Consumer Reports to rate it " excellent , " and consequently downgraded the display of other tablets ( including the iPad 2 ) from " excellent " to " very good . " As with the preceding models ( see the parent article on the iPad ) , iOS ' closed and proprietary nature garnered criticism , particularly by digital rights advocates such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation , computer engineer and activist Brewster Kahle , Internet @-@ law specialist Jonathan Zittrain , and the Free Software Foundation who protested the iPad 's introductory event and have targeted the iPad with their " Defective by Design " campaign .
Upon the release of iOS 6 , Swiss Federal Railway accused Apple of copying a trademarked " iconic railway " clock in the " Clock " app that is available on all iPad models that support iOS 6 . On October 15 , 2012 , the Swiss Railway company released a statement saying Apple agreed to pay a licensing fee to use its clock design .
= = = Commercial reception = = =
Pre @-@ orders were so high for the third @-@ generation iPad that later orders were quoted shipping times of " two to three weeks " after the order was placed . Apple said that " customer response to the new iPad has been off the charts and the quantity available for pre @-@ order has been purchased . " Despite the delayed shipping , many users chose to purchase the iPad online instead of waiting in line at the Apple Store . Approximately 750 people waited outside the Fifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City for the product 's release . According to an Apple press release , three million units were sold in the first three days . The iPad was purchased mainly by a younger , male demographic . Most of the buyers were either " die @-@ hard Apple fans " or had previously purchased an iPad . An Apple retailer in Dayton , Ohio , claimed that the demand for the tablet was " chaotic " and claimed that its launch was " drastically more significant than the iPad 2 launch . " By Q2 of 2012 , Apple would hit an all @-@ time high , claiming 69 @.@ 6 percent of the global tablet market .
= = Timeline = =
= Jack Kemp =
Jack French Kemp ( July 13 , 1935 – May 2 , 2009 ) was an American politician and a professional gridiron football player . A Republican , he served as Housing Secretary in the administration of President George H. W. Bush from 1989 to 1993 , having previously served nine terms as a congressman for Western New York 's 31st congressional district from 1971 to 1989 . He was the Republican Party 's nominee for Vice President in the 1996 election , where he was the running mate of presidential nominee Bob Dole . Kemp had previously contended for the presidential nomination in the 1988 Republican primaries .
Before entering politics , Kemp was a professional quarterback for 13 years . He played briefly in the National Football League ( NFL ) and the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) , but became a star in the American Football League ( AFL ) . He served as captain of both the San Diego Chargers and Buffalo Bills and earned the AFL Most Valuable Player award in 1965 after leading the Bills to a second consecutive championship . He played in the AFL for all 10 years of its existence , appeared in its All @-@ Star game seven times , played in its championship game five times , and set many of the league 's career passing records . Kemp also co @-@ founded the AFL Players Association , for which he served five terms as president . During the early part of his football career , he served in the United States Army Reserve .
As an economic conservative , Kemp advocated low taxes and supply @-@ side policies during his political career . His positions spanned the social spectrum , ranging from his conservative opposition to abortion to his more libertarian stances advocating immigration reform . As a proponent of both Chicago school and supply @-@ side economics , he is notable as an influence upon the Reagan agenda and the architect of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 , which is known as the Kemp – Roth tax cut .
After his days in political office , Kemp remained active as a political advocate and commentator , and served on corporate and nonprofit organization boards . He also authored , co @-@ authored , and edited several books . He promoted American football and advocated for retired professional football players . Kemp was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2009 by President Barack Obama .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth = = =
Born , raised , and educated in Los Angeles , Kemp was the third of four sons of Frances Elizabeth ( née Pope ) and Paul Robert Kemp Sr. Paul turned his motorcycle messenger service into a trucking company that grew from one to 14 trucks . Frances was a well @-@ educated social worker and Spanish teacher . Kemp grew up in the heavily Jewish Wilshire district of West Los Angeles , but his tight @-@ knit middle @-@ class family attended the Church of Christ , Scientist . In his youth , sports consumed Kemp , who once chose the forward pass as the subject of a school essay on important inventions , although his mother attempted to broaden his horizons with piano lessons and trips to the Hollywood Bowl .
Kemp attended Melrose Avenue 's Fairfax High School , which was , at the time , known both for its high concentration of Jewish students and concentration of celebrities ' children . Over 95 % of Kemp 's classmates were Jewish , and he later became a supporter of Jewish causes . His classmates included Herb Alpert , Larry Sherry , and Judith A. Reisman . During his years in high school , Kemp worked with his brothers at his father 's trucking company in downtown Los Angeles . In his spare time , he became a rigorous reader , preferring history and philosophy books .
= = = College = = =
After graduating from high school in 1953 , he attended Occidental College , a founding member of the NCAA Division III Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference . Kemp selected Occidental because its football team used professional formations and plays , which he hoped would help him to become a professional quarterback . At 5 feet 10 inches ( 178 cm ) and 175 pounds ( 79 kg ) , he considered himself too small to play for the USC Trojans or UCLA Bruins , the major Southern California college football programs .
At Occidental , Kemp was a record @-@ setting javelin hurler and played several positions on the football team : quarterback , defensive back , place kicker , and punter . Although he was near @-@ sighted , Kemp was tenacious on the field . During his years as starting quarterback the team posted 6 – 2 and 3 – 6 records . Kemp was named a Little All @-@ America player one year in which he threw for over 1 @,@ 100 yards . That year , he led the nation 's small colleges in passing . He and close friend Jim Mora , who later became an NFL head coach , were members of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity . Another teammate in college was Ron Botchan , who was an NFL umpire for years ( record five Super Bowls ) . Kemp declined to become involved in student government . After graduating from Occidental with a degree in physical education , he pursued postgraduate studies in economics at Long Beach State University and California Western University , and served in the military from 1958 to
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of members of the parliamentary faction called the Republican Bloc ( mostly made up of Ter @-@ Petrosyan 's Pan @-@ Armenian National Movement ) joined Vazgen Sargsyan 's Yerkrapah bloc , making it the largest parliamentary bloc , with 69 members compared to only 56 for the Republic .
After Ter @-@ Petrosyan 's resignation , Prime Minister Kocharyan became acting president . On 5 February 1998 , Sargsyan denied the claims of a coup d 'état and said that Ter @-@ Petrosyan 's resignation was " rather sad but natural . " Sargsyan claimed that the president 's move surprised him and that he had " been seeking common grounds with the president for the past three months . " He added , " the only step I achieved on the Karabakh issue was the suggestion that the situation be frozen . " Almost a year after Ter @-@ Petrosyan 's resignation , Vazgen Sargsyan stated at the Republican Party convention that he " respects and appreciates " Ter @-@ Petrosyan and described him as a " wise and a moral man and politician . " Sargsyan insisted that the question of " political responsibility " was the main reason behind his resignation .
= = = 1998 election : Kocharyan as president = = =
Sargsyan ( along with Interior Minister Serzh Sargsyan ) openly supported Kocharyan and used his influence for his election in March . He called Kocharyan a " man of unity of word and action " and stated that his experience in Karabakh and Armenia " shows that he is capable of solving economic problems also . " Kocharyan 's main opponent was Karen Demirchyan , the leader of Soviet Armenia from 1974 to 1988 . Sargsyan praised Kocharyan for being part of the " struggle of the Armenian people " and criticized Demirchyan for not being part of it .
No candidate gained more than half of the votes in the first round , while in the second round of the election , held on 30 March , Kocharyan won 58 @.@ 9 % of the vote . The British Helsinki Human Rights Group suggests that " ordinary Armenians turned to Robert Kocharian as someone untainted by mafia connections and the intrigues of Yerevan politics . " The OSCE observation mission described the first round as " deeply flawed , " while their final report stated that the mission found " serious flaws " and that the election did not meet the OSCE standards . Although Demirchyan didn 't officially dispute the election results , he never accepted them and did not congratulate Kocharyan . After the election , however , Sargsyan suggested Kocharyan appoint Demirchyan Prime Minister to decrease the tensions in the political scene .
Even after becoming president , Kocharyan did not have any significant institutional support ( e.g. a party , control of the army , a source of money ) and remained " in a fundamental sense an outsider in Yerevan . " Kocharyan had a more tough position on the Karabakh settlement issue than Ter @-@ Petrosyan . He also urged the international community to recognize the Armenian Genocide , something on which his predecessor did not place importance . In response , Turkey and Azerbaijan tightened their cooperation in isolating Armenia from regional projects . Kocharyan did not put pressure on the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh leadership to concede territory to Azerbaijan . He was supported by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation , which was allowed to actively operate after Ter @-@ Petrosyan 's resignation a month before the election .
= = Rise in power = =
= = = Politicization of Yerkrapah = = =
By 1998 Vazgen Sargsyan became " the power behind the throne " as the Yerkrapah faction — made up of war veterans loyal to him — was the single largest faction in the Armenian parliament following Ter @-@ Petrosyan 's resignation in February 1998 . Yerkrapah was merged with the Republican Party of Armenia — a minor party with ideology similar to that of Yerkrapah — in summer 1998 , taking the party 's name and its legal status . Though Sargsyan was not the chairman of the Republican Party , he was considered its unofficial leader .
The relations between Sargsyan and Kocharyan deteriorated after the presidential election with Sargsyan " casting around for partners unconnected with or downright opposed to the president . " Within several months three assassinations of top officials took place that spread rumors in Armenia that relations between Sargsyan and Kocharyan were " not normal . " In August 1998 Armenia 's Prosecutor @-@ General Henrikh Khachatryan , a close friend of Kocharyan , was murdered in his office " in murky circumstances . " In December 1998 Deputy Minister of Defence Vahram Khorkhoruni murdered " for equally mysterious motives . " While in February 1999 Deputy Minister of Interior Artsrun Margaryan was murdered . Vazgen Sargsyan and National Security and Interior Minister Serzh Sargsyan , Kocharyan 's close ally , were " also perceived to be at odds . "
= = = Alliance with Demirchyan = = =
It was initially announced that the Republican Party would go to the parliamentary election alone and would seek " qualitative majority " in the parliament , and that their goal was the fairness of the electoral process . Surprisingly for many , on 30 March 1999 , Vazgen Sargsyan and the runner @-@ up of the 1998 presidential election and Armenia 's ex @-@ communist leader Karen Demirchyan issued a joint announcement that they were forming an alliance between the People 's Party of Armenia and the Republican Party . It came to be known as the Unity bloc ( « Միասնություն » դաշինք ) , often referred to as Miasnutyun . Vazgen Sargsyan claimed the bloc was a " genuine " alliance and that the two parties had come together to lead Armenia " from a turning point to progress . " When asked about the reasons why he joined Demirchyan , Sargsyan said that , " there is no other way out . " According to the U.S. Helsinki Commission , Sargsyan " obviously concluded it was better to have the popular Demirchyan as an ally than an opponent , " and that " in forming Unity bloc , Sargsyan and Demirchyan overcame whatever ideological differences they may have had , and said they had joined forces to overcome the difficult problems facing Armenia while promoting tolerance in the country ’ ' s political life . " In analyst Richard Giragosian 's words , the bloc was " an odd mix , " however he admitted that it " effectively marginalized the electoral threat " of other parties . Sociologist Levon Baghdasaryan described it as " unification of the new and old nomenklaturas . " The British Helsinki Human Rights Group wrote of the Unity bloc that it " aimed to appeal to the electorate by being all things to all men . " The ODIHR suggested that the " alliance was not only created for electoral purposes , but that a strategic political agreement had been reached while overcoming ideological differences . "
= = = 1999 parliamentary election = = =
During the campaign , Sargsyan pledged that he would spare no effort to make sure the elections were free and fair . Sargsyan and Demirchyan put the emphasis of their campaign on the economy and the improvement of the life of ordinary Armenians . Talking about Yerkrapah — now politically transformed into the Republican Party — Sargsyan said he was confident " that the people that gained victory on the battlefield will also gain victory in economy . " He expressed his optimism saying that they were sure that they " will jointly change something and find the right course . " The Unity bloc " called broadly for a democratic society , rule of law , economic reforms and a market economy , with the state also creating conditions for the normal functioning of state enterprises and ensuring decent living standards for all . " Throughout the campaign , the Unity bloc was widely considered the favorite of the election . Opposition newspaper Hayots ashkhar suggested that most other political parties in Armenia were gravitating towards the opposite pole , around Kocharyan , National Security & Interior Minister Serzh Sargsyan , and the leadership of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic .
The parliamentary election took place on 30 May 1999 , just two months after Sargsyan 's and Demirchyan 's announcement about their decision to form an alliance . The Unity bloc won over 41 @.@ 5 % of the popular vote , and took 62 of the 131 seats in the National Assembly . The alliance established an effective majority with cooperating with a group of 25 independent and officially non @-@ affiliated members of the parliament , sympathetic to the Sargsyan @-@ Demirchyan coalition . The electoral process " generally showed an improvement over the [ previous ] flawed elections , but ODIHR said they were " not an adequate basis for comparison . " ODIHR 's final report described the election as " a step towards compliance with OSCE Commitments " and claimed that , along with improvements to the electoral framework and the political environment , serious issues remained . The Council of Europe also suggested " considerable improvement " from the past elections . The National Democratic Institute report was more critical , saying it " failed to meet international standards " and that it proved to be the continuation of the flawed 1995 parliamentary elections , differing only in " the methods and types of manipulation . "
= = Prime Ministry = =
At the Republican Party convention in January 1999 . Sargsyan stated his desire in remaining in the position of Minister of Defence . After the election speculations arouse about Sargsyan wanting to combine the positions of Defence Minister and Prime Minister , however , this was impossible according to the Armenian constitution . On 11 June 1999 he became Prime Minister of Armenia , while Unity bloc co @-@ chairman Karen Demirchyan was elected speaker of the National Assembly .
Many experts suggest that Sargsyan as Prime Minister was the most powerful politician in Armenia , while others suggest that he had become Armenia 's strongest politician long before that . According to Mark Grigorian , his " activities had began to overshadow " Kocharyan . Despite Kocharyan 's formal welcome of their alliance , the president was " effectively weakened " and " was being sidelined " . Some political analysts suggested that the Sargsyan @-@ Demirchyan alliance " ultimately would bring about the resignation of Kocharyan . " Vazgen Manukyan stated that Kocharyan " would end up like the " Queen of England . " Despite no longer being the Minister of Defence , Vazgen Sargsyan remained the de facto leader of the army , as a close ally , Vagharshak Harutiunyan , replaced him .
According to Styopa Safaryan , an analyst and former member of the Armenian parliament , despite his mixed legacy , under Vazgen Sargsyan Armenia became increasingly independent .
= = = Economic policy = = =
At the time of Sargsyan 's Prime Ministry , Armenia had not yet recovered from the economic effects of the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the energy crisis in Armenia during the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War . One of the major issues Sargsyan faces was the emigration from Armenian that started at the period of the decline of the Soviet regime . The World Socialist Web Site held international creditors responsible for Armenia 's economic hardships as they did not " leave much room for manoeuvres for the Armenian government to shape its policies more strongly according to the economic and social needs of the majority of the population . " The 1998 Russian financial crisis worsened the situation , and showed a decline in human development .
In his first address to the parliament as Prime Minister on 18 June , Sarsgyan described Armenia 's economic situation as " “ grave . " The budget revenues were almost 20 % lower than the government had planned , because of the low level of tax collection and the high level of corruption in the Armenian economy . Although Sargsyan criticized the post @-@ Soviet privatization by the Ter @-@ Petrosyan government , he admitted Armenia had no alternative , and that his government had an enormous amount of work to do . In his speech on 28 July , Sargsyan described the economic situation in Armenia as " extremely difficult , but not hopeless . " According to him , the first half of 1999 saw $ 61 million less in the budged revenues than planned by the Darbinyan government . He said that tax evasion played a role in the budget deficit .
Despite being criticized by the opposition , especially the National Democratic Union , the Unity bloc voted in favor ( 96 of the 131 MPs ) of the austerity measures of the Sargsyan cabinet on 28 August , allowing Armenia to take loans from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) . The World Bank alone had loaned almost $ 0 @.@ 5 billion to Armenia since 1992 to finance the budget deficits . The Sargsyan cabinet wanted to diversify $ 32 million in the budget funds in order to be able to repay the internal debts . For this purpose , the excise tax was raised on cigarettes by 200 % and on gasoline by 45 % , seriously hitting the middle class . Sargsyan described these as " painful but right steps " for getting the necessary amount of money from the foreign lenders . He pledged a " tougher crackdown on the shadow economy and more efficient governance . " National Assembly Speaker Karen Demirchyan called for a greater role of the state in the economy to ensure stability , while President Kocharyan was mostly uninvolved in these developments .
= = = Notable events = = =
During his Prime Ministry , Sargsyan helped to organize three major events . On 28 August 1999 , the first Pan @-@ Armenian Games began in Yerevan . Over 1 @,@ 400 Armenian athletes from 23 countries participated in the games . The closing ceremony took place in the Yerevan Sports and Concerts Complex on September 5 , with President Robert Kocharyan and Vazgen Sargsyan in attendance . Just after the Games , which involved thousands of diaspora Armenian youth , the preparations for the eighth anniversary of Armenia 's independence began .
On 21 September , the anniversary of the day in 1991 when Armenians voted in favor of leaving the Soviet Union in a referendum , a military parade was held in Yerevan 's Republic Square . Vazgen Sargsyan " was visibly the most excited of the government leaders standing on a specially built pedestal . " In a short briefing after the parade , Sargsyan enthusiastically stated that he had " touched almost every piece of hardware you 've just seen " and continued that he " just wanted to show it " to the Armenian people .
During the next two days , on 22 and 23 September 1999 , the first Armenia @-@ Diaspora Conference was held in Yerevan . The conference brought together the Armenian political elite and many diaspora organizations , political parties , religious leaders , writers and over 1 @,@ 200 representatives of Armenian communities from 53 countries , an unprecedented number . Vazgen Sargsyan opened the second day of the conference with his speech @-@ report about the economic and social situation in Armenia . The conference was closed by Sargsyan .
= = Assassination = =
= = = Shooting and funeral = = =
On 27 October 1999 , at around 5 : 15 p.m. , five men — Nairi Hunanyan , his brother Karen , their uncle Vram and two others — armed with Kalashnikov rifles hidden under long coats , broke into the National Assembly building in Yerevan , while the government was holding a question @-@ and @-@ answer session . They shot dead Vazgen Sargsyan , National Assembly Speaker Karen Demirchyan , Deputy National Assembly Speakers Yuri Bakhshyan and Ruben Miroyan , Minister of Urgent Affairs Leonard Petrosyan , and Parliament Members Henrik Abrahamyan , Armenak Armenakyan and Mikayel Kotanyan . The gunmen injured at least 30 people in the parliament . The group claimed they were carrying out a coup d 'état . They described their act as " patriotic " and " needed for the nation to regain its senses . " They said they wanted to " punish the authorities for what they do to the nation " and described the government as profiteers " drinking the blood of the people . " They claimed Armenia was in a " catastrophic situation " and that " corrupt officials " were not doing anything to provide the way out . Vazgen Sargsyan was the main target of the group and the other deaths were said to be unintended . According to reporters who witnessed the shooting , the men went up to Sargsyan and said , " Enough of drinking our blood , " to which Sargsyan calmly responded , " Everything is being done for you and the future of your children . " Vazgen Sargsyan was hit several times . Anna Israelyan , an eyewitness journalist , stated that " the first shots were fired directly at Vazgen Sargsyan at a distance of one to two meters " and , in her words , " it was impossible that he would have survived . " Sargsyan 's body was taken out of the parliament building on the evening of October 27 .
With policemen , army troops , armed with APCs surrounding the building . President Kocharyan gave a speech on TV , announcing that the situation was under control . The gunmen released the hostages after overnight negotiations with President Kocharyan and gave themselves up on the morning of October 28 , after a standoff that lasted 17 – 18 hours .
On 28 October , President Kocharyan declared a three @-@ day mourning period . The state funeral ceremony for the victims of the parliament shooting took place from 30 October to 31 October 1999 . The bodies of the victims , including Vazgen Sargsyan , were placed inside the Yerevan Opera Theater . A number of high @-@ ranking officials from some 30 countries , including Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and the Georgian President Eduard Shevardnadze , attended the funeral . Karekin II , the Catholicos of All Armenians and Aram I , the Catholicos of the Holy See of Cilicia gave prayers .
= = = Investigation and conspiracy theories = = =
The five men were charged with terrorism aimed at undermining authority on 29 October . The investigation was led by Gagik Jhangiryan , the Chief Military Prosecutor of Armenia , who claimed his team was looking for the masterminds of the shooting even after the trial had begun . According to Jhangiryan , the investigating team considered more than a dozen theories . By January 2000 , Jhangiryan 's investigators considered the connection of Kocharyan and his circle to the parliament shooting . Several figures close to Kocharyan were arrested , including Aleksan Harutiunyan , the Deputy Presidential Adviser , and Harutiun Harutiunyan , the Deputy Director of the Public Television of Armenia but , by the summer of that year , they were released . Eventually , Jhangiryan failed to find evidence linking Kocharyan to the shooting . The trial began in February 2001 and eventually , the five main perpetrators of the shooting ( Nairi Hunanyan , his younger brother Karen Hunanyan , their uncle Vram Galstyan , Derenik Ejanyan and Eduard Grigoryan ) were sentenced to life in prison on December 2 , 2003 .
Possible motives behind the attack gave birth to a number of conspiracy theories . Stepan Demirchyan , Karen Demirchyan 's son , stated in 2009 that " nothing was done by the authorities to prevent that crime and , conversely , everything was done to cover up the crime . " In March 2013 , Vazgen Sargsyan 's younger brother Aram stated he had many questions for both governments of Robert Kocharyan and Serzh Sargsyan . He claimed the judicial process of 27 October had " deepened the public distrust in the authorities ... [ as ] many questions remain unanswered today " . According to him , the full disclosure of the shooting is " vital " for Armenia . Sargsyan , at the conclusion , insisted that he " never accused this or the former authorities of being responsible for 27 October . I have accused them in not fully disclosing the 27 October event . " In an April 2013 interview , Karen Demirchyan 's widow , Rita , suggested the shooting was ordered from outside Armenia and was not an attempt at a coup , but rather an assassination .
Although the investigation did not find any considerable evidence linking Kocharyan to the Hunanyan group , many Armenian politicians and analysts believe that President Robert Kocharyan and National Security Minister Serzh Sargsyan were behind the assassination of Vazgen Sargsyan and other leading politicians . Albert Bazeyan stated in 2002 that " We have come to the conclusion that the crime was aimed at making Robert Kocharian 's power unlimited and uncontrolled . By physically eliminating Karen Demirchyan and Vazgen Sargsyan , its organizers wanted to create prerequisites for Kocharyan 's victory in the future presidential elections . " Ter @-@ Petrosyan accused Kocharyan and Serzh Sargsyan and their " criminal @-@ oligarchic " system of being the real perpetrators of the parliament shooting . Nairi Hunanyan , the leader of the armed group , was a member of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation ( ARF , Dashnaktsutyun ) . According to the ARF , Hunanyan was expelled from the party in 1992 for misconduct and had not been in any association with the ARF since then . Some speculations have been made about the involvement of the ARF in the shootings . In 2000 , Ashot Manucharyan stated he was worried that " a number of Dashnaktsutyun party leaders are acting in the interest of the American foreign policy . "
= = = = Allegations of foreign involvement = = = =
Some analysts have suggested that foreign powers , including Russia , may have been behind the shooting . They pointed out the fact that Armenia and Azerbaijan were close in signing some kind of an agreement at the OSCE 1999 Istanbul summit over Karabakh , something not in Russia 's interest .
Russian secret service defector Alexander Litvinenko accused the Main Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation of having organised the Armenian parliament shooting , ostensibly to derail the peace process , which would have resolved the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh conflict , but he offered no evidence to support the accusation . Russian and Armenian officials denied this claims .
The French @-@ based Armenian political refugee and former Apostolic priest Artsruni Avetisysan ( also known by his religious name Ter Girgor ) gave an interview to Armenian media network A1plus , in which he claimed the Russian secret services were behind the October 27 , 1999 , shooting . He also claimed the shooting was perpetrated by Lieutenant General Vahan Shirkhanyan , the Deputy Minister of Defense from 1992 to 1999 , and the National Security Minister Serzh Sargsyan . He insisted the shooting was assisted by the Russian secret services in order to bring the " Neo @-@ Bolshevik criminal clan " of Serzh Sargsyan and Robert Kocharyan into power .
Others suggested that it was in the best interest of the West to remove Sargsyan and Demirchyan from the political scene , as they had close ties to Russia . Ashot Manucharyan , one of the leading members of the Karabakh Committee , the former Minister of Internal Affairs and Ter @-@ Petrosyan 's National Security Adviser and his close ally until 1993 , stated in October 2000 that Armenian officials were warned by a foreign country about the shootings . He also declared that " Western special services " were involved in the 27 October events . In Manucharyan 's words , " the special services of the U.S. and France are acting to destroy Armenia and , in this context , they are much likely to be involved in the realization of the terrorist acts in Armenia . " Manucharyan claimed the shooting was planned by Kocharyan in order to get rid of his two major rivals ( Sargsyan and Demirchyan ) , who were against the Goble plan , involving territorial concessions to Azerbaijan .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Just after the shooting , the Interior and National Security Ministers Suren Abrahamyan and Serzh Sargsyan resigned as a result of pressure from the Defence Ministry , led by Sargsyan 's ally , Vagharshak Harutiunyan at the time . From early June to late October 1999 , the political system in Armenia was based on the Demirchyan @-@ Sargsyan tandem , which controlled the military , the legislative and the executive branches . The assassinations disrupted the political balance in the country and the political arena of Armenia was left in disarray for months . The " de facto dual command " of Sargsyan and Demirchyan transferred to President Robert Kocharyan . James R. Hughes claims that the so @-@ called " Karabakh clan " ( i.e. Robert Kocharyan and Serzh Sargsyan ) was " kept in check " by Vazgen Sargsyan and his " military @-@ security apparatus , " while after the parliament shooting it came out to be the sole influential group able to successfully take over the political scene in Armenia . Since the leaders of the Unity bloc were assassinated , the two parties in the alliance ( the Republican Party of Armenia and the People 's Party of Armenia ) gradually lost edges of collaboration and , by late 2000 , the Unity bloc collapsed . Yerkrapah , the Republican Party , and the People 's Party effectively lost their influence by 2001 .
= = Personal life and brothers = =
Sargsyan never married . According to Razmik Martirosyan , a friend and the Minister of Social Security from 1999 to 2003 , Sargsyan promised in December 1987 that he would marry sometime before March 8 of the next year . The Karabakh movement started in February 1988 and Martirosyan claimed that the popular movement " did what it did . " In a 1997 interview , Sargsyan revealed that his favorite historical military figure was Charles de Gaulle . When asked about what kind of Armenia he would like to see in five years , he said " an independent , self @-@ sufficient country with strong culture , school and army . "
Sargsyan had two younger brothers , Aram and Armen . Aram was appointed Prime Minister by President Kocharyan on 3 November 1999 , a week after Vazgen Sargsyan 's death , largely as a " political gesture . " He admitted that Armenia has " no concept of state security " and that fact led to the assassination of his brother . Aram Sargsyan served in the position of the Prime Minister for only six months . He was dismissed by Kocharyan on 2 May 2000 , due to " inability to work " with Sargsyan 's cabinet . In his television statement , Kocharyan claimed that he relieved Aram Sargsyan to end the " disarray " in the Armenian leadership . Kocharyan blamed him for being involved in " political games . "
Aram Sargsyan founded the Republic ( Hanrapetutyun ) party in April 2001 , along with several influential Yerkrapah members , such as the former Mayor of Yerevan Albert Bazeyan and former Defence Minister Vagharshak Harutyunyan . Its co @-@ founder Bazeyan stated that the party is the " bearer of the political heritage of Vazgen Sargsian and will try to realize the programs aborted by the October 27 crime and its consequences . " The party backed up Stepan Demirchyan against Kocharyan in 2003 and Levon Ter @-@ Petrosyan against Serzh Sargsyan in the 2008 presidential elections . In a 2013 interview , Aram Sargsyan talked about the past 14 years after his brother 's death :
Vazgen Sargsyan 's other brother , Armen , supported Serzh Sargsyan in the 2013 presidential election . On 5 March 2013 , Aram Sargsyan was asked about his brother 's political stance , to which he responded , " I would very much like to ask Vazgen that question . I don 't know what he would have answered . I don 't know Vazgen 's answers to very few questions . Unfortunately , our friends and relatives are not always the way we want them to be . I am not the first one , neither am I the last one ; the history of the world is full of such examples starting from the Bible . "
= = Legacy and tribute = =
Vazgen Sargsyan was awarded the Hero of Artsakh title , the highest award of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic , in 1998 . On 27 December 1999 , two months after the parliament shooting , Sargsyan was posthumously given the National Hero of Armenia title . He widely is recognized as the founder of the Armenian army .
A presidential decree issued on 28 December 1999 , named the Yerevan military academy Vazgen Sargsyan Military Institute in his honor . The Republican Stadium in Yerevan was named after Vazgen Sargsyan by the same decree . Numerous streets in Armenia and Karabakh , including one in Yerevan 's Kentron ( Central ) district and in Stepanakert , and a park in Kapan are named after Sargsyan . Statues were erected in his honor in Yerevan ( 2007 ) , Ararat ( 2009 ) , Vanadzor Shusha and other locations . In 2000 , 27 October was declared a day of remembrance by the Armenian government . In 2002 , the Armenian Defence Ministry created the Medal of Vazgen Sargsyan , which is awarded for " meritorious services towards military education and improvements in service life . "
Every year , on 5 March ( his birthday ) and 27 October ( the day of his assassination ) , Sargsyan is commemorated in Armenia and Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . His comrades from the Yerkrapah Volunteer Union , high state officials and many others visit the Yerablur cemetery , where Sargsyan is buried next to many Armenian military figures .
Vazgen Sargsyan 's museum was opened in his hometown of Ararat on 5 March 2001 by the decision made by the Armenian government . Notable attendees of the opening ceremony of the museum included Premier Minister Andranik Margaryan , National Assembly Speaker Armen Khachatryan , Defence Minister Serzh Sargsyan , and other high @-@ ranking military and diplomatic representatives , such as the former Russian Minister of Defence Pavel Grachev , who revealed in his speech at the ceremony that Sargsyan was once his student .
Sargsyan is often referred to as Sparapet , a military rank that has existed since the ancient Kingdom of Armenia . The phrase " Սպարապետ Հայոց " Sparapet Hayots ( literally meaning " Commander of the Armenians " ) is engraved on Sargsyan 's memorial in Yerablur cemetery . The song " Sparapet " by Alla Levonyan is dedicated to his memory .
= = = Public image and recognition = = =
In Armenia , Nagorno @-@ Karabakh and , to a lesser extent , in the Armenian diaspora , Vazgen Sargsyan is recognized as a national hero . Several survey conducted by Gallup , Inc . , International Republican Institute , and the Armenian Sociological Association from 2006 to 2008 , revealed that Vazgen Sargsyan topped the list of national heroes in public perception , with 15 % -20 % of the respondents giving his name . He left behind the two prominent early 20th century military commanders Andranik and Garegin Nzhdeh . Sargsyan is widely considered a charismatic leader . He was generally perceived as a man of " tremendous power and charisma , " known for his " brutality , temper , and nonchalant attitude toward the law . "
His contributions have been acknowledged by his colleagues and comrades . In 1997 , President Ter @-@ Petrosyan stated that Sargsyan is someone who deserves the title of National Hero of Armenia . He added that " if all members of our government worked as conscientiously and selflessly as Vazgen Sargsyan , we would live in a perfect state . " Armenia 's second president Robert Kocharyan said in his speech during Sargsyan 's funeral , " history will provide its assessment of Vazgen Sargsyan as a politician who stood at the birth of the Armenian state . His role in the creation of the national army is beyond appraisal . By his life and commitment , Vazgen Sargsyan has made an immense contribution to the establishment of a powerful country . " In 2007 , giving a speech on the occasion of the 15th anniversary of the Armenian Armed Forces , the Defence Minister Serzh Sargsyan ( and the incumbent president ) noted that he " was a valiant soldier dedicated to the cause of our statehood , and who revered the strength of Armenia and the strength of the Armenian soldier , and who had a staunch belief in our future success . "
Manvel Grigoryan , leader of the Yerkrapah Volunteer Union , recognized Sargsyan 's contributions , stating that Sargsyan " was a strong individual and his greatness was felt not only during the war , but during the nation @-@ building years after the war . " According to Grigoryan " his presence was enough for the foreign leaders to become vigilant . " Dr. Ara Sanjian , the director of the Armenian Studies at the Haigazian University , wrote shortly after Sargsyan 's assassination :
In the West , Sargsyan was generally described as a strong nationalist . The British journalist Jonathan Steele wrote of Sargsyan as " a fierce nationalist who always preferred action and force to words and diplomacy . " Encyclopædia Britannica describes Sargsyan as an " Armenian nationalist who devoted much of his life to the Armenian fight with Azerbaijan for control of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh enclave . " Political scientist Razmik Panossian expressed the opinion that he was " the last significant nationalist politician whose commitment to Karabakh and Armenia was not doubted by anyone . "
Sargsyan was criticized for being undemocratic , particularly for using his influence in pre @-@ determining the election results . The Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe suggested in 1999 that his " record does not inspire confidence in his commitment to democracy . " The 2008 book Religious Freedom in the World described him as " thuggish " and held him responsible for the 1995 assaults on religious minorities in Armenia ( especially those that discourage military service ) , carried out , allegedly , by Yerkrapah . Thomas de Waal describes Sargsyan as a " feudal baron , " and claims that Yerkrapah controlled " large areas of the economy . "
= Kingstonian F.C. =
Kingstonian Football Club is an English semi @-@ professional football club based in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames which currently plays in the Isthmian League Premier Division . The club play at Kingsmeadow in Kingston @-@ upon @-@ Thames , which has been their home since 1989 , when they left their original Richmond Road ground . They share the ground with AFC Wimbledon , who purchased the lease of Kingsmeadow in 2003 .
Kingstonian Football Club was founded in 1885 by the Young Man 's Christian Association , named Kingston & Surbiton YMCA , and began competing properly in 1893 in the Surrey Junior Cup . There was a split before the start of the 1908 @-@ 1909 season which damaged the club , the two clubs were named Old Kingstonians and Kingston @-@ on @-@ Thames A.F.C. After period of quiet during World War I , the two clubs re @-@ united and joined the Athenian League in 1919 , named Kingstonian . In 1929 , their application to join the Isthmian League was accepted , and they have competed there to the present day . The club , nicknamed " The K 's " or " The Ks " , spent three seasons at the highest level of non @-@ league football , 1998 – 99 , 1999 – 2000 and 2000 – 01 , and have won the FA Trophy twice , in consecutive seasons , in 1999 and 2000 .
= = History = =
= = = Kingston & Surbiton
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to 13 feet ) high and 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 feet ) wide .
The sculptured mounds sometimes have elaborate and distinctive forms , such as those of the compass termite ( Amitermes meridionalis and A. laurensis ) , which builds tall , wedge @-@ shaped mounds with the long axis oriented approximately north – south , which gives them their common name . This orientation has been experimentally shown to assist thermoregulation . The north @-@ south orientation causes the internal temperature of a mound to increase rapidly during the morning while avoiding overheating from the midday sun . The temperature then remains at a plateau for the rest of the day until the evening .
= = = Arboreal nests = = =
Arboreal carton nests of mangrove swamp @-@ dwelling Nasutitermes are enriched in lignin and depleted in cellulose and xylans . This change is caused by bacterial decay in the gut of the termites : they use their faeces as a carton building material . Arboreal termites nests can account for as much as 2 % of above ground carbon storage in Puerto Rican mangrove swamps . These Nasutitermes nests are mainly composed of partially biodegraded wood material from the stems and branches of mangrove trees , namely , Rhizophora mangle ( red mangrove ) , Avicennia germinans ( black mangrove ) and Laguncularia racemose ( white mangrove ) .
= = = Shelter tubes = = =
Termites construct shelter tubes , also known as earthen tubes or mud tubes , that start from the ground . These shelter tubes can be found on walls and other structures . Constructed by termites during the night , a time of higher humidity , these tubes provide protection to termites from potential predators , especially ants . Shelter tubes also provide high humidity and darkness and allow workers to collect food sources that cannot be accessed in any other way . These passageways are made from soil and faeces and are normally brown in colour . The size of these shelter tubes depends on the amount of food sources that are available . They range from less than 1 cm to several cm in width , but may extend dozens of metres in length .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = As pests = = =
Owing to their wood @-@ eating habits , many termite species can do great damage to unprotected buildings and other wooden structures . Their habit of remaining concealed often results in their presence being undetected until the timbers are severely damaged , leaving a thin layer of a wall that protects them from the environment . Of the 3 @,@ 106 species known , only 183 species cause damage ; 83 species cause significant damage to wooden structures . In North America , nine subterranean species are pests ; in Australia , 16 species have an economic impact ; in the Indian subcontinent 26 species are considered pests , and in tropical Africa , 24 . In Central America and the West Indies , there are 17 pest species . Among the termite genera , Coptotermes has the highest number of pest species of any genus , with 28 species known to cause damage . Less than 10 % of drywood termites are pests , but they infect wooden structures and furniture in tropical , subtropical and other regions . Dampwood termites only attack lumber material exposed to rainfall or soil .
Drywood termites thrive in warm climates , and human activities can enable them to invade homes since they can be transported through contaminated goods , containers and ships . Colonies of termites have been seen thriving in warm buildings located in cold regions . Some termites are considered invasive species . Cryptotermes brevis , the most widely introduced invasive termite species in the world , has been introduced to all the islands in the West Indies and to Australia .
In addition to causing damage to buildings , termites can also damage food crops . Termites may attack trees whose resistance to damage is low but generally ignore fast @-@ growing plants . Most attacks occur at harvest time ; crops and trees are attacked during the dry season .
The damage caused by termites costs the southwestern United States approximately $ 1 @.@ 5 billion each year in wood structure damage , but the true cost of damage worldwide cannot be determined . Drywood termites are responsible for a large proportion of the damage caused by termites .
To better control the population of termites , various methods have been developed to track termite movements . One early method involved distributing termite bait laced with immunoglobulin G ( IgG ) marker proteins from rabbits or chickens . Termites collected from the field could be tested for the rabbit @-@ IgG markers using a rabbit @-@ IgG @-@ specific assay . More recently developed , less expensive alternatives include tracking the termites using egg white , cow milk , or soy milk proteins , which can be sprayed on termites in the field . Termites bearing these proteins can be traced using a protein @-@ specific ELISA test .
= = = As food = = =
43 termite species are used as food by humans or are fed to livestock . These insects are particularly important in less developed countries where malnutrition is common , as the protein from termites can help improve the human diet . Termites are consumed in many regions globally , but this practice has only become popular in developed nations in recent years .
Termites are consumed by people in many different cultures around the world . In Africa , the alates are an important factor in the diets of native populations . Tribes have different ways of collecting or cultivating insects ; sometimes tribes will collect soldiers from several species . Though harder to acquire , queens are regarded as a delicacy . Termite alates are high in nutrition with adequate levels of fat and protein . They are regarded as pleasant in taste , having a nut @-@ like flavour after they are cooked .
Alates are collected when the rainy season begins . During a nuptial flight , they are typically seen around lights to which they are attracted , and so nets are set up on lamps and captured alates are later collected . The wings are removed through a technique that is similar to winnowing . The best result comes when they are lightly roasted on a hot plate or fried until crisp . Oil is not required as their bodies usually contain sufficient amounts of oil . Termites are typically eaten when livestock is lean and tribal crops have not yet developed or produced any food , or if food stocks from a previous growing season are limited .
In addition to Africa , termites are consumed in local or tribal areas in Asia and North and South America . In Australia , Indigenous Australians are aware that termites are edible but do not consume them even in times of scarcity ; there are few explanations as to why . Termite mounds are the main sources of soil consumption ( geophagy ) in many countries including Kenya , Tanzania , Zambia , Zimbabwe and South Africa . Researchers have suggested that termites are suitable candidates for human consumption and space agriculture , as they are high in protein and can be used to convert inedible waste to consumable products for humans .
= = = In agriculture = = =
Termites can be major agricultural pests , particularly in East Africa and North Asia , where crop losses can be severe ( 3 – 100 % in crop loss in Africa ) . Counterbalancing this is the greatly improved water infiltration where termite tunnels in the soil allow rainwater to soak in deeply , which helps reduce runoff and consequent soil erosion through bioturbation . In South America , cultivated plants such as eucalyptus , upland rice and sugarcane can be severely damaged by termite infestations , with attacks on leaves , roots and woody tissue . Termites can also attack other plants , including cassava , coffee , cotton , fruit trees , maize , peanuts , soybeans and vegetables . Mounds can disrupt farming activities , making it difficult for farmers to operate farming machinery ; however , despite farmers ' dislike of the mounds , it is often the case that no net loss of production occurs . Termites can be beneficial to agriculture , such as by boosting crop yields and enriching the soil . Termites and ants can re @-@ colonise untilled land that contains crop stubble , which colonies use for nourishment when they establish their nests . The presence of nests in fields enables larger amounts of rainwater to soak into the ground and increases the amount of nitrogen in the soil , both essential for the growth of crops .
= = = In science and technology = = =
The termite gut has inspired various research efforts aimed at replacing fossil fuels with cleaner , renewable energy sources . Termites are efficient bioreactors , capable of producing two litres of hydrogen from a single sheet of paper . Approximately 200 species of microbes live inside the termite hindgut , releasing the hydrogen that was trapped inside wood and plants that they digest . Through the action of unidentified enzymes in the termite gut , lignocellulose polymers are broken down into sugars and are transformed into hydrogen . The bacteria within the gut turns the sugar and hydrogen into cellulose acetate , an acetate ester of cellulose on which termites rely for energy . Community DNA sequencing of the microbes in the termite hindgut has been employed to provide a better understanding of the metabolic pathway . Genetic engineering may enable hydrogen to be generated in bioreactors from woody biomass .
The development of autonomous robots capable of constructing intricate structures without human assistance has been inspired by the complex mounds that termites build . These robots work independently and can move by themselves on a tracked grid , capable of climbing and lifting up bricks . Such robots may be useful for future projects on Mars , or for building levees to prevent flooding .
Termites use sophisticated means to control the temperatures of their mounds . As discussed above , the shape and orientation of the mounds of the Australian compass termite stabilises their internal temperatures during the day . As the towers heat up , the solar chimney effect ( stack effect ) creates an updraft of air within the mound . Wind blowing across the tops of the towers enhances the circulation of air through the mounds , which also include side vents in their construction . The solar chimney effect has been in use for centuries in the Middle East and Near East for passive cooling , as well as in Europe by the Romans . It is only relatively recently , however , that climate responsive construction techniques have become incorporated into modern architecture . Especially in Africa , the stack effect has become a popular means to achieve natural ventilation and passive cooling in modern buildings .
= = = In culture = = =
The Eastgate Centre is a shopping centre and office block in central Harare , Zimbabwe , whose architect , Mick Pearce , used passive cooling inspired by that used by the local termites . It was the first major building exploiting termite @-@ inspired cooling techniques to attract international attention . Other such buildings include the Learning Resource Center at the Catholic University of Eastern Africa and the Council House 2 building in Melbourne , Australia .
Few zoos hold termites , due to the difficulty in keeping them captive and to the reluctance of authorities to permit potential pests . One of the few that do , the Zoo Basel in Switzerland , has two thriving Macrotermes bellicosus populations – resulting in an event very rare in captivity : the mass migrations of young flying termites . This happened in September 2008 , when thousands of male termites left their mound each night , died , and covered the floors and water pits of the house holding their exhibit .
African tribes in several countries have termites as totems , and for this reason tribe members are forbidden to eat the reproductive alates . Termites are widely used in traditional popular medicine ; they are used as treatments for diseases and other conditions such as asthma , bronchitis , hoarseness , influenza , sinusitis , tonsillitis and whooping cough . In Nigeria , Macrotermes nigeriensis is used for spiritual protection and to treat wounds and sick pregnant women . In Southeast Asia , termites are used in ritual practices . In Malaysia , Singapore and Thailand , termite mounds are commonly worshiped among the populace . Abandoned mounds are viewed as structures created by spirits , believing a local guardian dwells within the mound ; this is known as Keramat and Datok Kong . In urban areas , local residents construct red @-@ painted shrines over mounds that have been abandoned , where they pray for good health , protection and luck .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Bignell , D.E. ; Roisin , Y. ; Lo , N. ( 2010 ) . Biology of Termites : a Modern Synthesis ( 1st ed . ) . Dordrecht : Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 90 @-@ 481 @-@ 3977 @-@ 4 .
Schmid @-@ Hempel , P. ( 1998 ) . Parasites in social insects . New Jersey : Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 05924 @-@ 2 .
= SMS Siegfried =
SMS Siegfried was the lead ship of the six @-@ member Siegfried class of coastal defense ships ( Küstenpanzerschiffe ) built for the German Imperial Navy . Her sister ships were Beowulf , Frithjof , Heimdall , Hildebrand , and Hagen . Siegfried was built by the Germaniawerft shipyard between 1888 and 1890 , and was armed with a main battery of three 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns . She served in the German fleet throughout the 1890s and was rebuilt in 1903 - 1904 . She served in the VI Battle Squadron after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but saw no action . Siegfried was demobilized in 1915 and used as a barracks ship thereafter . She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Siegfried was 79 meters ( 259 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 90 m ( 48 @.@ 9 ft ) and a maximum draft of 5 @.@ 74 m ( 18 @.@ 8 ft ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 741 long tons ( 3 @,@ 801 t ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by four coal @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 14 @.@ 9 knots ( 27 @.@ 6 km / h ; 17 @.@ 1 mph ) and a range of approximately 1 @,@ 490 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 760 km ; 1 @,@ 710 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Siegfried had a crew of 20 officers and 256 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with three 24 cm K L / 35 guns mounted in three single gun turrets . Two were placed side by side forward , and the third was located aft of the main superstructure . They were supplied with a total of 204 rounds of ammunition . The ship was also equipped with six 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns in single mounts . Siegfried also carried four 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , all in swivel mounts on the deck . One was at the bow , another at the stern , and two amidships . The ship was protected by an armored belt that was 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) amidships , and an armored deck that was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The conning tower had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Siegfried was laid down in 1888 at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel . She was launched on 10 August 1889 , and completed on 19 April 1890 . She was commissioned into the fleet on 29 April , and joined the I Division of the German fleet , along with the older ironclads Baden , Bayern , and Oldenburg , under Vizeadmiral Karl Deinhard . The I Division participated in several fleet maneuvers in 1891 , where they typically served as the German side in the war games . Siegfried did not participate in the 1892 maneuvers , having been replaced in the I Division by her recently @-@ commissioned sister ship Beowulf .
Over the winter of 1892 - 1893 , Siegfried and Beowulf joined the elderly ironclads König Wilhelm and Deutschland for a winter training cruise in the Mediterranean Sea . Siegfried again sat out the 1893 fleet maneuvers , instead of her sister Frithjof , which had just joined the fleet . In the 1897 maneuvers , Siegfried and all five of her sister ships formed the III Division . In 1898 , Siegfried again participated in the annual summer maneuvers in the III Division , along with Beowulf and Hildebrand . Her other three sisters were assigned to the IV Division . During the 1900 summer maneuvers , Siegfried served in the simulated hostile squadron , alongside Heimdall , Hildebrand , and Ägir .
Siegfried served on active duty until 1903 , when she was withdrawn from service . Starting in 1903 , she was taken into drydock at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Danzig for an extensive reconstruction . The ship was lengthened to 86 @.@ 13 m ( 282 @.@ 6 ft ) , which increased displacement to 4 @,@ 237 t ( 4 @,@ 170 long tons ; 4 @,@ 670 short tons ) . Her old boilers were replaced with eight new Marine type boilers , and a second funnel was added . Her secondary battery was increased to ten 8 @.@ 8 cm guns , and the 35 cm torpedo tubes were replaced with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) tubes . Work was completed by 1904 .
She was brought back on active duty at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , and mobilized into the VI Battle Squadron for coastal defense , along with her sister ships . On 31 August 1915 , the VI Battle Squadron was demobilized , and Siegfried 's crew was transferred to other warships . She was then used as a barracks ship in Wilhelmshaven , a role she filled until the end of the war . On 17 June 1919 , she was stricken from the naval register . The navy planned to convert her into a salvage ship , but the plan was abandoned and she was instead sold for 425 @,@ 000 marks to H. Peters in Wewelsfleth . Siegfried was broken up for scrap the following year in Kiel @-@ Nordmole .
= Coat of arms of Albany , New York =
The coat of arms of Albany , New York , is the heraldic symbol representing the city of Albany , the capital of the U.S. state of New York . The coat of arms is rarely seen by itself ; it is almost always used in the city seal or on the city flag . The current coat of arms was adopted in 1789 , although prior to that it was significantly simpler , ranging from stylized lettering to a caricature of a beaver . Included in the coat of arms are references to Albany 's agricultural and fur @-@ trading past . It is supported by a white man and an American Indian and is crested by a sloop . The coat of arms is meant to represent the " symbols of industry and its rewards to man and beast on land and sea " .
= = History = =
Albany began as the Dutch fur @-@ trading post Fort Orange in 1624 . Around the fort grew the village of Beverwijck ( English : Beaver District ) , which was incorporated in 1652 . In 1664 , the English sacked New Netherland and Beverwyck was renamed Albany in honor of the Duke of York and Duke of Albany ( later James II of England ) .
When the city was incorporated by provincial governor Thomas Dongan in 1686 under the Dongan Charter , it was empowered to have its own seal :
The said Mayor , Aldermen and Commonalty of the City of Albany , and their successor shall and may forever hereafter , have one common seal to serve for the sealing of all and singular their affairs and business touching or concerning the said corporation . And it shall and may be lawful to and for the said Mayor , Aldermen and Commonalty of the said city of Albany , and their successors , as they shall see cause , to break , change , alter and new make their said common seal , and as often as to them shall seem convenient .
The first known use of the seal was on a deed from the city of Albany sold at auction . Signed by Albany 's first mayor , Pieter Schuyler , the document was sealed with red wax , the design on which was an octagon with a monogram of the letters ALB in the center topped with a crown ( see Figure 1 ) . This document was found in 1886 . This seal was again seen on a document from 1736 , though that too was not found until 1886 . The letters are presumed to be an abbreviation of the name of the city . However the meaning of the crown is unknown ; it was noted for being " hardly a kingly crown , nor in shape like a coronet , the head attire of nobility " .
Prior to 1752 ( but after 1736 ) , the seal had a beaver at center , with the letters " ALB " above it . This seal was replaced in 1752 with the abbreviation removed and replaced with " Albany " above the beaver and the year below as such :
Resolved and ordered by this Board — That the old seal of this corporation , now in the hands of the Mayor , be changed and altered , and that there be a new seal in its place , which new seal , being now produced to this board and approved of by them , the same is ordered to be lodged in the hands of our present clerk in his office for the use and behoof of this corporation , and that the present now new seal be henceforth our seal and called , deemed and esteemed the common seal of this corporation until it be altered and changed and the aforesaid former seal be null and void and dead in law to all intents and purposes whatsoever .
The seal from 1752 is shown in Figure 2 . The beaver honored Albany 's past as an important fur trading port . Adding to the history of this seal , one historian states , " [ The seal ] displays the beaver , but looking in the original , more like a drowned cat than the fat and sleek animal , it was intended to represent . Neither the resolution nor the records state why the change was made . " In 1755 the original seal ( Figure 1 ) was reinstated for use by the mayor in licensing businesses . So at this point the city had two seals , one corporate and one public . The earlier seal , however , was last seen in 1761 and the beaver continued as the sole city seal from then on .
The current seal was adopted in 1789 and first shows up in 1790 , when Simeon De Witt , Albany 's city surveyor , included the arms on his map of the city . An updated map from 1794 also includes the arms . Both versions include a full landscape in the upper portion of the shield including multiple beavers and trees , as opposed to just one beaver and tree in the current version . There is no documented reasoning for changing the seal from the beaver to the coat of arms , and the coat of arms itself " seems to [ have ] no record authority " making it in any way official .
= = Description = =
The current coat of arms consists of numerous traditional heraldic attributes . The shield is party per fess argent and gules ; that is , split horizontally in two with a red lower half and silver upper half . Its lower half contains two golden sheaves of wheat on a red background ; this design represents Albany 's agricultural past . The upper half , which has a silver background , depicts a beaver gnawing at the stump of a fallen tree . This scene represents Beverwyck 's former fur trade , which was vital to the development of Albany . One supporter can be seen on each side of the shield . The man on the left is a European @-@ descended farmer dressed in simple clothes ; he is supporting the shield with his left hand . His right hand rests on his hip and a sickle hangs from his waist ; this references Albany 's former agricultural society . The man on the right is an American Indian dressed in a loin cloth and wearing moccasins and a quiver . He supports the shield with his right hand and holds a bow over his left shoulder . The two men supporting the shield together represent the cooperation between white immigrants and Indians in the early development of the city , which would not have existed without the Indian fur trade . The men stand on a scroll displaying the motto Assiduity , meaning " the quality of acting with constant and careful attention " . The torse is argent and gules , following the pattern of the shield . The crest is a sloop under full sail facing left , " denoting Albany 's supremacy at the head of the sloop navigation of the Hudson River " . The coat of arms represents the " symbols of industry and its rewards to man and beast on land and sea " . At the time of Albany 's bicentennial ( 1886 ) , it was believed that only New York City and Albany possessed arms charged on a shield upheld by supporters .
= = Uses = =
Albany 's coat of arms is best known for its use on the city seal and flag . The seal incorporates the coat of arms in an outlined , white circle , with the letters , " The Seal of the City of Albany " above it . The flag is a horizontal tricolor of orange , white , and blue , and was adopted in 1909 as part of the tricentennial celebration of Henry Hudson 's discovery of the Hudson River . It was based on the Prince 's Flag as flown by the Dutch East India Company ( EIC ) , for which Hudson sailed in 1609 . Its flag was also a tricolor and included the company 's logo where the Albany coat of arms is located today .
Like Albany 's flag , the Prince 's Flag was an orange , white , and blue tricolor . The orange was derived from the coat of arms of the Prince of Orange , William the Silent . After 1660 , the orange stripe had been replaced by a red one , as the Dutch flag still remains , though no particular reason is cited . Albany chose to use the historic flag as its base . The flag was surrounded by controversy in 1916 , when Albany 's Common Council voted to change the colors to red , white , and blue as a show of patriotism during World War I. The change was vetoed by Mayor Joseph Stevens .
A life @-@ size sculpture of the coat of arms was created by artist and former Times Union political cartoonist Hy Rosen in 1986 . Rosen took some liberty with the design , such as adding farm tools to emphasize the city 's agricultural and trading history , as well as adding previously undocumented detail ; the left supporter also takes on more of the look of an explorer ( e.g. , Henry Hudson ) than a farmer . The statue was commissioned by Norstar Bank President Peter D. Kiernan as part of the park across Broadway from the then @-@ newly renovated Union Station , which Norstar used as its headquarters until buyer Bank of America moved its employees out of the building in 2010 . The statue still stands in Tricentennial Park on Broadway .
= Our World ( TV series ) =
Our World is an American television news series that ran for 26 episodes , from September 25 , 1986 to May 28 , 1987 . The show was anchored by Linda Ellerbee and Ray Gandolf . Each episode of the series examined , through the use of archival film and television footage , one short period in American history . Our World aired on ABC .
Our World grew out of an earlier ABC News special called 45 / 85 , whose producer , Avram Westin , would go on to produce Our World . Each episode was produced on a budget of $ 350 @,@ 000 , less than half of the budget of a typical hour of prime time programming at the time .
Our World premiered to indifferent critical response but as the series progressed critics became effusive with their praise . Despite being critically well received and profitable for the network , Our World performed poorly in the Nielsen ratings , as its first half @-@ hour was programmed against the extremely popular The Cosby Show . ABC canceled the show after one season . Ellerbee tried to move the series to PBS but was unsuccessful .
= = Production = =
Our World was created by ABC News president Roone Arledge . The show had its genesis in a 1985 ABC News special called 45 / 85 , a three @-@ hour documentary that reviewed post @-@ World War II history with an emphasis on the Cold War . That special was produced by Avram " Av " Westin , who also produced Our World . Anchors Ellerbee and Gandolf co @-@ wrote Our World , which combined archival footage with new interviews with people who participated in or witnessed the events . Initial plans were that each episode would cover one year , but that idea was quickly scrapped ; Ellerbee said , " It 's hard enough to do a month , or even days . "
ABC hired Ellerbee away from NBC to co @-@ anchor the show . The network considered Sander Vanocur , Dick Schaap and James Wooten as possible partners before selecting Gandolf , at the time the sports anchor for ABC 's World News Saturday and World News Sunday .
Set designers modeled the set for Our World after a corner news stand . For each episode , artifacts of the period being profiled , including magazines and political posters , decorated the set and a movie marquee listed the title of a film that was in theatres of the time . In the foreground was placed an Our World newspaper the headlines of which were the program 's title and the name of that program 's producer .
Each episode cost $ 350 @,@ 000 to produce as compared to the then @-@ typical $ 800 @,@ 000 cost of an hour of prime time network programming . The low budget combined with a dozen commercial spots sold at $ 35 @,@ 000 each meant that Our World generated an estimated $ 4 million in profit for ABC during its original run and summer repeats .
Our World producers selected each episode 's subject time period with the help of consultants from the Smithsonian Institution and Columbia University . The show was limited in its choices by the available footage for the given time period . Ellerbee recalled a viewer @-@ submitted proposal for an episode on the American Civil War , which could not be made because of the non @-@ existence of archive footage from the 1860s and the lack of any living eyewitnesses .
= = Episode list = =
= = Critical and popular response = =
Critical response to Our World was overall very favorable . Reviews of the premiere episode , however , were somewhat tepid , with The New York Times saying " There are worse ways to spend an hour " and calling the show " a pleasant hour " , while pointing to segments such as an interview with " a man , who , 17 years ago , slept in the house next door to a house struck by the Manson gang " , as " not terribly interesting . " The Los Angeles Times was harsher , calling the debut " rather bland " . While praising anchors Ellerbee and Gandolf , calling them " refreshing [ and ] off @-@ center , running against the TV mainstream , making words , not whoopee " , the Times ultimately felt that " Our World offers no sense of who we really were in 1969 because , typical of TV , it renders everything equal . "
With subsequent episodes , reviews improved . The Boston Globe , comparing its debut episode ( " a gloppy nostalgia trip that presented history the way MTV presents rock , in digestible , unrelated , bland bite @-@ sized bits " ) to an episode airing less than five months later , found it " light years ahead in terms of wit , style and historical perspective . It is still easily digestible , but there 's nothing bland about it . " The St. Petersburg Times said of the show , " It educated , but it was not school . It entertained , but it was not mindless . It was quality - television 's noblest service . " The San Diego Union concurred , citing Our World as " the most refreshing , fascinating and innovative history series ever on TV " .
Popular response was much less effusive . The show averaged 9 million viewers per episode , as compared to The Cosby Show , which garnered an average 63 million viewers per week . Our World was the lowest rated prime time show of the 104 that aired during the 1986 @-@ 7 television season , bringing in only a 6 @.@ 5 / 10 rating / share . One segment of the public who responded very favorably to the program was teachers , who assigned Our World as homework . ABC created a study guide for the show , mailing out some 39 @,@ 000 copies a month to educators and fans .
Gandolf , Ellerbee and Richard Gerdau won Emmy Awards for Outstanding Individual Achievement in News and Documentary Programming ( writing ) for the episode " Halloween 1938 " .
= = Cancellation and PBS = =
ABC canceled Our World after its first season , replacing it with the situation comedies Sledge Hammer ! and The Charmings . Ellerbee and Gandolf learned that the show had been canceled from a segment on Entertainment Tonight . Ellerbee sharply criticized ABC for the cancellation , saying " If they had left it there for three to four years , it could have done what 60 Minutes did , which went against the Disney juggernaut on NBC . It could have developed slowly as an alternative program without being in the ratings race . " The advocacy group Viewers for Quality Television mounted a letter @-@ writing campaign to save the show – similar to campaigns that had saved Designing Women and Cagney and Lacey – and generated some 20 @,@ 000 letters of support , but the campaign was unsuccessful .
PBS expressed interest in obtaining the show . Although ABC asserted rights to the name " Our World , " Ellerbee said " We never liked that title to begin with " and stated that the name " Your World " was under consideration . Ellerbee planned to co @-@ produce the show through her production company , Lucky Duck Productions , in partnership with WNET . Ultimately , Ellerbee was unable to secure the estimated $ 5 million needed to produce the first season of 13 episodes and Our World did not make the transition to PBS .
In 1988 , CBS tried to revive the format of Our World with a television pilot called Try to Remember . Anchored by veteran newscaster Charles Kuralt , Try to Remember covered August 11 – 17 , 1969 , echoing Our World 's pilot coverage of the summer of 1969 . The show aired on Thursday , June 2
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which was headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Regardless , the 24th Infantry Division was ordered into South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow follow @-@ on forces to arrive . The division was consequently outnumbered and outgunned for several weeks as it attempted to delay the North Koreans , making time for the 7th Infantry Division , 25th Infantry Division , 1st Cavalry Division , and other Eighth Army supporting units to move into position . South Korean forces in the meantime were systematically defeated and forced south along Korea 's east coast , with entire divisions being overrun by the North Koreans ' superior firepower and equipment . Advance elements of the 24th Infantry Division were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , during the first battle between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith , 24th Infantry Division soldiers were repeatedly defeated and forced south by the North Korean force 's superior numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry Division were systematically pushed south in battles around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The 24th Infantry Division made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon , being almost completely destroyed in the process but delaying North Korean forces from advancing until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops was roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region at around 70 @,@ 000 for each side , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
In the east , the North Koreans advanced immediately after taking Taejon . Four North Korean divisions split up and approached the UN lines along separate routes . The NK 15th Division was the first to move against the US 25th Infantry in the Battle of Sangju on July 20 , where the division 's US 24th Infantry would be quickly pushed back by the North Korean advance . In the meantime , the NK 3rd Division engaged the newly arrived US 1st Cavalry at the Battle of Yongdong on July 22 , where that division would also perform poorly . The NK 6th Division moved further south , where it would confront the US 29th Infantry Regiment at the Hadong Ambush on July 27 , effectively destroying one of the regiment 's battalions . The US units were performing extremely poorly in their first engagements against North Korean units , as a combination of shortages of supplies and lack of experienced soldiers and officers plagued the UN forces at this stage of the war .
= = Battle = =
= = = 27th Infantry advance = = =
As other North Korean forces were closing on Yongdong , the NK 2nd Division continued its advance down the road from Hwanggan to Poun , having arrived in Taejon too late for the fight there . Its orders were to pass through that town and come out on the main Seoul – Pusan highway at Hwanggan , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of Yongdong , placing it in the rear of the 1st Cavalry Division and on its main supply road .
Responding to the threat , the Eighth Army ordered the US 27th Infantry Regiment of the US 25th Infantry Division to block the advance . After arriving in Korea , the regiment went to the Uisong area , 35 miles ( 56 km ) north of Taegu . On July 13 , it moved from there to Andong to support South Korean troops , but before it entered action in the fight in that city , it suddenly received orders to move to Sangju to assist the 25th Infantry Division 's other two regiments in that battle . En route , it received still other orders to change its destination to Hwanggan , and it closed there in an assembly area on the night of July 22 – 23 . The 27th Infantry 's mission at Hwanggan was to relieve the exhausted and decimated South Korean units retreating down the Poun road . In the meantime it lost large numbers of its experienced officers as they were shifted to the US 24th Infantry .
In carrying out Eighth Army 's orders to block the Poun road , regimental commander Colonel John H. Michaelis , a West Point graduate known as an effective commander , assigned the 1st Battalion , 27th Infantry , to make contact with the first North Korean attacks . On the morning of July 23 , Lieutenant Colonel Gilbert J. Check moved the 1st Battalion northward toward Poun from the Hwanggan assembly area . He took up defensive positions in the evening near the village of Sangyong @-@ ni , south of Poun . The battalion assumed responsibility for that sector at 17 : 00 after South Korean troops fell back through its position . However , the battalion was unable to ascertain from the retreating soldiers the NK 2nd Division 's status or threat .
= = = North Korean attack = = =
In the evening of July 23 , 1st Battalion sent a 30 @-@ man patrol northward to locate the North Koreans . Near Poun , the patrol spotted a North Korean column approaching . The platoon took up superior positions and ambushed the column as it passed with all its weapons . The North Koreans halted their advance , thinking they had encountered a major position , and held back until daylight . When they turned back , the US patrol returned to the 1st Battalion lines at 04 : 00 on July 24 . It suffered six men missing to an unknown number of North Korean casualties .
Check 's 1st Battalion was not attacked until 06 : 30 on July 24 , shortly after daybreak in a heavy fog that allowed the North Koreans to approach very close to the US positions before they were observed . Two US infantry companies on either side of the road on low ridges held the forward positions . North Korean mortar fire fell on the men there , and then T @-@ 34 tanks appeared at the bend in the road and opened fire with their main cannons and machine guns as they approached . North Korean infantry followed the tanks . Although the two rifle companies stopped the North Korean infantry , the tanks penetrated their positions and fired into the battalion command post which was behind B Company . This tank fire destroyed several vehicles and killed the medical officer . A company commander knocked out one tank but was injured in the process .
On the right flank , north of the road , the North Koreans overran the battalion observation post and B Company 's outpost line . This high ground changed hands three times during the day . While the infantry fight was in progress , and shortly after the first tank penetration , five more T @-@ 34s came around the road bend toward the US 71st Tank Battalion . Check had called for an air strike when the first tanks appeared . Three F @-@ 80 Shooting Stars arrived and immediately dived on the approaching group of tanks , destroying three of them with 5 @-@ inch rockets . Altogether , bazooka , artillery , and air strikes knocked out six North Korean tanks during the morning , either within or on the edge of the 1st Battalion position . In its first engagement with American troops , the NK 2nd Division lost all but two of the eight tanks that had been attached to it a few days earlier at Chongju .
= = = US withdrawal to Hwanggan = = =
The fight continued into the evening , and after dark the 1st Battalion disengaged and withdrew through the 2nd Battalion immediately behind it . Both Check and the regimental commander , Michaelis , expected the North Koreans to encircle the 1st Battalion position during the night if it stayed where it was .
The North Koreans were apparently unaware of the 1st Battalion withdrawal , because the next morning , July 25 , two North Korean battalions in a double envelopment came in behind the positions 1st Battalion held the night before , but in front of Major Gordon E. Murch 's 2nd Battalion . There the North Koreans were caught in the open by the combined fire of American tanks , artillery , and mortar , and the 2nd Battalion 's automatic and small arms fire . The North Koreans suffered large numbers of casualties in this attack . Surviving remnants of the two North Koreans battalions withdrew in confusion . The 2nd Battalion took about 30 prisoners .
The NK 2nd Division pushed forward in spite of the casualties , and that afternoon elements of it were flanking the 27th Infantry 's main position . Michaelis issued an order about 22 : 00 for another withdrawal to high ground near Hwanggan . The withdrawal started near midnight with heavy fighting still in progress on the right flank . Murch took control of all nine US tanks and put them on line facing north , where they attacked North Korean troops approaching on the road . Mortar fire fell along the battalion line and the road behind it . F Company and the nine tanks covered the 2nd Battalion withdrawal .
= = = Second defensive line = = =
On July 26 , 1st Battalion , US 35th Infantry arrived on the 27th Infantry 's right flank . However , the next day the regimental left flank came under attack where a large gap existed between C Company , the westernmost unit of the 27th Infantry , and the US 7th Cavalry Regiment , the nearest unit of the US 1st Cavalry Division . C Company lost and regained a peak three times during the day . More than 40 casualties reduced its strength to approximately 60 men . B Company also lost heavily in action , falling to a strength of about 85 men . By the morning of July 28 the North Koreans had penetrated the 1st Battalion 's line , forcing C Company to withdraw in the face of heavy North Korean infantry attack .
At this point Colonel Michaelis went to the 1st Cavalry Division command post in Hwanggan and asked division commander Major General Hobart R. Gay for permission to withdraw his regiment through that division . Gay telephoned the Eighth Army headquarters and asked if he should attack in an effort to relieve the pressure on the 27th Infantry , or if that regiment should withdraw into the 1st Cavalry Division 's area , move south to Kumch 'on , and then turn toward Sangju to rejoin the 25th Division . The Eighth Army decided the 27th Regiment should withdraw , as Gay feared it would quickly be surrounded if it tried to hold its position .
Before dawn on July 29 , the 27th Infantry Regiment withdrew through the 1st Cavalry Division lines at Hwanggan to a position about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Kumch 'on . That afternoon Michaelis received orders from Eighth Army to move to Waegwan on the Naktong River near Taegu , as army reserve , instead of joining the 25th Division in the Sangju area .
= = Aftermath = =
The 27th Infantry Regiment lost 53 men killed , 221 wounded , and 49 missing , a total of 323 battle casualties during the battles along the Hwanggan road . However , it was able to delay the North Korean division for five days in this effort . The NK 2nd Division suffered heavily during this time to US artillery and armor , some estimates placing its losses above 3 @,@ 000 men in the battles along the road . The US 1st Cavalry Division initially took the 27th Infantry 's place on the line , but retreated without engaging the NK 2nd Division after movement by the NK 3rd Division threatened to take Kumch 'on and block the US division 's route of supply . The division was driven to the Naktong River by July 31 , having taken 916 battle casualties at Hwanggan and Sangju in its first ten days on the line . Tactically , the North Koreans had been successful in pushing the US forces south and capturing the ground , but the American units had bought strategically valuable time to set up the Pusan Perimeter .
The battle set the standard for the 27th Infantry , which performed unusually well in the fight . In contrast , other units of both the 25th Infantry and 1st Cavalry Divisions in their first engagements at Yongdong and Sangju performed very poorly , prompting Walker to order the US forces to stop retreating , and " stand or die . " The US 27th Infantry was used as an emergency reserve during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , where it particularly distinguished itself at the Battle of the Bowling Alley . The regiment 's quality performance in the Hwanggan fight was crucial in the decision to make it a " fire brigade . "
= Albatrellus subrubescens =
Albatrellus subrubescens is a species of polypore fungus in the family Albatrellaceae . The fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) of the fungus have whitish to pale buff @-@ colored caps that can reach up to 14 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter , and stems up to 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) long and 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . On the underside of the caps are tiny light yellow to pale greenish @-@ yellow pores , the site of spore production . When the fruit bodies are fresh , the cap and pores stain yellow where exposed , handled , or bruised .
The species is found in Asia , Europe , and North America , where it grows on the ground in deciduous or mixed woods , usually in association with pine trees . It is closely related , and physically similar , to the more common Albatrellus ovinus , from which it may be distinguished macroscopically by differences in the color when bruised , and microscopically by the amyloid ( staining bluish @-@ black to black with Melzer 's reagent ) walls of the spores . The fruit bodies of A. subrubescens contain scutigeral , a bioactive chemical that has antibiotic activity . A. subrubescens mushrooms are mildly poisonous , and consuming them will result in a short @-@ term gastrointestinal illness .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described as Scutiger subrubescens by American mycologist William Murrill in 1940 , based on collections that he found growing under oak near Gainesville , Florida , in November 1938 . In 1947 he transferred it to the genus Polyporus . Josiah Lincoln Lowe examined Murrill 's type material and thought that it did not differ from Albatrellus confluens . In 1965 , Zdeněk Pouzar made collections from Bohemia ( now the Czech Republic ) , and described it as a new species ( Albatrellus similis ) , unaware of the similarity to Murrill 's Florida specimens . Further study revealed that A. similis was identical to Murrill 's Scutiger subrubescens , and Pouzar transferred the latter epithet to Albatrellus . In 1974 , Pouzar recognized that Lowe 's species Albatrellus confluens was distinct from A. subrubescens . The specific epithet subrubescens , " tinted reddish " , is derived from the Latin words sub ( " less than " ) and rubescens ( " growing red " ) .
Four Albatrellus species were included in a large @-@ scale phylogenetic analysis of the order Russulales published in 2003 . Based on their ribosomal DNA sequences , the four form a clade , or monophyletic group ( that is , they derived from a single ancestor ) . Of the four tested species , A. ovinus was most closely related to A. subrubescens . The polypore Wrightoporia lenta ( type species of the genus Wrightoporia ) occurred on a single branch basal to the albatrellus clade , implying that it shared with the Albatrellus species a common ancestor from which both were descended . In a more recent ( 2010 ) molecular analysis by Canadian mycologist Serge Audet aimed at clarifying relationships among species formerly placed in Scutiger , A. subrubescens grouped in a clade with A. ovinus and A. citrinus . According to Audet , these species , in addition to A. avellaneus and A. piceiphilus , are the constituents of an Albatrellus with limits defined by molecular genetics . Other Albatrellus species were transferred to segregate genera : A. fletti and A. confluens to Albatrellopsis ; A. caeruleoporus and A. yasudae to Neoalbatrellus ; A. pes @-@ caprae and A. ellisii to an amended Scutiger .
= = Description = =
The cap of A. subrubescens is between 6 to 14 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 5 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter , with a central , eccentric ( away from the center ) , or rarely lateral ( attached to the edge of cap ) stem . Initially , the cap is convex with an involute margin , flattening out with age . The cap margin may be folded or flat . The cap surface in young specimens is smooth but soon forms appressed scale @-@ like spots , which may transform into scales in age . Initially , the cap has white margins and a brownish @-@ violet center with scale @-@ like spots ; the center later becomes orange @-@ brownish or ochraceous brown . According to Canadian mycologist James Ginns , who described North American Albatrellus species in 1997 , some North American specimens may be covered with blackish @-@ gray to purple @-@ gray fibrils , but this characteristic is not seen in European collections . The cap discolors yellowish when bruised .
The stem is 1 @.@ 6 to 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 8 in ) long and 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick , cylindrical , irregular , and its base may be somewhat pointed , or bulbous . Initially white , the stem develops orange / violet spots and later brownish orange spots ; in old specimens the stem may be brownish brick red . The tubes on the pore surface ( underside of the cap ) are about 2 @.@ 5 – 3 mm long and decurrent in attachment . The pores are small , measuring about 2 – 3 per millimeter . They are initially greenish @-@ white , but later turn dark brown ; dried specimens can have pores that are tinted green . Fruit bodies have a " faintly fragrant , pleasant " odor ; in his original report on the species , Murrill noted that specimens left to dry in an oven developed a strong odor of burnt sugar . The taste of the mushroom has been described variously as indistinct , or " distinctly bitter " . The type material was noted by Murrill to taste bitter , an observation later corroborated by Pouzar with European collections . A. subrubescens mushrooms are mildly toxic : consumption causes a gastrointestinal illness that usually subsides one to four hours after ingestion .
In deposit , the spores are white . The spores are 3 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 7 by
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s chapter " Barbara Gordon and Moral Perfectionism " in the 2004 book Superheroes and Philosophy analyzes how the changes in her life " from librarian to Batgirl to Oracle " drive her to pursue a higher self , illustrating the philosophical theory of moral perfectionism .
= = In other media = =
Portrayed by Yvonne Craig , the character 's first adaptation outside of comic books took place in the third season of Batman ( 1967 ) . Les Daniels , in Batman : The Complete History ( 2004 ) wrote that the goal of ABC was to " attract new audience members , especially idealistic young girls and less high @-@ minded older men . " According to Craig : " I used to think the reason they hired me was because they knew I could ride my own motorcycle ... I realized they hired me because I had a cartoon voice . " A shared criticism of Batgirl and other female superheroes portrayed later in television ( such as Wonder Woman and the Bionic Woman ) , is that she was not allowed to engage in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat on screen . As such , " her fights were choreographed carefully to imitate the moves of a Broadway showgirl through the use of a straight kick to her opponent 's face rather than the type of kick a martial artist would use . " However , Craig has also stated : " I meet young women who say Batgirl was their role model ... They say it 's because it was the first time they ever felt girls could do the same things guys could do , and sometimes better . I think that ’ s lovely . " During the early 1970s , Craig portrayed Batgirl once again in a public service announcement to advocate equal pay for women . Since Batman , the character has had a long history of appearances in television and other media . As Batgirl , Barbara Gordon plays a supporting role in a string of animated series , voiced by Jane Webb in The Batman / Superman Hour ( 1968 ) , Melendy Britt in The New Adventures of Batman ( 1977 ) , Melissa Gilbert in Batman : The Animated Series ( 1992 ) , Tara Strong in The New Batman Adventures ( 1997 ) and Beware the Batman ( 2013 ) , Danielle Judovits in The Batman ( 2004 ) , Mae Whitman in Batman : The Brave and the Bold ( 2008 ) and Alyson Stoner in Young Justice ( 2011 ) . The Batman series also showcased the character 's first animated adaptation as Oracle , voiced by Kellie Martin in the episode " Artifacts " ( 2007 ) .
Dina Meyer starred as Barbara Gordon in the television series Birds of Prey ( 2002 ) . It became the first adaptation to show the character 's progression from Batgirl to Oracle , which included her paralysis at the hands of the Joker . Meyer commented on her character 's complex history stating : " She 's multidimensional . She was a former superhero . She was extremely active physically for years , fighting alongside Batman . The unfortunate incident with the Joker took away the use of her legs ... but rather than give up and throw in the towel , as she could 've done so easily , she went and studied escrima ( a martial art ) , got stronger in her mental state and , while helping out her father on a case one day , realized she had a knack for solving mysteries . And all of a sudden she became this computer genius . " Overall , the series received criticism for its emphasis on aesthetics over plot . It aired for one season before receiving cancellation .
Although , in the comic books Barbara Gordon was never a member of the Teen Titans she is slated to appear in the live @-@ action Titans series for TNT . This version of the character will be a wheelchair @-@ bound computer expert , but will not yet be known as Oracle .
Other variations of the character that have been adapted into other media include an elderly Barbara Gordon , voiced by Stockard Channing and Angie Harmon in 1999 's Batman Beyond , who after retiring as Batgirl , became commissioner of Gotham City police .
In addition to live @-@ action television and animation , the character has appeared in a number of video games included in the Batman franchise . She appears in The Adventures of Batman & Robin , Batman : Vengeance , Batman : Rise of Sin Tzu and Batman : The Killing Joke voiced by Tara Strong . She is also in Batman : Dark Tomorrow for the first time as Oracle . She also appears in LEGO Batman for the PC , PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , Wii , DS , and PlayStation Portable . She plays a supporting role as Oracle in Batman : Arkham Asylum for the PC , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 , serving as Batman 's guide through Arkham , and is voiced by Kimberly Brooks . She also appears as the radio guide alongside Alfred Pennyworth , as they both serve as Batman 's guides in the sequel , Batman : Arkham City . A teenage Barbara also appears in the prequel Batman : Arkham Origins , voiced by Kelsey Lansdowne . In the 2008 live @-@ action film , The Dark Knight , a very young Barbara Gordon is depicted . She is credited as " Gordon 's Daughter " , while the name " Barbara Gordon " is reserved for Commissioner Gordon 's wife . She also acts as the primary contact for hero characters as Oracle in DC Universe Online , voiced by Katherine Catmull for the PC and the PlayStation 3 . She assists the player through the tutorial and will offer comments and advice throughout the game including a guided tour of the JLA Watchtower . She is a playable character in Injustice : Gods Among Us , with Kimberly Brooks reprising her role . Barbara has returned in Batman : Arkham Knight where she is voiced by Ashley Greene . In addition , Barbara also appears as a playable character as part of the game 's season pass .
In the fourth season of the TV series Arrow , after Felicity Smoak suffered a similar paralyzing injury , Oliver Queen gives her the codename Overwatch while commenting that " Oracle " was taken .
She also appeared in DC Super Hero Girls voiced by Mae Whitman in season 1 as Barbara Gordon and season 2 as Batgirl .
= = Collected editions = =
Showcase Presents : Batgirl , Vol . 1 ISBN 1 @-@ 4012 @-@ 1367 @-@ 7 ; collects early Batgirl appearances ( 1967 – 1975 ) ( Release date 2007 ) Softcover
Batgirl : The Greatest Stories Ever Told ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4012 @-@ 2924 @-@ 5 ; collects various stories from Detective Comics , Batman Family , Legends of the DC Universe and Batman Chronicles . ( Release date 2010 ) Softcover
Batgirl : Year One ( 2003 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 4012 @-@ 0080 @-@ X ; collects all nine issues of the Batgirl : Year One mini @-@ series
Batgirl : The Darkest Reflection ; collects issues 1 @-@ 6 of her ongoing Batgirl series . ( Release date June 2012 ) Hardcover
Batgirl : Knightfall Descends ; collects issues 7 @-@ 13 , and 0 of her ongoing Batgirl series . ( Release date Feb. 2013 ) Hardcover
Batman : The Cat and the Bat ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4012 @-@ 2496 @-@ 7 ; collects early Batgirl / Catwoman story from Batman Confidential 17 to 21 . ( Release date 2009 ) Softcover
Batman : Batgirl ( 1997 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56389 @-@ 305 @-@ 6 ; one shot special
Batman : The Killing Joke ( 1988 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 930289 @-@ 45 @-@ 5
Batman : Thrillkiller ISBN 1 @-@ 56389 @-@ 424 @-@ 6 ; collects Thrillkiller : Batgirl & Robin and the ' 62 special ( 1998 )
Elseworld 's Finest : Supergirl & Batgirl ( 1998 )
Birds of Prey ( 1999 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 56389 @-@ 484 @-@ X
Birds of Prey : Old Friends , New Enemies ( 2003 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 56389 @-@ 939 @-@ 6
Birds of Prey : Of Like Minds ( 2004 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 4012 @-@ 0192 @-@ X
Birds of Prey : Sensei & Student ( 2005 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 4012 @-@ 0434 @-@ 1
Birds of Prey : Between Dark & Dawn ( 2006 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 4012 @-@ 0940 @-@ 8
Birds of Prey : The Battle Within ( 2006 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4012 @-@ 1096 @-@ 0
Birds of Prey : Perfect Pitch ( 2007 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 4012 @-@ 1191 @-@ 7
Birds of Prey : Blood and Circuits ( 2007 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4012 @-@ 1371 @-@ 8
Birds of Prey : Trouble in Mind ; collects issues 1 @-@ 7 of the ongoing Birds of Prey series , featuring Barbara Gordon as Batgirl ( 2012 ) Softcover
Oracle : The Cure ( 2010 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4012 @-@ 2603 @-@ 9
Batgirl : Death of the Family ; collects issues 14 @-@ 19 of her ongoing Batgirl series , as well as Batgirl Annual # 1 , Batman # 17 , and a story from Young Romance # 1 ( Release date October 2013 ) Hardcover
Birds of Prey : Your Kiss Might Kill ; collects issues 8 @-@ 13 of the ongoing Birds of Prey series , featuring Barbara Gordon as Batgirl ( 2013 ) Softcover
Batgirl : Wanted ; Collects issues 20 @-@ 26 of her ongoing " Batgirl " series as well as " Batman : The Dark Knight # 23 @.@ 1 - Ventriloquist " . ( 2014 ) Hardcover
Batgirl : Deadline ; Collects issues 27 @-@ 34 of her ongoing " Batgirl " series in addition to " Batgirl Annual # 2 " and " Batgirl : Future 's End # 1 " . ( 2015 ) Hardcover
Batgirl : The Batgirl of Burnside ; Collects issues 35 @-@ 40 of her ongoing " Batgirl " series with a story from " Secret Origins # 10 " included as well . ( June 2015 ) Hardcover
Birds of Prey : A Clash of Daggers ; collects issues 14 @-@ 17 of the ongoing Birds of Prey series , along with Batgirl Annual # 1 , featuring Barbara Gordon as Batgirl ( December 2013 ) Softcover
= 2007 UEFA Champions League Final =
The 2007 UEFA Champions League Final was an association football match between A.C. Milan of Italy and Liverpool F.C. of England on 23 May 2007 at the Olympic Stadium , Athens , Greece . The showpiece event was the final match of the 2006 – 07 season of Europe 's premier cup competition , the UEFA Champions League . The teams were appearing in the final , two years after facing each other in the 2005 final which Liverpool won 3 – 2 in a penalty shootout after the match finished 3 – 3 .
Both teams had to pass through five rounds before they reached the final . They both entered in the third qualifying round and won their respective groups before they reached the knockout stage , where matches were contested over two legs , with a match at each team 's home ground . Milan 's victories varied from close affairs to comfortable victories . They defeated Celtic by a single goal over two legs , while they beat Manchester United 5 – 3 on aggregate in the semi @-@ final . Liverpool 's matches were mainly all close affairs ; they beat defending champions Barcelona on the away goals rule in the first knockout round and beat Chelsea in a penalty shootout in the semi @-@ finals , although they did record a 4 – 0 aggregate win over PSV Eindhoven in the quarter @-@ finals .
Before the match there were ticketing problems because a large number of fans gained entry to the stadium without valid tickets . After the match , a UEFA spokesman accused Liverpool of having the worst fans in Europe , a claim later denied by UEFA president Michel Platini . Watched by a crowd of 74 @,@ 000 , Milan took the lead when Andrea Pirlo 's free @-@ kick deflected off Filippo Inzaghi in the first half . Milan extended their lead in the second half when Inzaghi scored a second goal . Liverpool scored a late goal through Dirk Kuyt , but were unable to equalise before the end of the match . Milan won the match 2 – 1 to win their seventh Champions League .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Milan = = =
Milan gained entry to the competition by finishing third in the 2005 – 06 Serie A. Milan had originally finished second in Serie A , but were docked 30 points for their part in a match @-@ fixing scandal . The original punishment , reduced on appeal , would have barred them from the Champions League altogether . Their opponents in the third qualifying round were Serbian team Red Star Belgrade . Two victories , 1 – 0 at home and 2 – 1 away , ensured Milan 's passage to the group stage of the Champions League . They were drawn in Group H alongside AEK Athens of Greece , Anderlecht of Belgium and French team Lille . Milan won three matches , drew one and lost two to finish top of the group with 10 points and progress to the knockout stage .
They were drawn against Scottish team Celtic . The first leg at Celtic 's home ground Celtic Park finished 0 – 0 . The return leg at Milan 's home ground the San Siro also finished 0 – 0 after 90 minutes with Celtic managing to limit the goalscoring opportunities Milan had . However , three minutes into extra time Milan scored when Kaká curled a shot past Celtic goalkeeper Artur Boruc . Celtic were unable to score the away goal they needed to beat Milan , ensuring the Italians progressed to the quarter finals after a 1 – 0 aggregate victory .
Milan were drawn against German team Bayern Munich in the quarter @-@ finals . The first leg at the San Siro ended in a 2 – 2 draw after Bayern had scored an equaliser three minutes into stoppage time . The second leg at Bayern 's home ground the Allianz Arena was more comfortable for Milan , as they scored two first half goals to win the match 2 – 0 and win the tie 4 – 2 on aggregate . Milan were drawn against English team Manchester United in the semi @-@ finals . The first leg at United 's home ground Old Trafford , Kaka scored twice to give Milan a 2 – 1 lead after Cristiano Ronaldo had scored an early goal . However , two goals from Wayne Rooney in the second half meant United won the first leg 3 – 2 . The second leg at the San Siro saw Milan win 3 – 0 to progress to the final after a 5 – 3 aggregate victory .
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool gained entry to the competition after finishing third in the 2005 – 06 FA Premier League . As a result of that league position , Liverpool entered the Champions League in the third qualifying round , where their opponents were Maccabi Haifa of Israel . Liverpool won the first leg 2 – 1 at their home ground Anfield and a 1 – 1 draw in the away leg in Israel ensured Liverpool progressed to the group stage of the competition . Liverpool were drawn in Group C alongside French team Bordeaux , Dutch team PSV Eindhoven and Galatasaray of Turkey . After six games including four wins , one draw and one defeat , Liverpool finished top of the group with 13 points to qualify for the knockout stage .
Liverpool were drawn against defending champions Barcelona in the first knockout round . Before the first leg in Barcelona , there had been a training ground fracas between Craig Bellamy and John Arne Riise . Coincidentally , it was Bellamy and Riise who secured a 2 – 1 victory for Liverpool , completing a comeback after Deco had given Barcelona the lead . The second leg at Anfield was won 1 – 0 by Barcelona , however Liverpool progressed to the quarter @-@ finals on the away goals rule , having scored more goals away from home than their opponents .
Their opponents in the quarter @-@ finals were PSV Eindhoven , who they had played in the group stage . The first leg at PSV 's home ground the Philips Stadion was won 3 – 0 by Liverpool all but securing their progression to the semi @-@ finals . The second leg at Anfield was not as one @-@ sided , a 1 – 0 victory for Liverpool ensured they would
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Jordan Sargent stated that the album was mostly a success because " every member steps up " , with Domo who had " evolved from the group 's bumbling stoner into a guy who can spit dizzying , complicated verses " . Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone stated that the album contained a " fizzy energy that elevates it above its limitations " , musing that Odd Future were a lot like " early Wu @-@ Tang , a thrilling regional act , and a bunch of whip @-@ smart black hipsters whose worldview is grounded in their corner of sun @-@ baked southern California . " PopMatters 's Jeff Dunn felt that every member improved from their past mixtapes , stating that Ocean , Tyler , and Sweatshirt were all impressive , consistently " spitting dizzying , more original lines than they ever have on mixtapes past . " Dunn wrote that " after the mixed returns of Goblin , Tyler himself now seems to realize that less is more on his part " , who " wisely tones down the shock @-@ for @-@ shock ’ s @-@ sake rhymes quite a bit , making his appearances all the more rewarding when they do occur . " Steve Labate of Paste mused that " while Odd Future ’ s critics try hard to frame them as such , it ’ s difficult to accept Tyler and the OF crew as mere shock artists , flippantly tossing off incendiary slurs for attention — the music is too tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek clever , too brainy and self @-@ aware , too anything @-@ goes eccentric . "
The A.V. Club 's Chris Martins praised the album , stating that " perhaps most impressive is that Tyler , The Creator takes a noticeable step back so that his friends can enjoy the spotlight . When he does show up — standouts include the hulking G @-@ funk mutation “ Hcapd ” and the grungy , bass @-@ addled “ P ” — both his beats and raps thrill : All of the twisted jokes , tough introspection , and rabble @-@ rousing that fans have come to expect , with none of the unfortunate rape references his detractors rightly called him on . " Allmusic 's David Jeffries called album closer " Oldie " epic in nature , stating that Earl Sweatshirt 's return was the highlight of the album , summarizing the album as " hype warranted . " Beats Per Minute 's Craig Jenkin compared the album extensively to prior Odd Future releases , reporting that " it ditches the expansive ooze that made stretches of Tyler ’ s Goblin a chore , the nihilistic agitprop of MellowHype ’ s BlackenedWhite , and the lackadaisical drugginess of Mike G ’ s Ali and Domo ’ s Rolling Papers in favor of the kind of restless , jerky energy that skyrocketed Bastard into the dialogue months prior . " He described the album as something that " mainly sounds like a bunch of dudes in a dank basement cooking up the wildest smack talk possible , with one @-@ upping each other being the primary objective . "
Jeff Reiss of Spin gave the album a mixed review , commenting that " it ’ s Odd Future at their best , blending eccentricity , rebellion , and weird humor , with the fearlessness of kids convinced that there are no consequences to their actions " , though noted that " at their worst , they are guilty of every adolescent ’ s biggest fear - being boring . " Ray Rhamen , writer for Entertainment Weekly gave a mixed review , reporting that " robbed of their outsider status , the boys swap horror for hormones on The OF Tape , Vol 2 . , giddily trading tall tales and witty obscenities . For better or worse , OF might actually be growing up . " musicOMH 's Andy Baber viewed the album as " an eclectic and solid - if unspectacular - return , which should see their already dedicated fanbase increase " , commenting that " Frank Ocean is criminally underused " . Mike Madden of Consequence of Sound felt that " too many things happen here , from the Brick Squad @-@ type rave @-@ ups to Ocean 's R & B laments , for it to ever sound like a truly unified , full @-@ length group project . "
= = Track listing = =
Notes
" Doms " contains uncredited vocals from Tyler , The Creator .
" We Got Bitches " contains uncredited vocals from L @-@ Boy .
= = Chart positions = =
= Gravity Bone =
Gravity Bone is a freeware first @-@ person adventure video game developed by Blendo Games , and released on August 28 , 2008 . The game employs a modified version of id Software 's id Tech 2 engine — originally used for Quake 2 — and incorporates music from films by director Wong Kar @-@ wai , which were originally performed by Xavier Cugat . Four incarnations of the game were produced during its one @-@ year development ; the first featured more common first @-@ person shooter elements than the released version . Subsequent versions shifted in a new direction , with the inclusion of more spy @-@ oriented gameplay .
Gravity Bone received critical acclaim from video game journalists . It was called " a pleasure to experience " by Charles Onyett from IGN , and received comparisons to games such as Team Fortress 2 and Portal . The game was praised for its cohesive story , atmosphere and its ability to catch the player 's interest over a very short time span without feeling rushed or incomplete . It received the " Best Arthouse Game " award in Game Tunnel 's Special Awards of 2008 . A sequel , Thirty Flights of Loving , was released in 2012 .
= = Gameplay = =
Gravity Bone is a first @-@ person adventure video game that lasts around 20 minutes , and is set in the fictional city of Nuevos Aires . The player controls an unnamed spy , and is tasked with accomplishing several missions across the game 's two stages . At the end of the game , the player @-@ controlled spy is killed by an unknown woman after chasing her through the last half of the second level . The game was designed to leave the player without a clear idea of how the game 's story evolves .
During these missions , objectives and guidance are provided through the player 's interactions with objects and environments in the game . The tutorial system used to demonstrate routine gameplay elements such as object interaction and movement is disguised as the first level of Gravity Bone . Here , the player is tasked with the delivery of a contaminated drink to an unspecified non @-@ player character . After the first level is completed , the player is sent to the second level of the game , which follows the pattern of the first ; the player is assigned a set of actions and goals involving platforming sequences .
= = Development = =
Gravity Bone was developed by Brendon Chung under his video game studio Blendo Games . Chung , who worked as a level designer for Pandemic Studios , has contributed to the development of titles such as Full Spectrum Warrior and Lord of the Rings : Conquest . Four incarnations of Gravity Bone were produced during its one @-@ year development . Chung commented during an interview with FidGit that " Gravity Bone started out very different from what it was and ended up getting scrapped ... so on and so forth until this version came out . " The first version of Gravity Bone featured more typical first @-@ person shooter elements than the released version , and was based on a series of Quake 2 maps entitled Citizen Abel . He elaborated that the first version of the game had the player running around with a gun , " shoot [ ing ] things and stuff explodes . " Development shifted in a new direction , and Gravity Bone was transformed ; the player would act as a computer hacker , " hacking stuff all the time . "
Most of the original first @-@ person shooter elements were removed by the third revision of the game , which incorporated a more spy @-@ oriented style of gameplay , with the player " trying to quietly take out enemies and not be seen . " Chung commented that he reworked the game several more times to fit his vision : " It kept on just changing and changing and changing until it got into a more story @-@ oriented direction . " He stated that he did not feel comfortable developing Gravity Bone as a first @-@ person shooter game , and kept adding " bits and bits of more and more unconventional " elements as a result . He explained that he " got stuck on this idea of the hero never fires a gun , but he just has a bunch of tools on his belt , like a power drill or a can of pressurized Freon , a screwdriver . I thought that was kind of funny and interesting . "
Gravity Bone was developed using a modified version of id Software 's id Tech 2 , the graphics engine for Quake 2 . Chung acknowledged that although he has worked with newer , " powerful and flexible " engines , he preferred the older engine because it was released as an open source platform , " so you can redistribute it for free . " The voice work featured in the briefings in Gravity Bone was produced using text @-@ to @-@ speech programs , and the game incorporates music from films by film director Wong Kar @-@ wai . Chung declared that his passion for Wong 's films were an important factor in the selection of Wong 's music : " He makes these really beautiful films and I 've always wanted to use the same music in a videogame . " He said that Wong 's films had a strong influence on the development of the game .
= = Reception = =
Charles Onyett from IGN applauded Gravity Bone , saying that it is " a game that appears to toy with the notions of heroism and villainy , and the ways the player identifies with , and is directed toward , both roles . " He praised all aspects of the game , commenting , " the cohesiveness of its striking visual presentation , soundtrack and effects , and almost entirely incomprehensible story combine to create an atmosphere of peculiar strength . " Onyett concluded his preview of the game by stating , " it 's a pleasure to experience , and never ceases to delight and surprise over its short run . " Anthony Burch from Destructoid gave a positive review , stating that it " is so stylistically unified , so consistently cool and weird and imaginative , that it 's damn near impossible not to fall in love with — even as the game ends and you 're wondering what the hell happened , and why . " He also applauded several technical and design aspects of the game , expressing appreciation for the game 's " stylistic choices " , as well as the " nigh unbelievable " bloom effects featured in the game . Burch concluded that Gravity Bone is " a great ride " , and that the " atmosphere and style alone will barrel you through to the journey 's end , which comes all too soon . "
Derek Yu from The Indie Games Source compared the game with Portal and stated that Chung was able to develop " an impeccable flair for graphic design " while manufacturing Gravity Bone . He concluded that the game is " bursting with delicious color , and features blocky @-@ headed characters that are infinitely more interesting to look at and interact with than the frightening Realdolls game players are often forced to contend with in modern FPS 's . " Yu elaborated that it had " enough panache in its two levels to make it somewhat of an indie sleeper hit of the end of 2008 . " An editor from The Refined Geek was pleased with Gravity Bone and its sequel , Thirty Flights of Loving , awarding them each a score of 8 out of 10 and stating , " the enjoyment from these games comes from noticing all the subtle environmental clues and then using your imagination to draw the connecting dots . " The editor commented that both games highlight story elements over graphics and technical innovations , saying each game 's " true strength comes from its ability to tell a story in the extremely short time frame . "
Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku praised the game , writing , " if you own a PC , you owe it to yourself to play Gravity Bone . " He said the game was " one of the coolest things I 've played on PC lately . " Kieron Gillen from Rock Paper Shotgun considered Gravity Bone to be an intellectual mix of Hitman , No @-@ one Lives Forever , and Team Fortress 2 , stating that it is the " wittiest game " he has played since World of Goo . Gillen applauded every aspect of the game , stating that Gravity Bone was an " indie art game whose main effect is to delight you at every turn . " It received the " Best Arthouse Game " award in Game Tunnel 's Special Awards of 2008 .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel to Gravity Bone , Thirty Flights of Loving , was announced as a reward for contributing to the Idle Thumbs podcast revival Kickstarter . The game was released to Kickstarter backers in July 2012 , and later offered as a purchasable title on Steam , which included Gravity Bone as an additional feature . The game , though not a direct sequel in story to Gravity Bone , follows the main character in a heist with two other characters that goes very wrong . The title was critically acclaimed by reviewers , who called the very short but non @-@ linear storytelling of Thirty Flights a novel use of the video game medium .
= 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ =
In mathematics , 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + · · · is the infinite series whose terms are the successive positive integers , given alternating signs . Using sigma summation notation the sum of the first m terms of the series can be expressed as
<formula>
The infinite series diverges , meaning that its sequence of partial sums , ( 1 , − 1 , 2 , − 2 , ... ) , does not tend towards any finite limit . Nonetheless , in the mid @-@ 18th century , Leonhard Euler wrote what he admitted to be a paradoxical equation :
<formula>
A rigorous explanation of this equation would not arrive until much later . Starting in 1890 , Ernesto Cesàro , Émile Borel and others investigated well @-@ defined methods to assign generalized sums to divergent series — including new interpretations of Euler 's attempts . Many of these summability methods easily assign to 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... a " sum " of 1 ⁄ 4 after all . Cesàro summation is one of the few methods that do not sum 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... , so the series is an example where a slightly stronger method , such as Abel summation , is required .
The series 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... is closely related to Grandi 's series 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + .... Euler treated these two as special cases of 1 − 2n + 3n − 4n + ... for arbitrary n , a line of research extending his work on the Basel problem and leading towards the functional equations of what are now known as the Dirichlet eta function and the Riemann zeta function .
= = Explanation of the paradox = =
In mathematics , if a set of rules is consistent with itself , then one can work with those rules . According to the definitions of " sum " and " equals " that most people are used to , it makes no sense to say that 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... equals anything . However , there are other , somewhat more generous , ways of defining " sum " and " equals " that don 't contradict our ordinary , finite arithmetic , but which produce some additional surprising results with infinite sums . One way to see how that could possibly work is if the series ( 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... ) is added to itself four times in just the right way , causing all the positive terms and all the negative terms to cancel out , except for one of the initial 1 's . Thus , as four copies of the series add up to 1 , the series itself would equal 1 / 4 .
1 - 2 + 3 - 4 + 5 - 6 + . . . . .
+ 1 - 2 + 3 - 4 + 5 - . . . . .
+ 1 - 2 + 3 - 4 + 5 - . . . . . .
+ 1 - 2 + 3 - 4 + . . . . . . .
--------------------------------------------
= 1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + . . .
= = Divergence = =
The series ' terms ( 1 , − 2 , 3 , − 4 , ... ) do not approach 0 ; therefore 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... diverges by the term test . For later reference , it will also be useful to see the divergence on a fundamental level . By definition , the convergence or divergence of an infinite series is determined by the convergence or divergence of its sequence of partial sums , and the partial sums of 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... are :
1
= 1 @,@
1 − 2 =
− 1 @,@
1 − 2 + 3
= 2 @,@
1 − 2 + 3 − 4 =
− 2 @,@
1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + 5
= 3 @,@
1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + 5 − 6 =
− 3 @,@
...
This sequence is notable for including every integer exactly once — even 0 if one counts the empty partial sum — and thereby establishing the countability of the set <formula> of integers . The sequence of partial sums clearly shows that the series does not converge to a particular number ( for any proposed limit x , we can find a point beyond which the subsequent partial sums are all outside the interval [ x @-@ 1 , x + 1 ] ) , so 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... diverges .
= = Heuristics for summation = =
= = = Stability and linearity = = =
Since the terms 1 , − 2 , 3 , − 4 , 5 , − 6 , ... follow a simple pattern , the series 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... can be manipulated by shifting and term @-@ by @-@ term addition to yield a numerical value . If it can make sense to write s
= 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... for some ordinary number s , the following manipulations argue for s =
1 ⁄ 4 :
<formula>
So <formula> . This derivation is depicted graphically on the right .
Although 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... does not have a sum in the usual sense , the equation s
= 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... =
1 ⁄ 4 can be supported as the most natural answer if such a sum is to be defined . A generalized definition of the " sum " of a divergent series is called a summation method or summability method , which sums some subset of all possible series . There are many different methods ( some of which are described below ) that are characterized by the properties that they share with ordinary summation . What the above manipulations actually prove is the following : Given any summability method that is linear and stable and sums the series 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... , the sum it produces is 1 ⁄ 4 . Furthermore , since
<formula>
such a method must also sum Grandi 's series as 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ... = 1 ⁄ 2 .
= = = Cauchy product = = =
In 1891 , Ernesto Cesàro expressed hope that divergent series would be rigorously brought into calculus , pointing out , " One already writes ( 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ... ) 2
= 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... and asserts that both the sides are equal to 1 ⁄ 4 . " For Cesàro , this equation was an application of a theorem he had published the previous year , one that may be identified as the first theorem in the history of summable divergent series . The details on his summation method are below ; the central idea is that 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... is the Cauchy product of 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ... with 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ....
The Cauchy product of two infinite series is defined even when both of them are divergent . In the case where Σan =
Σbn = Σ ( − 1 ) n , the terms of the Cauchy product are given by the finite diagonal sums
<formula>
The product series is then
<formula>
Thus a summation method that respects the Cauchy product of two series — and assigns to the series 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ... the sum 1 / 2 — will also assign to the series 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... the sum 1 / 4 . With the result of the previous section , this implies an equivalence between summability of 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ... and 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... with methods that are linear , stable , and respect the Cauchy product .
Cesàro 's theorem is a subtle example . The series 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ... is Cesàro @-@ summable in the weakest sense , called ( C , 1 ) -summable , while 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... requires a stronger form of Cesàro 's theorem , being ( C , 2 ) -summable . Since all forms of Cesàro 's theorem are linear and stable , the values of the sums are as we have calculated .
= = Specific methods = =
= = = Cesàro and Hölder = = =
To find the ( C , 1 ) Cesàro sum of 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... , if it exists , one needs to compute the arithmetic means of the partial sums of the series . The partial sums are :
1 , − 1 , 2 , − 2 , 3 , − 3 , ... ,
and the arithmetic means of these partial sums are :
1 , 0 , 2 ⁄ 3 , 0 , 3 ⁄ 5 , 0 , 4 ⁄ 7 , ....
This sequence of means does not converge , so 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... is not Cesàro summable .
There are two well @-@ known generalizations of Cesàro summation : the conceptually simpler of these is the sequence of ( H , n ) methods for natural numbers n . The ( H , 1 ) sum is Cesàro summation , and higher methods repeat the computation of means . Above , the even means converge to 1 ⁄ 2 , while the odd means are all equal to 0 , so the means of the means converge to the average of 0 and 1 ⁄ 2 , namely 1 ⁄ 4 . So 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... is ( H , 2 ) summ
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try multiplying by ( 1 + x ) twice or squaring the geometric series 1 − x + x2 − .... Euler also seems to suggest differentiating the latter series term by term .
In the modern view , the series 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + ... does not define a function at x =
1 , so that value cannot simply be substituted into the resulting expression . Since the function is defined for all | x | < 1 , one can still take the limit as x approaches 1 , and this is the definition of the Abel sum :
<formula>
= = = Euler and Borel = = =
Euler applied another technique to the series : the Euler transform , one of his own inventions . To compute the Euler transform , one begins with the sequence of positive terms that makes up the alternating series — in this case 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , .... The first element of this sequence is labeled a0 .
Next one needs the sequence of forward differences among 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , ... ; this is just 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , .... The first element of this sequence is labeled Δa0 . The Euler transform also depends on differences of differences , and higher iterations , but all the forward differences among 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , ... are 0 . The Euler transform of 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... is then defined as
<formula>
In modern terminology , one says that 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... is Euler summable to 1 ⁄ 4 .
The Euler summability implies another kind of summability as well . Representing 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... as
<formula>
one has the related everywhere @-@ convergent series
<formula>
The Borel sum of 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... is therefore
<formula>
= = = Separation of scales = = =
Saichev and Woyczyński arrive at 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ...
= 1 ⁄ 4 by applying only two physical principles : infinitesimal relaxation and separation of scales . To be precise , these principles lead them to define a broad family of " φ @-@ summation methods " , all of which sum the series to 1 ⁄ 4 :
If φ ( x ) is a function whose first and second derivatives are continuous and integrable over ( 0 , ∞ ) , such that φ ( 0 ) =
1 and the limits of φ ( x ) and xφ ( x ) at + ∞ are both 0 , then
<formula>
This result generalizes Abel summation , which is recovered by letting φ ( x ) = exp ( − x ) . The general statement can be proved by pairing up the terms in the series over m and converting the expression into a Riemann integral . For the latter step , the corresponding proof for 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ... applies the mean value theorem , but here one needs the stronger Lagrange form of Taylor 's theorem .
= = Generalization = =
The threefold Cauchy product of 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ... is 1 − 3 + 6 − 10 + ... , the alternating series of triangular numbers ; its Abel and Euler sum is 1 ⁄ 8 . The fourfold Cauchy product of 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ... is 1 − 4 + 10 − 20 + ... , the alternating series of tetrahedral numbers , whose Abel sum is 1 ⁄ 16 .
Another generalization of 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... in a slightly different direction is the series 1 − 2n + 3n − 4n + ... for other values of n . For positive integers n , these series have the following Abel sums :
<formula>
where Bn are the Bernoulli numbers . For even n , this reduces to
<formula>
This last sum became an object of particular ridicule by Niels Henrik Abel in 1826 :
Divergent series are on the whole devil 's work , and it is a shame that one dares to found any proof on them . One can get out of them what one wants if one uses them , and it is they which have made so much unhappiness and so many paradoxes . Can one think of anything more appalling than to say that
0 = 1 − 2n + 3n − 4n + etc .
where n is a positive number . Here 's something to laugh at , friends .
Cesàro 's teacher , Eugène Charles Catalan , also disparaged divergent series . Under Catalan 's influence , Cesàro initially referred to the " conventional formulas " for 1 − 2n + 3n − 4n + ... as " absurd equalities " , and in 1883 Cesàro expressed a typical view of the time that the formulas were false but still somehow formally useful . Finally , in his 1890 Sur la multiplication des séries , Cesàro took a modern approach starting from definitions .
The series are also studied for non @-@ integer values of n ; these make up the Dirichlet eta function . Part of Euler 's motivation for studying series related to 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... was the functional equation of the eta function , which leads directly to the functional equation of the Riemann zeta function . Euler had already become famous for finding the values of these functions at positive even integers ( including the Basel problem ) , and he was attempting to find the values at the positive odd integers ( including Apéry 's constant ) as well , a problem that remains elusive today . The eta function in particular is easier to deal with by Euler 's methods because its Dirichlet series is Abel summable everywhere ; the zeta function 's Dirichlet series is much harder to sum where it diverges . For example , the counterpart of 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... in the zeta function is the non @-@ alternating series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... , which has deep applications in modern physics but requires much stronger methods to sum .
= Slackers CDs and Games =
Slackers CDs and Games , often shortened to Slackers , is a small chain of entertainment retailers located in the Midwestern United States . The store specializes in both new and used video games and music . It was founded in 1993 in Columbia , Missouri by Kurt Jellinek and Paul Zacharias , originally as a music store . The store is known for selling local independent music , its collection of classic games , and for giving a lot of credit for trade @-@ ins . In 2007 , the store raised some controversy for stockpiling Nintendo Wiis . As of 2009 , there are 10 locations in Missouri and Illinois .
Jellinek has said that the name " Slackers " comes from being a slacker in college — playing video games and listening to music during their free time . A new store would be opened every few years , in various separate locations , so as not to lose business by placing two stores close together . Jellinek and Zacharias manage the chain of stores with a hands @-@ on approach .
= = History = =
The original idea behind Slackers first occurred in 1990 . Along with some friends , Kurt Jellinek and Paul Zacharias went to a Don Henley concert , and began thinking about owning their own music store . At the time , the two were undergraduate students , and decided to focus their studies on business management and becoming entrepreneurs . Slackers CDs and Games was officially founded in 1993 , by Jellinek and Zacharias , in Columbia , Missouri . Jellinek and Zacharias opened the store after graduating from Saint Louis University , using only their own collection of 1 @,@ 500 music CDs . The name originated from their generation being considered slackers before being given a chance to prove otherwise . Although business was slow at first , with the store sometimes only making US $ 30 in a day , business eventually increased . After 2 years they were able to open a second location in O 'Fallon , Illinois . As of 2009 , there are 10 locations in the states of Missouri and Illinois , eight of which are in the St. Louis Metropolitan Area , and two of which are in Mid @-@ Missouri .
= = Praise and criticism = =
Slackers CDs and Games won an award for best used CD store in 2006 from the Riverfront Times . The Times cited its collection of vinyl records and independent and rare music CDs as the basis for the award .
Since the store buys video games from all consoles , it is known for its collection of classic titles . However , they do not require the box or manual for cartridge based games .
The store is also known for giving more credit for trade @-@ ins than its competitors . In 2005 , Vox Magazine had the same four games ( Halo , Metal Gear Solid 3 , NHL 2004 , and Madden NFL 2005 ) priced at EB Games , Game Crazy , and Slackers CDs and Games , with the trade @-@ in values being $ 16 @.@ 50 , $ 26 @.@ 82 , and $ 45 respectively .
= = = Wii Controversy = = =
On December 20 , 2007 , the store raised some controversy when Ars Technica reported that the chain was stockpiling Nintendo Wii systems to sell at a higher profit while telling retail customers that the chain did not have any systems in stock , and were not expecting any .
On December 21 , 2007 , Kurt Jellinek responded on the Slackers website by stating that the article was sensationalist and misleading . Jellinek said that , of the 44 units the chain had , five were sold on eBay for $ 399 @.@ 99 , with a couple of units still in stock , and 35 were held for specific customers and sold at the MSRP . The remainder were given away .
Some sites believe this may violate Nintendo 's enforcement of the Wii 's $ 249 retail price , and may prevent the store from receiving future products from Nintendo . Nintendo has refused to comment on the issue .
= Schwester Selma =
Selma Mayer , known as Schwester Selma ( German for " Sister Selma " or " Nurse Selma " ) ( February 3 , 1884 – February 5 , 1984 ) was the head nurse at the original Shaare Zedek Hospital on Jaffa Road in Jerusalem for nearly 50 years . For many years she was the right @-@ hand assistant of the hospital 's founding director , Dr. Moshe Wallach . Working long hours and with limited infrastructure , she trained and supervised all personnel at the hospital from 1916 to the 1930s , and founded the Shaare Zedek School of Nursing in 1934 . She never married , and resided in a room in the hospital until her last day . In her later years she became known as the " Jewish Florence Nightingale " for her decades of selfless devotion to patient welfare .
= = Early life and education = =
Selma Mayer was born on February 3 , 1884 in Hanover , Germany , to a poor Jewish family . Her mother died in childbirth when Selma was five years old , leaving five young orphans . Selma later wrote , " Because I lost my mother very early and therefore had a rather difficult youth , a strong need grew in me to give people that which I had missed so much : mother @-@ love and love of human beings . Therefore I chose the profession of nursing " .
In 1906 she began working as a nurse at the Salomon Heine Hospital in Hamburg . She received on @-@ the @-@ job training in the hospital 's departments of internal medicine , surgery , pediatrics , and obstetrics . In 1913 she and another nurse passed the government 's nursing licensing exams , becoming the first Jewish nurses to receive a German State Diploma .
= = Head nurse = =
In 1890 the Frankfurt @-@ based Central Committee for the Construction of a Jewish Hospital in Jerusalem sent Dr. Moshe Wallach , a German @-@ Jewish doctor , to Palestine to open a Jewish hospital . In 1902 he opened Shaare Zedek Hospital on Jaffa Road , the first Jewish hospital in the New City . Wallach began with two trained European nurses , Schwester Stybel and Schwester Van Gelder , but one quit due to the " primitive conditions " that existed at Shaare Zedek in those years and the other fled to Germany during World War I. In dire need of a head nurse , Wallach returned to Europe in 1916 , during World War I. He was impressed with the similar organizational structure of the Salomon Heine Hospital in Hamburg , and asked the head nurse there if she could spare one of her staff . The 32 @-@ year @-@ old Selma Mayer was recommended , and agreed to a three @-@ year contract to fulfill her war service in Palestine .
Embarking on a four @-@ week train journey through Central Europe , Turkey , and Damascus , Schwester Selma arrived at Shaare Zedek in December 1916 . Several weeks later , Jerusalem was hit by a year @-@ long typhoid epidemic , and typhus and meningitis also raged in the city . The 40 @-@ bed hospital , which added another 110 beds to accommodate patients , was inundated . The hospital recruited untrained workers , whom Schwester Selma outfitted in " overalls and hoods " to protect them from infection ; she ordered all incoming patients washed and shaved over their entire bodies . Schwester Selma also introduced German standards of nursing to the wards , including white uniforms for all hospital personnel , changing of uniforms and bed sheets daily , and daily bathing of all patients .
While attempting to provide a high level of patient care for Jews , Christians , and Arabs , Shaare Zedek operated without electricity , indoor plumbing , central heating , or gas cooking stoves . Kerosene heaters were used to warm bathwater , and paraffin lamps were used in the operating room . It was difficult to retain staff due to the working conditions and to the exacting , temperamental nature of Dr. Wallach . Nevertheless , Schwester Selma worked 18 @-@ hour days , and expected her nurses and aides to display the same work ethic .
During that era , hospital nurses and midwives were trained on the job . Schwester Selma trained and supervised all the nurses , operating @-@ room nurses , and midwives in the hospital , teaching the former how to make a hospital bed and the latter how to diaper newborns and swaddle infants . Sometimes she also substituted for the midwives , who did not live on the premises . For many years , Schwester Selma was Dr. Wallach 's right @-@ hand assistant in the areas of uterine curettages , tracheotomies , and ritual circumcisions , accompanied him on house calls , and stood in for him as hospital director when he was away . From 1916 to 1930 she was also in charge of supplies and building maintenance , and making sure the kashrut in the kitchen met Dr. Wallach 's strict standards .
In the wards , she cultivated a spirit of warm , personalized patient care that continues to be the modus operandi for the hospital to this day . She would constantly remind her students , " Those who come to us need help " . She wrote in her memoir , " Above all they should remember and never forget that one has to try everything when dealing with the patient to cause him as little pain as possible and to spare no effort " .
Schwester Selma 's contract included a three @-@ month vacation in Germany every three years , but she took advantage of that clause only twice , in 1922 and 1925 . In 1927 she was offered the position of head nurse at the Eidingen Stift Institution , a Jewish hospital in Leipzig . While she seriously considered the offer , the Frankfurt @-@ based board of directors of Shaare Zedek convinced her not to leave , with a promise " to support her for the rest of her life " .
Schwester Selma was the only operating @-@ room nurse on duty during the 1929 Hebron massacre . A rescue team managed to evacuate the wounded from Hebron and rush them to the Shaare Zedek and Hadassah hospitals in Jerusalem . Specialists from throughout Jerusalem came to Shaare Zedek to operate on the wounded , and Schwester Selma assisted them for 23 hours without a break .
The November 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was announced during her annual two @-@ week holiday , which she spent with friends in Naharia . Immediately after the adoption of the resolution by the UN General Assembly , 1947 – 48 Civil War broke out , leading to an Arab siege of Jerusalem . Desiring to return to her post at the hospital , Schwester Selma spent three weeks petitioning the offices of the British Mandatory government , the incoming Israeli government , and even the underground leaders , to assist her . Finally the army agreed to put her on one of its armed convoys supplying food and medicine to the besieged city .
During Israel 's polio epidemic in the early 1950s , Shaare Zedek was the only hospital in Jerusalem with an isolation ward . Schwester Selma displayed unceasing devotion to the running of the iron lung machines , teaching and supervising the untrained personnel who were recruited to work in the ward .
= = Shaare Zedek School of Nursing = =
In 1934 Schwester Selma founded the Shaare Zedek Nursing School . The idea was initially opposed by Dr. Wallach , who worried that the school would emphasize theory over practical nursing , but Schwester Selma 's curriculum proved him wrong . Examinations following the three @-@ year course of study were administered by doctors from the British government hospital in Jerusalem . Schwester Selma taught all the practical nursing classes in the school 's early years . After her death , the school instituted a Schwester Selma Award , which is bestowed on each year 's outstanding graduate .
= = Personal = =
A diminutive figure who stood less than 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) tall , Schwester Selma was known for her kindness and her scrupulousness . She adopted as her personal motto a poem by Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore , which she kept on the wall in her room :
I slept and dreamt
that life was joy .
I awoke and saw
that life was duty .
I acted and behold ,
duty was joy .
She never married . Both she and Dr. Wallach , who also never married , lived in separate rooms in the hospital . She often welcomed staff and patients for a chat in her sparsely @-@ furnished room , where she poured them cups of mint tea .
Schwester Selma and Dr. Wallach adopted three girls who had been abandoned in the hospital . One was Samoohah Calderon , whose mother had died and whose father had been drafted into the Turkish army ; the infant 's grandparents asked them to keep the baby . The second adoptee , Bolissa , was given to them by her father , who had carried her all the way from Syria ; her mother had died en route . Bolissa was killed in the 1948 Ben Yehuda Street bombing . The third adoptee was named Sarina . The girls grew up on hospital grounds and were sent to school ; one of the girls became a nurse ; another a dental technician .
= = Awards and accolades = =
In 1974 , at the age of 90 , Schwester Selma was named a " Worthy of Jerusalem " by Jerusalem Mayor Teddy Kollek . A December 29 , 1975 TIME cover story named her as one of the world 's " living saints " in a list that included Mother Teresa , Sister Annie , Dom Hélder Câmara , and Father Matta El Meskeen . Numerous publications called her the " Jewish Florence Nightingale " for her decades of selfless devotion to patient welfare .
Schwester Selma once received a diamond ring from a Holocaust survivor whose sister had given her the valuable item before she was deported , saying , " If I do not return , give it to a human being who has never married and has devoted her life to helping other people " . When the survivor read about Schwester Selma in the European press , she gave the ring to her .
= = Final years = =
Schwester Selma continued to work into her eighties . Even at that age , she did not consider it beneath her dignity to pick up trash from the floors , reminding her students that " there is nothing humiliating in our work " . In 1973 , while recuperating from a cataract operation , she dictated a short memoir , " Mein Leben und Erlebnisse im Shaare Zedek Spital " ( " My Life and Experiences at ' Shaare Zedek ' " ) .
When the hospital moved to new and more modern headquarters in the Bayit Vegan neighborhood in 1980 , Schwester Selma moved along with it . She died on Sunday , February 5 , 1984 , two days after her hundredth birthday – the same day a special tribute event had been planned in her honor at the hospital .
= Never Too Far =
" Never Too Far " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey for her first soundtrack and eighth studio album , Glitter ( 2001 ) . It was written and produced by herself and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis . The song was released as the album 's second single on October 23 , 2001 , by Virgin Records America . The song is a mid @-@ tempo ballad which lyrically deals with heartbreak . " Never Too Far " was used on the charity single " Never Too Far / Hero Medley " , which combines the first verse of the song with a re @-@ recorded version of the second verse and bridge of Carey 's previous single " Hero " ( 1993 ) .
The single did not make much impact on the U.S. charts ; however , it did reach the top forty in the UK and Australia , as part of a double A @-@ side with " Don 't Stop ( Funkin ' 4 Jamaica ) " . A radio edit of " Never Too Far " is release and found as the opening track of the song 's release . Carey was unable to film a music video for the single as she was recovering from a breakdown . Instead , a video was created using a scene taken directly from the film Glitter , where Billie Frank ( played by Carey ) sings the song at Madison Square Garden during a concert . Carey promoted " Never Too Far / Hero " medley through live performances at the 2001 Radio Music Awards and her A Home For The Holidays With Mariah Carey TV special .
= = Background = =
In April 2001 , Carey signed a US $ 100 million record deal with Virgin Records ( EMI Records ) . Following commencement for Glitter — her first album under the new label — and the film of same name , Carey embarked on a short promotional campaign for the project . On July 19 , 2001 , Carey made a surprise appearance on the MTV program Total Request Live ( TRL ) . She came out onto the filming stage , pushing an ice cream cart while wearing an oversized shirt . Seemingly anxious and exhilarated , Carey began giving out individual bars of ice cream to fans and guests on the program , while waving to the crowd down below on Times Square , while diverging into a rambling monologue regarding therapy . Carey then walked to Daly 's platform and began a striptease , in which she shed her shirt to reveal a tight yellow and green ensemble , leading him to exclaim " Mariah Carey has lost her mind ! " .
Following other appearances on which her publicist Cindy Berger said the singer was " not thinking clearly " , on July
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and Cosima were vehement anti @-@ Semites ; Hilmes conjectures that Cosima inherited this in her youth , from her father , from Carolyne zu Sayn @-@ Wittgenstein , probably from Madame Patersi and , a little later , from Bülow , " an anti @-@ Semite of the first order " . Thus Cosima 's anti @-@ Semitism predates her association with Wagner , although Marek observes that he nurtured it in her , to the extent that derogatory references to Jews occur , on average , on every fourth page of her 5 @,@ 000 @-@ page journal . The musicologist Eric Werner argues that Wagner 's anti @-@ Semitism derived in part from his initial revolutionary philosophy ; as a disciple of Proudhon he saw Jewry as " the embodiment of possession , of monopoly capitalism " . Cosima 's had no such basis , and whereas Wagner retained an ability to revise his views on the basis of his experiences , Cosima 's anti @-@ Semitism was visceral and remained unchanged . Cosima records Levi 's astonishment on being informed of his appointment . Ludwig was insistent that , despite Wagner 's objections , the appointment would stand . Levi would subsequently establish himself as the supreme conductor of the work , held by critical opinion to be " beyond praise " .
At the second Bayreuth Festival Parsifal was performed 16 times ; at the last performance on 29 August , Wagner himself conducted the final scene . Cosima wrote afterwards of how different the orchestra and singers sounded under Wagner . Overall , she and Wagner were entirely satisfied with the outcome of the festival which , unlike its predecessor , had made a handsome profit . : " [ N ] ot once did the spirit of toil and dedication on the part of the artists abate ... I believe one may be satisfied " . One dissident voice was that of Friedrich Nietzsche , once a devoted friend of Wagner 's but latterly a harsh critic . Nietzsche considered Parsifal an abomination for which Cosima was responsible ; she had corrupted Wagner , and as a non @-@ German she had no business meddling in matters of German culture .
= = = Venice and widowhood = = =
At the conclusion of the festival the Wagner family departed for an extended stay in Venice . To accommodate the large party of children , servants and expected guests they took a spacious apartment in the Palazzo Vendramin Calergi , overlooking the Grand Canal . The principal concern during the autumn and winter months was Wagner 's declining health ; his heart spasms had become so frequent that on 16 November 1882 Cosima recorded : " Today he did not have a spasm ! " . Cosima 's journal entry for 12 February 1883 — the last she was to make — records Wagner reading Fouqué 's novel Undine , and playing the Rhinemaidens ' lament from Das Rheingold on the piano . However , an underlying cause of domestic friction may have surfaced concerning Carrie Pringle , an English soprano from the Parsifal cast who was rumoured to be having an affair with Wagner . According to Isolde , recalling the occasion much later , the Pringle suspicions led to a furious row between Cosima and Wagner on the morning of 13 February . There is no solid evidence of an affair between Wagner and Pringle , nor is Isolde 's story of a row supported by any other testimony . At around noon on that day , Wagner suffered a fatal heart attack , and died in the middle of the afternoon .
Cosima sat with Wagner 's body for more than 24 hours , refusing all refreshment or respite . During the embalming process , which occupied the next two days , Cosima sat with the body as often as possible , to the dismay of her children . She also asked her daughters to cut her hair , which was then sewn into a cushion and placed on Wagner 's breast . On 16 February the journey back to Bayreuth began , and on Sunday 18 February the cortège processed to Wahnfried , where , following a brief service , Wagner was buried in the garden . Cosima remained in the house until the ceremonies were over ; according to her daughter Daniela she then went to the grave " and for a long time lay down on the coffin until Fidi ( Siegfried ) went to fetch her " . Afterwards she went into seclusion for many months , barely even seeing her children , with whom she communicated mainly through written notes . Among many messages , she received a telegram from Bülow : " Soeur il faut vivre " ( " Sister , it is necessary to live " ) .
= = Mistress of Bayreuth = =
= = = Interregnum = = =
Wagner had left neither a will , nor instruction on the management of the Bayreuth Festival after his death . He had written of the future : " I ... cannot think of a single person who could say what I believe needs to be said ... there is practically no one on whose judgement I could rely " . The festival 's uncertain outlook was aggravated by Cosima 's total withdrawal from all contact except that of her daughters and her friend and adviser Adolf von Groß . Without Cosima 's participation the 1883 festival , as planned by Wagner — 12 performances of Parsifal — went ahead , with Emil Scaria ( who sang the role of Gurnemanz in the opera ) doubling as artistic director . The cast was largely that of 1882 , and Levi remained as conductor .
At the conclusion of the festival Cosima received a long , critical memorandum from an unknown observer , which highlighted numerous divergences from Wagner 's directions . This , says Marek , proved to be a critical factor in determining her future life 's mission : the maintenance of Wagner 's heritage creations through the preservation of his interpretations . In her seclusion , Cosima learned of an abortive plan masterminded by Julius Kniese , the festival 's chorus @-@ master , by which Liszt was to assume the role of music director and Bülow would be chief conductor . Neither Liszt nor Bülow was interested in this arrangement , and the plan died . With Groß 's assistance , Cosima pre @-@ empted any further attempts by outsiders to assume control of the Wagner legacy , by obtaining legal recognition of herself and Siegfried as sole heirs to all Wagner 's property , physical and intellectual . By this means she secured an unassailable advantage over any other claim on direction of the festival 's future .
= = = In control = = =
In 1885 Cosima announced that she would direct the 1886 festival . Her tenure as Bayreuth 's director lasted for 22 years , until 1907 . During that time she oversaw 13 festivals , and by gradually increasing the repertory established the " Bayreuth canon " of ten mature Wagner works . Her triumvirate of conductors — Levi , Richter and Felix Mottl — shared the musical direction until 1894 , when Levi left . Richter and Mottl served throughout Cosima 's years , joined by several of the leading conductors of the day , although Bülow resisted all offers to participate . In the course of her long stewardship Cosima overcame the misgivings of the hardline Wagnerites patrons who believed , like Nietzsche , that Wagner 's works should not be entrusted to a non @-@ German . Under her watch the festival moved from an uncertain financial basis into a prosperous business undertaking that brought great riches to the Wagner family .
Although the festival 's historian , Frederic Spotts , suggests that Cosima was more creative than she affected to be , the primary purpose of all her productions was to follow the instructions and reflect the wishes of the Master : " There is nothing left for us here to create , but only to perfect in detail " . This policy incurred criticism , among others from Bernard Shaw , who in 1889 mocked Cosima as the " chief remembrancer " . Shaw scorned the idea that Wagner 's wishes were best represented by the slavish copying in perpetuity of the performances he had witnessed . Ten years later Shaw highlighted as a feature of the " Bayreuth style " the " intolerably old @-@ fashioned tradition of half rhetorical , half historical @-@ pictorial attitudes and gestures " , and the characteristic singing , " sometime tolerable , sometimes abominable " . The subordination of the music to text , diction and character portrayal was a specific feature of the Bayreuth style ; Cosima , according to Spotts , turned the principle of clear enunciation into " a fetish ... The resulting harsh declamatory style came to be derided as ... the infamous Bayreuth bark " .
Parsifal was shown alongside other works at each of Cosima 's festivals except for 1896 , which was devoted to a revival of the Ring cycle . In 1886 , her first year in charge , she added Tristan und Isolde to the canon . Amid the bustle of the festival Cosima refused to be distracted by the illness of her father , Liszt , who collapsed after attending a performance of Tristan and died several days later . Cosima supervised her father 's funeral service and burial arrangements , but refused a memorial concert or any overt display of remembrance . According to Liszt 's pupil Felix Weingartner , " Liszt 's passing was not of sufficient importance to dim the glory of the Festival , even for a moment " .
Die Meistersinger was added in 1888 , Tannhäuser in 1891 , Lohengrin in 1894 and Der fliegende Holländer in 1901 . After the 1894 festival Levi resigned , the years of working in an anti @-@ Semitic ambience having finally had their effect . At the 1896 festival Siegfried made his Bayreuth conducting debut in one of the five Ring cycles ; he remained one of Bayreuth 's regular conductors for the remainder of Cosima 's tenure .
In common with Wagner , Cosima was willing to shelve her anti @-@ Semitic prejudices in the interests of Bayreuth , to the extent of continuing to employ Levi for whom she developed considerable artistic respect . However , she frequently undermined him behind his back in private letters , and allowed her children to mimic and mock him . Cosima expressed to Weingartner the view that " between Aryan and Semite blood there could exist no bond whatever " . In accordance with this doctrine , she would not invite Gustav Mahler ( born Jewish though a convert to Catholicism ) to conduct at Bayreuth , although she frequently took his advice over artistic matters .
Cosima was determined to preserve Bayreuth 's exclusive right , acknowledged by Ludwig , to perform Parsifal . After Ludwig 's death in 1886 this right was briefly challenged by his successor , an attempt swiftly defeated by Cosima with the help of Groß . A more serious threat arose from the German copyright laws , which only protected works for 30 years following the creator 's death ; thus Parsifal would lose its protection in 1913 regardless of any agreement with the Bavarian court . In anticipation , in 1901 Cosima sought to have the period of copyright protection extended by law to 50 years . She lobbied members of the Reichstag tirelessly , and was assured by Kaiser Wilhelm II of his support . These efforts failed to bring about any change in the law . In 1903 , taking advantage of the lack of a copyright agreement between the United States and Germany , Heinrich Conried of the New York Metropolitan Opera announced that he would stage Parsifal later that year . Cosima was enraged , but her efforts to prevent him were to no avail ; the first of 11 performances took place on 24 December 1903 . The enterprise was a popular and critical success , though in Cosima 's view it was a " rape " ; her hostility towards the Metropolitan lasted for the remainder of her life .
By the beginning of the new century three of Cosima 's daughters had married : Blandina to Count Biagio Gravina in the closing days of the 1882 festival , Daniela to Henry Thode , an art historian , on 3 July 1886 , and Isolde , Cosima 's first child by Wagner , who married a young conductor , Franz Beidler , on 20 December 1900 The youngest daughter , Eva , rejected numerous suitors to remain her mother 's secretary and companion for the rest of Cosima 's tenure .
= = = Transfer of power = = =
On 8 December 1906 , having directed that year 's festival , Cosima suffered an Adams @-@ Stokes seizure ( a form of heart attack ) while visiting her friend Prince Hohenlohe at Langenburg . By May 1907 it was clear that her health was such that she could no longer remain in charge at Bayreuth ; this responsibility now passed to Siegfried , her long @-@ designated heir . The succession was accomplished against a background of family disagreement ; Beidler thought that he had rights , based partly on his greater conducting experience and also because he and Isolde had produced Wagner 's only grandchild , a son born in October 1901 , who could establish a dynastic succession . Beidler 's claims were dismissed by Cosima and by Siegfried ; he never conducted at Bayreuth again , and the rift between the Beidlers and Cosima developed in due course into a major family feud .
= = Retirement , decline and death = =
Cosima moved into rooms to the rear of Wahnfried , away from the house 's daily bustle , where she passed her days surrounded by Wagner 's possessions and numerous family portraits . Although at first Siegfried discussed his festival plans with her , she avoided the Festpielhaus , content to read reports of the productions . Siegfried made few changes to the production traditions set by Wagner and Cosima ; Spotts records that " whatever had been laid down by his parents was preserved unchanged out of a sense of strict filial duty " . Only in matters on which they had not spoken was he prepared to exercise his own judgement . As a result , the original Parsifal sets remained in use even when they were visibly crumbling ; the view of Cosima and her daughters was that no changes should ever be made to stage sets " on which the eye of the Master had rested " .
In December 1908 Eva , then 41 , married Houston Stewart Chamberlain , a British @-@ born historian who had adopted as his personal creed a fanatical form of German nationalism based on principles of extreme racial and cultural purity . He had known Cosima since 1888 , though his affinity with Wagner extended back to 1882 , when he had attended the premiere of Parsifal . He had successively courted Blandina and then Isolde , before settling on Eva . Cosima had considerable empathy with his theories ; according to Carr " she came to love him as her son — perhaps even more " . Chamberlain became the dominant figure within the Wagner circle , and was largely responsible for the increasing alienation of the Beidlers . Cosima may have been unaware of Isolde 's attempts at rapprochement , because Eva and Chamberlain withheld Isolde 's letters . In 1913 Isolde was effectively disinherited when she sought to confirm her rights as a co @-@ heir to the considerable Wagner fortunes in a court case , which she lost . After this she withdrew , and to the time of her death in 1919 never again saw or communicated directly with Cosima .
A happier family event from Cosima 's standpoint was Siegfried 's marriage in 1915 , at the age of 46 , to Winifred Williams , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old foster @-@ daughter of Karl Klindworth who had been friends with both Wagner and Liszt . When the couple 's first son , Wieland , was born on 5 January 1917 , Cosima celebrated by playing excerpts from the Siegfried Idyll on Wagner 's piano .
The outbreak of the First World War curtailed the 1914 festival ; the conflict and the political and economic upheavals that followed the war closed the Festpielhaus until 1924 . Plans for the festival 's resumption coincided with an upsurge in Germany of extreme nationalist politics . Adolf Hitler , a fervent Wagner admirer , first visited Wahnfried in 1923 , and although he was not received by Cosima he befriended the family and was thereafter a regular visitor . The Chamberlains , together with Winifred , became enthusiastic members of the Nazi Party , and the 1924 festival became an overt rally for the party and its leading supporters . That year Cosima , then 86 , ended her long absence from the theatre by attending the dress rehearsals for Parsifal , and watching the first act at the opening performance on 23 July . The tenor Lauritz Melchior remembered Siegfried returning from frequent visits to a small gallery above the stage and saying " Mama wants ... "
By 1927 , the year of her 90th birthday , Cosima 's health was failing . The birthday was marked in Bayreuth by the naming of a street in her honour , although she was unaware ; the family thought that knowledge of the celebrations would overexcite her . In her last years she was virtually bedridden , became blind , and was only lucid at intervals . She died , aged 92 , on 1 April 1930 ; after a funeral service at Wahnfried her body was taken to Coburg and cremated .
= = Legacy = =
Cosima 's life mission was total service to Wagner and his works ; in the words of the music critic Eric Salzman she " submitted herself body and soul to the Master " . In Wagner 's lifetime she fulfilled this purpose primarily by recording in her journal every facet of his life and ideas . After his death the journal was abandoned ; she would henceforth serve the master by perpetuating his artistic heritage through the Bayreuth Festival . Guided by Groß , but also using her own acumen — Werner calls her a " superb business woman " — she succeeded in making the festival first solvent , then profitable .
While acknowledging that Cosima was an effective " keeper of the flame " , commentators have criticised the nature of her legacy . The Ring historian J.K. Holman describes it as one of " stifling conservatism " . Her policy of sticking to Wagner 's original stage conceptions was not fully abandoned until after the Second World War , when a new generation took charge of the festival . Hilmes likens Cosima 's role to that of the abbess of a religious community : " a cohesive , quasi @-@ religious congregation of Bayreuthians sharing a common philosophical outlook " . Anti @-@ Semitism was integral to this philosophy ; although in 1869 Cosima had opposed the re @-@ publication of Wagner 's anti @-@ Jewish treatise Jewishness in Music , this was on grounds of commercial prudence rather than sensitivity . In 1881 she encouraged Wagner to write his essay " Know Thyself " , and to include in it a tirade against Jewish assimilation .
The critic and one @-@ time librettist Philip Hensher writes that " under the guidance of her repulsive racial @-@ theorist son @-@ in @-@ law [ Chamberlain ] ... Cosima tried to turn Bayreuth into a centre for the cult of German purity . " Thus , he continues , " By the time she died , Wagner 's reputation was ... at the forefront of a terrible political dynamism : antique stagings of his works were presented to audiences of Brownshirts " . The close association of the festival with Hitler and the Nazis during the 1930s was much more the work of Winifred — an overt Hitler supporter — than of Cosima , though Hensher asserts that " Cosima was as much to blame as anyone " .
In the immediate aftermath of Cosima 's death , some writers heaped copious praise on her . Ernest Newman , Wagner 's biographer , called her " the greatest figure that ever came within [ Wagner 's ] circle " ; Richard du Moulin Eckart , Cosima 's first biographer , introduced her as " the greatest woman of the century " . In time judgements became more measured , and divided . Marek closes his account by emphasising her role not only as Wagner 's protector but as his muse : " Without her there would have been no Siegfried Idyll , no Bayreuth , and no Parsifal " . In Hensher 's judgement , " Wagner was a genius , but also a fairly appalling human being . Cosima was just an appalling human being . " In 1977 , 47 years after her death , Cosima 's urn was recovered from Coburg and buried alongside Wagner in the Wahnfried garden .
= = Bayreuth Festival performances under Cosima Wagner = =
The symbol indicates work 's Bayreuth premiere . Under Cosima Wagner Parsifal was performed 97 times
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vertebra .
= = Species and synonyms = =
During the later nineteenth century , Megalosaurus was seen as the typical carnivorous dinosaur . If remains were found that were not deemed sufficiently distinct to warrant a separate genus , often single teeth , these were classified under Megalosaurus , which thus began to function as a wastebasket taxon , a sort of default genus . Eventually , Megalosaurus contained more species than any other non @-@ avian dinosaur genus , most of them of dubious validity . During the twentieth century , this practice was gradually discontinued ; but scientists discovering theropods that had been mistakenly classified under a different animal group in older literature , still felt themselves forced to rename them , again choosing Megalosaurus as the default generic name .
= = = Generic lapsus calami = = =
The first published lapsus calami of Megalosaurus was named in 1913 . Ameghino added a letter , a " u " , into Megalosaurus . In doing so , he named a new genus , Megalousaurus , only to create a synonym of Megalosaurus . In 1926 , von Huene published and article on a new species . In the paper , he misspelt the genus Megalosaurus four times . These misspellings were Megalasaurus , Megolosaurus , Megalosaurns and Megalosausus . Each time , he created a new synonym of Megalosaurus . Later , in 1964 , Walker created another lapsus calami of Megalosaurus . This time , the " g " in its name was accidentally replaced with a " q " , erecting Meqalosaurus .
= = = Species named in the 19th century = = =
In 1857 , Joseph Leidy renamed Deinodon horridus ( Leidy , 1856 ) into Megalosaurus horridus , the " frightening one " , a genus based on teeth . In 1858 , Friedrich August Quenstedt named Megalosaurus cloacinus , based on a probable Late Triassic theropod tooth found near Bebenhausen , specimen SMNH 52457 . It is a nomen dubium . In 1869 Eugène Eudes @-@ Deslongchamps named Megalosaurus insignis , the " insignificant " , based on a theropod tooth found near La Hève in Normandy , having only a third of the height of the M. bucklandii tooth . The name at first remained a nomen nudum , but a description was provided , in 1870 , by Gustave Lennier . Today , it is considered a nomen dubium , an indeterminate member of the Theropoda , the specimen having in 1944 been destroyed by a bombardment . In 1870 , Jean @-@ Baptiste Greppin named Megalosaurus meriani based on specimen MH 350 , a premaxillary tooth found near Moutier and part of the collection of Peter Merian . Today , this is either referred to Ceratosaurus or seen as a nomen dubium , an indeterminate member of the Ceratosauria . In 1871 , Emanuel Bunzel named remains found near Schnaitheim Megalosaurus schnaitheimi . It is a nomen nudum , the fossils possibly belonging to Dakosaurus maximus . In 1876 , J. Henry , a science teacher at Besançon , in a published dissertation named four Late Triassic possible dinosaur teeth found near Moissey Megalosaurus obtusus , " the blunt one " . It is a nomen dubium , perhaps a theropod or some indeterminate predatory archosaur . In 1881 , Harry Govier Seeley named two possible theropod teeth found in Austria Megalosaurus pannoniensis . The specific name refers to Pannonia . It is a nomen dubium , possibly an indeterminate member of the Dromaeosauridae or Tyrannosauroidea . In 1883 , Seeley named Megalosaurus bredai , based on a thighbone , specimen BMNH 42997 found near Maastricht , the Netherlands . The specific name honours Jacob Gijsbertus Samuël van Breda . In 1932 , this was made a separate genus Betasuchus by Friedrich von Huene .
In 1882 , Henri @-@ Émile Sauvage named remains found at Louppy @-@ le @-@ Château , teeth and vertebrae from the Early Cretaceous , Megalosaurus superbus , " the proud one " . In 1923 , this became the genus Erectopus . In 1884 / 1885 , Wilhelm Barnim Dames , based on specimen UM 84 , a tooth from the Early Cretaceous , named Megalosaurus dunkeri , the specific name honouring Wilhelm Dunker . In 1923 , this was made a separate genus Altispinax . In 1885 , Joseph Henri Ferdinand Douvillé renamed Dakosaurus gracilis Quenstedt 1885 into Megalosaurus gracilis . Today the renaming is generally rejected . In 1889 , Richard Lydekker named Megalosaurus oweni , the specific name honouring Owen , based on a series of metatarsals from the Early Cretaceous , specimen BMNH R2556 . In 1991 , this was made a separate genus Valdoraptor . In 1892 , Edward Drinker Cope renamed Ceratosaurus nasicornis Marsh 1884 into Megalosaurus nasicornis . This had been largely motivated by a desire to annoy his rival Othniel Charles Marsh and the name has found no acceptance . In 1896 , Charles Jean Julien Depéret named Megalosaurus crenatissimus , " the much crenelated " , based on remains from the Late Cretaceous found in Madagascar . In 1955 this was made a separate genus Majungasaurus . The generic name Laelaps , used by Cope to denote a theropod , had been preoccupied by a mite . Marsh had therefore provided the replacement name Dryptosaurus , but Henry Fairfield Osborn , a partisan of Cope , rejected this replacement and thus in 1898 renamed Laelaps aquilunguis Cope 1866 into Megalosaurus aquilunguis .
= = = Species named in the 20th century = = =
In 1901 Baron Franz Nopcsa renamed Laelaps trihedrodon Cope 1877 into Megalosaurus trihedrodon . In the same publication Nopcsa renamed Poekilopleuron valens Leidy 1870 into Megalosaurus valens ; this probably represents fossil material of Allosaurus . In 1902 , Nopcsa named Megalosaurus hungaricus based on two teeth found in Transylvania , then part of the Kingdom of Hungary . The specimens , MAFI ob . 3106 , were later lost . It represents an indeterminate theropod . In 1903 , Louis Dollo named Megalosaurus lonzeensis based on a manual claw found near Lonzee in Belgium . He had first reported this claw in 1883 , and as a result some sources by mistake indicate this year as the date of the naming . It perhaps represents a member of the Noasauridae , or an indeterminate member of the Coelurosauria . In 1907 / 1908 , von Huene renamed Streptospondylus cuvieri Owen 1842 , based on a presently lost partial vertebra , into Megalosaurus cuvieri . This is today seen as a nomen dubium , an indeterminate member of the Tetanurae . In 1909 , Richard Lydekker named Megalosaurus woodwardi , based on a maxilla with tooth , specimen BMNH 41352 . This is today seen as a nomen dubium , an indeterminate member of the Theropoda .
In 1910 , Arthur Smith Woodward named Megalosaurus bradleyi based on a skull from the Middle Jurassic , the specific name honouring the collector F. Lewis Bradley . In 1926 , this was made a separate genus Proceratosaurus . In 1920 , Werner Janensch named Megalosaurus ingens , " the enormous " , based on specimen MB R 1050 , a twelve centimetre long tooth from German East Africa . It possibly represents a large member of the Carcharodontosauridae ; Carrano e.a. saw it as an indeterminate member of the Tetanurae . In 1923 , von Huene renamed Poekilopleuron bucklandii Eudes @-@ Deslongchamps 1838 into Megalosaurus poikilopleuron . Today , the genus Poekilopleuron is generally seen as valid . In the same publication , von Huene named two additional Megalosaurus species . The first was Megalosaurus parkeri , its specific name honouring William Kitchen Parker and based on a pelvis , leg bones and vertebrae from the Late Cretaceous . This was made the separate genus Metriacanthosaurus in 1964 . The second was Megalosaurus nethercombensis , named after its provenance from Nethercombe and based on two dentaries , leg bones , a pelvis and vertebrae from the Middle Jurassic , which von Huene himself in 1932 made the separate genus Magnosaurus . In 1925 , Depéret , based on two teeth from Algeria , named Megalosaurus saharicus . In 1931 / 1932 this was made the separate genus Carcharodontosaurus . In 1956 von Huene by mistake named the same species as Megalosaurus africanus , intending to base it on remains from Morocco but referring the Algerian teeth ; this implies that M. africanus is a junior objective synonym of M. saharicus . In 1926 , von Huene named Megalosaurus lydekkeri , its specific name honouring Richard Lydekker , based on BMNH 41352 , i.e. the same specimen that had already been made the holotype of M. woodwardi ( Lydekker , 1909 ) . This implies that M. lydekkeri is a junior objective synonym of M. woodwardi . It is likewise seen as a nomen dubium . In the same publication von Huene named Megalosaurus terquemi based on three teeth found near Hettingen , its specific name honouring Olry Terquem . It is seen as a nomen dubium , the fossil material probably representing some member of the Phytosauria or some other archosaur . In 1932 , a work by von Huene mentioned a Megalosaurus ( Magnosaurus ) woodwardi , a synonym of Magnosaurus woodwardi named in the same book . Its type specimen is differing from the earlier Megalosaurus woodwardi ( Lydekker , 1909 ) , the two names are not synonyms . In 1954 Samuel Welles named Megalosaurus wetherilli . This species is exceptional in being based on a rather complete skeleton , found in Arizona , from the Early Jurassic . Its specific name honours John Wetherill . In 1970 , Welles made this the separate genus Dilophosaurus . In 1955 , Albert @-@ Félix de Lapparent named Megalosaurus mersensis based on a series of twenty @-@ three vertebrae found near Tizi n 'Juillerh in a layer of the El Mers Formation of Morocco . This probably represents a member of the Mesosuchia . In 1956 , Alfred Sherwood Romer renamed Aggiosaurus nicaeensis Ambayrac 1913 , based on a lower jaw found near Nice , on the authority of von Huene into Megalosaurus nicaeensis . Originally it had been considered to be some crocodilian ; present opinion confirms this . In 1957 , de Lapparent named Megalosaurus pombali based on three teeth found near Pombal in the Jurassic of Portugal . Today it is seen as a nomen dubium , an indeterminate member of the Theropoda .
In 1965 , Oskar Kuhn renamed Zanclodon silesiacus Jaekel 1910 into Megalosaurus ? silesiacus . It is a nomen dubium based on the tooth of some indeterminate predatory Triassic archosaur , found in Silesia , perhaps a theropod . In 1966 , Guillermo del Corro named Megalosaurus inexpectatus , named " the unexpected " as it was discovered on a sauropod site with remains of Chubutisaurus , based on specimen MACN 18 @.@ 172 , a tooth found in Argentina . It might represent a member of the Carcharodontosauridae . In 1970 , Rodney Steel named two Megalosaurus species . Firstly , he renamed Iliosuchus incognitus Huene 1932 into Megalosaurus incognitus . Secondly , he renamed Nuthetes destructor Owen 1854 into Megalosaurus destructor . Both genera are today seen as not identical to Megalosaurus . Michael Waldman in 1974 renamed Sarcosaurus andrewsi Huene 1932 into Megalosaurus andrewsi . Indeed , Sarcosaurus andrewsi is today by some scientists not seen as directly related to the type species of Sarcosaurus : Sarcosaurus woodi . In the same publication Waldman named Megalosaurus hesperis , " the western one " , based on skull fragments from the Middle Jurassic . In 2008 this was made the separate genus Duriavenator . Del Corro in 1974 named Megalosaurus chubutensis , based on specimen MACN 18 @.@ 189 , a tooth found in Chubut Province . It is a nomen dubium , a possible carcharodontosaurid , or a very large abelisaurid .
In 1985 , Zhao Xijin named two Megalosaurus species found in Tibet . He had earlier mentioned these species in an unpublished dissertation of 1983 , implying they initially were invalid nomina ex dissertatione . However , his 1985 publication did not contain descriptions so the names are still nomina nuda . The first species was Megalosaurus dapukaensis , named for the Dapuka Group . It was , in the second edition of The Dinosauria , by mistake spelled as Megalosaurus cachuensis . The second species was Megalosaurus tibetensis . In 1987 / 1988 , Monique Vianey @-@ Liaud renamed Massospondylus rawesi ( Lydekker , 1890 ) , based on specimen NHMUK R4190 , a tooth from the Maastrichtian of India , into Megalosaurus rawesi . This is a nomen dubium , a possible member of the Abelisauridae . In 1988 , Gregory S. Paul renamed Torvosaurus tanneri Galton & Jensen 1979 into Megalosaurus tanneri . The change has found no acceptance . In 1973 , Anatoly Konstantinovich Rozhdestvensky had renamed Poekilopleuron schmidti Kiprijanow 1883 into a Megalosaurus sp . However , as it is formally impossible to change a named species into an unnamed one , George Olshevsky in 1991 used the new combination Megalosaurus schmidti . It is a chimaera . In 1993 , Ernst Probst and Raymund Windolf by mistake renamed Plateosaurus ornatus Huene 1905 into Megalosaurus ornatus by mentioning the latter name in a species list . This can be seen as a nomen vanum . The same publication listed the ichnospecies Megalosauropus teutonicus Kaever & Lapparent 1974 as a Megalosaurus teutonicus . In 1997 , Windolf renamed Saurocephalus monasterii Münster 1846 , based on a tooth found near Hannover , into Megalosaurus monasterii . It is a nomen dubium , an indeterminate member of the Theropoda . In 1998 , Peter Malcolm Galton renamed Zanclodon cambrensis Newton 1899 , based on a left lower jaw , specimen BGS 6532 found at Bridgend , into ? Megalosaurus cambrensis because it was not a basal sauropodomorph . It is a senior synonym of Gressylosaurus cambrensis Olshevsky 1991 . The specific name refers to Cambria , the Latin name of Wales . It probably represents a member of the Coelophysoidea , or some other predatory archosaur .
= = = Species list = = =
The complex naming history can be summarised in a formal species list . The naming authors are directly mentioned behind the name . If the name has been changed , they are placed in parentheses and the authors of the changed name are mentioned behind them . The list also indicates whether a name has been insufficiently described ( nomen nudum ) , is not taxonomically identifiable at the generic level ( nomen dubium ) , or fallen out of use ( nomen oblitum ) . Reclassifications under a different genus are mentioned behind the " = " sign ; if the reclassification is today considered valid , it is listed under Reassigned species .
= = Literature = =
Carrano , M.T. ; Benson , R.B.J. ; & Sampson , S.D. ( 2012 ) . " The phylogeny of Tetanurae ( Dinosauria : Theropoda ) " . Journal
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title was discontinued in 1987 , and Square Enix registered the Dragon Quest trademark for their use in 2003 . Also due to copyright issues , The World Ends with You could not be released under its original Japanese title It 's a Wonderful World .
Gameplay may be altered when it is felt that a game might be too easy or difficult for the Western audience . Some of the older Final Fantasy titles , such as Final Fantasy IV , were altered to be more easy to play in the West than in Japan , though their remakes and ports have generally restored the difficulty . Einhänder 's gameplay also received notable cuts for its North American release . On the other hand , Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings was made more difficult in localized versions because the Western market was judged " more familiar " with the real @-@ time strategy genre than the Japanese market . For the western release of Dissidia Final Fantasy , the game was changed to suit western players , including removing several RPG elements to make it more akin to an action game . Censorship can also affect the localized versions of the games and require obscuring mature themes , rewriting risque remarks or phrases , altering graphics or removing parts of some scenes . This was common in the NES and SNES eras but less drastic later on once video game content rating systems were established . Original western releases of early games in the Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest featured multiple occurrences of this form of censorship . Final Fantasy VIII also received some censorship for its European release , including the removal of a Nazi @-@ like uniform . Less commonly , this also goes the other way , for instance with Final Fantasy XII , in which a sequence involving violence against a female character was censored in the Japanese version but restored in the American and European releases . References to religion can also be removed , as in Final Fantasy IV and VI . Such references in Xenogears caused Square to consider not releasing it in North America .
= = Releases = =
In 2008 , Square Enix expressed willingness to make worldwide " simultaneous releases the norm " . Concerning Final Fantasy XI , at the time of the original English @-@ only European release in 2004 , producer Hiromichi Tanaka had stated that while Japanese / North American / Australian simultaneous releases are possible due to translating only Japanese to English , it was not possible for European countries due to the difficulty of finding good Japanese @-@ to @-@ European @-@ languages translators , and the fact that second @-@ hand translations from the English would be akin to " Chinese whispers " . However , the team later integrated full @-@ fledged French and German localization teams , achieving simultaneous release from the Japanese for three different languages from 2007 on . Another example of synchronized localization is Final Fantasy XIII : the company started the localization process alongside the game 's development to lessen the delay between the local and international releases .
Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn was localized in @-@ house by Square Enix under supervision by Naoki Yoshida and Koji Fox . Compared to its predecessor , which featured English @-@ only voice @-@ overs , A Realm Reborn featured English , Japanese , German and French similar to Final Fantasy XI . The game featured voice work in a low number of cutscenes : this was explained by the fact that the team did not want new voice recording to dominate the creation of new content after the initial release . The western release of Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII was delayed by over two months because of the large amount of dialogue , which changes due to the game 's time mechanic , that needed to be translated and recorded .
The viability of a game 's platform can also affect both the localization and the release , as in the case of the PlayStation Portable @-@ exclusive Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 , which would eventually come west as a high definition port for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One , and Seiken Densetsu 3 , which was not localized due to undefined technical problems . The company has also recently started releasing Japanese voice tracks as downloadable content , as in the case of Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII and one of the titles it has published , the Access Games @-@ developed Drakengard 3 . Another aspect of Square Enix 's policy concerning the western release of games was to make games that appealed to both western and Japanese audiences , but the worldwide success of the Japan @-@ aimed Bravely Default caused them to rethink their strategy .
= = = Additional content = = =
The localized versions sometimes expand on the original games . For example , when Honeywood found contradictions in the story of Chrono Cross , he worked with Masato Kato , the director and scenario writer of the game , to rewrite sections and add explanatory dialogue which was not in the original version . For Dragon Quest VIII : Journey of the Cursed King , voice @-@ overs and orchestral music were recorded for the Western releases , while the original Japanese version did not have them . Generally , gameplay content left out of the original game due to time constraints may be completed and added in the localized versions . Sometimes , the expanded localized versions of games from series like Kingdom Hearts and Final Fantasy are re @-@ released in Japan . The re @-@ releases are usually based on a direct port of the North American releases , with only text translated back in Japanese and Japanese subtitles to English dialogue . They can also include features and tweaks previously only available in the western version alongside other additions .
= = Reception = =
1UP.com 's Wesley Fenlon praised Square Enix for the high quality of its translations , especially as space allocated for text and dialogue had been expanded with new and re @-@ released versions of games . Jeremy Parish , writing for the same site , said that the quality of Square Enix 's localizations had " gone from laughable [ ... ] to some of the best around . " Both praise and criticism has been given to individual games for the quality of their localizations . Xenogears , the company 's first game to feature voice acting , drew criticism in regard to its audio presentation , while The Bouncer received a fairly positive response . Final Fantasy X received praise , although poor lip @-@ synching and some aspects of the actors ' performances were criticized . The English release of X @-@ 2 ended up receiving the Seventh Annual Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences award in 2004 for Outstanding Achievement in Character Performance . Final Fantasy XII and Vagrant Story were both highly praised for the qualities of their localizations .
= Italian battleship Conte di Cavour =
Conte di Cavour was the name ship of the three Conte di Cavour @-@ class battleships built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1910s . She served during both World War I and World War II , although she was little used and saw no combat during the former . The ship supported operations during the Corfu Incident in 1923 and spent much of the rest of the decade in reserve . She was rebuilt between 1933 and 1937 with more powerful guns , additional armor and considerably more speed than before .
Both Conte di Cavour and her sister ship , Giulio Cesare , participated in the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 , where the latter was lightly damaged . They were both present when British torpedo bombers attacked the fleet at Taranto in November 1940 , and Conte di Cavour was torpedoed . She was deliberately grounded , with most of her hull underwater , and her repairs were not completed before the Italian surrender in September 1943 . The ship was then captured by the Germans , but they made no use of her . She was damaged in an Allied air raid in early 1945 and capsized seven days later . Conte di Cavour was eventually scrapped in 1946 .
= = Description = =
Conte di Cavour was 168 @.@ 9 meters ( 554 ft 2 in ) long at the waterline , and 176 meters ( 577 ft 5 in ) long overall . The ship had a beam of 28 meters ( 91 ft 10 in ) , and a draft of 9 @.@ 3 meters ( 30 ft 6 in ) . She displaced 23 @,@ 088 long tons ( 23 @,@ 458 t ) at normal load , and 25 @,@ 086 long tons ( 25 @,@ 489 t ) at deep load . She had a crew of 31 officers and 969 enlisted men . The ship 's machinery consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam for the turbines was provided by 20 Blechynden water @-@ tube boilers , eight of which burned fuel oil , and twelve which burned both oil and coal . Designed to reach a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) from 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) , Conte di Cavour failed to reach this goal on her sea trials , despite generally exceeding the rated power of her turbines . The ship only made a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 2 knots ( 41 @.@ 1 km / h ; 25 @.@ 5 mph ) using 31 @,@ 278 shp ( 23 @,@ 324 kW ) . She had a cruising radius of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of thirteen 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in three triple @-@ gun turret and two twin @-@ gun turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . The secondary battery comprised eighteen 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , all mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull . Conte di Cavour was also armed with fourteen 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . She was protected with Krupp cemented steel manufactured by Terni . The belt armor was 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) thick and the main deck was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 280 mm ( 11 in ) worth of armor plating .
= = Modifications and reconstruction = =
Shortly after the end of World War I , the number of 50 @-@ caliber 76 mm guns was reduced to 13 , all mounted on the turret tops , and six new 40 @-@ caliber 76 @-@ millimeter anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were installed abreast the aft funnel . In addition two license @-@ built 2 @-@ pounder AA guns were mounted on the forecastle deck . In 1925 – 26 the foremast was replaced by a four @-@ legged mast , which was moved forward of the funnels , the rangefinders were upgraded , and the ship was equipped to handle a Macchi M.18 seaplane mounted on the center turret . Around that same time she was equipped with a fixed aircraft catapult on the port side of the forecastle .
Conte di Cavour began an extensive reconstruction in October 1933 at the CRDA Trieste shipyard that lasted until June 1937 . A new bow section was grafted over the existing bow , which increased her length by 10 @.@ 31 meters ( 33 ft 10 in ) to 186 @.@ 4 meters ( 611 ft 7 in ) and her beam increased to 28 @.@ 6 meters ( 93 ft 10 in ) . The ship 's draft at deep load increased to 10 @.@ 02 meters ( 32 ft 10 in ) . All of the changes made increased her displacement to 26 @,@ 140 long tons ( 26 @,@ 560 t ) at standard load and 29 @,@ 100 long tons ( 29 @,@ 600 t ) at deep load . The ship 's crew increased to 1 @,@ 260 officers and enlisted men . Two of the propeller shafts were removed and the existing turbines were replaced by two Belluzzo geared steam turbines rated at 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) . The boilers were replaced by eight Yarrow boilers . In service her maximum speed was about 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) and she had a range of 6 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 900 km ; 7 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) .
The main guns were bored out to 320 millimeters ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) and the center turret and the torpedo tubes were removed . All of the existing secondary armament and AA guns were replaced by a dozen 120 mm guns in six twin @-@ gun turrets and eight 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) AA guns in twin turrets . In addition the ship was fitted with a dozen Breda 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) light AA guns in six twin @-@ gun mounts and twelve 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Breda M31 anti @-@ aircraft machine guns , also in twin mounts . In 1940 the 13 @.@ 2 mm machine guns were replaced by 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) AA guns in twin mounts . The tetrapodal mast was replaced with a new forward conning tower , protected with 260 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) thick armor . Atop the conning tower there was a fire @-@ control director fitted with two large stereo @-@ rangefinders , with a base length of 7 @.@ 2 meters ( 23 @.@ 6 ft ) .
The deck armor was increased during the reconstruction to a total of 135 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) over the engine and boiler rooms and 166 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) over the magazines , although its distribution over three decks , each with multiple layers , meant that it was considerably less effective than a single plate of the same thickness . The armor protecting the barbettes was reinforced with 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) plates . All this armor weighed a total of 3 @,@ 227 long tons ( 3 @,@ 279 t ) . The existing underwater protection was replaced by the Pugliese torpedo defense system ; a large cylinder surrounded by fuel oil or water that was intended to absorb the blast of a torpedo warhead . It lacked enough depth to be fully effective against contemporary torpedoes . A major problem of the reconstruction was that the ship 's increased draft meant that their waterline armor belt was almost completely submerged with any significant load .
= = Construction and service = =
Conte di Cavour , named after the statesman Count Camillo Benso di Cavour , was laid down at La Spezia Arsenale , La Spezia , on 10 August 1910 , and launched on 10 August 1911 . She was completed on 1 April 1915 , and served as a flagship in the southern Adriatic Sea during World War I. She saw no action , however , and spent little time at sea . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and minelayers could operate too effectively in the narrow waters of the Adriatic . The threat from these underwater weapons to his capital ships was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as MAS torpedo boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Meanwhile , Revel 's battleships would be preserved to confront the Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet in the event that it sought a decisive engagement .
In 1919 she sailed to North America and visited ports in the United States as well as Halifax , Canada . The ship was mostly inactive in 1921 because of personnel shortages , and was refitted at La Spezia from November to March 1922 . Conte di Cavour and Giulio Cesare supported Italian operations on Corfu in 1923 after an Italian general and his staff were murdered on Corfu ; Benito Mussolini was not satisfied with the Greek Government 's response , so he ordered Italian troops to occupy the island . Conte di Cavour bombarded the town with her 76 mm guns , killing 20 and wounding 32 civilians . She escorted King Victor Emmanuel III and his wife aboard the battleship Dante Alighieri on a state visit to Spain in 1924 , and was placed in reserve upon her return until 1926 , when she conveyed Mussolini on a voyage to Libya . The ship was again placed in reserve from 1927 until 1933 , when she began her reconstruction .
= = = World War II = = =
Early in World War II , the Conte di Cavour and her sister took part in the Battle of Calabria ( also known as the Battle of Punto Stilo ) on 9 July 1940 . They were part of the 1st Battle Squadron , commanded by Admiral Inigo Campioni , during which they engaged major elements of the British Mediterranean Fleet . The British were escorting a convoy from Malta to Alexandria , while the Italians had finished escorting another from Naples to Benghazi , Libya . Admiral Andrew Cunningham , commander of the Mediterranean Fleet , attempted to interpose his ships between the Italians and their base at Taranto . Crews on the fleets spotted each other in the middle of the afternoon and the Italian battleships opened fire at 15 : 53 at a range of nearly 27 @,@ 000 meters ( 29 @,@ 000 yd ) . The two leading British battleships , HMS Warspite and Malaya , replied a minute later . Three minutes after she opened fire , shells from Giulio Cesare began to straddle Warspite which made a small turn and increased speed , to throw off the Italian ship 's aim , at 16 : 00 . At that same time , a shell from Warspite struck Giulio Cesare at a distance of about 24 @,@ 000 meters ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) . Uncertain how severe the damage was , Campioni ordered his battleships to turn away in the face of superior British numbers and they successfully disengaged . Repairs to Giulio Cesare were completed by the end of August and both ships unsuccessfully attempted to intercept British convoys to Malta in August and September .
On the night of 11 November 1940 , Conte di Cavour was at anchor in Taranto harbor when she was attacked by 21 Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from the British aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious , along with several other warships . The ship 's gunners shot down one Swordfish shortly after the aircraft dropped its torpedo , but it exploded underneath ' B ' turret at 23 : 15 , knocking out the main bow pump . Her captain requested tugboats to help ground the ship on a nearby 12 @-@ meter ( 39 ft ) sandbank at 23 : 27 , but Admiral Bruno Brivonesi , commander of the 5th Battleship Division , vetoed the request until it was too late and Conte di Cavour had to use a deeper , 17 @-@ meter ( 56 ft ) , sandbank at 04 : 45 the following morning . She initially grounded on an even keel , but temporarily took on a 50 @-@ degree list before settling to the bottom at 08 : 00 with a 11 @.@ 5 @-@ degree list . Only her superstructure and gun turrets were above water by this time .
Conte di Cavour had the lowest priority for salvage among the three battleships sunk during the attack and little work was done for several months . The first priority was to patch the holes in the hull and then her guns and parts of her superstructure were removed to lighten the ship . False bulwarks were welded to the upper sides of the hull to prevent water from reentering the hull and pumping the water overboard began in May 1941 . Some 15 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 15 @,@ 000 long tons ) of water were pumped out before Conte di Cavour was refloated on 9 June and entered the ex @-@ Austro @-@ Hungarian floating dry dock GO @-@ 12 on 12 July . The damage was more extensive than originally thought and temporary repairs to enable the ship to reach Trieste for permanent repairs took until 22 December .
Her guns were operable by September 1942 , but replacing her entire electrical system took longer so the navy took advantage of the delays and incorporated some modifications based on lessons learned from the attack . Other changes planned were the replacement of her secondary and anti @-@ aircraft weapons with a dozen 135 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) dual @-@ purpose guns in twin mounts , twelve 65 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) , and twenty @-@ three 20 mm AA guns . The repair work was suspended in June 1943 , with an estimated six months work left to do on Conte di Cavour remaining , in order to expedite the construction of urgently needed smaller ships . She was captured by the Germans on 8 September when Italy surrendered to the Allies , and was reduced to a hulk . She was damaged in an air raid on 17 February 1945 , and capsized on 23 February . Refloated shortly after the end of the war , Conte di Cavour was scrapped in 1946 .
= How Brown Saw the Baseball Game =
How Brown Saw the Baseball Game , also known as How Jones Saw the Baseball Game , is an American short comedy film produced in 1907 and distributed by the Lubin Manufacturing Company . The film follows a baseball fan , named Mr. Brown , who drinks large quantities of alcohol before a baseball game and becomes so intoxicated that the game appears to him in reverse motion . During production , trick photography was used to achieve this effect .
The film was released in November 1907 . It received positive reviews in a 1908 issue of The Moving Picture World , a film journal , that reported the film was successful and " truly funny . " As of 2015 it is unclear whether a print of the film has survived . The identities of the film 's cast and production crew are not known . Film historians have noted similarities between the plot of How Brown Saw the Baseball Game and the Edwin S. Porter @-@ directed comedy film How the Office Boy Saw the Ball Game released the previous year .
= = Plot = =
Before heading out to a baseball game at a nearby ballpark , sports fan Mr. Brown drinks several highball cocktails . He arrives at the ballpark to watch the game , but has become so inebriated that the game appears to him in reverse , with the players running the bases backwards and the baseball flying back into the pitcher 's hand . After the game is over , Mr. Brown is escorted home by one of his friends . When they arrive at Brown 's house , they encounter his wife who becomes furious with the friend and proceeds to physically assault him , believing he is responsible for her husband 's severe intoxication .
= = Production = =
How Brown Saw the Baseball Game was produced by Lubin Manufacturing Company , a company founded by German @-@ American film pioneer Siegmund Lubin . At the time How Brown Saw the Baseball Game was made , the company was creating and distributing up to three films a week . The identities of How Brown Saw the Baseball Game 's director and cast are not known .
It is a silent film shot in black and white , and the finished product comprised 350 feet ( 110 m ) of film . For the scenes which took place at the ballpark , the filmmakers used a form of trick photography in order to show the baseball players running backwards . Siegmund Lubin filed a copyright for the film , under the alternate title How Jones Saw the Baseball Game , on October 26 , 1907 .
= = Release and reception = =
How Brown Saw the Baseball Game was released into theaters by Lubin Manufacturing Company on November 16 , 1907 , and was still being shown as late as August 1908 . During this time , the film sometimes was presented as part of a double feature with the 1907 film Neighbors Who Borrow , a short comedy film about a man who lends nearly everything he owns to his neighbors until his wife returns home and berates him for doing so .
Advertisements for the film touted it as " such fun " , and Lubin himself promoted the film as a " screamingly funny farce " . It received a positive review in the June 1908 issue of The Moving Picture World which described the film as " truly funny " and that it proved to be " a veritable success " .
Modern writings have often suggested that How Brown Saw the Baseball Game was produced as Lubin Manufacturing Company 's alternative to the Edwin S. Porter @-@ directed comedy How the Office Boy Saw the Ball Game , a film released by Edison Studios in 1906 about an office employee sneaking out of his workplace to watch a baseball game only to discover his employer in a nearby seat . Lubin Manufacturing Company was known for creating films similar to competing motion pictures made by other studios . Lubin had previously created films resembling Edison Studios ' releases Uncle Tom 's Cabin and The Great Train Robbery .
Author Jack Spears wrote in his book Hollywood : The Golden Era that How Brown Saw the Baseball Game and How the Office Boy Saw the Ball Game " used practically the same plot " ; Rob Elderman 's article " The Baseball Film : to 1920 " in the journal Base Ball likewise notes the similarities of their plotlines .
As of August 2015 , it was unclear whether there is a surviving print of How Brown Saw the Baseball Game ; it has likely become a lost film . If rediscovered , the film would be in the public domain .
= The Italian Job ( 2003 film ) =
The Italian Job is a 2003 American heist film directed by F. Gary Gray , written by Wayne and Donna Powers and produced by Donald DeLine . The film stars Mark Wahlberg , Charlize Theron , Jason Statham , Edward Norton , Seth Green , Mos Def and Donald Sutherland . It is an American remake of the 1969 British film of the same name , and is about a team of thieves who plan to steal gold from a former associate who double @-@ crossed them . Despite the shared title , the plot and characters of this film differ from those of its source material ; Gray described the film as " an homage to the original . "
Most of the film was shot on location in Venice and Los Angeles , where canals and streets , respectively , were temporarily shut down during principal photography . Distributed by Paramount Pictures , The Italian Job was theatrically released in the United States on May 30 , 2003 , and grossed over $ 176 million worldwide . Critical response was generally positive , with publications highlighting the action sequences . A sequel , The Brazilian Job , has reportedly been in development since 2004 , but has yet to be produced as of 2015 .
= = Plot = =
John Bridger , a professional safecracker , has assembled a team to steal 35 million dollars worth of gold bullion from a safe held by Italian gangsters in Venice that had stolen it weeks earlier . The team includes Charlie Croker , a professional thief ; Napster , a computer expert ; Handsome Rob , their wheelman ; Steve , their inside man ; and Left Ear , their explosives expert . They successfully complete the theft by stealing the actual safe and stealing the gold from it after the safe lands underwater while the gangsters are occupied with a decoy led by Rob and Napster . After leaving the city , the team agrees to split up the gold and part ways once they return to the United States . However , Steve turns on them : in the Alps near Austrian border , he and his own men intercept their van on a bridge and take the gold . When John confronts him , Steve kills him . Rob drives the van into the lake off a bridge , where they keep themselves alive using oxygen tanks from the heist . Steve assumes they are dead and leaves with the gold .
A year later , Charlie and the others have returned to the States and have located Steve under his new false identity , changing his last name to Frizelli , moving to Los Angeles and laundering the gold for money . Charlie goes to Philadelphia and meets with Stella Bridger , John 's estranged daughter and also a skilled private safecracker working for the police , who is furious with him , believing that Charlie was responsible for the death of her father , but Charlie instead convinces her to help get revenge on Steve by helping with the heist to steal back the gold .
The group monitor Steve 's expensive mansion in Los Angeles , identiying the various security details . Charlie gets in contact with an associate , Skinny Pete , to obtain explosives for Left Ear , to blow the mansion gates , and Rob obtains three heavily modified Mini Coopers and calls in his friend Wrench , a car mechanic , to modify them so that they will be able to drive through the mansion and carry the gold out . Charlie guides Stella , disguised as a cable repair representative , through Steve 's mansion to scope out its interior using a hidden camera . Steve flirts with Stella while she is there , unaware of her connection to John , and she decides go on a date with Steve to draw him out of his house , allowing them to steal the gold . However , the group finds that Steve 's neighbors are having a party , and their use of explosives will certainly draw attention , so they bail on the plan . Stella accidentally reveals her connection to John to Steve during their date . Following it , Charlie arrives himself and Steve is shocked about the team 's survival , but taunts Charlie over John 's death and the reveal of the plan , causing Charlie to punch him in the face before leaving .
Following this , Steve becomes paranoid , knowing that Charlie and the others are likely looking to steal the gold back , and begins to launder it faster through a Ukrainian jewelry store owner named Yevhen . Yevhen unintentionally reveals his knowledge of the Venice heist , and Steve kills him to keep him quiet . News of Yevhen 's death reaches his cousin , Mashkov , a leading member of a Ukrainian crime family . Mashkov traces a link to Skinny Pete , since he traced the gold over Yevhen , and confronts him , and Skinny Pete is forced to reveal Charlie 's involvement . Meanwhile , Steve makes plans to move his safe with the gold to Mexico , using an armored truck to transport it to a private plane waiting at Los Angeles International Airport .
Napster overhears the plan , and Charlie devises a new plan to steal the gold en route to the airport by having Napster gain control of the downtown traffic light system as to be able to guide the armored truck to a specific location . On the day of transport , they are surprised when three trucks leave Steve 's mansion with Steve monitoring them overhead by helicopter , but soon determine that two are decoys . Napster successfully routes the target truck to a staging point , out of Steve 's sight . Left Ear detonates part of the street , sending the van into the Metro rail tunnel where the others are waiting . Knowing that Steve will have sent out pursuit vehicles on losing sight of the truck , Stella is able to successfully crack the safe , and they load the gold into the Mini Coopers , which are small enough to fit through the storm drain tunnels . They are able to stay just ahead of Steve 's armed men and make it through part of the Los Angeles River bed onto the streets , where Napster , still in control of the traffic system , is able to create a green wave to allow them to easily flee . Charlie lures Steve away from the other two as they head for Union Station , forcing Steve to land his helicopter and pursue in a stolen truck .
At Union Station , the cars are loaded onto a train car with the help of Wrench . Steve arrives shortly thereafter and after bribing Wrench , is surprised to find Charlie and the others waiting for him . Steve brandishes a gun and demands his gold back , but Mashkov arrives ; Charlie explains that he has offered Mashkov part of the gold and Steve in exchange for helping with security protection . Steve is taken away by Mashkov , revealing he will be killed . The group boards the train as it departs to New Orleans , and celebrate in John 's honor . The epilogue shows them all having used their share of the gold for their own desired purposes .
= = Cast = =
Mark Wahlberg as Charlie Croker , the team 's mastermind and thief , who seeks revenge for the murder of his mentor , John Bridger .
Charlize Theron as Stella Bridger , John 's daughter and a safe and vault " technician " . She prefers the use of technology to crack safes for the police , unlike her father , who did the whole thing by touch .
Edward Norton as Steve Frazelli , the " inside man " during the Venice heist who later betrays Charlie , John , Rob , Lyle and " Left Ear " , and leaves them for dead .
Donald Sutherland as John Bridger , Stella 's father and safecracker whose methods are " old @-@ fashioned " , handled entirely by touch . He is Charlie 's longtime partner .
Jason Statham as " Handsome Rob " , the team 's wheelman and a ladies ' man . According to Charlie , he set the record for the world 's longest freeway chase and received 110 love letters sent to his jail cell from women who saw him on the news .
Seth Green as Lyle ( a.k.a. " Napster " ) , the team 's computer expert . He claims he is the real inventor of Napster , saying that Shawn Fanning , who was his roommate at Northeastern University back in 1999 , stole the idea from him .
Mos Def as Gilligan " Left Ear " , the team 's demolition and explosives expert . His name comes from an incident during his childhood when he put too many M @-@ 80s in a toilet bowl and lost the hearing in his right ear .
Franky G as Wrench , a mechanic who Rob contacts to engineer the Minis to carry the gold . He also assists in planting explosives to drop the armored car into the subway , where he serves as the lookout .
Boris Lee Krutonog as Yevhen , a jewelry store owner with ties to the Ukrainian mob . Hired by Steve to help sell the gold , Steve shoots him after realizing that he knows too much about where the gold came from .
Olek Krupa as Mashkov , a high @-@ ranking member of an L.A. Ukrainian mob family and the cousin of Yevhen . He uses Yevhen 's store as a laundering front and also has a front on a local junkyard , and he is also against Steve for murdering Yevhen .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Neal Purvis and Robert Wade wrote a draft of a remake of the 1969 British crime comedy The Italian Job which was rejected by Paramount . Screenwriting team Donna and Wayne Powers were subsequently commissioned to write a remake . The duo viewed the original film , which neither had seen before , only once " because [ they ] wanted to get a sense of what it was about " in regards to its tone . Over the course of two years and through 18 drafts , they developed a screenplay which was described by director F. Gary Gray as " inspired by the original . " Gray , Powers and Powers , and executive producer James Dyer identified the most prominent similarities as the trio of Mini Coopers used by the thieves , as well as the titular heist involving the theft of gold bullion . Some sequences of the film were storyboarded and previsualized by Gray before production began .
= = = Casting = = =
Gray had been interested in working with Wahlberg since seeing his performance in Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) . After reading the script for The Italian Job , Gray contacted Wahlberg , who " fell in love with it " after reading it himself . Green was also attracted to the project because of the script . Theron was Gray 's first choice for the character of Stella Bridger , and Wahlberg also recommended her for the role . She spent time with a safecracker in preparing for the role . Gray
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felt that the Los Angeles heist sequence was " arguably stretched out a little too long " . Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 , writing that the film was " two hours of mindless escapism on a relatively skilled professional level . " Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle concurred , describing The Italian Job as pure but smart entertainment " plotted and executed with invention and humor " . Reviewer James Berardinelli also gave the film 3 stars out of 4 , and said that Gray had discovered the right recipe to do a heist movie : " keep things moving , develop a nice rapport between the leads , toss in the occasional surprise , and top with a sprinkling of panache . " Variety 's Robert Koehler compared The Italian Job to The Score ( 2001 ) , another " finely tuned heist pic " which also featured Edward Norton in a similar role .
David Denby , writing for The New Yorker , praised Norton 's performance , as well as those of Seth Green and Mos Def , and the lack of digital effects in the action sequences . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B − grade , comparing it positively to the 2000 remake of Gone in 60 Seconds , as well as the 2001 remake of Ocean 's Eleven . New York Daily News reviewer Jack Mathews gave The Italian Job 2 @.@ 5 stars out of 4 , writing that the action sequences and plot twists were a " vast improvement " from the original , and that the Los Angeles heist sequence was " clever and preposterous " . Mike Clark of USA Today also questioned the probability of the Los Angeles heist sequence and wrote that the film was " a lazy and in @-@ name @-@ only remake " , giving it 2 stars out of 4 . Peter Travers , writing for Rolling Stone , gave The Italian Job 1 star out of 4 , describing the film as " a tricked @-@ out remake of a heist flick that was already flat and formulaic in 1969 . " Travers enjoyed the comic relief in Green 's and Def 's characters , and added that Norton 's was " [ t ] he most perversely magnetic performance " outside of the Mini Coopers , but felt that there was a lack of logic in the film .
= = = Home media = = =
The Italian Job was released on DVD by Paramount Home Entertainment October 7 , 2003 , and includes five bonus features on different aspects of the film 's production , in addition to six deleted scenes . It was released on HD DVD August 8 , 2006 and on Blu @-@ ray Disc October 24 , 2006 .
= = = Accolades = = =
F. Gary Gray won a Film Life Movie Award for Best Director at the 2004 American Black Film Festival . Clay Cullen , Michael Caines , Jean Paul Ruggiero and Mike Massa won an award for Best Specialty Stunt at the 2004 Taurus World Stunt Awards for the boat chase through the canals of Venice . The Italian Job was nominated for the 2003 Saturn Award for Best Action / Adventure / Thriller Film , but lost to Kill Bill . In April 2009 , IGN named the film 's Los Angeles chase sequence one of the top 10 car chases of the 21st Century .
= = = Analysis = = =
Criminologist Nicole Rafter saw The Italian Job as part of a revival of the heist film around the start of the 21st century , along with The Thomas Crown Affair ( 1999 ) and Ocean 's Eleven ( 2001 ) , both of which were also remakes of 1960s heist films . In describing his theory of a " team film " genre , film scholar Dr. Jeremy Strong writes that The Italian Job could be categorized as such , along with The Magnificent Seven ( 1960 ) , The Great Escape ( 1963 ) , The Dirty Dozen ( 1967 ) , and more recently The Usual Suspects ( 1995 ) and Mission : Impossible ( 1996 ) . He states that
a team film involves a group working towards a particular objective . However , goal @-@ orientation is a widely shared plot attribute of many texts and genres and it is also the case that the overwhelming majority of films involve a plurality of interacting characters . An element that distinguishes the team film then is that a heightened significance is afforded to the group as the means by which a given objective is attempted . [ ... ] From film to film there is variation in the extent to which particular central characters may determine events and take up screen time but team films are recognizable by their insistence upon the relationship between group and goal .
Strong additionally makes a direct comparison between The Italian Job and Mission : Impossible , citing the plot device of " a first task that elucidates the roles and skills of team members but which is sabotaged by betrayal , necessitating a re @-@ constitution of the team . "
The use of BMW 's then @-@ new line of retro @-@ styled Minis in the film was mentioned by critics and business analysts alike as a prime example of modern product placement , or more specifically " brand integration " . Film critic Joe Morgenstern called The Italian Job " the best car commercial ever " . Zacharek and Mathews both noted the cars ' prominence in their reviews of the film , also writing that their presence served as a connection to the 1969 film upon which it was based . BusinessWeek reported in April 2004 that sales of the Mini in 2003 — the year in which The Italian Job was theatrically released — had increased 22 percent over the previous year .
= = Possible sequel = =
A sequel to The Italian Job , tentatively titled The Brazilian Job , was in development by the summer of 2004 , but has since faced multiple delays . Principal photography was initially slated to begin in March 2005 , with a projected release date in November or December 2005 . However , the script was never finalized , and the release date was pushed back to sometime in 2006 , and later summer 2007 .
Writer David Twohy approached Paramount Pictures with an original screenplay entitled The Wrecking Crew , and though the studio reportedly liked the idea , they thought it would work better as a sequel to The Italian Job . Gray was slated to return as director , as well as most , if not all , of the original cast . At least two drafts of the script had been written by August 2007 , but the project had not been greenlit .
In March 2008 , in an interview , Jason Statham said that " somebody should just erase it from IMDb .... and put it back on there when it 's fully due and ready . [ ... ] It 's one of those things that 's just sitting around . " Producer Donald De Line revealed in June that a script for The Brazilian Job had been developed and budgeted , but " a lot of things were happening with various management changes and it got tabled . " Describing its story , he said it " starts in Brazil , the set up is in Rio and the picture moves to Belgium where there ’ s something involving diamonds . " However , Green stated that September that the sequel was unlikely in the near future .
On March 9 , 2009 , De Line said that " [ we ] have a version at Paramount that we 're talking very serious about " , additionally mentioning that the cast was interested in the project . Neal Purvis and Robert Wade had been working on a draft of the sequel that year . The Daily Record reported in September that Theron was signed up for the film . That October , Gray said that he enjoyed making The Italian Job and hoped that he would still be interested in directing the sequel if the script became finalized and mentioned that it would be dependent upon scheduling .
In January 2010 , Twohy was quoted in an interview as saying " The Brazilian Job probably isn 't happening . I wrote it years ago , and they just keep rolling it over on IMDb . Paramount — what can I say ? " When asked about the sequel that June , Green said " The Brazilian Job doesn 't exist actually " and called it a " wonderful myth of IMDb . " However , the next month , Mark Wahlberg said that sequel production was " active " again .
= Black hole =
A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing — including particles and electromagnetic radiation such as light — can escape from inside it . The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole . The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon . Although crossing the event horizon has enormous effect on the fate of the object crossing it , it appears to have no locally detectable features . In many ways a black hole acts like an ideal black body , as it reflects no light . Moreover , quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation , with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass . This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass , making it essentially impossible to observe .
Objects whose gravitational fields are too strong for light to escape were first considered in the 18th century by John Michell and Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace . The first modern solution of general relativity that would characterize a black hole was found by Karl Schwarzschild in 1916 , although its interpretation as a region of space from which nothing can escape was first published by David Finkelstein in 1958 . Black holes were long considered a mathematical curiosity ; it was during the 1960s that theoretical work showed they were a generic prediction of general relativity . The discovery of neutron stars sparked interest in gravitationally collapsed compact objects as a possible astrophysical reality .
Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle . After a black hole has formed , it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings . By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes , supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses ( M ☉ ) may form . There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies .
Despite its invisible interior , the presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter and with electromagnetic radiation such as visible light . Matter that falls onto a black hole can form an external accretion disk heated by friction , forming some of the brightest objects in the universe . If there are other stars orbiting a black hole , their orbits can be used to determine the black hole 's mass and location . Such observations can be used to exclude possible alternatives such as neutron stars . In this way , astronomers have identified numerous stellar black hole candidates in binary systems , and established that the radio source known as Sagittarius A * , at the core of our own Milky Way galaxy , contains a supermassive black hole of about 4 @.@ 3 million solar masses .
On 11 February 2016 , the LIGO collaboration announced the first observation of gravitational waves ; because these waves were generated from a black hole merger it was the first ever direct detection of a binary black hole merger . On 15 June 2016 , a second detection of a gravitational wave event from colliding black holes was announced .
= = History = =
The idea of a body so massive that even light could not escape was first put forward by John Michell in a letter written in 1783 to Henry Cavendish of the Royal Society :
If the semi @-@ diameter of a sphere of the same density as the Sun were to exceed that of the Sun in the proportion of 500 to 1 , a body falling from an infinite height towards it would have acquired at its surface greater velocity than that of light , and consequently supposing light to be attracted by the same force in proportion to its vis inertiae , with other bodies , all light emitted from such a body would be made to return towards it by its own proper gravity .
In 1796 , mathematician Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace promoted the same idea in the first and second editions of his book Exposition du système du Monde ( it was removed from later editions ) . He justified his argument mathematically in 1799 .
Such " dark stars " were largely ignored in the nineteenth century , since it was not understood how a massless wave such as light could be influenced by gravity .
= = = General relativity = = =
In 1915 , Albert Einstein developed his theory of general relativity , having earlier shown that gravity does influence light 's motion . Only a few months later , Karl Schwarzschild found a solution to the Einstein field equations , which describes the gravitational field of a point mass and a spherical mass . A few months after Schwarzschild , Johannes Droste , a student of Hendrik Lorentz , independently gave the same solution for the point mass and wrote more extensively about its properties . This solution had a peculiar behaviour at what is now called the Schwarzschild radius , where it became singular , meaning that some of the terms in the Einstein equations became infinite . The nature of this surface was not quite understood at the time . In 1924 , Arthur Eddington showed that the singularity disappeared after a change of coordinates ( see Eddington – Finkelstein coordinates ) , although it took until 1933 for Georges Lemaître to realize that this meant the singularity at the Schwarzschild radius was an unphysical coordinate singularity . Arthur Eddington did however comment on the possibility of a star with mass compressed to the Schwarzschild radius in a 1926 book , noting that Einstein 's theory allows us to rule out overly large densities for visible stars like Betelgeuse because " a star of 250 million km radius could not possibly have so high a density as the sun . Firstly , the force of gravitation would be so great that light would be unable to escape from it , the rays falling back to the star like a stone to the earth . Secondly , the red shift of the spectral lines would be so great that the spectrum would be shifted out of existence . Thirdly , the mass would produce so much curvature of the space @-@ time metric that space would close up around the star , leaving us outside ( i.e. , nowhere ) . "
In 1931 , Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar calculated , using special relativity , that a non @-@ rotating body of electron @-@ degenerate matter above a certain limiting mass ( now called the Chandrasekhar limit at 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ ) has no stable solutions . His arguments were opposed by many of his contemporaries like Eddington and Lev Landau , who argued that some yet unknown mechanism would stop the collapse . They were partly correct : a white dwarf slightly more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit will collapse into a neutron star , which is itself stable because of the Pauli exclusion principle . But in 1939 , Robert Oppenheimer and others predicted that neutron stars above approximately 3 M ☉ ( the Tolman – Oppenheimer – Volkoff limit ) would collapse into black holes for the reasons presented by Chandrasekhar , and concluded that no law of physics was likely to intervene and stop at least some stars from collapsing to black holes .
Oppenheimer and his co @-@ authors interpreted the singularity at the boundary of the Schwarzschild radius as indicating that this was the boundary of a bubble in which time stopped . This is a valid point of view for external observers , but not for infalling observers . Because of this property , the collapsed stars were called " frozen stars " , because an outside observer would see the surface of the star frozen in time at the instant where its collapse takes it inside the Schwarzschild radius .
= = = Golden age = = =
In 1958 , David Finkelstein identified the Schwarzschild surface as an event horizon , " a perfect unidirectional membrane : causal influences can cross it in only one direction " . This did not strictly contradict Oppenheimer 's results , but extended them to include the point of view of infalling observers . Finkelstein 's solution extended the Schwarzschild solution for the future of observers falling into a black hole . A complete extension had already been found by Martin Kruskal , who was urged to publish it .
These results came at the beginning of the golden age of general relativity , which was marked by general rel
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,@ 700 non @-@ Latin American Western ( not including more than 33 @,@ 000 American military personnel and their dependents stationed throughout the country ) and 345 @,@ 500 Latin American expatriates , 274 @,@ 700 of whom were Brazilians ( said to be primarily Japanese descendants , or nikkeijin , along with their spouses ) , the largest community of Westerners .
The most dominant native ethnic group is the Yamato people ; primary minority groups include the indigenous Ainu and Ryukyuan peoples , as well as social minority groups like the burakumin . There are persons of mixed ancestry incorporated among the Yamato , such as those from Ogasawara Archipelago . In 2014 , foreign @-@ born non @-@ naturalized workers made up only 1 @.@ 5 % of the total population . Japan is widely regarded as ethnically homogeneous , and does not compile ethnicity or race statistics for Japanese nationals ; however , at least one analysis describes Japan as a multiethnic society . Most Japanese continue to see Japan as a monocultural society . Former Japanese Prime Minister and current Finance Minister Tarō Asō described Japan as being a nation of " one race , one civilization , one language and one culture " , which drew criticism from representatives of ethnic minorities such as the Ainu . Unnoficial analysis put the number of mixed race Japanese citizens to be around 0 @.@ 5 % of the population .
Japan has the second longest overall life expectancy at birth of any country in the world : 83 @.@ 5 years for persons born in the period 2010 – 2015 . The Japanese population is rapidly aging as a result of a post – World War II baby boom followed by a decrease in birth rates . In 2012 , about 24 @.@ 1 percent of the population was over 65 , and the proportion is projected to rise to almost 40 percent by 2050 .
The changes in demographic structure have created a number of social issues , particularly a potential decline in workforce population and increase in the cost of social security benefits like the public pension plan . A growing number of younger Japanese are not marrying or remain childless . In 2011 , Japan 's population dropped for a fifth year , falling by 204 @,@ 000 people to 126 @.@ 24 million people . This was the greatest decline since at least 1947 , when comparable figures were first compiled . This decline was made worse by the March 11 earthquake and tsunami , which killed nearly 16 @,@ 000 people with approximately another 2 @,@ 600 still listed as missing as of 2014 .
Japan 's population is expected to drop to 95 million by 2050 ; demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem . Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation 's aging population . Japan accepts a steady flow of 15 @,@ 000 new Japanese citizens by naturalization ( 帰化 ) per year . According to the UNHCR , in 2012 Japan accepted just 18 refugees for resettlement , while the US took in 76 @,@ 000 .
Japan suffers from a high suicide rate . In 2009 , the number of suicides exceeded 30 @,@ 000 for the twelfth straight year . Suicide is the leading cause of death for people under 30 .
= = = Religion = = =
Japan has full religious freedom based on Article 20 of its Constitution . Upper estimates suggest that 84 – 96 percent of the Japanese population subscribe to Buddhism or Shinto , including a large number of followers of a syncretism of both religions . However , these estimates are based on people affiliated with a temple , rather than the number of true believers . Other studies have suggested that only 30 percent of the population identify themselves as belonging to a religion . According to Edwin Reischauer and Marius Jansen , some 70 – 80 % of the Japanese do not consider themselves believers in any religion .
Nevertheless , the level of participation remains high , especially during festivals and occasions such as the first shrine visit of the New Year . Taoism and Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs . Japanese streets are decorated on Tanabata , Obon and Christmas . Fewer than one percent of Japanese are Christian . Other minority religions include Islam , Hinduism , Sikhism , and Judaism , and since the mid @-@ 19th century numerous new religious movements have emerged in Japan .
= = = Languages = = =
More than 99 percent of the population speaks Japanese as their first language . Japanese is an agglutinative language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society , with verb forms and particular vocabulary indicating the relative status of speaker and listener . Japanese writing uses kanji ( Chinese characters ) and two sets of kana ( syllabaries based on cursive script and radical of kanji ) , as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals .
Besides Japanese , the Ryukyuan languages ( Amami , Kunigami , Okinawan , Miyako , Yaeyama , Yonaguni ) , also part of the Japonic language family , are spoken in the Ryukyu Islands chain . Few children learn these languages , but in recent years the local governments have sought to increase awareness of the traditional languages . The Okinawan Japanese dialect is also spoken in the region . The Ainu language , which has no proven relationship to Japanese or any other language , is moribund , with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaido . Public and private schools generally require students to take Japanese language classes as well as English language courses .
= = = Education = = =
Primary schools , secondary schools and universities were introduced in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration . Since 1947 , compulsory education in Japan comprises elementary and middle school , which together last for nine years ( from age 6 to age 15 ) . Almost all children continue their education at a three @-@ year senior high school , and , according to the MEXT , as of 2005 about 75 @.@ 9 percent of high school graduates attended a university , junior college , trade school , or other higher education institution .
The two top @-@ ranking universities in Japan are the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University . The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of Japanese 15 @-@ year @-@ olds as sixth best in the world .
= = = Health = = =
In Japan , health care is provided by national and local governments . Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access , with fees set by a government committee . People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments . Since 1973 , all elderly persons have been covered by government @-@ sponsored insurance . Patients are free to select the physicians or facilities of their choice .
= = Culture = =
Japanese culture has evolved greatly from its origins . Contemporary culture combines influences from Asia , Europe and North America . Traditional Japanese arts include crafts such as ceramics , textiles , lacquerware , swords and dolls ; performances of bunraku , kabuki , noh , dance , and rakugo ; and other practices , the tea ceremony , ikebana , martial arts , calligraphy , origami , onsen , Geisha and games . Japan has a developed system for the protection and promotion of both tangible and intangible Cultural Properties and National Treasures . Nineteen sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List , fifteen of which are of cultural significance .
= = = Art = = =
The Shrines of Ise have been celebrated as the prototype of Japanese architecture . Largely of wood , traditional housing and many temple buildings see the use of tatami mats and sliding doors that break down the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor space . Japanese sculpture , largely of wood , and Japanese painting are among the oldest of the Japanese arts , with early figurative paintings dating back to at least 300 BC . The history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported ideas .
The interaction between Japanese and European art has been significant : for example ukiyo @-@ e prints , which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement known as Japonism , had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West , most notably on post @-@ Impressionism . Famous ukiyo @-@ e artists include Hokusai and Hiroshige . Hokusai coined the term manga . Japanese comics now known as manga developed in the 20th century and have become popular worldwide . Japanese animation is called anime . Japanese @-@ made video game consoles have been popular since the 1980s .
= = = Music = = =
Japanese music is eclectic and diverse . Many instruments , such as the koto , were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries . The accompanied recitative of the Noh drama dates from the 14th century and the popular folk music , with the guitar @-@ like shamisen , from the sixteenth . Western classical music , introduced in the late 19th century , now forms an integral part of Japanese culture . The imperial court ensemble Gagaku has influenced the work of some modern Western composers .
Notable classical composers from Japan include Toru Takemitsu and Rentarō Taki . Popular music in post @-@ war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European trends , which has led to the evolution of J @-@ pop , or Japanese popular music . Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity in Japan . A 1993 survey by the Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional pursuits such as flower arranging ( ikebana ) or tea ceremonies .
= = = Literature = = =
The earliest works of Japanese literature include the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles and the Man 'yōshū poetry anthology , all from the 8th century and written in Chinese characters . In the early Heian period , the system of phonograms known as kana ( Hiragana and Katakana ) was developed . The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative . An account of Heian court life is given in The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon , while The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu is often described as the world 's first novel .
During the Edo period , the chōnin ( " townspeople " ) overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature . The popularity of the works of Saikaku , for example , reveals this change in readership and authorship , while Bashō revivified the poetic tradition of the Kokinshū with his haikai ( haiku ) and wrote the poetic travelogue Oku no Hosomichi . The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literature integrated Western influences . Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were the first " modern " novelists of Japan , followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa , Jun 'ichirō Tanizaki , Yukio Mishima and , more recently , Haruki Murakami . Japan has two Nobel Prize @-@ winning authors — Yasunari Kawabata ( 1968 ) and Kenzaburō Ōe ( 1994 ) .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Japanese cuisine is based on combining staple foods , typically Japanese
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control of just Ratix , and is able to look for the other characters . Upon finding other party members , various events may happen ; sometimes only small talk results , other times , larger events happen , that may even require a choice to be made by the player . Depending on the results , this can cause characters to either gain or lose " affinity " toward other characters in the party . For example , if one character loves another , the affinity level will be high , but if the former is mistreated , it will lower their feelings for the latter . A character 's affinity towards one another can have effects on the rest of the game . Affinity also affect which character 's endings players see . While the game 's overarching plot always largely ends the same , various parts of the ending are changed , added , or left out , depending on characters ' affinity at the end of the game .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Plot = = =
The game starts off in a small town of Kratus on the under @-@ developed planet of Roak . There , a few of the local Fellpool ( cat @-@ like people ) youth , Roddick , Millie , and Dorne , are part of the village 's local " Defense Force " , who defend the village from minor threats such as thieves and robbers . However , one day , a neighboring town , Coule , starts contracting a terrible disease that turns people into stone . The town healer , Millie 's father , contracts the disease while trying to get rid of it , leading the group to search Mt . Metorx for a herb that is rumored to cure any sickness . Dorne unintentionally contracts the disease as well after touching an infected pigeon .
When they reach the summit , they are confronted by Ronyx J. Kenny and Ilia Silvestri , two crew members of the Earth Federation ( Terran Alliance in the PSP remake ) starship Calnus . They inform them that the disease was sent to the planet by a foreign race called the Lezonians , whom the Earth Federation has been at war with . Roddick and Millie go with them on their spacecraft to help them find a cure . They learn that Fellpool blood could be used to process a special , invisible material which could give them a massive advantage in the war . Upon coming in contact with Lezonians , they reveal that they were being forced into war by a shadowy , powerful third party with a disgust for the Federation .
Before Dorne fully succumbs to the disease , they do tests on him to figure out a cure . They determined that the only possible way to fight it would be to make a vaccine that uses the original source of the disease . While the origin of the virus is tracked back to being on Roak itself , it is from Asmodeus , the King of the Demon World , who had been killed 300 years prior to the spread of the disease . Ronyx talks the group into using a Time Gate on the Planey Styx to go back 300 years into the past to track down Asmodeus back when he was still alive . While this works , Ilia trips while approaching the gate . As such , Ilia and Roddick have a delay from when they enter the time gate , and after the trip through time , they find themselves separated from Ronyx and Millie . The two groups work towards locating each other , and Asmodeus , in efforts to heal their family members and stop the war .
= = = Characters = = =
Roddick Farrence ( ラティクス ・ ファーレンス , Ratix Farrence ) is a 19 @-@ year @-@ old Fellpool swordsman and the game 's protagonist . A childhood friend of Mille and Dorne who served with them as town watchmen before being swept into adventure . He is voiced by Yuri Lowenthal in the English version , Mamoru Miyano in the Japanese remake , and Hiro Yuki in Super Famicom original .
Millie Chliette ( ミリー ・ キリート , Milly Killet ) is an 18 @-@ year @-@ old Fellpool practitioner of Symbology healing magic who wields a staff , and a longtime friend and romantic interest for Roddick . She is voiced by Katie Leigh in the English version , Hitomi Nabatame in the Japanese remake , and Konami Yoshida in the Super Famicom original .
Ronyx J. Kenny ( ロニキス ・ J ・ ケニー , Ronixis J. Kenny ) is the 38 @-@ year @-@ old human captain of the starship Calnus , and uses a bow and arrows after leaving his phaser weapon behind . He is the father of Claude C. Kenny , the protagonist of Star Ocean : The Second Story . He is voiced by Sam Gold in the English version , Kenji Hamada in the Japanese remake , and Akira Okamori in the Super Famicom original .
Ilia Silvestri ( イリア ・ シルベストリ , Iria Silvestoli ) is the 23 @-@ year @-@ old human head science officer on the Calnus , serving under Ronyx . She fights using martial arts supplemented by gloves or claws , and enjoys alcohol . She is voiced by Julie Maddalena in the English version , Sanae Kobayashi in the Japanese remake , and Wakana Yamazaki in the Super Famicom original .
Cyuss Warren ( シウス ・ ウォーレン , Cius Warren ) is a 20 @-@ year @-@ old Highlander who wields a large broadsword . Son of Lord Lias , one of the Three Heroes of the Demonic Wars , he dreams of becoming the greatest swordsman in the land . He is voiced by Grant George in the English version , and Hiroki Tochi in both Japanese versions .
Ashlay Bernbeldt ( アシュレイ ・ バーンベルト , Ashlay Barnbelt ) is a 57 @-@ year @-@ old Highlander soldier wandering the world to find a successor in which to teach his sword skills . If recruited , he forms such a relationship with Roddick , and thus they share many of the same techniques . He is voiced by Michael McConnohie in the English version , and Norio Wakamoto in the Japanese remake , and Kazuhiko Inoue in the Super Famicom original .
Phia Melle ( フィア ・ メル , Fear Mell ) is a 20 @-@ year @-@ old Highlander and the head of the Astral Knights who uses throwing daggers in combat with the Hisho @-@ ken style . She has feelings for Cyuss , but hides them under her outward desire to be a great knight . She is voiced by Dorothy Fahn in the English version , Megumi Toyoguchi in the Japanese remake , and Konami Yoshida in the Super Famicom original .
Mavelle Froesson ( マーヴェル ・ フローズン , Marvel Frozen ) is a mysterious 19 @-@ year @-@ old sorceress who accompanies Ronyx and Millie to Ionis . Her weapon is an orb that she throws at the enemy . She is voiced by Tara Platt in the English version , Hoko Kuwashima in the Japanese remake , and Nozomi Nonaka in the Super Famicom original .
Ioshua Jerand ( ヨシュア ・ ジェランド , Jousha Jerand ) is a 20 @-@ year @-@ old magic @-@ using Featherfolk who is searching for his sister Erys , whom he was separated from after their parents were murdered . He despises combat , but realizes it as a necessary evil to survive in the world . He is voiced by Ezra Weisz in the English version , Jun Fukuyama in the Japanese remake , and Nobuyuki Hiyama in the Super Famicom original .
T 'nique Arcana ( ティニーク ・ アルカナ , Tinek Arukena ) is a 18 @-@ year @-@ old Lycanthrope who can transform into a dark blue werewolf in battle , and trains to become an excellent fighter and martial artist . He is voiced by Vic Mignogna in the English version , Chihiro Suzuki in the Japanese remake , and Takuya Fujisaki in the Super Famicom original .
Pericci ( ペリシー , Perisie ) is a 16 @-@ year @-@ old Lesser Fellpool with more pronounced cat @-@ like features including feline ears and fangs . Pericci serves as comedic relief , starting with low stats but gains several powerful techniques . She is voiced by Alicyn Packard in the English version , Yukari Tamura in the Japanese remake , and Wakana Yamazaki in the Super Famicom original .
Erys Jerand ( エリス ・ ジェランド , Eris Jerand ) is Ioshua 's 17 @-@ year @-@ old sister who was kidnapped when they were children , and was brainwashed to be an assassin by the mysterious Crimson Shield . She later escaped and swapped her body with Mavelle to search for her parents ' killer in secret . Erys does not appear in the original Super Famicom release , and is voiced by Stephanie Sheh in English , and Kana Ueda in Japanese .
Welch Vineyard ( ウェルチ ・ ビンヤード , Welch Vineyard ) is a mysterious 18 @-@ year @-@ old traveler who appears somewhat ditzy and interested in meeting guys . Welch , like Erys , is only available in the remake . She first appeared as a non @-@ playable character in Star Ocean : Till the End of Time , but has been retroactively added to the first two games . She is voiced by Melissa Fahn in the English version , and Tomoe Hanba in the Japanese version .
= = Development = =
In 1994 , video game developers Wolf Team signed a deal with publisher Namco to release the game that would be Tales of Phantasia , which was later released in 1995 in Japan for the Super Famicom . However , the development cycle for this game was plagued with creative disputes between the developers and publisher , leading to much of the development team leaving to form a new company , which would become tri @-@ Ace , which explains some of the common themes between the games , such as the similar battle systems .
After Tales of Phantasia was completed , some of the games designers felt that the core skill and item systems were too " generic " , and for their next game they would make a much deeper gameplay experience . To deepen the story , the " private action " system was created to reveal more of the characters history , personality and relationships , but the score the game generated from various choices was hidden from players since there was no " right " or " wrong " story path . In order to tell a " bigger " story , space was chosen as the setting .
Both Tales of Phantasia and Star Ocean stretched the power of the Super Famicom to its limits , with a total of 48 megabits of data . Additionally , Star Ocean was also one of two games that used a special S @-@ DD1 chip to aid in compression of almost all graphics and map data , meaning that it effectively stored even more data than Tales of Phantasia , though the compression lead to a lower audio quality . The game also featured special technology called a " Flexible Voice Driver " that allowed for the compression of sound , allowing for voice clips for characters when in battles , another trait that was both very rare for a Super Famicom game , and shared with Tales of Phantasia . Different voice clips would be played depending on the scenario ; if the characters were confronted by weak enemies , they may say something more confident , where as if confronted by strong enemies , they may say something more fearful or frantic . Mode 7 graphics were generated using software , and appear when items pop out of treasure chests ; the need for extra tiles , however , limited the graphical effects implementation . The game also featured surround sound . Planning for a sequel began as soon as development was completed on Star Ocean . Feedback about weak boss monsters later lead to more challenging battles in Star Ocean 2 .
The game was released on July 19 , 1996 . Despite appearing in North American video game magazine Nintendo Power in 1996 , the Super Famicom version was never officially released anywhere outside Japan . Enix America ceased to publish games in North America by the end of 1995 due to poor sales , and Nintendo had already passed on publishing Tales of Phantasia a year prior , instead choosing to focus on the then @-@ upcoming Nintendo 64 video game console . However , the game was unofficially translated into English by DeJap Translations , who created a patch that made the game fully playable in English via emulation . The game would not be officially available in English until 12 years later , when the game was remade for the PlayStation Portable as Star Ocean : First Departure in 2008 .
= = = First Departure = = =
Star Ocean : First Departure is an enhanced remake of the original Star Ocean , developed by TOSE . The first details of the game were revealed at the " Star Ocean Special Stage " during the Square Enix Party 2007 , alongside those of Star Ocean : The Second Story . Yoshinori Yamagishi , producer of the series , stated that he wants the remakes to feel as though they 're completely new games .
The game was released in Japan on December 27 , 2007 , and was released in North America and Europe on October 21 , 2008 and October 24 , 2008 respectively ; making it the first time that the original Star Ocean was officially released outside Japan . The English localization was handled by Nanica , Inc . , with voice @-@ over production services provided by Epcar Entertainment , Inc . First Departure uses a slightly altered version of the engine used for Star Ocean : The Second Story with similar features , including prerendered backgrounds , 3D battle fields and hand drawn facial animations . Production I.G provided new artwork and animated cutscenes for the game . New playable characters have been added as well . New voice actors and extensive amounts of new , fully voiced dialogue were included , with even some non @-@ player characters being voiced over as well . A limited edition called the Star Ocean : First Departure Eternal Edition was released exclusively in Japan alongside the standard version . It features alternate box art and was bundled with a Star Ocean @-@ themed PSP @-@ 2000 handheld and carrying pouch .
= = = Music = = =
The scores for Star Ocean and First Departure were composed and arranged by Motoi Sakuraba , whose arranged soundtracks he also performed on . The Japanese music group Asunaro composed the first song of the album entitled " Heart " , which is the games theme song . The album Star Ocean Perfect Sound Collection was released after the original soundtrack in both an arranged and drama album format .
Critics praised Sakuraba 's progressive rock style , and highlighted his musical experimentation throughout the original Star Ocean score and Final Departure . Tracks added from Star Ocean : The Second Story received mixed reviews on the First Departure album , adding some familiar Star Ocean themes but also some lesser known songs to the mix . Several musical pieces were missing from the original album and were added to the remakes release .
= = Reception = =
The original Super Famicom release of Star Ocean sold approximately 235 @,@ 000 copies in Japan , of which just over 175 @,@ 000 copies were sold during 1996 . In a 2009 retro review , NintendoLife praised the game 's technical aspects calling it " one of the best @-@ looking Super Nintendo games ever created " and that the soundtrack " never ceases to amaze " . It maintains a 93 % average rating from aggregate review website GameRankings .
Star Ocean : First Departure on the PlayStation Portable sold 115 @,@ 280 copies in its debut week in Japan , with lifetime sales of approximately 204 @,@ 996 copies in the region . It received a 31 out of 40 total score from Japanese magazine Weekly Famitsu , based on individual scores of 8 , 7 , 8 , and 8 , earning it the publication 's Silver Award . While the editors thought the title 's animation and characters were well done and the story was " charming " they lamented that players could only save their progress at certain points such as the world map , which they also felt too large and had a limited field of view .
The English version of First Departure received mixed to average reviews , earning a 77 % rating on GameRankings and a 74 out of 100 average from Metacritic . Many reviewers felt that despite the updated graphics and sound , the game still felt less refined than more modern role @-@ playing games . IGN found the game to have a " bland , awkwardly @-@ told narrative " with " weak characters " , but that it would appeal to fans of older games , stating " If you can look at First Departure and understand that it 's based on a very old title , you 'll likely be able to overlook the problems and get a fair amount of satisfaction " . GameSpot also stated that the title had " limited appeal " in addition to providing little challenge . Andrew Fitch of 1UP.com , however , called First Departure an " overlooked classic " with " ridiculously engrossing crafting minutiae " and numerous character party combinations that increase its replay value . GameSpy would additionally declare that " Despite a couple of minor hitches , Star Ocean : First Departure is one of the best remakes Square Enix has brought to portable consoles . "
= 1890 – 91 Sheffield United F.C. season =
The 1890 – 91 season was Sheffield United 's second , and their first and only season playing in the newly formed Midland Counties League , as the club sought to establish itself as a major footballing force . The team was selected by the club 's football committee and coached by a trainer , but day @-@ to @-@ day affairs were overseen by club secretary Joseph Wostinholm . The club saw a large influx of players during the season as it continued to bolster its numbers with amateurs loaned or signed from other teams in the local area , a policy that resulted in an unsettled side , indifferent league results , and a mid @-@ table finish .
United ( nicknamed the Blades ) entered the FA Cup once more but were lucky to reach the first round proper , losing to Burton Swifts during qualifying only to see the Staffordshire club disqualified . They also competed in the Wharncliffe Charity Cup and the Sheffield Challenge Cup , in which they were beaten finalists for the second year in succession .
The development of the playing squad continued with the signings of John Drummond and Billy Hendry from Preston North End , who brought experience and a solid professionalism . Harry Lilley was recruited in the early part of the season , and became a regular in United 's defence for several seasons .
= = Background = =
After a first season of mixed fortunes on the field the football committee recognised the appetite amongst the Sheffield public for the game , as attendances at Bramall Lane had steadily increased . They recognised that league football was essential to grow that interest and offer a better standard of opposition , and had therefore joined the recently created Midland Counties League , although still insisting on organising numerous friendly fixtures . The committee continued to select the team , although J. B. Wostinholm oversaw the day – to – day running of the club .
= = Kit = =
Although United 's jersey remained predominantly white , thin red vertical stripes were introduced for the first time , which evolved into the solid red and white stripes that the team still plays in today . The team retained the blue shorts and socks worn in the previous season .
= = Season overview = =
= = = Midland Counties League = = =
The previous season had been considered reasonably successful , but United still looked to improve the quality of players in the squad . The players recruited from Scotland during the previous summer had failed to live up to expectations and the majority of them were released ; only Calder and Robertson were retained . Billy Bridgewater and Edward Cross were signed from nearby Rotherham Town , and Harry Lilley arrived from Staveley during the close season , but the Blades persisted with their policy of utilising guest amateur players from the local area .
United were now playing in the Midland Counties League but results were indifferent , with the Blades winning only twice in their opening eight fixtures . Their fortunes began to improve in November and December however as they registered a series of victories including an impressive 4 – 0 win over Kidderminster at Bramall Lane and a 5 – 2 victory at Derby Midland . Despite the relative failure of their previous recruitment in Scotland , by the end of the year United had signed Gavin Crawford and Harry Munro from north of the border as the Blades entered 1891 in more positive form .
Following a league fixture break during January 1891 United resumed their campaign in February , but the form they had shown in the run up to Christmas deserted them , and results were inconsistent . In the midst of congested fixture list the Blades finished the season fifth in the league ( out of ten sides ) and once again resolved to improve the quality of players by recruiting established professionals ahead of the next season . They duly negotiated the transfers of John Drummond , Billy Hendry and Samuel Dobson from Preston North End , then one of the top sides in the country , and they arrived over a number of weeks through February and March to bolster United 's first team options . The most significant signing during the season was that of a young Ernest Needham from Staveley in February 1891 . Although he did not play for United in the 1890 – 91 season he went on to become one of the club 's greatest players , making more than 500 appearances .
= = = FA Cup = = =
Having had relative success during their first FA Cup campaign the previous season United struggled to replicate that form and were fortunate to make it past the qualifying rounds in 1890 . Having narrowly defeated Derby Junction they lost 2 – 1 to Burton Swifts in the next game , but the Staffordshire club was subsequently disqualified for fielding an ineligible player . Matlock and Loughborough were then easily despatched as United reached the first round proper of the cup for the second time . This was as far as the Blades would progress however , as they met Notts County at Bramall Lane in mid – January only to be trounced 9 – 1 by the visitors , a result that remains the club 's worst in the competition .
= = = Local cups = = =
United once again entered the Sheffield Challenge Cup and reached the final for the second season in succession . After a straightforward 7 – 1 victory over Attercliffe in round one the Blades made their way past Kilnhurst in the semi @-@ final at the second time of asking . On 21 March they met near neighbours Doncaster Rovers in the final , but despite having home advantage , with the game being played at Bramall Lane , United lost 2 – 1 .
The team entered the Wharncliffe Charity Cup at the semi @-@ final stage but were drawn against established cross @-@ city rivals The Wednesday . Despite increasing rivalry between the clubs , a relatively small crowd of just over 3 @,@ 000 spectators were present at Wednesday 's Olive Grove ground to watch them beat United 2 – 1 .
= = = Friendlies = = =
Despite now playing competitive league football United continued to fill the fixture list with numerous friendlies , which ultimately led to them playing 64 first @-@ team games over the course of eight months . There was a noticeable improvement in the quality of opposition however , as a number of the more established professional teams visited Bramall Lane during the first half of the season , drawing reasonable crowds in the process . Although there were early season losses to Everton and Preston North End , United secured victories against Bolton Wanderers and Derby County , both at the time members of the Football League First Division .
The second half of the season saw a continued run of exhibition games but the quality of opposition was , at times , not as high . Despite lesser opposition , results tailed off as the fixture congestion these games created began to take its toll on the squad , most notably at the point when United 's involvement in the Sheffield Challenge Cup meant that they had two first @-@ team games scheduled for the same
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day . Rather than cancelling the pre @-@ arranged friendlies the Blades went ahead with both fixtures , splitting the first team between them . The highlight of the fixture calendar did result from a friendly match however , as a then record 14 @,@ 000 Sheffielders were present at Bramall Lane in January to watch United beat local rivals The Wednesday for the first time , running out 3 – 2 victors . January also saw United take on their first ever non – English team when they played Scottish side Linthouse , although the match was limited to only 35 minutes each way owing to poor light .
= = Squad = =
Source :
= = = First team = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Players leaving before end of the season = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
= = = Out = = =
= = League table = =
Source :
= = Squad statistics = =
= = = Appearances and goals = = =
As of the end of the season
= = = Top Scorers = = =
= = Results = =
Source :
= = = Key = = =
Win Draw Loss Void
= = = Midland Counties League = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
Source :
= = = Sheffield Challenge Cup = = =
Source :
= = = Wharncliffe Charity Cup = = =
Source :
= = = Friendlies = = =
Source :
= Memento ( film ) =
Memento is a 2000 American neo @-@ noir psychological thriller film directed and written by Christopher Nolan , and produced by Suzanne and Jennifer Todd , based on a pitch by Jonathan Nolan , later becoming " Memento Mori " . It stars Guy Pearce , Carrie @-@ Anne Moss , and Joe Pantoliano . Memento is presented as two different sequences of scenes interspersed during the film : a series in black @-@ and @-@ white that is shown chronologically , and a series of color sequences shown in reverse order ( simulating in the audience the mental state of the protagonist , who suffers from anterograde amnesia ) . The two sequences " meet " at the end of the film , producing one complete and cohesive narrative .
Memento premiered on September 5 , 2000 , at the Venice International Film Festival and was released in European theaters starting in October . It became a blockbuster success , being acclaimed by critics who praised its nonlinear narrative structure and motifs of memory , perception , grief , and self @-@ deception , and was successful at the box office , earning $ 39 @.@ 7 million on a $ 9 million budget . It received numerous accolades , including Academy Award nominations for Best Original Screenplay and Best Film Editing . The film was subsequently ranked one of the best films of its decade by several critics and media outlets .
= = Plot = =
The film starts with the Polaroid photograph of a dead man . As the sequence plays backwards the photo reverts to its undeveloped state , entering the camera before the man is shot in the head . This is followed by sequences of black and white chronologically and color reverse @-@ chronologically interspersed .
The black @-@ and @-@ white sequences begin with Leonard Shelby ( Guy Pearce ) in a motel room speaking to an unnamed telephone caller who is not shown on @-@ screen . Leonard has anterograde amnesia and is unable to store recent memories , the result of an attack by two men . Leonard explains that he killed the attacker who raped and strangled his wife ( Jorja Fox ) , but a second clubbed him and escaped . The police did not accept that there was a second attacker , but Leonard believes the attacker 's name is John or James , with a last name starting with G. Leonard conducts his own investigation using a system of notes , Polaroids , and tattoos . As an insurance investigator , Leonard recalls one Sammy Jankis ( Stephen Tobolowsky ) , also diagnosed with the same condition . Sammy 's diabetic wife ( Harriet Sansom Harris ) , who was not sure if his condition was genuine , repeatedly requested insulin injections to try to get him to break his act . He overdosed her , falling into a coma and dying as a result .
The color sequences are shown reverse @-@ chronologically . In the story 's chronology , Leonard gets a tattoo , based on self @-@ directed instructions , of John G 's license plate . Finding a note in his clothes , he meets Natalie ( Carrie @-@ Anne Moss ) , a bartender who resents Leonard as he wears the clothes and drives the car of her boyfriend , Jimmy . After understanding his condition , she uses it to get Leonard to drive a man named Dodd ( Callum Keith Rennie ) out of town and offers to run the license plate to help his investigation . Meanwhile , Leonard meets with a contact , Teddy ( Joe Pantoliano ) . Teddy helps with Dodd , but warns him about Natalie ; Leonard finds a photo written to not trust him , however . Natalie provides Leonard the driver 's license , which shows a John Edward Gammell , Teddy 's full name . Confirming Leonard 's information on " John G " and his warnings , Leonard meets Teddy and drives him to an abandoned building , killing him as shown in the opening .
In the final black @-@ and @-@ white sequence , prompted by the caller , Leonard meets Teddy in the motel lobby . Teddy is an undercover officer and has found Leonard 's " John G , " Natalie ’ s boyfriend , Jimmy Grantz ( Larry Holden ) , and directs Leonard to the same abandoned building outside of town . When Jimmy arrives , Leonard strangles him and takes a photo of the body . As it develops , the black @-@ and @-@ white transitions to color , thus beginning the color sequences . Leonard swaps clothes with Jimmy , hearing Jimmy whisper " Sammy . " As Leonard has only told Sammy 's story to those met , he doubts Jimmy is the attacker . Teddy arrives and asserts that Jimmy was John G , but when Leonard is not convinced , Teddy reveals that Leonard had killed the real attacker over a year ago , having helped Leonard find him . Teddy claims that since " John G " is a common name , he will continually forget , beginning his search again and that even Teddy himself has a " John G " name . Further , Teddy explains that Leonard 's wife was the diabetic who overdosed ; Sammy was actually single . After hearing Teddy 's exposition , Leonard consciously burns Jimmy 's photograph , drives off in Jimmy 's car and has Teddy 's license plate number tattooed on himself as the one of the second attacker , which will lead to the events of Teddy 's death .
= = Cast = =
= = Film structure = =
The sujet ( syuzhet ) , or the presentation of the film , is structured with two timelines : one in color and one in black @-@ and @-@ white . The color sequences are alternated with black @-@ and @-@ white sequences . The latter are put together in chronological order . The color ones , though shown forward ( except for the very first one , which is shown in reverse ) are ordered in reverse . Chronologically , the black @-@ and @-@ white sequences come first , the color sequences come next .
Using the numbering scheme suggested by Andy Klein in his article for Salon magazine who took numbers from 1 to 22 for the black @-@ and @-@ white sequences and letters A – V for the color ones the plotting of the film as presented is : Opening Credits ( shown " backward " ) , 1 , V , 2 , U , 3 , T , 4 , S , ... , 22 / A , Credits .
There is a smooth transition from the black @-@ and @-@ white sequence 22 to color sequence A and it occurs during the development of a Polaroid photograph .
The fabula of the film ( the chronological order of the story ) can be viewed as a " Hidden feature " on the 2 @-@ Disc Limited Edition Region 1 DVD and the 3 @-@ Disc special Edition Region 2 DVD . In this special feature the chapters of the film are put together into the chronological order and is shown : Ending Credits ( run in reverse ) , 1 , 2 , 3 , ... , 22 , A , B , ... , V , then the opening title runs " backward " to what was shown ( the opening title sequence is run in reverse during the actual film , so it is shown forward in this version ) .
Stefano Ghislotti wrote an article in Film Anthology which discusses how Nolan provides the viewer with the clues necessary to decode the sujet as we watch and help us understand the fabula from it . The color sequences include a brief overlap to help clue the audience into the fact that they are being presented in reverse order . The purpose of the fragmented reverse sequencing is to force the audience into a sympathetic experience of Leonard 's defective ability to create new long @-@ term memories , where prior events are not recalled , since the audience has yet to see them .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In July 1996 , brothers Christopher and Jonathan Nolan took a cross @-@ country road trip from Chicago to Los Angeles , as Christopher was relocating his home to the West Coast . During the drive , Jonathan pitched the story for the film to his brother , who responded enthusiastically to the idea . After they arrived in Los Angeles , Jonathan left for Washington , D.C. , to finish college at Georgetown University . Christopher repeatedly asked Jonathan to send him a first draft , and after a few months , Jonathan complied . Two months later , Christopher came up with the idea to tell the film backwards , and began to work on the screenplay . Jonathan wrote the short story simultaneously , and the brothers continued to correspond , sending each other subsequent revisions of their respective works . Christopher initially wrote the script as a linear story , and then would " go back and reorder it the way it is on screen to check the logic of it . "
Jonathan 's short story , titled " Memento Mori " , is radically different from Christopher 's film , although it maintains the same essential elements . In Jonathan 's version , Leonard is instead named Earl and is a patient at a mental institution . As in the film , his wife was killed by an anonymous man , and during the attack on his wife , Earl lost his ability to create new long @-@ term memories . Like Leonard , Earl leaves notes to himself and has tattoos with information about the killer . However , in the short story , Earl convinces himself through his own written notes to escape the mental institution and murder his wife 's killer . Unlike the film , there is no ambiguity that Earl finds and kills the anonymous man .
In July 1997 , Nolan 's girlfriend ( later wife ) Emma Thomas showed his screenplay to Aaron Ryder , an executive for Newmarket Films . Ryder said the script was , " perhaps the most innovative script I had ever seen " , and soon after , it was optioned by Newmarket and given a budget of $ 4 @.@ 5 million . Pre @-@ production lasted seven weeks , during which the main shooting location changed from Montreal , Quebec to Los Angeles , California , to create a more realistic and noirish atmosphere for the film .
= = = Casting = = =
Brad Pitt was initially slated to play Leonard . Pitt was interested in the part , but passed due to scheduling conflicts . Other considered actors include Aaron Eckhart ( who would later work with Nolan on The Dark Knight ) and Thomas Jane , but the role went to Guy Pearce , who impressed Nolan the most . Pearce was chosen partly for his " lack of celebrity " ( after Pitt passed , they " decided to eschew the pursuit of A @-@ list stars and make the film for less money by using an affordable quality actor " ) , and his enthusiasm for the role , evidenced by a personal phone call Pearce made to Nolan to discuss the part .
After being impressed by Carrie @-@ Anne Moss ' performance as Trinity in the 1999 science fiction film The Matrix , Jennifer Todd suggested her for the part of Natalie . While Mary McCormack lobbied for the role , Nolan decided to cast Moss as Natalie , saying , " She added an enormous amount to the role of Natalie that wasn 't on the page " . For the corrupt police officer Teddy , " comedian Denis Leary was mentioned , though proved unavailable " . Moss suggested her co @-@ star from The Matrix , Joe Pantoliano . Although there was a concern that Pantoliano might be too villainous for the part , he was still cast , and Nolan said he was surprised by the actor 's subtlety in his performance .
The rest of the film 's characters were quickly cast after the three main leads were established . Stephen Tobolowsky and Harriet Sansom Harris play Sammy Jankis and his wife , respectively . Mark Boone Junior landed the role of Burt , the motel clerk , because Jennifer Todd liked his " look and attitude " for the part ( as a result he has re @-@ appeared in minor roles in other productions by Nolan ) . Larry Holden plays Jimmy Grantz , a drug dealer and Natalie 's boyfriend , while Callum Keith Rennie performs the part of Dodd , a thug to whom Jimmy owes money .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming took place from September 7 to October 8 , 1999 , a 25 @-@ day shooting schedule . Pearce was on set every day during filming , although all three principal actors ( including Pantoliano and Moss ) only performed together the first day , shooting exterior sequences outside Natalie 's house . All of Moss ' scenes were completed in the first week , including follow @-@ up scenes at Natalie 's home , Ferdy 's bar , and the restaurant where she meets Leonard for the final time .
Pantoliano returned to the set late in the second week to continue filming his scenes . On September 25 , the crew shot the opening scene in which Leonard kills Teddy . Although the scene is in reverse motion , Nolan used forward @-@ played sounds . For a shot of a shell casing flying upwards , the shell had
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to be dropped in front of the camera in forward motion , but it constantly rolled out of frame . Nolan was forced to blow the casing out of frame instead , but in the confusion , the crew shot it backwards . They then had to make an optical ( a copy of the shot ) and reverse the shot to make it go forward again . " That was the height of complexity in terms of the film " , Nolan said . " An optical to make a backwards running shot forwards , and the forwards shot is a simulation of a backwards shot . "
The next day , on September 26 , Larry Holden returned to shoot the sequence where Leonard attacks Jimmy . After filming was completed five days later , Pearce 's voice @-@ overs were recorded . For the black @-@ and @-@ white scenes , Pearce was given free rein to improvise his narrative , allowing for a documentary feel .
The Travel Inn in Tujunga , California , was repainted and used as the interior of Leonard 's and Dodd 's motel rooms and the exterior of the film 's Discount Inn . Scenes in Sammy Jankis ' house were shot in a suburban home close to Pasadena , while Natalie 's house was located in Burbank . The crew planned to shoot the derelict building set ( where Leonard kills Teddy and Jimmy ) in a Spanish @-@ styled brick building owned by a train company . However , one week before shooting began , the company placed several dozen train carriages outside the building , making the exterior unfilmable . Since the interior of the building had already been built as a set , a new location had to be found . An oil refinery near Long Beach was used instead , and the scene where Leonard burns his wife 's possessions was filmed on the other side of the refinery .
= = = Music = = =
David Julyan composed the film 's synthesized score . Julyan acknowledges several synthesized soundtracks that inspired him , such as Vangelis 's Blade Runner and Hans Zimmer 's The Thin Red Line . While composing the score , Julyan created different , distinct sounds to differentiate between the color and black @-@ and @-@ white scenes : " brooding and classical " themes in the former , and " oppressive and rumbly noise " in the latter . Since he describes the entire score as " Leonard 's theme " , Julyan says , " The emotion I was aiming at with my music was yearning and loss . But a sense of loss you feel but at the same time you don 't know what it is you have lost , a sense of being adrift . " Initially , Nolan wanted to use Radiohead 's " Paranoid Android " during the end credits , but he was unable to secure the rights . Instead , David Bowie 's " Something in the Air " is used , although another of Radiohead 's songs , an extended version of " Treefingers " , is included on the film 's soundtrack .
= = Release = =
The film gained substantial word @-@ of @-@ mouth press from the film festival circuit . It premiered at the 2000 Venice International Film Festival , where it received a standing ovation , and afterwards played at Deauville American Film Festival and the Toronto International Film Festival . With the publicity from these events , Memento did not have trouble finding foreign distributors , opening in more than 20 countries worldwide . Its promotion tour ended at the Sundance Film Festival , where it played in January 2001 .
Finding American distributors proved more troublesome . Memento was screened for various studio heads ( including Miramax chief Harvey Weinstein ) in March 2000 . Although most of the executives loved the film and praised Nolan 's talent , all passed on distributing the picture , believing it was too confusing and would not attract a large audience . After famed independent film director Steven Soderbergh saw the film and learned it was not being distributed , he championed the film in interviews and public events , giving it even more publicity , although he did not secure a distributor . Newmarket , in a financially risky move , decided to distribute the film itself . After the first few weeks of distribution , Memento had reached more than 500 theaters and earned a domestic total of $ 25 million in its box @-@ office run . The film 's success was surprising to those who passed on the film , so much so that Weinstein realized his mistake and tried to buy the film from Newmarket .
= = = Marketing = = =
Jonathan Nolan designed the film 's official website . As with the marketing strategy of The Blair Witch Project , the website was intended to provide further clues and hints to the story , while not providing any concrete information . After a short intro on the website , the viewer is shown a newspaper clipping detailing Leonard 's murder of Teddy . Clicking on highlighted words in the article leads to more material describing the film , including Leonard 's notes and photographs as well as police reports . The filmmakers employed another tactic by sending out Polaroid pictures to random people , depicting a bloody and shirtless Leonard pointing at an unmarked spot on his chest . Since Newmarket distributed the film themselves , Christopher Nolan edited the film 's trailers himself . Sold to inexpensive cable @-@ TV channels like Bravo and A & E , and websites such as Yahoo and MSN , the trailers were key to the film gaining widespread public notice .
= = = Home media = = =
Memento was released on DVD and VHS in the United States and Canada on September 4 , 2001 , and in the United Kingdom on January 14 , 2002 . The UK edition contains a hidden feature that allows the viewer to watch the film in chronological order . The Canadian version does not have this feature but the film chapters are set up to do this manually or through DVD programming . The original US release does not have the chronological feature nor are the chapters set up correctly to do it .
The film was later re @-@ released in a limited edition DVD that features an audio commentary by Christopher Nolan , the original short story by Jonathan Nolan on which the film was based , and a Sundance Channel documentary on the making of the film . The limited edition DVD also contains a hidden feature that allows the viewer to watch the film in chronological order .
The Limited Edition DVD is packaged to look like Leonard 's case file from a mental institution , with notes scribbled by " doctors " and Leonard on the inside . The DVD menus are designed as a series of psychological tests ; the viewer has to choose certain words , objects , and multiple choice answers to play the movie or access special features . Leonard 's " notes " on the DVD case offer clues to navigating the DVD .
Memento was re @-@ released in the UK on a 3 @-@ disc Special Edition DVD on December 27 , 2004 . This release contains all the special features that are on the two US releases in one package plus a couple of new interviews . The menus appear as tattoos on a body and are more straightforward than the US 2 @-@ disc limited edition DVD .
Memento was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc on August 15 , 2006 . This release lacks the special features contained on the Limited Edition DVD , but does include the audio commentary by director Christopher Nolan . The single @-@ layer disc features an MPEG @-@ 2 1080p transfer and PCM 5 @.@ 1 surround audio . The film was also released on iTunes as a digital download .
The film was re @-@ released on the Blu @-@ ray and DVD in the USA on 22 February 2011 by Lionsgate following the 10th anniversary of the film . Both the Blu @-@ ray and DVD have a new transfer that was also shown in theaters recently . Aside from the transfer , the Blu @-@ ray contains a new special featurette by Nolan on the film 's legacy .
= = Reception = =
Memento was a box office success . In the United States , during its opening weekend , it was released in only 11 theaters , but by week 11 it was distributed to more than 500 theaters . It grossed over $ 25 million in North America and $ 14 million in other countries , making the film 's total worldwide gross some $ 40 million as of August 2007 . During its theatrical run , it did not place higher than eighth in the list of highest @-@ grossing movies for a single weekend .
The film was nominated for Academy Awards in Original Screenplay and Film Editing , but did not win in either category . Because Jonathan Nolan 's short story was not published before the film was released , it was nominated for Original Screenplay instead of Adapted Screenplay and both Christopher and Jonathan received a nomination . It was also nominated for the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival , but lost to The Believer . However , it won 13 awards for Best Screenplay and five awards for Best Picture from various film critic associations and festivals , including the Chicago Film Critics Association and the Sundance Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award . Christopher Nolan was nominated for three Best Director awards including the Directors Guild of America Award and was awarded one from the Independent Spirit Awards . Pearce was accorded Best Actor from the San Diego Film Critics Society and the Las Vegas Film Critics Society . The film was also nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics .
= = = Critical response = = =
Memento was met with critical acclaim , earning a 92 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes . Online film critic James Berardinelli gave the film four out of four stars , ranking it number one on his year @-@ end Top Ten list and number sixty @-@ three on his All @-@ Time Top 100 films . In his review , he called it an " endlessly fascinating , wonderfully open @-@ ended motion picture [ that ] will be remembered by many who see it as one of the best films of the year " . Berardinelli praised the film 's backwards narrative , saying that " what really distinguishes this film is its brilliant , innovative structure " , and noted that Guy Pearce gives an " astounding ... tight , and thoroughly convincing performance " . In 2009 , Berardinelli chose Memento as his # 3 best movie of the decade . William Arnold of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer writes that Memento is a " delicious one @-@ time treat " , and emphasizes that director Christopher Nolan " not only makes Memento work as a non @-@ linear puzzle film , but as a tense , atmospheric thriller " . Rob Blackwelder noted that " Nolan has a crackerjack command over the intricacies of this story . He makes every single element of the film a clue to the larger picture ... as the story edges back toward the origins of [ Leonard 's ] quest " .
However , not all critics were impressed with the film 's structure . Marjorie Baumgarten wrote , " In forward progression , the narrative would garner little interest , thus making the reverse storytelling a filmmaker 's conceit . " Sean Burns of the Philadelphia Weekly commented that " For all its formal wizardry , Memento is ultimately an ice @-@ cold feat of intellectual gamesmanship . Once the visceral thrill of the puzzle structure begins to wear off , there 's nothing left to hang onto . The film itself fades like one of Leonard 's temporary memories . " While Roger Ebert gave the film a favorable three out of four stars , he did not think it warranted multiple viewings . After watching Memento twice , he concluded that " Greater understanding helped on the plot level , but didn 't enrich the viewing experience . Confusion is the state we are intended to be in . " Jonathan Rosenbaum disliked the film , and commented in his review of Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind that Memento is a " gimmicky and unpoetic counterfeit " of Alain Resnais 's 1968 film Je t 'aime , je t 'aime .
In 2005 , the Writers Guild of America ranked the screenplay # 100 on its list of 101 Greatest Screenplays ever written .
= = = Scientific response = = =
Many medical experts have cited Memento as featuring one of the most realistic and accurate depictions of anterograde amnesia in the history of motion pictures . Caltech neuroscientist Christof Koch called Memento " the most accurate portrayal of the different memory systems in the popular media " , while physician Esther M. Sternberg , Director of the Integrative Neural Immune Program at the National Institute of Mental Health , identified the film as " close to a perfect exploration of the neurobiology of memory . "
Sternberg concludes : " This thought @-@ provoking thriller is the kind of movie that keeps reverberating in the viewer 's mind , and each iteration makes one examine preconceived notions in a different light . Memento is a movie for anyone interested in the workings of memory and , indeed , in what it is that makes our own reality . "
Clinical neuropsychologist Sallie Baxendale writes in BMJ :
The overwhelming majority of amnesic characters in films bear little relation to any neurological or psychiatric realities of memory loss . ... Apparently inspired partly by the neuropsychological studies of the famous patient HM ( who developed severe anterograde memory impairment after neurosurgery to control his epileptic seizures ) and the temporal lobe amnesic syndrome , the film documents the difficulties faced by Leonard , who develops a severe anterograde amnesia after an attack in which his wife is killed . Unlike in most films in this genre , this amnesic character retains his identity , has little retrograde amnesia , and shows several of the severe everyday memory difficulties associated with the disorder . The fragmented , almost mosaic quality to the sequence of scenes in the film also reflects the ' perpetual present ' nature of the syndrome .
= = = Interpretations and analysis = = =
Since its release , Memento has been a widely noted topic of film discussion , both for its unique narrative structure and themes . Those searching for explanations of the film 's plot have either resorted to online forums , message boards or scholarly material , or have ignored the film 's official website and forums in order to maintain their own personal hypotheses . In an article for The Dissolve analyzing Nolan 's work , Mike D 'Angelo cites Memento as " a masterful study in deliberate self @-@ delusion , " alluding to Leonard 's own actions towards the end of the film and his role as an unreliable narrator . On the same topic of self @-@ deception , James Mooney of filmandphilosophy.com notes that the film suggests how " our memories deceive us , or rather , sometimes we deceive ourselves by ‘ choosing ’ to forget or by manipulating our memories of past events . " This is much in line with a psychological analysis of the film , specifically the act of confabulation . Leonard 's use of confabulation poses the dilemma , as explained by SUNY Downstate Medical Center Professor John Kubie for BrainFacts.org : " In Memento we are faced with the question of how much of Leonard ’ s memory of the past is real and how much constructed from beliefs and wishes .. "
Author Chuck Klosterman has written in @-@ depth about Memento in his essay collection Sex , Drugs , and Cocoa Puffs : A Low Culture Manifesto , specifically on the diner scene with Leonard and Natalie .
In an interview with Chuck Stephens for Filmmaker magazine in 2001 Nolan also stated : " The most interesting part of that for me is that audiences seem very unwilling to believe the stuff that Teddy ( Pantoliano ) says at the end and yet why ? I think its because people have spent the entire film looking at Leonard 's photograph of Teddy , with the caption : " Don 't believe his lies . " That image really stays in people 's heads , and they still prefer to trust that image even after we make it very clear that Leonard 's visual recollection is completely questionable . It was quite surprising , and it wasn 't planned . What was always planned was that we dont ever step completely outside Leonard 's head , and that we keep the audience in that interpretive mode of trying to analyze what they want to believe or not . For me , the crux of the movie is that the one guy who might actually be the authority on the truth of what happened is played by Joe Pantoliano ( The Matrix , Bound ) , who is so untrustworthy , especially given the baggage he carries in from his other movies : he 's already seen by audiences as this character actor who 's always unreliable . I find it very frightening , really , the level of uncertainty and malevolence Joe brings to the film . "
= = = Best film list appearances = = =
= = Awards = =
AFI Awards : AFI Story of the Year ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy and Horror Films : Saturn Award for Best Action or Adventure Film .
Boston Society of Film Critics : Best Screenplay ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Bram Stoker Awards : Best Screenplay ( Christopher Nolan and Jonathan Nolan ) .
British Independent Film Awards : BIFA Award for Best Foreign Independent Film .
Broadcast Film Critics Association : Best Script ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Casting Society of America : Best casting ( John Papsidera ) .
Chicago Film Critics Association : Best Script ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Dallas – Fort Worth Film Critics Association : Russell Smith Award ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Deauville American Film Festival : CinéLive Award ( Christopher Nolan ) . Critics Awards ( Christopher Nolan ) . Special Jury Prize ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Edgar Allan Poe Awards : Best Motion Picture ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Florida Film Critics Circle : Best Screenplay ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Golden Trailer Awards : Best drama , originality .
Independent Spirit Awards : Best supporting actress ( Carrie @-@ Anne Moss ) , Best director ( Christopher Nolan ) . Best Screenplay ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Las Vegas Film Critics Society : Best film . Best actor ( Guy Pearce ) . Best script ( Christopher Nolan ) .
London Film Critics ' Circle : British Director of the Year ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Los Angeles Film Critics Association : Best script ( Christopher Nolan ) .
MTV Movie Awards : Best New Filmmaker ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Online Film Critics Society : Best film . Best Director ( Christopher Nolan ) . Best Adapted Screenplay ( Christopher Nolan ) .
San Diego Film Critics Society : Best Actor ( Guy Pearce ) .
Southeastern Film Critics Association : Best Film . Best adapted Screenplay ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Sundance Film Festival : Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award ( Christopher Nolan and Jonathan Nolan ) .
Toronto Film Critics Association : Best Film . Best Screenplay ( Christopher Nolan ) .
Vancouver Film Critics Circle : Best Film .
= = Remake = =
AMBI Pictures announced in November 2015 that it plans to remake Memento , one of several film rights that AMBI acquired from its acquisition of Exclusive Media Group . Monika Bacardi , an executive for AMBI Pictures , stated that they plan to " stay true to Christopher Nolan ’ s vision and deliver a memorable movie that is every bit as edgy , iconic and award @-@ worthy as the original " .
Memento has been remade in various languages including , in Tamil as Ghajini ( 2005 ) , Hindi as Ghajini ( 2008 ) , and in Bangladesh as Dhoka ( 2007 ) . Kannada as Aishwarya ( film ) .
= Ontario Highway 401 =
King 's Highway 401 , commonly referred to as Highway 401 and also known by its official name as the Macdonald – Cartier Freeway or colloquially as the four @-@ oh @-@ one , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . It stretches 828 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 514 @.@ 5 mi ) from Windsor in the west to the Ontario – Quebec border in the east . The part of Highway 401 that passes through Toronto is the busiest highway in the world , and one of the widest . Together with Quebec Autoroute 20 , it forms the road transportation backbone of the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor , along which over half of Canada 's population resides and is also a Core Route in the National Highway System of Canada . The entire route is maintained by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) and patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police . The posted speed limit is 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) throughout its length , unless posted otherwise .
By the end of 1952 , three individual highways were numbered " Highway 401 " : the partially completed Toronto Bypass between Weston Road and Highway 11 ( Yonge Street ) ; Highway 2A between West Hill and Newcastle ; and the Scenic Highway between Gananoque and Brockville , now known as the Thousand Islands Parkway . These three sections of highway were 11 @.@ 8 , 54 @.@ 7 and 41 @.@ 2 km , ( 7 @.@ 3 , 34 @.@ 0 and 25 @.@ 6 mi ) , respectively . In 1964 , the route became fully navigable from Windsor to the Ontario – Quebec border . In 1965 it was given a second designation , the Macdonald – Cartier Freeway , in honour of the Fathers of Confederation . At the end of 1968 , the Gananoque – Brockville section was bypassed and the final intersection grade @-@ separated near Kingston , making Highway 401 a freeway for its entire 817 @.@ 9 @-@ km length . On August 24 , 2007 , the portion of the highway between Glen Miller Road in Trenton and the Don Valley Parkway / Highway 404 Junction in Toronto was designated the Highway of Heroes , as the road is travelled by funeral convoys for fallen Canadian Forces personnel from CFB Trenton to the coroner 's office in Toronto . On September 27 , 2013 , the Highway of Heroes designation was extended west to Keele Street in Toronto , to coincide with the move of the coroner 's office to the new Forensic Services and Coroner ’ s Complex at the Humber River Hospital .
In 2011 , construction began on a westward extension called the Right Honourable Herb Gray Parkway . This new route follows , but does not replace , former Highway 3 between the former end of the freeway and the E. C. Row Expressway , at which point it turns and parallels that route towards the site of the future Gordie Howe International Bridge . An 8 @-@ kilometre ( 5 mi ) section of the parkway , east of the E. C. Row interchange , opened on June 28 , 2015 , with the remaining section completed and opened on November 21 . Elsewhere in Ontario , plans are under way to widen the remaining four @-@ lane sections between Windsor and London to six lanes and to widen the route between Cambridge and Milton as well as through Oshawa . The expansive twelve @-@ plus @-@ lane collector – express system will also be extended west through Mississauga to Milton and east through Ajax and Whitby .
= = Route description = =
Highway 401 extends across Southwestern , Central and Eastern Ontario . In anticipation of the future expansion of the highway , the transportation ministry purchased a 91 @.@ 4 @-@ metre @-@ wide ( 300 ft ) right @-@ of @-@ way along the entire length . Generally , the highway occupies only a portion of this allotment . It is one of the world 's busiest highways ; a 2008 analysis stated that the annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) count between Weston Road and Highway 400 in Toronto was approximately 450 @,@ 000 , while a second study estimates that over 500 @,@ 000 vehicles travel that section on some days . This makes it the busiest roadway in North America , surpassing the Santa Monica Freeway in Los Angeles and I @-@ 75 in Atlanta . The just @-@ in @-@ time auto parts delivery systems of the highly integrated automotive industry of Michigan and Ontario have contributed to the highway 's status as the busiest truck route in the world , carrying 60 percent of vehicular trade between Canada and the US .
Highway 401 also features the busiest multi @-@ structure bridge in North America , located at Hogg 's Hollow in Toronto . The four bridges , two for each direction with the collector and express lanes , carried an average of 373 @,@ 700 vehicles daily in 2006 . The highway is one of the major backbones of a network in the Great Lakes region , connecting the populous Quebec City – Windsor corridor with Michigan , New York and central Ontario 's cottage country . It is the principal connection between Toronto and Montreal , becoming Autoroute 20 at the Ontario – Quebec border .
= = = Southwestern Ontario = = =
Highway 401 does not yet extend the last few kilometres to Detroit ; an extension to Brighton Beach ( at the Canada – US border in Windsor ) was completed in November 2015 , after which the Gordie Howe International Bridge will extend Highway 401 across the Canada – United States border through Delray to Interstate 75 in Michigan by 2019 . At present , Highway 401 begins as a six @-@ lane freeway at the west end of the E. C. Row Expressway . At the Dougall Parkway , the highway turns east and exits Windsor . From here , Highway 401 mostly parallels the former route of Highway 98 from Windsor to Tilbury .
Southwestern Ontario is flat , primarily agricultural land , that takes advantage of the fertile clay soil deposited throughout the region . The main river through the region is the Thames River , which drains the second largest watershed in southern Ontario and largely influences the land use surrounding the highway ; It parallels the route to the north between Tilbury and Woodstock .
Near Tilbury , Highway 401 loses its tall wall median barrier and narrows to four lanes , following lot lines laid between concession roads in a plan designed to limit damage to the sensitive agricultural lands through which the highway runs . Here the highway 's flat and straight route is notorious for leading to driver inattention . The section from Windsor to London ( especially west of Tilbury ) has become known for deadly car accidents and pile @-@ ups , earning it the nickname Carnage Alley . As the highway approaches London , Highway 402 merges in , resulting in a six @-@ lane cross @-@ section . Within London , it intersects the city 's two municipal expressways , Highbury Avenue and the Veterans Memorial Parkway .
The section between London and Woodstock generally parallels the former Highway 2 but lies on the south side of the Thames River . This area is not as flat but the highway is generally straight . This part of Highway 401 often experiences heavy snowsqualls in early winter , sometimes extending as far east as Toronto . To the south of Woodstock , Highway 401 curves northeast and encounters the western terminus of Highway 403 . The highway heads towards Kitchener and Cambridge , where it encounters Highway 8 and returns to its eastward orientation . East of Kitchener , the highway meanders towards Milton , passing through hills and rock cuts along the way .
= = = Greater Toronto Area = = =
As Highway 401 approaches the Greater Toronto Area ( GTA ) , it descends through the ecologically protected Niagara Escarpment to the west of Milton . Upon entering the town , it enters the first urbanized section of the GTA , passing through two rural areas between there and Oshawa . The first rural gap is the western side of Toronto 's Greenbelt , a zone around Toronto protected from development . After this 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) gap , the highway interchanges with the Highway 407 Express Toll Route . Within the GTA , the highway passes several major shopping malls including Yorkdale Shopping Centre , Scarborough Town Centre and Pickering Town Centre .
Highway 401 widens into a collector @-@ express system as it approaches Hurontario Street in Mississauga , a concept inspired by the Dan Ryan Expressway in Chicago . The system divides each direction of travel into collector and express lanes , giving the highway a wide span and four carriageways . To avoid confusion between carriageways , blue signs are used for the collector lanes and green signs for the express lanes . Unlike the collector lanes , which provide access to every interchange , the express lanes only provide direct access to a select few interchanges . Access between the two is provided by transfers , which are strategically placed to prevent disruptions caused by closely spaced interchanges . The overall purpose of the collector @-@ express system is to maximize traffic flow for both local and long @-@ distance traffic . In addition , Highway 401 was equipped with a traffic camera system called COMPASS in early 1991 . Using closed @-@ circuit television cameras , vehicle detection loops and LED changeable @-@ message signs , COMPASS enables the MTO Traffic Operations Centre to obtain a real @-@ time assessment of traffic conditions and alert drivers of collisions , congestion and construction . The system currently stretches from the Highway 403 / 410 interchange in Mississauga to Harwood Avenue in Ajax .
Two sets of collector @-@ express systems exist in the GTA . The first set is 6 @.@ 6 km ( 4 @.@ 1 mi ) long and connects Highway 403 , Highway 410 and Highway 427 . This system primarily serves to accommodate and organize various traffic movements from the Highway 403 / 410 and Highway 427 interchanges along Highway 401 , replacing an earlier plan that would have run Highway 403 directly to Eglinton Avenue and the never @-@ built Richview Expressway . East of the interchange with Renforth Drive , the collector lanes diverge to become the on @-@ ramps to Highway 427 northbound and southbound . The second 43 @.@ 7 km ( 27 @.@ 2 mi ) system passes through the centre of Toronto and ends in Pickering to the east . The 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) gap between the two systems is a traffic bottleneck . However , the interchange cannot currently accommodate future widening of Highway 401 .
Highway 401 widens to 18 lanes south of Toronto Pearson International Airport . Progressing eastward , eight lanes are carried beneath the large spaghetti junction at Highway 427 . The highway curves northeast and follows a power transmission corridor to Highway 409 , which merges with the mainline and forms the collector lanes . It returns to its eastward route through Toronto , now carrying 12 – 16 lanes of traffic on four carriageways . Highway 401 is often congested in this section , with an average of 442 @,@ 900 vehicles passing between Weston Road and Highway 400 per day as of 2008 . In spite of this congestion , it is the primary commuting route in Toronto ; over 50 percent of vehicles bound for downtown Toronto use the highway .
East of Highway 400 is The Basketweave , a criss @-@ crossing transfer between the express and collectors carriageways , beyond which is Yorkdale Centre . Twelve lanes pass beneath a complicated interchange with Allen Road , built to serve the cancelled Spadina Expressway . Further east , the highway crosses Hogg 's Hollow , over the West Don River and Yonge Street in the centre of Toronto , the busiest multi @-@ span bridge crossing in North America , surpassing the Brooklyn Bridge . It then crosses the East Don River and climbs toward the Don Valley Parkway , which provides access to downtown Toronto and Highway 404 , which provides access to the suburbs to the north . Progressing eastward , the highway continues through mostly residential areas in Scarborough , eventually reaching the Rouge Valley on the city 's eastern edge and crossing into Pickering .
West of Pickering , Highway 401 again meets former Highway 2 , which thereafter parallels it to the Ontario – Quebec border . As the highway approaches Brock Road in Pickering , the collector and express lanes converge , narrowing the 14 @-@ lane cross @-@ section to 10 , divided only at the centre . It remains this width as it passes into Ajax , before narrowing back to six lanes at Salem Road . Planned expansions east of Salem to accommodate an interchange with Highway 412 will see the highway widened to ten lanes east to Brock Street .
East of Ajax , the highway passes through the second 3 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) rural gap , and enters Whitby . The stretch of Highway 401 through Whitby and Oshawa features several structures completed during the initial construction of the highway in the 1940s . Several of these structures are to be demolished , either due to their age , or to prepare for the planned widening of Highway 401 through this area . A former Canadian National Railway overpass , which was fenced off but commonly used by pedestrians during Highway of Heroes repatriations , was demolished on the night of June 11 , 2011 . A second structure in Bowmanville was demolished during two overnight closures on July 9 and 16 . At Harmony Road , the suburban surroundings quickly transition to agricultural land . The highway curves around the south side of Bowmanville and travels towards Highway 35 and Highway 115 .
= = = Eastern Ontario = = =
From east of Highway 35 and Highway 115 to Cobourg , Highway 401 passes through a mix of agricultural land and forests , maintaining a straight course . As the highway passes through Cobourg , it narrows to four lanes and the terrain becomes undulating ,
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ially arranged fibrils that clump together at the apex in groups of unequal length to form an opening that appears jagged or torn . The circular area bordering the peristome is a paler color . Spores are thought to be dispersed by the wind sucking them out when it blows over the hole , or when falling raindrops hit the flexible endoperidium , creating a puff of air that forces the spores through the ostiole .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spore sac contains the gleba , which is composed of a pseudocolumella , unbranched threads ( the capillitium ) , the spore @-@ bearing cells ( basidia ) and the spores themselves ; all of these microscopic elements have certain characteristic features that help distinguish G. triplex from other superficially similar earthstars .
The spores are spherical , and 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 µm in diameter . They are covered with short narrow abruptly terminating projections of a translucent ( hyaline ) substance , which turn a pale cinnamon brown in potassium hydroxide , and a dark dull brown ( nearly sepia ) when stained with iodine . The capillitium is made of what appears to be encrusted cylindrical filaments 3 – 6 µm in diameter , of a color varying from hyaline to dull yellowish brown in potassium hydroxide , and yellowish in iodine ; its walls are thickened to the point where the interior ( lumen ) appears as only a line . Either two or four spores are attached to the basidia , and the sterigmata ( extensions of the basidia that attach the spores ) are long , up to 20 µm . Geastrum triplex does not have cystidia .
= = = Similar species = = =
Geastrum triplex may be confused with G. saccatum or G. fimbriatum , as the rays do not always crack around the perimeter to form a bowl under the spore case . However , it is larger than either of these species . The combination of characteristics which distinguish G. triplex from other earthstars include the lack of debris adhering to the outer surfaces , the saucer @-@ like base in which the spore case is seated , the relatively large size , the fibrillose peristome and the paler area surrounding the peristome separating it from the rest of the endoperidium . Unlike some other Geastrum species , the rays of G. triplex are not hygroscopic : they do not open and close in response to changes in humidity .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Geastrum triplex is a saprobic fungus : it derives nutrients from decomposing organic matter . The fruit bodies are usually found growing singly or more commonly in groups in hardwood forests where much humus has accumulated ; in Mexico , they have been collected in tropical deciduous forest . Fruit bodies are often found around well @-@ rotted tree stumps ; they are initially almost buried in the loose duff , but emerge during maturity as the downward curling of the rays exposes the spore sac . Old fruit bodies are persistent , and may survive the winter to be found the following spring or summer . A Dutch study reported a propensity for G. triplex to grow on soil made calcium @-@ rich from washed @-@ out chalk of crushed shells on bicycling paths . It is described as common in North America and Europe . One author states it is commonly found under beech trees .
Geastrum triplex has a widespread distribution , and has been collected in Asia ( China , Korea Iran , and Turkey ) , Australia , Europe ( Belgium , Czech Republic , Sweden , and the Canary Islands ) , and Africa ( Congo , South Africa ) . In North America , its range extends north to Canada and south to Mexico , including the whole continental United States and Hawaii . In Central and South America the fungus has been reported from Panama , Trinidad and Tobago , Argentina , Brazil , and Chile .
= = Uses = =
= = = Edibility = = =
Although the fruit bodies of Geastrum triplex are nonpoisonous , they are tough and fibrous , and of " no alimentary interest " . Mycologist David Arora says that they are reputed to be edible when immature — when the gleba is still white and firm — but adds that they are rarely found in this form .
= = = In traditional medicine = = =
Earthstars were used medicinally by Native American Indians . The Blackfoot called them ka @-@ ka @-@ toos , meaning " fallen stars " , and according to legend , they were an indication of supernatural events . The Cherokee put fruit bodies on the navels of babies after childbirth until the withered umbilical cord fell off , " both as a prophylactic and a therapeutic measure " . In traditional Chinese medicine , G. triplex is used to reduce inflammation in the respiratory tract , and to staunch bleeding and reduce swelling .
= = = Chemistry = = =
The fruit bodies of Geastrum triplex have been chemically analyzed and shown to contain a number of bioactive compounds , including fungal sterols such as ergosta @-@ 4 @,@ 6 @,@ 8 , ( 14 ) , 22 @-@ tetraen @-@ 3 @-@ one , 5 @,@ 6 @-@ dihydroergosterol , ergosterol , and peroxyergosterol . The fungus also contains various fatty acids , notably myristic , palmitic , stearic , oleic , alpha @-@ linolenic , and linoeic acid .
= Gadsden Purchase =
The Gadsden Purchase ( known in Mexico as Spanish : Venta de La Mesilla , " Sale of La Mesilla " ) is a 29 @,@ 670 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 76 @,@ 800 km2 ) region of present @-@ day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico that was purchased by the United States in a treaty signed on December 30 , 1853 by James Gadsden who was the American ambassador to Mexico at that time . It was then ratified , with changes , by the U.S. Senate on April 25 , 1854 , and signed by 14th President Franklin Pierce , with final approval action taken by Mexico 's government and their General Congress or Congress of the Union on June 8 , 1854 . The purchase was the last territorial acquisition in the contiguous United States to add a large area to the country .
The purchase included lands south of the Gila River and west of the Rio Grande ; it was largely so that the U.S. could construct a transcontinental railroad along a deep southern route . ( This happened with the transcontinental railroad , constructed by the Southern Pacific Railroad in 1881 / 1883 ) . It also aimed to reconcile outstanding border issues between the U.S. and Mexico following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , which ended the earlier Mexican – American War of 1846 – 48 .
As the railroad age evolved , business @-@ oriented Southerners saw that a railroad linking the South with the Pacific Coast would expand trade opportunities . They thought the topography of the southern portion of the original boundary line to the Mexican Cession ( future states of California , Nevada , Utah , Arizona , New Mexico , western Colorado ) of 1848 after the Mexican – American War was too mountainous to allow a direct route . Projected southern railroad routes tended to run to the North at their eastern ends , which would favor connections with northern railroads and ultimately favor northern seaports . Southerners saw that to avoid the mountains , a route with a southeastern terminus might need to swing south into what was still then Mexican territory .
The administration of President Franklin Pierce , strongly influenced by Secretary of War Jefferson Davis , ( later President of the southern seceding Confederate States ) saw an opportunity to acquire land for the railroad , as well as to acquire significant other territory from northern Mexico . In the end , territory for the railroad was purchased for $ 10 million ( $ 260 million today ) , but Mexico balked at any large @-@ scale sale of territory . In the United States , the debate over the treaty became involved in the sectional dispute over slavery , ending progress before the American Civil War in the planning or construction of a transcontinental railroad .
= = Southern route for the Transcontinental Railroad = =
= = = Southern commercial conventions = = =
In January 1845 Asa Whitney of New York state presented the United States Congress with the first plan to construct a transcontinental railroad . Although Congress took no action on his proposal , a commercial convention of 1845 in Memphis took up the issue . Prominent attendees included John C. Calhoun , Clement C. Clay , Sr. , John Bell , William Gwin , and Edmund P. Gaines , but it was James Gadsden of South Carolina who was influential in the convention 's recommending a southern route for the proposed railroad . It was to begin in Texas and end in San Diego or Mazatlán . Southerners hoped that such a route would ensure southern prosperity while opening the “ West to southern influence and settlement . ”
Southern interest in railroads in general , and the Pacific railroad in particular , accelerated after the conclusion of the Mexican – American War in 1848 . During that war , topographical officers William H. Emory and James W. Abert had conducted surveys that demonstrated the feasibility of a railroad 's originating in El Paso or western Arkansas and ending in San Diego . J. D. B. DeBow , the editor of DeBow 's Review , and Gadsden both publicized within the South the benefits of building this railroad .
Gadsden had become the president of the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company in 1839 ; about a decade later , the company had laid 136 miles ( 219 km ) of track extending west from Charleston , South Carolina , and it was 3 million dollars in debt . Gadsden wanted to connect all Southern railroads into one sectional network . He was concerned that the increasing railroad construction in the North was shifting trade in lumber , farm goods , and manufacturing goods from the traditional north @-@ south route based on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to an east @-@ west axis that would bypass the South . He also saw Charleston , his home town , losing its prominence as a seaport . In addition , many Southern business interests feared that a northern transcontinental route would cut the South off from trade with the Orient . Other Southerners argued for diversification from a plantation economy to keep the South independent from northern bankers .
In October 1849 a convention to discuss railroads was held in Memphis , in response to a separate convention called in St. Louis earlier in the fall , which had discussed a northern route . The Memphis convention overwhelmingly advocated the construction of a route beginning there , to connect with an El Paso to San Diego line . Disagreement arose only over the issue of financing . The convention president , Matthew Fontaine Maury of Virginia , preferred strict private financing , whereas John Bell and others thought that federal land grants to railroad developers would be necessary .
= = = James Gadsden and California = = =
Gadsden supported nullification in 1831 . When California was admitted to the Union as a free state in 1850 , he advocated secession by South Carolina . Gadsden considered slavery “ a social blessing ” and abolitionists “ the greatest curse of the nation . ”
When the secession proposal failed , Gadsden , working with his cousin Isaac Edward Holmes , a lawyer in San Francisco since 1851 , and the California state senator Thomas Jefferson Green , attempted to divide California in two . They proposed that the southern half of the state allow slavery . Gadsden planned to establish a slave @-@ holding colony there based on rice , cotton , and sugar . He would use slave labor to build a railroad and highway that originated in either San Antonio or the Red River . The railway or highway would transport people to the California gold fields . Toward this end , on December 31 , 1851 , Gadsden asked Green to secure from the California state legislature a large land grant located between the 34th and 36th parallels , along the proposed dividing line for the two California states .
A few months after this , Gadsden and 1 @,@ 200 potential settlers from South Carolina and Florida submitted a petition to the California legislature for permanent citizenship and permission to establish a rural district that would be farmed by " not less than Two Thousand of their African Domestics . " The petition stimulated some debate , but it finally died in committee .
= = = Stephen Douglas and land grants = = =
The Compromise of 1850 , which created the Utah Territory and the New Mexico Territory , would facilitate a southern route to the West Coast since all territory for the railroad was now organized and would allow for federal land grants as a financing measure . Competing northern or central routes championed , respectively , by U.S. Senators Stephen Douglas of Illinois and Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri , would still need to go through unorganized territories . A precedent for using federal land grants had been established when Millard Fillmore signed a bill promoted by Douglas that allowed a south to north , Mobile to Chicago railroad to be financed by " federal land grants for the specific purpose of railroad construction " . To satisfy Southern opposition to the general principle of federally supported internal improvements , the land grants would first be transferred to the appropriate state or territorial government , which would oversee the final transfer to private developers .
By 1850 , however , the majority of the South was not interested in exploiting its advantages in developing a transcontinental railroad or railroads in general . Businessmen like Gadsden , who advocated economic diversification , were in the minority . The Southern economy was based on cotton exports , and then @-@ current transportation networks met the plantation system 's needs . There was little home market for an intra @-@ South trade . In the short term , the best use for capital was to invest it in more slaves and land rather than in taxing it to support canals , railroads , roads , or in dredging rivers . Historian Jere W. Roberson wrote :
Southerners might have gained a great deal under the 1850 land grant act had they concentrated their efforts . But continued opposition to Federal aid , filibustering , an unenthusiastic President , the spirit of " Young America " , and efforts to build railroads and canals across Central America and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico divided their forces , leaving a lot of time for the Pacific railroad . Moreover , the Compromise of 1850 encouraged Southerners not to antagonize opponents by resurrecting the railroad controversy .
= = Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo = =
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ( 1848 ) ended the Mexican – American War , but there were issues affecting both sides that still needed to be resolved : possession of the Mesilla Valley , protection for Mexico from Indian raids , and the right of transit in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec .
= = = Mesilla Valley = = =
The treaty provided for a joint commission , made up of a surveyor and commissioner from each country , to determine the final boundary between the United States and Mexico . The treaty specified that the Rio Grande Boundary would veer west eight miles ( 13 km ) north of El Paso . The treaty was based on the attached 1847 copy of a twenty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old map . Surveys revealed that El Paso was 36 miles ( 58 km ) further south and 100 miles ( 160 km ) further west than the map showed . Mexico favored the map , but the United States put faith in the results of the survey . The disputed territory involved a few thousand square miles and about 3 @,@ 000 residents ; more significantly , it included the Mesilla Valley . Bordering the Rio Grande , the valley consisted of flat desert land measuring about 50 miles ( 80 km ) , north to south , by 200 miles ( 320 km ) , east to west . This valley was essential for the construction of a transcontinental railroad using a southern route .
John Bartlett of Rhode Island , the United States negotiator , agreed to allow Mexico to retain the Mesilla Valley ( setting the boundary at 32 ° 22 ′ N , north of the American claim 31 ° 52 ′ and at the easternmost part , also north of the Mexican @-@ claimed boundary at 32 ° 15 ′ ) in exchange for a boundary not turning north until 110 ° W in order to include the Santa Rita Mountains , which were believed to have rich copper deposits , and some silver and gold which had not yet been mined . Southerners opposed this alternative because of its implication for the railroad , but it was supported by President Fillmore . Southerners in Congress prevented any action on the approval of this separate border treaty and eliminated further funding for surveying of the disputed borderland . Bartlett was replaced with Robert Blair Campbell , a pro @-@ railroad politician from Alabama . Mexico asserted that the commissioners ' determinations were valid and prepared to send in troops to enforce the unratified agreement .
= = = Indian raids = = =
Article XI of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo contained a guarantee that the United States would protect Mexicans by preventing cross @-@ border raids by local Comanche and Apache tribes . At the time the treaty was ratified , Secretary of State James Buchanan had believed that the United States had both the commitment and resources to enforce this promise . Historian Richard Kluger , however , described the difficulties of the task :
In the five years after approval of the Treaty , the United States spent $ 12 million ( $ 320 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 today ) in this area , and General @-@ in @-@ Chief Winfield Scott estimated that five times that amount would be necessary to police the border . Mexican officials , frustrated with the failure of the United States to effectively enforce its guarantee , demanded reparations for the losses inflicted on Mexican citizens by the raids . The United States argued that the Treaty did not require any compensation nor did it require any greater effort to protect Mexicans than was expended in protecting its own citizens . During the Fillmore administration , Mexico claimed damages of $ 40 million ( $ 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 today ) but offered to allow the U.S. to buy out Article XI for $ 25 million ( $ 660 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 today ) . President Fillmore had proposed a settlement that was $ 10 million less .
= = = Isthmus of Tehuantepec = = =
During negotiations of the treaty , Americans had failed to secure the right of transit across the 125 @-@ mile ( 201 km ) -wide Isthmus of Tehuantepec in southern Mexico . The idea of building a railroad here had been considered for a long time . In 1842 Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna sold the rights to build a railroad or canal across the isthmus . The deal included land grants 300 miles ( 480 km ) -wide along the right @-@ of @-@ way for future colonization and development . In 1847 a British bank bought the rights , raising US fears of British colonization in the hemisphere , in violation of the precepts of the Monroe Doctrine . United States interest in the right @-@ of @-@ way was increased by the 1848 finding of gold in the Sierra Nevada , the finding the impetus for the California Gold Rush .
The Memphis commercial convention of 1849 recommended that the United States pursue the trans @-@ isthmus route , since it appeared unlikely that a transcontinental railroad would be built anytime soon . Interests in Louisiana were especially adamant about this option , as they believed that any transcontinental railroad would divert commercial traffic away from the Mississippi and New Orleans , and they at least wanted to secure a southern route . Also showing interest was Peter A. Hargous of New York who ran an import @-@ export business between New York and Vera Cruz . Hargous purchased the rights to the route for $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 700 @,@ 000 today ) , but realized that the grant had little value unless it was supported by the Mexican and American governments .
In Mexico , topographical officer George W. Hughes reported to Secretary of State John M. Clayton that a railroad across the isthmus was a “ feasible and practical ” idea . Clayton then instructed Robert P. Letcher , the minister to Mexico , to negotiate a treaty to protect Hargous ' rights . The United States ' proposal gave Mexicans a 20 % discount on shipping , guaranteed Mexican rights in the zone , allowed the United States to send in military if necessary , and gave the United States most @-@ favored @-@ nation status for Mexican cargo fees . This treaty , however , was never finalized .
The Clayton – Bulwer Treaty between the United States and Great Britain , which guaranteed the neutrality of any such canal , was finalized in April 1850 . Mexican negotiators refused the treaty because it would eliminate Mexico 's ability to play the US and Britain against each other . They eliminated the right of the United States to unilaterally intervene militarily . The United States Senate approved the treaty in early 1851 , but the Mexican Congress refused to accept the treaty .
In the meantime , Hargous proceeded as if the treaty would be approved eventually . Judah P. Benjamin and a committee of New Orleans businessmen joined with Hargous and secured a charter from the Louisiana legislature to create the Tehuantepec Railroad Company . The new company sold stock and sent survey teams to Mexico . Hargous started to acquire land even after the Mexican legislature rejected the treaty , a move that led to the Mexicans canceling Hargous ' contract to use the right of way . Hargous put his losses at $ 5 million ( $ 142 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 today ) and asked the United States government to intervene . President Fillmore refused to do so .
Mexico sold the canal franchise , without the land grants , to A. G. Sloo and Associates in New York for $ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 17 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 today ) . In March 1853 Sloo contracted with a British company to build a railroad and sought an exclusive contract from the new Franklin Pierce Administration to deliver mail from New York to San Francisco . However , Sloo soon defaulted on bank loans and the contract was sold back to Hargous .
= = Pierce administration = =
The Pierce administration , which took office in March 1853 , had a strong pro @-@ southern , pro @-@ expansion mindset . Louisiana Senator Pierre Soulé was sent to Spain to negotiate the acquisition of Cuba . Expansionists John Y. Mason of Virginia and Solon Borland of Arkansas were appointed as ministers , respectively , to France and Nicaragua . Pierce 's Secretary of War , Jefferson Davis , was already on record as favoring a southern route for a transcontinental railroad , so southern rail enthusiasts had every reason to be encouraged .
The South as a whole , however , remained divided . In January 1853 Senator Thomas Jefferson Rusk of Texas introduced a bill to create two railroads , one with a northern route and one with a southern route starting below Memphis on the Mississippi River . Under the Rusk legislation , the President would be authorized to select the specific termini and routes as well as the contractors who would build the railroads . Some southerners , however , worried that northern and central interests would leap ahead in construction and opposed any direct aid to private developers on constitutional grounds . Other southerners preferred the isthmian proposals . An amendment was added to the Rusk bill to prohibit direct aid , but southerners still split their vote in Congress and the amendment failed .
This rejection led to legislative demands , sponsored by William Gwin of California and Salmon P. Chase of Ohio and supported by the railroad interests , for new surveys for possible routes . Gwin expected that a southern route would be approved — both Davis and Robert J. Walker , former secretary of the treasury , supported it . Both were stockholders in a Vicksburg @-@ based railroad that planned to build a link to Texas to join up with the southern route . Davis argued that the southern route would have an important military application in the likely event of future troubles with Mexico .
= = = Gadsden and Santa Anna = = =
On March 21 , 1853 , a treaty initiated in the Fillmore administration , that would provide joint Mexican and United States protection for the Sloo grant was signed in Mexico . At the same time that this treaty was received in Washington , Pierce learned that New Mexico Territorial Governor William C. Lane had issued a proclamation claiming the Mesilla Valley as part of New Mexico , leading to protests from Mexico . Pierce was also aware of efforts by France , through its consul in San Francisco , to acquire the Mexican state of Sonora .
Pierce recalled Lane in May and replaced him with David Meriwether of Kentucky . Meriwether was given orders to stay out of the Mesilla Valley until negotiations with Mexico could be completed . With the encouragement of Davis , Pierce also appointed James Gadsden to negotiate with Mexico over the acquisition of additional territory . Secretary of State William L. Marcy gave Gadsden clear instructions : he was to secure the Mesilla Valley for the purposes of building a railroad through it , convince Mexico that the US had done its best regarding the Indian raids , and elicit Mexican cooperation in efforts by US citizens to build a canal or railroad across the Tenhuantepec Isthmus . Supporting the Sloo interests was not part of the instructions .
The Mexican government was going through political and financial turmoil . In the process , Santa Anna had been returned to power about the same time that Pierce was inaugurated . Santa Anna was willing to deal because he needed money to rebuild the Mexican Army for defense against the United States , but he initially rejected the extension of the border further south to the Sierra Madre Mountains . He initially insisted on reparations for the damages caused by American Indian raids , but agreed to let an international tribunal resolve this . Gadsden realized that Santa Anna needed money and passed this information along to Secretary Marcy .
Marcy and Pierce responded with new instructions . Gadsden was authorized to purchase any of six parcels of land with a price fixed for each . The price would include the settlement of all Indian damages and relieve the United States from any further obligation to protect Mexicans . $ 50 million ( $ 1 @.@ 4 billion today ) would have bought the Baja California Peninsula and a large portion of its northwestern Mexican states while $ 15 million ( $ 430 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 today ) was to buy the 38 @,@ 000 square miles ( 98 @,@ 000 km2 ) of desert necessary for the railroad plans .
Santa Anna was put off by " Gadsden 's antagonistic manner " . Gadsden had advised Santa Anna that " the spirit of the age " would soon lead the northern states to secede so he might as well sell them now . The Mexican President felt threatened by William Walker 's attempt to capture Baja California with 50 troops and annex Sonora . Gadsden disavowed any government backing of Walker , who was expelled by the US and placed on trial as a criminal . Santa Anna worried that the US would allow further aggression against Mexican territory . Santa Anna needed to get as much money for as little territory as possible . When Great Britain rejected Mexican requests to assist in the negotiations , Santa Anna opted for the $ 15 million package .
= = = Ratification = = =
Pierce and his cabinet began debating the treaty in January 1854 . Although disappointed in the amount of territory secured and some of the terms , they submitted it to the Senate on February 10 . Gadsden , however , suggested that northern senators would block the treaty in order to deny the South a railroad .
Although signed by Pierce and Santa Anna , the treaty needed to be ratified by a 2 / 3 vote of the US Senate , where it met strong opposition . Antislavery senators opposed further acquisition of slave territory . Lobbying by speculators gave the treaty a bad reputation . Some senators objected to furnishing Santa Anna financial assistance .
The treaty had reached the Senate as that body was focused on the debate over the Kansas – Nebraska Act . On April 17 , after much debate , the Senate voted 27 to 18 in favor of the treaty , falling three votes short of the necessary two @-@ thirds required for treaty approval . After this defeat , Secretary Davis and southern senators pressed Pierce to add more provisions to the treaty including :
protection for the Sloo grant ;
a requirement that Mexico " protect with its whole power the prosecution , preservation , and security of the work [ referring to the isthmian canal ] " ;
permission for the United States to intervene unilaterally " when it may feel sanctioned and warranted by the public or international law " ; and
a reduction of the territory to be acquired by 9 @,@ 000 square miles ( 23 @,@ 000 km2 ) and dropping the price from $ 15 million ( $ 395 @,@ 055 @,@ 556 ) to $ 10 million ( $ 263 @,@ 370 @,@ 370 ) .
This version of the treaty successfully passed the US Senate April 25 , 1854 , by a vote of 33 to 12 . The reduction in territory was an accommodation of northern senators who opposed the acquisition of additional slave territory . In the final vote , northerners split 12 to 12 . Gadsden took the revised treaty back to Santa Anna , who accepted the changes . The treaty went into effect June 30 , 1854 .
While the land was available for construction of a southern railroad , the issue had become too strongly associated with the sectional debate over slavery to receive federal funding . Roberson wrote :
The unfortunate debates in 1854 left an indelible mark on the course of national politics and the Pacific railroad for the remainder of the antebellum period . It was becoming increasingly difficult , if not outright impossible , to consider any proposal that could not somehow be construed as relating to slavery and , therefore , sectional issues . Although few people fully realized it at the close of 1854 , sectionalism had taken such a firm , unrelenting hold on the nation that completion of an antebellum Pacific railroad was prohibited . Money , interest , and enthusiasm were devoted to emotion @-@ filled topics , not the Pacific railroad .
The effect was such that railroad development , which accelerated in the North , stagnated in the South .
= = = Post @-@ ratification controversy = = =
As originally envisioned , the purchase would have encompassed a much larger region , extending far enough south to include most of the current Mexican states of Baja California , Baja California Sur , Coahuila , Chihuahua , Sonora , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas . The Mexican people opposed such boundaries , as did anti @-@ slavery US Senators , who saw the purchase as acquisition of more slave territory . Even the sale of a relatively small strip of land angered the Mexican people , who saw Santa Anna 's actions as a betrayal of their country . They watched in dismay as he squandered the funds generated by the Purchase . Contemporary Mexican historians continue to view the deal negatively and believe that it has defined the American – Mexican relationship in a deleterious way .
The purchased lands were initially appended to the existing New Mexico Territory . To help control the new land , the US Army established Fort Buchanan on Sonoita Creek in present @-@ day southern Arizona on November 17 , 1856 . The difficulty of governing the new areas from the territorial capital at Santa Fe led to efforts as early as 1856 to organize a new territory out of the southern portion . Many of the early settlers in the region were , however , pro @-@ slavery and sympathetic to the South , resulting in an impasse in Congress as to how best to reorganize the territory .
The shifting of the course of the Rio Grande would cause a later dispute over the boundary between Purchase lands and those of the state of Texas , known as the Country Club Dispute . Pursuant to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , the Gadsden Treaty and subsequent treaties , the International Boundary and Water Commission which was established in 1889 to maintain the border , and pursuant to still later treaties its duties expanded to allocation of river waters between the two nations , and providing for flood control and water sanitation . Once viewed as a model of international cooperation , in recent decades the IBWC has been heavily criticized as an institutional anachronism , by @-@ passed by modern social , environmental and political issues .
= = Growth of the region after 1854 = =
= = = Army control = = =
The residents of the area gained full US citizenship and slowly assimilated into American life over the next half @-@ century . The principal threat to the peace and security of settlers and travelers in the area were raids by Apache Indians . The US Army took control of the purchase lands in 1854 but not until 1856 were troops stationed in the troubled region . In June 1857 it established Fort Buchanan south of the Gila at the head of the Sonoita Creek Valley . The fort protected the area until it was evacuated and destroyed in July 1861 . The new stability brought miners and ranchers . By the late 1850s , mining camps and military posts had not only transformed the Arizona countryside ; they had also generated new trade linkages to the state of Sonora , Mexico . Magdalena , Sonora , became a supply center for Tubac , wheat from nearby Cucurpe fed the troops at Fort Buchanan , and the town of Santa Cruz sustained the Mowry mines , just miles to the north .
= = = Civil War = = =
In 1861 , during the American Civil War , the Confederate States of America formed the Confederate Territory of Arizona , including in the new territory mainly areas acquired by the Gadsden Purchase . In 1863 , using a north @-@ to @-@ south dividing line , the Union created its own Arizona Territory out of the western half of the New Mexico Territory . The new American Arizona Territory also included most of the lands acquired in the Gadsden Purchase . This territory would be admitted into the Union as the State of Arizona on February 14 , 1912 , the last area of the Lower 48 States to receive statehood .
= = = Social development = = =
After the Gadsden Purchase , southern Arizona 's social elite , including the Estevan Ochoa , Mariano Samaniego , and Leopoldo Carillo families , remained primarily Mexican American until the coming of the railroad in the 1880s . When the Sonora Exploring and Mining Company opened silver mines in southern Arizona , it sought to employ educated , middle @-@ class Americans who shared a work ethic and leadership abilities to operate the mines . A biographical analysis of some 200 of its employees , classed as capitalists , managers , laborers , and general service personnel , reveals that the resulting work force included Europeans , Americans , Mexicans , and Indians . This mixture failed to stabilize the remote area , which lacked formal social , political , and economic organization in the years from the Gadsden Purchase to the Civil War .
= = = Economic development = = =
From the late 1840s into the 1870s Texas stockmen drove their beef cattle over southern Arizona on the Texas – California trail . Texans were impressed with the grazing possibilities offered by the Gadsden Purchase country of Arizona . By the last third of the century they were moving their herds into Arizona and establishing the range cattle industry there . Not only did the Texans contribute their proven range methods to the new grass country of Arizona but their problems as well . Texas rustlers brought lawlessness , poor management resulted in overstocking , and carelessness introduced destructive diseases . But these difficulties did force laws and associations in Arizona to curb and resolve them . The Anglo @-@ American cattleman frontier in Arizona was an extension of the Texas experience .
When the Arizona Territory was formed in 1863 out of the southern portion of the New Mexico Territory , Pima County and later Cochise County — created from the easternmost portion of Pima County in January 1881 — were subject to ongoing border @-@ related conflicts . The area was characterized by rapidly growing boomtowns , ongoing Apache raids , smuggling and cattle rustling across the United States @-@ Mexico border , growing ranching operations , and the expansion of new technologies in mining , railroading , and telecommunications .
In the 1860s , conflict between the Apaches and the Americans was at its height . There was until 1886 almost constant warfare in the region adjacent to the Mexican border . The illegal cattle operations kept beef prices in the border region lower and provided cheap stock that helped small ranchers get by . Many early Tombstone residents looked the other way when it was " only Mexicans " being robbed .
Outlaws derisively called " Cowboys
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of getting the ball to the outside @-@ forwards as quickly as possible , whereas Manchester City adopted tactics inspired by the Hungarian team which had soundly beaten England at Wembley three years before . The system involved using Don Revie in a deeper position than a traditional centre @-@ forward in order to draw a defender out of position , and was therefore known as the " Revie Plan " . As both teams ' first @-@ choice colours were blue , each team wore their change strip to prevent confusion . Manchester City therefore wore maroon , and Birmingham City wore white .
Birmingham won the toss and Manchester City kicked off . The Birmingham goal came under pressure almost immediately . Within a minute a far post cross from Roy Clarke narrowly eluded Hayes . Two corners followed , the second resulting in a shot by Roy Paul . The next attack , in the third minute , resulted in the opening goal . Revie began the move , exchanging passes with Clarke , and back @-@ heeling for the unmarked Hayes to sweep the ball past Gil Merrick to put Manchester City ahead . Birmingham 's confidence was shaken , resulting in a series of Manchester City corners and a chance for Hayes , but they fought back to equalise in the 15th minute . Astall slipped the ball to Brown , who helped it forward . It rebounded off a Manchester City defender into the path of Welsh international inside ‑ forward Noel Kinsey , who fired home via Trautmann 's far post . For the remainder of the first half Birmingham had most of the play , exerting pressure on Manchester City full @-@ back Leivers , but were unable to make a breakthrough . Though Birmingham put the ball in the net twice , Brown was adjudged to be offside on both occasions . With Warhurst missing and Boyd out of position and not fully fit , Birmingham 's strength and balance was disrupted , leaving them particularly vulnerable to Manchester City 's unconventional style .
During the half @-@ time interval , a row erupted between the Birmingham manager and some of his players about their fitness ; in the Manchester City dressing room , a heated exchange took place between Barnes and Revie . Barnes had played defensively in the first half to counter the threat of Peter Murphy , but Revie urged him to play further forward . Meanwhile , manager Les McDowall exhorted his players to keep possession and make their opponents chase the ball .
The period immediately after half ‑ time saw few chances , but then , after just over an hour 's play , Manchester City regained their stride and suddenly went two goals ahead . A throw @-@ in to Revie led to interplay on the right wing involving Barnes , Dyson , and Johnstone , resulting in a through @-@ ball which put Dyson clear of the defence to score . Two minutes later , Trautmann collected the ball at the end of a Birmingham attack and kicked the ball long to Dyson , over the heads of the retreating Birmingham players . Dyson flicked the ball on to Bobby Johnstone , who scored Manchester City 's third , becoming the first player ever to score in consecutive Wembley finals in the process .
With 17 minutes remaining , a Birmingham chance arose when Murphy outpaced Dave Ewing . Goalkeeper Trautmann dived at the feet of Murphy to win the ball , but in the collision Murphy 's right knee hit Trautmann 's neck with a forceful blow . Trautmann was knocked unconscious , and the referee stopped play immediately . Trainer Laurie Barnett rushed onto the pitch , and treatment continued for several minutes . No substitutes were permitted , so Manchester City would have to see out the game with ten men if Trautmann was unable to continue . Captain Roy Paul felt certain that Trautmann was not fit to complete the match , and wished to put Roy Little in goal instead . However , Trautmann , dazed and unsteady on his feet , insisted upon keeping his goal . He played out the remaining minutes in great pain , with the Manchester City defenders attempting to clear the ball well upfield or into the stand whenever it came near . Trautmann was called upon to make two further saves to deny Brown and Murphy , the second causing him to recoil in agony due to a collision with Ewing , which required the trainer to revive him .
No further goals were scored , and the referee blew for full time with the final score 3 – 1 to Manchester City . As the players left the field , the crowd sang a chorus of " For he 's a jolly good fellow " in tribute to Trautmann 's bravery . Roy Paul led his team up the steps to the royal box to receive Manchester City 's third FA Cup . Trautmann 's neck continued to cause him pain , and Prince Philip commented on its crooked state as he gave Trautmann his winner 's medal . Three days later , an examination revealed that Trautmann had broken a bone in his neck .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Trautmann attended the evening 's post @-@ match banquet ( where Alma Cogan sang to the players ) despite being unable to move his head , and went to bed expecting his injury to heal with rest . As the pain did not recede , the following day he went to St George 's Hospital , where he was told he merely had a crick in his neck which would go away . Three days later , he got a second opinion from a doctor at Manchester Royal Infirmary . An X @-@ ray revealed he had dislocated five vertebrae in his neck , the second of which was cracked in two . The third vertebra had wedged against the second , preventing further damage which could have cost Trautmann his life .
When Manchester City 's train from London reached Manchester , the team were greeted by cameras from Granada TV and an open @-@ top bus . They embarked on a journey from London Road station to the town hall in Albert Square , taking a route along some of Manchester 's main shopping streets . The size and spirit of the crowds led the Manchester Evening Chronicle to make comparisons with VE Day . The boisterousness of the crowds in Albert Square meant the Lord Mayor struggled to make his speech heard above chants of " We want Bert " . After the civic reception at the Town Hall and a banquet at a Piccadilly restaurant , the team returned to the open @-@ top bus and headed to Belle Vue Pleasure Gardens , near the club 's former home of Hyde Road in east Manchester , where the Chronicle held a function .
An estimated 10 @,@ 000 people met the Birmingham City party on their return to Snow Hill station . The players , in the first of a convoy of four coaches , waved to the assembled crowds through the open sun @-@ roof as they proceeded to the Council House , where the Lord Mayor welcomed them on behalf of the city . Len Boyd addressed the crowds from the balcony before the coaches continued through the city centre and back to St Andrew 's , Birmingham City 's home ground . The following Wednesday , a dinner was held to honour the club 's achievements . Guests included the 84 @-@ year @-@ old Billy Walton , who had joined the club in 1888 , six members of Birmingham 's 1931 cup final team , and a trade delegation from the Soviet city of Sverdlovsk .
Though the thousands gathered outside the Council House roared " No ! " when Boyd said the team felt they had let the supporters down , there were recriminations concerning Birmingham 's performance and team selection . The local press suggested that attempts to combat " Wembley nerves " had resulted in an " over @-@ casual approach to the game " . The row at half @-@ time had done little for second @-@ half morale , but speaking fifty years later , Gil Merrick placed the blame less on Boyd 's questionable fitness than on a failure to discuss how to stop Revie . Alex Govan , convinced that " if Roy Warhurst had been fit then there would only have been one winner " , blamed " bad team selection " , saying that even without Warhurst he firmly believed " that if Badham had been in we would have won that game . He would never have given Don Revie the room to run the match . " Warhurst himself thought the selection of Newman " meant the team had to adapt its style and in the end we used different tactics to those that had been successful all season " .
= Italian cruiser Caprera =
Caprera was a torpedo cruiser of the Partenope class built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . She was built by the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando shipyard ; her keel was laid in July 1891 , she was launched in May 1894 , and was commissioned in December 1895 . Her main armament were her five torpedo tubes , which were supported by a battery of eleven small @-@ caliber guns . Caprera spent most of her career in the main Italian fleet , where she was primarily occupied with training exercises . She served in the Red Sea during the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , where she conducted shore bombardments and blockaded Ottoman ports in the area . Caprera did not remain in service long after the war , being sold for scrap in May 1913 .
= = Design = =
Caprera was 73 @.@ 1 meters ( 239 ft 10 in ) long overall and had a beam of 8 @.@ 22 m ( 27 ft 0 in ) and an average draft of 3 @.@ 48 m ( 11 ft 5 in ) . She displaced 833 metric tons ( 820 long tons ; 918 short tons ) normally . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . Specific figures for Caprera 's engine performance have not survived , but the ships of her class had top speeds of 18 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 5 to 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 20 @.@ 8 to 23 @.@ 9 mph ) at 3 @,@ 884 to 4 @,@ 422 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 896 to 3 @,@ 297 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 96 and 121 personnel .
Caprera was armed with a main battery of two 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / 40 guns and six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) / 43 guns mounted singly.α She was also equipped with three 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 20 guns in single mounts . Her primary offensive weapon was her five 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) thick ; her conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate .
= = Service history = =
Caprera was laid down at the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando ( Orlando Brothers ' Shipyard ) in Livorno on 27 July 1891 , originally under the name Clio . She was renamed Caprera on 23 February 1893 and was launched on 6 May 1894 , the last member of her class to enter the water . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , she underwent sea trials in mid @-@ 1895 . While testing the engines with forced draft , the ship reached 17 @.@ 75 knots ( 32 @.@ 87 km / h ; 20 @.@ 43 mph ) . The ship was commissioned into the fleet on 12 December 1895 . Upon entering service , Caprera was initially stationed in the 2nd Maritime Department , split between Taranto and Naples , along with most of the torpedo cruisers in the Italian fleet . These included her sister ships Partenope , Aretusa , Euridice , Iride , Minerva , and Urania , the four Goito @-@ class cruisers , and Tripoli . Shortly thereafter , she was transferred to Italian East Africa . She departed with the protected cruiser Etna in late December , passing through the Suez Canal on 30 December , along with a transport carrying a battalion of infantry . The rest of the Red Sea Squadron , which included the protected cruisers Dogali and Etruria , met Caprera and Etna in Massawa .
The ship was assigned to the Atlantic Naval Division in 1899 , along with the armored cruiser Marco Polo and the protected cruisers Etna , Dogali , and Giovanni Bausan . By 1907 , Caprera had been transferred to the Reserve Squadron , along with four of the older ironclad battleships . The following year , she was stationed in Italian East Africa . While there , an Italian meteorologist conducted several experiments aboard the ship with a hot air balloon to study the monsoon winds in the region , beginning in Zanzibar . The tests , which were conducted in the last week of July , were unsuccessful , as the weather was unfavorable .
At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Caprera was stationed in Italy , alternating between the ports of La Spezia and Naples , along with her sister ships Urania and Iride . The threat of an Ottoman attack from the Arabian Peninsula across the Red Sea to Italian Eritrea led the Italian High Command to reinforce the Red Sea Squadron . Caprera and several destroyers were sent to strengthen the Italian defenses . The protected cruiser Piemonte and two destroyers annihilated a force of seven Ottoman gunboats in the Battle of Kunfuda Bay on 7 January 1912 , wiping out the core of Ottoman naval forces in the area . Caprera and the rest of the Italian ships then commenced a bombardment campaign against the Turkish ports in the Red Sea before declaring a blockade of the city of Al Hudaydah on 26 January . On 27 July and 12 August , Caprera , her sister ship Aretusa , and the protected cruiser Piemonte conducted two bombardments of Al Hudaydah . During the second attack , they destroyed an Ottoman ammunition dump . On 14 October , the Ottoman government agreed to sign a peace treaty , ending the war . Caprera did not remain in service long after the end of the war . She was sold for scrap in May 1913 and thereafter broken up .
= India at the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games =
India competed at the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games ( officially known as the IV Commonwealth Youth Games ) held in the Isle of Man from 7 to 13 September 2011 . India has participated in all the editions of the Commonwealth Youth Games . The nation was represented by the Indian Olympic Association , which is responsible for the Commonwealth Games and Commonwealth Youth Games in India .
The delegation of India consisted of 20 competitors , participating in four — athletics , badminton , boxing and cycling — out of the seven sports of the programme , and 11 officials . Durgesh Kumar , Navjetdeep Singh and Pusarla Sindhu won gold medals for India in 400 m hurdles , shot put , and women 's singles event of badminton , respectively . Badminton player Srikanth Kidambi became the only Indian athlete to win multiple medals , including a silver in mixed doubles ( paired with Maneesha Kukkapalli ) and a bronze in men 's doubles ( paired with Hema Thandarang ) . India devolved from the top position in the previous Games to the ninth position with total of nine medals ( equally distributed in all medal categories ) .
= = Background = =
India is participating in the Commonwealth Games since their second revision in 1934 ( the then @-@ British Empire Games ) , held in London , England . The Indian Olympic Association , the country 's National Olympic Committee , is responsible for the Commonwealth and Commonwealth Youth Games in India . The nation has sent its delegation to all the editions of the Commonwealth Youth Games . India has hosted the Commonwealth and Commonwealth Youth Games in 2010 and 2008 in New Delhi and Pune , respectively . In the 2008 Commonwealth Youth Games , India won the most gold ( 33 ) , silver ( 26 ) and total medals , and finished first in the final medal table standings . In the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games , Indian Olympic Association sent a delegation consisted of twenty athletes ( twelve men and eight women ) and eleven officials ( including coaches and supporting staff ) .
= = Medalists = =
Indian athletes won a total of nine medals at the Games , equally distributed among all categories of medals . India devolved to ninth position in the final medal table standings , behind Malaysia ; India was ranked first in the medal table of the previous Commonwealth Youth Games , with total 76 medals .
Pusarla Venkata Sindhu , supported by the Olympic Gold Quest , won a gold for India in the women 's singles event of badminton . The other two gold medals came from Durgesh Kumar and Navjetdeep Singh , who finished on the top of the podium of 400 m hurdles and shot put , respectively . Badminton player Srikanth Kidambi was the only multiple medal winning Indian athlete at the Games , winning a silver in mixed doubles and a bronze in men 's doubles . Two pugilists , Rahul Poonia and Surender Singh , won medals in their respective weight categories . Poonia won silver in light flyweight and Singh won bronze in middleweight .
= = Athletics = =
Navjeet Kaur Dhillon was one of seven athletes to participate in the women 's discus throw event . With a throw of 45 @.@ 27 m , Dhillon won a bronze medal . Durgesh Kumar completed his heat of 400 m hurdles with a time of 53 @.@ 15 and qualified for final . He won a gold in the final after finishing race with a time of 51 @.@ 76 . Another medallist from the Indian side was Navjetdeep Singh , who won a gold medal in shot put event with a throw of 18 @.@ 81 m .
Women
Men
= = Badminton = =
Seven Indian badminton players went to the Games , competing in all five badminton events . Malaysia dominated in the sport , winning all but one of the five gold medals , the only other gold was won by Pusarla Sindhu in women 's singles . Sindhu defeated Malaysian Sonia Cheah in the final match by 22 – 20 , 21 – 8 . Sameer Verma won silver after losing to Zulfadli Zulkiffli of Malaysia by 16 – 21 , 21 – 17 , 15 – 21 in the final of men 's singles . In men 's doubles , the pair Srikanth Kidambi / Hema Thandarang won a bronze after defeating Canadian pair Nathan Choi / Nyl Yakura . Kidambi , pairing with Maneesha Kukkapalli , also won silver in mixed doubles event .
= = Boxing = =
Indian Boxing Federation selected four boxers to represent India in the Games . The boxing delegation was also accompanied by two coaches . Rahul Poonia ( light flyweight ) and Surender Singh ( middle weight ) won medals for India . Poonia , winning all his preliminary bouts by large margins , lost to Jack Bateson of England with a point difference of 6 – 13 in the final bout , and won a silver medal . In Singh 's middleweight event , only eight pugilists competed , making first round a quarterfinal match . Singh defeated Nathan Thorley of Wales in his first bout . In the semifinal match , Singh lost to Scottish boxer Grant Quigley , but his semifinal appearance guaranteed him a bronze medal , which he shared with Cody Crowley of Canada .
= = Cycling = =
Two entrants competed for India in the cycling events : Abhinandan Bhosale and Anjitha Parambil . Bhosale was ranked 37 in his time trial event and drove 11 @.@ 24 . Parambil did not finish her time trial event . She was expected to participate in the road race , but she did not start the event .
Men
Women
= Oblation Run =
The Oblation Run ( sometimes referred to as the Ritual Dance of the Brave ) is an annual event held by the University of the Philippines ( UP ) chapters of Alpha Phi Omega ( APO ) in the different UP campuses . The runners are male , and traditionally run completely naked in public places , with their genitals fully visible , on a designated route . The event was first organized in 1977 at University of the Philippines Diliman to promote Hubad na Bayani ( Tagalog for Naked Hero ) , a film . It draws its name from the Oblation , a statue of a nude man located in every University of the Philippines campus , which symbolizes " a selfless offering of one 's self to the country . " The event is usually done on December 16 , and serves as a protest to contemporary national issues .
Participants of the Diliman Oblation Run are male APO members numbering 24 on average . Women participating in the event , however , is not unheard of . Runners usually bear masks to hide their identities , and may wear leaves to cover their genitals . They usually hand roses to a number of female spectators . Additional runs are sometimes held in special events , such as the Centennial Run in 2008 where 100 members ran to celebrate the 100th anniversary of UP .
The run has been criticized by Aquilino Pimentel , Jr . , a Philippine senator , calling it a " blatant display of male genitals " and a " wanton disregard of the rules of decent society , " and comparing it with exhibitionist behaviors that are prohibited by the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines . In line with this , he called for an investigation on March 2009 to determine if the event violates that law .
= = History = =
Alpha Phi Omega is a fraternity founded on December 16 , 1925 at Lafayette College in Easton , Pennsylvania , United States . The first Philippine APO chapter was chartered on March 2 , 1950 at the Far Eastern University in Manila . The Eta chapter was established on February 10 , 1953 at UP Diliman . UP Diliman is the main campus of the University of the Philippines , a Philippine state university founded in June 1908 . It is particularly known for its student activism .
= = = Inception = = =
Despite inconsistencies , sources generally agree that the Oblation Run started in 1977 . Also known as the Ritual Dance of the Brave , it takes its name from the Oblation , a statue of a nude man unveiled in 1939 . Originally completely nude , a fig leaf was added to cover its genitals during UP President Jorge Bocobo 's term ( 1934 – 1939 ) . It is found in every UP campus , and has since become UP 's identifying symbol . The run has since spread to other UP campuses , including Baguio , Los Baños , Manila and Visayas , and non @-@ UP colleges and universities , such as the Polytechnic University of the Philippines , Far Eastern University and Bulacan State University .
According to a 1996 article published by the UP Diliman APO website , the run originated when an unnamed APO member ran naked inside the campus to promote an APO @-@ sponsored play called Hubad na Bayani ( Tagalog for Naked Hero ) . The play is dedicated to Rolly Abad , an APO member who was killed in a brawl a few months earlier . The run was a success so APO decided to stage it every year on the fraternity 's anniversary , December 16 . This view is supported by a GMA News and Public Affairs report .
A newer account by Oble , a student newspaper of University of the Philippines Baguio , gives a different story . According to a 2011 article of the paper , the first Oblation Run was done by Rolly Abad himself to protest the Ferdinand Marcos 's banning of Hubad na Bayani , a play detailing human rights violations during his martial law regime . Rolly Abad would be killed a few months later in a brawl . In his honor , APO decided to stage the run annually and voice contemporary socio @-@ political issues along with it .
Meanwhile , the Philippine Daily Inquirer notes an APO member , Menggie Cobarrubias , saying " We [ I and four others ] started it as a prank when the Marcos dictatorship did not allow the showing of the play , Hubad na Bayani . " The play was a political satire against Marcos .
An Associated Press article likewise details a different version of the story . According to Oliver Teves who wrote the article , the run started as a stunt to promote Hubad na Bayani , a film that depicted oppressed plantation workers . Similar to the account by Oble , the film was banned by Marcos . Similarly , the Internet Movie Database lists Hubad na Bayani as 1977 film directed by Robert Arevalo . It reportedly won the 1978 Gawad Urian Awards for best picture , best production design and best screenplay .
= = = Participation of women = = =
During the December 2005 Oblation Run at UP Diliman , two unidentified naked women , reportedly Koreans , were seen tailing 30 members who were part of the event . This is the first ever instance that women took part in the occasion . The two , wearing masks to hide their identities , held banners promoting equal rights for women . After posing for photographers , they entered a car which then sped off . The act was condemned by APO .
We are condemning their act not on gender issues because they are women , they can do run naked if they want to . But the event [ Oblation Run ] was supposed to be ours .
= = = Centennial Run = = =
To celebrate the University of the Philippines centennial , 100 APO members ran half a mile around the Diliman campus on June 18 , 2008 . This is the largest Oblation Run in its history in terms of number of participants . The participants started running on 11 AM PST from Vinzons Hall to the Oblation statue in front of Quezon Hall , the UP administration building . Several runners carried placards stating " Serve the People " and raised social issues , including appeals for greater state subsidy of education and ouster of then @-@ President of the Philippines Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo . The event was observed by senior APO alumni , including Jejomar Binay who was the mayor of Makati . He is currently the Vice President of the Philippines .
= = Event = =
The Oblation Run is usually held on December 16 , in honor of the international founding of Alpha Phi Omega on December 16 , 1925 . The date may be changed if December 16 falls on a weekend . The run may also be held in concurrence with other significant events , such as APO 's national anniversary on March , an APO chapter 's anniversary , and occasions significant to their home university . Runners usually bear masks to hide their identities , and may wear leaves to cover their genitals . They usually hand roses to a number of female spectators .
Contrary to popular belief , neophytes are forbidden to run .
All those who run are full pledged [ sic ] members who have volunteered . There is a misconception that the Oblation Run is something our neophytes have to undergo as part of their initiation . That ’ s not true . We never allow our applicants to join [ the Oblation Run ] .
As a sign of protest , it has called attention to several national issues including appeals for the ouster of former President Joseph Estrada , justice for the victims of the Maguindanao massacre and the 2010 Philippine Bar exam bombing .
= = Themes = =
Themes at UP Diliman Campus .
2013 Better disaster risk reduction and management
2012 Free , fair and clean 2013 national elections
2011 " A Run for Philippine Rivers "
2010 Justice for the victims of the 2010 Philippine Bar exam bombing .
2009 Justice for the victims of the Maguindanao massacre
2008 Opposing Charter Change particularly to any extension of the term of President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo
2007 Ouster of President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo and others .
2006 Protest against the University of the Philippines tuition increase , Charter change , and the withholding of funds of the Philippine Collegian
2005 " Merry Christmas ? ? ? " , three question marks represent the budget cut for the tuition of the " Scholars of the Nation " ( " Iskolar ng Bayan " ) the backpay and cost of living allowance woes of the University of the Philippines employees ; and the implementation of the EVAT
2004 " Environment Restoration and Social Justice for Hacienda Luisita Victims "
2003 Clean and peaceful elections ( and others )
2002 " No to Budget Cuts "
2001 " Stop Corruption ! Transparency in the Government " / " Walang Ku @-@ Corrupt "
2000 " Erap Resign " / Ouster of President Joseph Estrada
1999 Calling attention to University of the Philippines Budget Cuts
1995 Stop Fraternity Violence
= = Criticism = =
On March 2009 , the Oblation Run was criticized by Aquilino Pimentel , Jr . , a Philippine senator , calling it a " blatant display of male genitals " and a " wanton disregard of the rules of decent society . " He noted that the Oblation Run , being a public event , was being viewed by young children and " innocent audiences , young and old , " comparing it with exhibitionist behaviors that are prohibited by the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines . He also said that it was discriminatory against women .
Pimentel 's position was supported by officials of the Catholic Church . For instance , Tagbilaran Bishop Leonardo Medroso identified it as " malicious " and " morally lacking . " Like Pimintel , he cited that " innocent youths " are among the spectators of the run . He said that " it could be done in a more decent way without showing their nude bodies " ( trans ) . Lingayen @-@ Dagupan Archbishop Oscar V. Cruz supports this view .
In line with this , he called for an investigation on March 2009 to determine if the event violates the said law . He sought " to sanction the parties responsible , including the university authorities , for failure to exercise their bounden duty to see it that the laws and rules of this country prevail . " The Oblation Run was defended by Senator Francis Pangilinan , a former UP Student Council president . He argued that the run is not obscene because the runners were merely exercising their freedom of expression .
In 2010 , Salvador Curutchet of the Institute of the Incarnate Word banned De La Salle Araneta University students from participating in the run . Two years prior to banning it in 2010 , the APO chapter of De La Salle held the Oblation Run after obtaining a permit from the city government of Malabon . This was in celebration of its 50th anniversary since the university recognized the fraternity . In response to the ban , the chapter held a luncheon on its 2010 anniversary instead of a nude run .
Similarly , there used to be an Oblation Run conducted in Taft Avenue , Manila in support of the APO members taking the bar examinations . However , it has been of prohibited since 2008 by the city government of Manila due to complaints from examinees and their guests regarding " the unnecessary noise and obscenity of the said oblation run . "
= Tropical Storm Norman ( 2006 ) =
Tropical Storm Norman was a weak tropical cyclone that brought heavy rainfall to southwestern Mexico in October 2006 . The twelfth named storm of the 2006 Pacific hurricane season , Norman developed on October 9 from a tropical wave well to the southwest of Mexico . Unfavorable conditions quickly encountered the system , and within two days of forming , Norman dissipated as its remnants turned to the east . Thunderstorms gradually increased again , as it interacted with a disturbance to its east , and on October 15 the cyclone regenerated just off the coast of Mexico . The center became disorganized and quickly dissipated , bringing a large area of moisture which dropped up to 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of rainfall to southwestern Mexico . Rainfall from the storm flooded about 150 houses , of which 20 were destroyed . One person was injured , and initially there were reports of two people missing due to the storm ; however , it was not later confirmed .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 21 , moving across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea with little development . On October 1 it entered the eastern Pacific Ocean , and continuing westward it developed an area of persistent convection on October 5 . Initially the system was disorganized , although gradual development was expected as conditions in the upper @-@ levels of the atmosphere were expected to become more favorable . On October 7 it developed a broad low pressure area , and
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famous feature , however , was an impressive 247 ft ( 75 m ) tower at the northeast corner of the structure . Beman , an early advocate of the Floating raft system to solve Chicago 's unique swampy soil problems , designed the tower to sit within a floating foundation supported by 55 ft ( 17 m ) deep piles . Early on , an 11 @,@ 000 lb ( 5 @,@ 000 kg ) bell in the tower rang on the hour . At some point , however , the bell was removed , but the tower ( and its huge clock , 13 ft ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) in diameter — at one time among the largest in the United States , remained .
The interior of the Grand Central Station was decorated as extravagantly as the exterior . The waiting room , for example , had marble floors , Corinthian @-@ style columns , stained @-@ glass windows and a marble fireplace , and a restaurant . The station also had a 100 @-@ room hotel , but accommodations ended late in 1901 .
Not as famous as the clocktower but equally architecturally unique was Grand Central Station 's self @-@ supporting glass and steel train shed , 555 ft × 156 ft × 79 ft ( 169 m × 48 m × 24 m ) , among the largest in the world at the time it was constructed . The trainshed , considered an architectural gem and a marvel of engineering long after it was built , housed six tracks and had platforms long enough to accommodate fifteen @-@ car passenger trains . The final construction cost totaled over one million dollars .
The Chicago and Northern Pacific Railroad , a subsidiary of the Northern Pacific Railway , formally opened Grand Central Station December 8 , 1890 . Seeking access to the Chicago railway market , the Northern Pacific had purchased Grand Central and the trackage leading to it from the Wisconsin Central with the intention of making the station its eastern terminus . When it opened , Grand Central hosted trains from the WC ( which connected with its former trackage in Forest Park , Illinois ) , and the Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad ( M & NW ) , which made also a connection at Forest Park . By December 1891 , the tenants also included the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad , and in 1903 , the Pere Marquette Railway also started using the station .
Weakened by the prolonged economic downturn of the Panic of 1893 , the Northern Pacific went bankrupt in October 1893 , and was forced to end its ownership of the Chicago and Northern Pacific , including Grand Central Station . Ultimately , tenant railroad Baltimore and Ohio purchased the station at foreclosure in 1910 along with all the terminal trackage to form the Baltimore and Ohio Chicago Terminal Railroad ( B & OCT ) .
= = Services = =
The smallest of Chicago 's passenger rail terminals , Grand Central Station was a relatively quiet place , even during its heyday . Grand Central never became a prominent destination for large numbers of cross @-@ country travelers , nor for the daily waves of commuters from the suburbs , that other Chicago terminals were . In 1912 , for example , Grand Central served 3 @,@ 175 passengers per day — representing only 4 @.@ 5 percent of the total number for the city of Chicago — and serviced an average of 38 trains per day ( including 4 B & O suburban trains ) . This number paled in comparison to the 146 trains served by Dearborn Station , the 191 by LaSalle Street Station , the 281 at Union Station , the 310 by the Chicago and North Western Terminal and the 373 trains per day at Central Station .
The station did host some of Baltimore and Ohio 's most famous passenger trains , including the Capitol Limited to Washington , D.C. Unfortunately , however , the circuitous trackage leading to the station from the east forced these trains miles out of their way through the industrial southwest and west side of the city ( See map to the left ) . Other tenants such as the Soo Line Railroad ( which purchased the WC in 1909 ) , the M & NW ( which became known as the Chicago Great Western Railway in 1893 ) , and the Pere Marquette Railway ( which merged into the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway in 1947 ) , were nowhere near the scale of B & O 's operations in the intercity passenger rail market .
= = = Intercity Passenger Trains = = =
Grand Central Station served as a terminal for the following lines and intercity trains :
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad : Capitol Limited , Columbian , and Shenandoah to New York City and the Chicago - Washington Express to Washington , D.C. , along with other trains to Cumberland , Maryland and Wheeling , West Virginia .
Chicago Great Western Railway ( until 1956 ) : Legionnaire , later Minnesotan , both to Minneapolis , Minnesota . Other trains to Kansas City , Missouri and Omaha , Nebraska . All passenger services ceased in 1956 .
Minneapolis , St. Paul and Sault Ste . Marie Railway ( Soo Line ) ( until 1899 , and from 1912 to 1965 ; used Central Station in between and after ) : Laker to Duluth , Minnesota .
Pere Marquette Railway : Grand Rapids Flyer and Grand Rapids Express to Grand Rapids and Muskegon , Michigan and , ultimately to Buffalo , New York . Upon the 1947 merger with the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway , PM trains were renamed Pere Marquette .
From December 1900 to July 1903 , the New York Central Railroad and Chicago , Rock Island and Pacific Railroad used Grand Central , as their LaSalle Street Station was being rebuilt .
= = = Suburban Commuter Trains = = =
In addition to intercity passenger rail service , Grand Central Station hosted several short @-@ lived intraurban passenger rail operations . To coincide with the World 's Columbian Exposition in 1893 , the Baltimore and Ohio operated a special passenger train between Grand Central Station and Jackson Park , with intermediate stops at Halsted Street , Blue Island Avenue , Ashland Avenue and Ogden Avenue . Grand Central Station also served as a terminal for at least two suburban commuter lines . One , operated by the Wisconsin Central , operated trains west of Grand Central Station to Altenheim . The second began service in 1900 by the Chicago Terminal Transfer Railroad , and continued when B & O purchased the line in 1910 . It operated six trains a day between Grand Central and Chicago Heights , stopping in Blue Island , Harvey , Thornton and Glenwood . The line was unsuccessful and ended as early as 1915 . None of the other tenant railroads operated commuter trains from Grand Central Station .
= = The end = =
The lightly used terminal became even quieter in the years following World War II , with Grand Central serving 26 intercity passenger trains , down from nearly 40 at its busiest . Passenger trains were dropped and service was curtailed , and by 1956 the Chicago Great Western , which as late as 1940 had run six trains per day in and out of Grand Central ceased operating passenger service into Chicago . As a result , by 1963 only ten intercity trains remained , of which six were operated by the Baltimore and Ohio . The number of passengers that used the remaining service shrank proportionately : by 1969 , the year the station closed , the station only served an average of 210 passengers per day .
Due to its small size , its age and perceived obsolescence , Grand Central was the target of a long @-@ term political effort by the city government to encourage consolidation of passenger terminals in the south Loop . It was ultimately this political effort that sealed the fate of Grand Central , described in 1969 as " decaying , dreary , and sadly out of date " .
Faced with decreasing passenger numbers and intense political pressure to consolidate , the railroads operating into Grand Central Station re @-@ routed their trains into other Chicago terminals , beginning with the Soo Line into Central Station in 1963 . The remaining six Baltimore and Ohio and ex @-@ Pere Marquette trains last used Grand Central Station on November 8 , 1969 and were routed into their new terminus at the Chicago and North Western Terminal the following day .
Sitting unused , Grand Central Station 's value as an architectural and engineering masterpiece was discounted by its railroad owner , who believed the value of the land for urban redevelopment to be quite substantial . As a result , the trackage was scrapped and the entire terminal was razed by the railroad in 1971 .
= = Present @-@ day = =
Approximately 6 @.@ 5 acres remain vacant between Harrison and Polk ; the site currently serves as a de facto dog park in the South Loop . In 1984 , developers began construction of River City , just south of the site . River City was intended to be a complex of four 85 @-@ story office and residential towers stretching along the Chicago River from Harrison to Roosevelt Road designed by Bertrand Goldberg , designer of the landmark " Marina City " along the main branch of the Chicago River ) . Only a 17 @-@ story apartment building was completed in 1986 , however it can accommodate additional floors as part of an expanstion . Several other plans for office towers , condominiums , or retail development on the Grand Central Station terminal site have all been proposed over the past several years , and all have been shelved .
The land at the corner of Harrison and Wells , the lot on which the station itself stood , remains vacant . In March 2008 , CSX Transportation — the successor company to the B & O — sold the property to a Skokie , Illinois @-@ based capital group with the intent of redeveloping the site with mixed @-@ use high @-@ rise buildings .
MGLM Architects proposed constructing a new rail station on the site in February 2012 to accommodate high @-@ speed trains between the city core and O 'Hare Airport . The firm feels that this location would be preferable to adding additional capacity at the already crowded Union Station .
As of October 2013 , a proposal to build two towers containing 700 units ( rental & possibly condo apartments ) has resurfaced for 1 @.@ 5 acres of the 6 @.@ 5 acre site . The development known as " Franklin Point " is being backed by Jay @-@ Z business partners Arnold " Alex " Bize and Naum Chernyavsky .
= = = Legacy = = =
More than thirty years after its destruction , Grand Central Station has only relatively recently been identified by local historians , railroad enthusiasts and architecture critics as " the queen of the city 's old train stations " . Author Carl W. Condit remarked that the station was " an important Chicago building even if it never received much recognition " . Architect Harry Weese bemoaned its " wanton destruction " . Ira J. Bach noted that when the terminal was demolished : " Chicago lost its greatest monument to the institution which had created it : the railroad . "
= = = The B & OCT Bascule Bridge = = =
At the time Grand Central was completed , passenger trains approached the terminal by crossing the Chicago River to the southwest over a bridge between Taylor Street and Roosevelt Road , constructed in 1885 . This first bridge was replaced by a taller structure in 1901 to accommodate larger boats and ships on the south branch of the river .
When the Chicago River was straightened and widened in the 1930s , the United States Department of War insisted the Baltimore and Ohio build a new bridge adjacent to that of the St. Charles Air Line Railroad which crossed the river between 15th and 16th Streets . The new bridge 's location ( 41 ° 51 ′ 40 ″ N 87 ° 38 ′ 06 ″ W ) , about seven blocks south of its previous crossing , exacerbated the circuitous route of the B & OCT trackage leading to Grand Central Station . Both the B & OCT bascule bridge , and that of the St. Charles Air Line Bridge immediately adjacent to it , were built in 1930 , and both are bascule bridges .
As of 2013 the B & OCT bridge sits unused . An uncertain future awaits the old B & OCT bridge : the trackage it once served may never be rebuilt ; or the bridge may find new life if Chicago continues its railroad heritage and becomes the hub of a planned national high @-@ speed rail network , thus possibly making use of the railway bridge once again .
= Telethon ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" Telethon " is the 22nd episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 28th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 6 , 2010 . In the episode , Leslie volunteers to host a charity telethon and is given the unappealing 2 a.m. to 6 a.m. shift .
The episode was directed by Troy Miller and written by Amy Poehler , who stars as the protagonist Leslie Knope , her first script for the series . " Telethon " featured a guest appearance by retired basketball player Detlef Schrempf , as well as several actors who had previously appeared in Parks and Recreation , including Mo Collins and Jay Jackson .
The episode received generally positive reviews and , according to Nielsen Media Research , was seen by 4 @.@ 03 million household viewers , roughly the same as the previous week 's episode , " 94 Meetings " .
= = Plot = =
Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) has volunteered to work on the 24 @-@ hour " Pawnee Cares " diabetes telethon and orders everyone in the office to work the phones for multiple shifts . Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) is assigned to pick up retired basketball player Detlef Schrempf from the airport , the special guest for the telethon . Leslie is excited because she has been allowed to program her own four @-@ hour block , but her co @-@ workers are upset to learn it runs from 2 a.m. to 6 a.m. Additionally , she has already been up for 24 hours creating T @-@ shirts for her staff to wear for the telethon .
During lunch , Mark ( Paul Schneider ) tells Leslie that he is going to propose to Ann ( Rashida Jones ) . Ann suggests that Leslie get some sleep , but she plans on consuming Sweetums bars to stay awake for another 24 hours . As the telethon begins , Leslie is already exhausted and is falling asleep . With time to kill , Tom brings Detlef to the Snakehole Lounge , but the owner , Freddy ( Andy Milder ) , refuses to let him go because Detlef is bringing a lot of business , delaying Leslie 's big headliner . Andy 's ( Chris Pratt ) band , Mouse Rat , is asked to replace Detlef , but when they complete all of their songs , Leslie has nothing else to put on the air . Ron ( Nick Offerman ) volunteers to demonstrate how to cane a chair , but his presentation is so boring that the telethon actually starts to lose money .
Desperate for something to put on , Leslie tells Mark that he should propose to Ann in front of the camera and he agrees . Not long after , however , Ann confides in Leslie that she wants to break up with Mark , citing that he is simply not the one . Meanwhile , April ( Aubrey Plaza ) tries to make Andy jealous by flirting with someone over the phone , but it backfires when it turns out to be Joe ( Kirk Fox ) from the Pawnee sewer department . Andy is forced to kick Joe out of the studio when he actually arrives to bring April to his van .
The telethon 's talent pool becomes so low that Leslie is forced to flip a coin in front of the camera and talk about her favorite episodes of Friends . Jerry ( Jim O 'Heir ) is allowed to play the piano , but everyone dismisses his skilled playing as a racket . Mark finally returns to propose and walks on the set with the ring , but Leslie stops him by mooning the camera . Detlef Schrempf and Tom finally arrive at the end of Leslie 's programming block . Detlef presents a check for $ 5 @,@ 000 , allowing the telethon to bypass its $ 20 @,@ 000 mark . Despite being awake for two days straight , Leslie goes to Ann 's house so they could talk about Mark . She then promptly falls asleep on Ann 's couch for 22 hours .
= = Production = =
" Telethon " was directed by Troy Miller and written by Amy Poehler , who stars as Parks and Recreation protagonist Leslie Knope . It was the first episode she had written for the show . Early in the series , Poehler had expressed to Parks co @-@ creator Michael Schur that she wanted to write an episode , but they agreed she would wait for a filming hiatus before doing so . Poehler said the scenes in which Leslie uses sugar rushes to re @-@ energize herself at night , only to crash later , was reminiscent of some of her own all @-@ night experiences working on the sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live .
" Telethon " featured a guest appearance by Detlef Schrempf , a retired basketball player who played for the Indiana Pacers ; Parks and Recreation is set in Indiana . Prior to filming the episode , Schrempf 's acting skills had been limited to appearances on the American comedy series Married ... with Children and the German soap opera Gute Zeiten , schlechte Zeiten . Schur said of his performance , " For a guy who literally never acted before in his life , he was really funny . " Aziz Ansari joked about the performance , " We 're going to write a spin @-@ off for him called That 's So Detlef , so look forward to that . " " Telethon " also featured guest appearances by several actors who had appeared in previous episodes , including Mo Collins as Pawnee Today television host Joan Callamezzo and Jay Jackson as Pawnee television news reporter Perd Hapley . John Balma also made a guest appearance as Barney , a local teacher who gave the audience an extremely boring accounting presentation , just as he did in " Leslie 's House " .
In addition to the performances , " Telethon " included several references to previous episodes . During the telethon , Andy and his band perform a song called " Sex Hair " . This is a reference to " Galentine 's Day " , in which he claims to have written a song about how one can tell whether someone had sex because their hair is matted . A music video for the song was made available on the official NBC.com Parks and Recreation website shortly after the episode was broadcast . Also in " Telethon , " the television event is sponsored by the candy manufacturer Sweetums , and Leslie constantly eats their Nutri @-@ Yum bars in order to stay awake . Both the company and candy bars were prominently featured by " Sweetums " , where Leslie and Ann fought to prevent the unhealthy snacks from being sold in Pawnee parks . In other scenes , Tom takes Detlef Schrempf to the Snakehole Lounge , a nightclub where Tom previously purchased shares in the episode " Woman of the Year " .
On July 8 , 2010 , Amy Poehler was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for her overall work in the second season , and her performance in " Telethon " was the episode submitted for consideration . The award ultimately went to Edie Falco for her performance in the Showtime comedy series Nurse Jackie .
= = Cultural references = =
Tom describes his clothing as " Brooks Brothers Boys " , the children @-@ size line from the men 's clothier chain Brooks Brothers . While intoxicated , Tom starts to sing music by rapper Soulja Boy Tell ' Em . In order to stall for time during the telethon , Leslie starts talking about her favorite episodes of Friends , a sitcom that previously aired on NBC . She specifically refers to the fourth season episode " The One with Chandler in a Box " , in which Monica Geller prepares a Thanksgiving dinner , and Chandler Bing agrees to spend the holiday in a box as punishment for kissing Joey Tribbiani 's girlfriend . Donna mentions that her brother is in Liberia ; in real life , Retta 's aunt is the president of Liberia .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Telethon " was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 03 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It received a 2 @.@ 8 rating / 5 share among overall viewers , and a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 7 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . This rating was about even from the previous episode , " 94 Meetings " . " Telethon " was outperformed in the 8 : 30 p.m. timeslot by the CBS reality series Survivor : Heroes vs. Villains and the Fox crime drama Bones , but Parks and Recreation outperformed the CW Network supernatural fantasy series The Vampire Diaries and the ABC science @-@ fiction drama FlashForward .
" Telethon " received generally positive reviews . Matt Fowler of IGN praised the many inside jokes and character quirks featured in the episode . He said although The Office ( another comedy series by Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Greg Daniels ) is limited mainly to one setting , " Telethon " demonstrates how the Parks characters can be placed into a myriad of settings and situations . Entertainment Weekly writer Margaret Lyons said , " If that wasn ’ t the best episode of Parks and Recreation yet , it ’ s at least top five . " Lyons said every character and subplot was in strong form except for Ann and Mark , which she said has consistently been the show 's " Achilles ' heel " , and that this episode demonstrated how poorly it fit with the other elements of the series . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club called the episode " one of the greats " , claiming it served as a spotlight of the strong characters and subplot developed throughout the second season . Heisler also said the episode contained some of the season 's strongest one @-@ liners . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell said although " Telethon " advanced the eventual break @-@ up of Mark and Ann , the episode basically served as an excuse " to showcase Amy Poehler in varying stages of exhaustion @-@ related delirium " .
= = DVD release = =
" Telethon " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
= Copano Bay =
Copano Bay is a northwestern extension of Aransas Bay , west of Rockport , Texas in Refugio and Aransas counties . It is supplied with seawater from the Gulf of Mexico via Aransas Bay , and fed freshwater from the Aransas River , Mission River and Copano Creek . As an estuary , the bay is home to a diverse ecosystem consisting of various birds including the endangered whooping crane , and numerous finfish including the redfish as well as shellfish such as oysters . It is classified as a nursery for shrimp , which prohibits production from the bay . Copano Bay is also a historic location for human usage and settlement that dates back to the 18th century , beginning with the historic port of El Copano and the 19th century settlements of St. Mary 's of Aransas and Copano . The present @-@ day towns of Bayside , Copano Village and Holiday Beach were all founded in the 20th century . Oil and natural gas are pumped from below the bay 's surface , and contribute to the livelihood of the local economies .
= = History = =
Copano Bay was inhabited by the nomadic Aransas Indians , who constructed camps along the shore , 4 @,@ 000 years ago . The Aransas people left the area approximately 700 years ago , and were replaced around 1400 CE by the Copane Indians , for whom the bay is named . The Copane were one of five groups making up the Karankawas , hunter @-@ gatherers who occupied the mid @-@ Texas coast .
Cabeza de Vaca is thought to have been the first European to sight the bay in the early 16th century , evidenced by the descriptions in his logs that match the detail of the area . In 1766 , Spaniard Diego Ortiz Parrilla is believed to be the first European to explore the bay . He named it Santo Domingo ( Saint Dominic ) , but it was later changed to Copano , after the port of Copano was officially opened in 1785 on the northwestern shore . The port later served as a strategically important locale during the Texas Revolution and the American Civil War , and was the site of a settlement that is now completely abandoned . The town of St. Mary 's of Aransas was founded southwest of Copano and thrived as a port and wood mart , until numerous shipwrecks caused by the bay 's hidden reefs concluded its use in 1875 . Like Copano , it is now abandoned .
Further to the southwest , at the mouth of the Aransas River , the town of Black Point was established in the 1840s . The site was attacked by Indians several times before the settlement was abandoned . However , it was reestablished in the early 20th century as the present @-@ day city of Bayside . Bayside developers aimed to attract fruit and vegetable growers to the plots made available and advertised nationwide , but large amounts of land were purchased by speculators , raising demand and forcing further annexation . The 2000 census reported that 360 people lived in the city . The cities of Fulton and Rockport were established on Aransas Bay in the late 19th century , and later expanded development along most of the eastern shore of Copano Bay . Such developments include Copano Village , which registered 210 residents in 2000 , and the 1 @,@ 000 resident Holiday Beach community just west of Goose Island State Park on Lamar Peninsula .
= = Features = =
Copano Bay is approximately twelve @-@ by @-@ six @-@ miles , oriented from the southwest to the northeast . It is found mainly on undeveloped land , though ranches are located on parts of the west , south and north shores . The main extensions include Mission Bay , which stretches to the north to the mouth of the Mission River , and Port Bay to the west , which forms the southern boundary of the Live Oak peninsula . The peninsula is located on the eastern shore of Copano Bay and is lined with beach homes and residences , which begin just west of the inlet Salt Lake to the head of Live Oak peninsula at the confluence of Copano and Aransas Bay . This opening is spanned by the Copano Bay Causeway and the Copano Bay Fishing Pier , which once served as the main crossing to the Lamar peninsula . Holiday Beach is found on the northeastern shore of Copano Bay on the Lamar Peninsula . Just north of the community is the mouth of Copano Creek , which marks the bay 's northernmost point . From here , the shoreline turns to the southwest past the Copano Bay Oil and Gas Field and four sloughs before reaching the ruins of the ghost town Copano at Copano Point , marked by white cliffs . At the point , the Copano Reef juts out almost halfway across the bay . Further southwest , past the mouth of Mission Bay , Bayside stretches along the coast to the mouth of the Aransas River . The shoreline turns to the southeast from this point , past the Egery Flats and Egery Island through Swan Lake and to the mouth of Port Bay .
The bay 's maximum deapth is 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , and in contrast to the Laguna Madre ( aprx . 80 miles downcoast to the south ) , is not hypersaline . The Mission and Aransas Rivers are the main freshwater sources : small rivers with deep banks that carve through a landscape lined with hardwood trees . Their inflows increase during significant rainfall and reach their seasonal highs during the autumn . These rivers have not been dammed and thus flow free . At both mouths , marshes covering several square miles stretch from the con
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covers many styles including piano , hard rock , and techno . The soundtrack was published by DigiCube on July 23 , 1999 with the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10034 , and reprinted by Square Enix on October 20 , 2004 with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10036 ~ 7 .
The album reached # 65 on the Japan Oricon charts and stayed there for two weeks . Patrick Gann of RPGFan heavily praised it , saying , " It is simply amazing . The synth quality , the composition quality ... Everything about it , quality . " He cited the " town " themes as Shimomura 's weakest , but said that the more " emotional " pieces were much better . Gann also noted Ljungberg as an " amazing " vocalist . RPGamer 's review of the album was also praising , calling the composition " excellent " , the sound quality " superb " , and that it kept the " atmosphere " of previous Mana game soundtracks .
Tracklist
= = = Music Selection = = =
Legend of Mana Music Selection is a promotional album of music from Legend of Mana included in preorders of the game in North America . The music was composed by Yoko Shimomura . The soundtrack features five tracks and spans a duration of 18 : 34 . It was published by Square on June 1 , 2000 with the catalog number 3TP @-@ 0012K .
= = World of Mana = =
In 2005 , Square Enix announced plans for World of Mana , a new series of titles in the Mana franchise , whose titles would span more video game genres than the original series . Koichi Ishii , the creator of the Mana series , decided even before he worked on 2002 's Final Fantasy XI about creating new Mana games , but first wanted to create a goal for the new series , and eventually decided to make it about exploring how to add " the feeling of touch " to a game . After he saw the game Half @-@ Life 2 at E3 in 2003 , he felt that its physics engine was the one he needed . World of Mana went on to comprise four new games in addition to the remake of Final Fantasy Adventure ; Koichi Ishii served as director or producer for all of them as he had for the previous games in the series . In 2006 , a Mana installment for the Wii was considered but did not enter development . In April 2007 , a month after the release of the final game of the World of Mana , Ishii left Square Enix to lead his own development company , named Grezzo ; no further games in the series have been announced since . Three of the new games of World of Mana sparked soundtrack releases , with each composed by a different artist or group of artists : Children of Mana , released in 2006 for the Nintendo DS , Dawn of Mana , released in 2006 for the PlayStation 2 , and Heroes of Mana , released for the Nintendo DS in 2007 . The music of Dawn of Mana also formed the basis of a promotional album included with preorders of the game in Japan , while the music of Yoko Shimomura for Seiken Densetsu : Friends of Mana , a 2006 multiplayer role @-@ playing game for Japanese mobile phones never saw any album releases .
= = = Children of Mana = = =
Seiken Densetsu DS : Children of Mana Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of music from Children of Mana , known as Seiken Densetsu DS : Children of Mana in Japan . The soundtrack was composed by Kenji Ito , Masaharu Iwata , and Takayuki Aihara , and covers a range of musical styles including rock and roll , jazz , and classical orchestra . Ito served as the lead composer . The instruments themselves , however , due to the limitations of the Nintendo DS hardware , have been described as not being " especially aesthetic or realistic " . The soundtrack features 33 tracks on 2 discs and spans a duration of 1 : 24 : 13 . It was published by Square Enix on May 9 , 2006 on the Japanese iTunes Store , but has not been released as a physical album .
Chris Greening of Square Enix Music Online , in his review of the album , reacted positively to the score , calling it a " colourful , diverse , and rich experience overall " . He called the tracks by Iwata and Aikara the " core " of the album , saying that the tracks by Ito felt " banal " and " formulaic " which he attributed to Ito being too overworked to focus on the album . RPGamer , in their review of the game , called the music " pretty nice " . They noted that the music did not stand out as much as the visuals of the game , though they still " conveyed the theme " , and that the " town " tracks were in their opinion weaker than the rest of the soundtrack .
Tracklist
= = = Dawn of Mana = = =
Seiken Densetsu 4 Original Soundtrack -Sanctuary- is a soundtrack album of music from Dawn of Mana , known as Seiken Densetsu 4 in Japan . The soundtrack was composed by Kenji Ito , Tsuyoshi Sekito , Masayoshi Soken , Hiroki Kikuta , Yoko Shimomura , and Ryuichi Sakamoto , with many of the tracks composed by one artist arranged by another . The styles portrayed on the soundtrack cover " soft , heartwarming tunes " , fast @-@ paced " rock and roll style " tracks , and " dark and dramatic tunes " , while the arranged songs that appear on the fourth disc of the soundtrack album are split between orchestral and rock and roll styles . The theme song to the game , " Dawn of Mana " , was composed by Grammy @-@ winning composer Ryuichi Sakamoto , and was inspired by the image of the Mana tree shown at the title screen . The composition of the soundtrack was done under a great deal of time pressure ; Soken has said that he composed 32 tracks in 52 days at a breakneck pace , and Sekito has said that Ito conducted the orchestral recordings while ill to make the deadline . The soundtrack features 106 tracks on 4 discs and spans a duration of 4 : 19 : 41 . It was published by Square Enix on January 24 , 2007 with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10083 ~ 6 .
Dennis Rubinshteyn of RPGFan was pleased by the soundtrack , saying that the music met his high expectations for what he called the " only redeeming quality left " to the series since Legend of Mana . Summing the album up as a " solid soundtrack with great songs and a lot of variety " , he named Sekito 's tracks as the least appealing on the soundtrack , causing some parts of the album as a whole to be " hit or miss " . Bryan Matheny of Square Enix Music Online held the opposite opinion , calling Sekito 's pieces what " made this work bearable " and saying that he " just can 't get into this soundtrack " , especially the first three discs , which were full of " boring and underdeveloped " tracks . Chris Greening of Square Enix Music Online 's review , however , was more in line with RPGFan 's , wherein he praised the " diversity " and " glorious spectrum of emotion " found in the soundtrack . He cited the synthesizer operation as a weak point as well as the order of the tracks , and singled out Sekito 's tracks as " forgettable " and " repetitive " .
Tracklist
= = = Breath of Mana = = =
Breath of Mana is a promotional album of music from Dawn of Mana included with preorders of the game in Japan . Despite the many composers of the full soundtrack , the five songs on Breath were all composed and arranged by Kenji Ito . Three of the songs , " Breath of MANA " , " Unforgotten Memories " , and " Rising Sun ( piano solo ver . ) " , did not appear on the full soundtrack album . The songs on the disc are " gentle melodies " using orchestra and piano . The five songs cover a duration of 13 : 41 . The disc was published by Square Enix on December 21 , 2006 . A review of the album by Dennis Rubinshteyn of RPGFan called it a " good showcase " of the strengths of the full album , which were in his opinion the tracks by Ito . He felt that the tracks on the single were " superb " , and said that it was a shame that two of the tracks were not found on the soundtrack album .
= = = Heroes of Mana = = =
Seiken Densetsu : Heroes of Mana Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of music from Heroes of Mana , known as Seiken Densetsu : Heroes of Mana in Japan . The soundtrack was composed by Yoko Shimomura . The musical style of the tracks is primarily orchestral , with the addition of a strong piano and drums that sometimes verge on a more tribal rhythm . The soundtrack features 49 tracks on 2 discs and spans a duration of 2 : 24 : 28 . Three of the game 's tracks were released as part of Drammatica : The Very Best Works of Yoko Shimomura , an arranged album highlighting the composer 's work : " To the Heroes of Old ~ Opening Theme from Heroes of Mana ~ " , " The Way the Heart Is " ( as " Tango Appassionata " ) , and " The Tale Told by the Wind ~ Ending Theme from Heroes of Mana ~ " . Shimomura carefully chose the songs to be included on the album based on their apparent popularity among fans and how suitable they are for orchestra . The Heroes of Mana soundtrack was published by Square Enix on April 18 , 2007 with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10095 ~ 6 .
Denis Rubinshteyn , in his review of the album , said that while the game itself was poor , " the music is a treat " . Calling the music " solid " and " enjoyable " , he highlighted Shimomura 's use of drums and variations on themes as particularly worthy of praise . Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online agreed , saying that Square Enix " made the right decision " in asking Shimomura to compose the soundtrack , as she was able to " capture the spirit of the Mana series extremely well " . He singled out the " battle tracks and event themes " as the weakest tracks and " ' The Tale Told by the Wind ' and the final battle " as some of the best .
Tracklist
= = 20th Anniversary = =
For the 20th anniversary of the Mana series in 2011 , Square Enix released a number of albums . These included several arranged albums , as well as a box set of every soundtrack album from the series plus Let Thoughts Ride on Knowledge and Secret of Mana + . The twenty @-@ disc set , entitled Seiken Densetsu Music Complete Book , was released on September 14 , 2011 . It includes music composed by Kenji Ito , Nobuo Uematsu , Hiroki Kikuta , Yoko Shimomura , Masaharu Iwata , Takayuki Aihara , Tsuyoshi Sekito , Masayoshi Soken , and Ryuichi Sakamoto . The album has a total length of 19 : 35 : 19 .
= = = Re : Birth = = =
As a part of the anniversary celebration , Square Enix released an album of arrangements of music from the series , Re : Birth / Seiken Densetsu Kenji Ito Arrange Album . The album features ten arrangements by Kenji Ito of music he composed for Final Fantasy Adventure , Sword of Mana , Children of Mana , and Dawn of Mana . Six tracks are from the original game , two from Dawn , and one each from the other two games . The album was published by Square Enix on October 19 , 2011 , with a duration of 45 : 06 . The arrangements cover a wide variety of genres , from vocal and chamber music to techno and dubstep . The album was originally planned to be followed soon after by two more similar albums , one each from Hiroki Kikuta and Yoko Shimamura , but those albums were never released .
Patrick Gann of RPGFan felt that the album 's tracks were " hit @-@ or @-@ miss " , containing some stellar arrangements mixed in with lackluster ones . He recommended it to any collector of Mana music . Jayson Napolitano of Original Sound Version was more complimentary towards the album , enjoying many of the tracks that Gann did not , though he too was not as impressed by the Dawn of Mana arrangements .
= = Rise of Mana = =
In 2014 , Square Enix released Rise of Mana , a free @-@ to @-@ play action role @-@ playing game for iOS and Android . The music of Rise of Mana was composed by a group of different composers : the majority of the music was handled by Tsuyoshi Sekito . In addition to Sekito , the soundtrack was also contributed to by three previous Mana composers : Kenji Ito ( Final Fantasy Adventure , Children of Mana , Dawn of Mana ) , Hiroki Kikuta ( Secret of Mana , Seiken Densetsu 3 ) and Yoko Shimomura ( Legend of Mana , Heroes of Mana ) . Also joining the team was sound engineer Yasuhiro Yamanaka . In all , 21 out of the 28 composed pieces were done by Sekito . Ito , Kikuta , Shimomura and Yamanaka each contributed one track . The soundtrack featured an arrangement for piano of " Rising Sun " , the series ' main theme . Yamanaka acted as sound director , while poro @ lier created the piano arrangements for both " Rising Sun " and the game 's theme song .
The game 's theme song , " Believe in the Spirit " , was composed , written and sung by Japanese singer @-@ songwriter Kokia . Prior to coming on board , she had little knowledge of the Mana series . As with her previous compositions for video games , Kokia tried to get a feel for the game 's atmosphere before starting , either through playing the game directly or looking at behind @-@ the @-@ scenes material related to the game 's world . With " Believe in the Spirit " , she worked to create a song that would appeal to both players and the production team . The track was performed using strings , a tin whistle , an acoustic guitar and percussion . The arrangement was done by Mina Kubota .
Seiken Densetsu : Rise of Mana Original Soundtrack was released on April 23 , 2014 through Square Enix 's music label . Andrew Barker of RPGFan was cautiously positive about the album : he described " Believe in the Spirit " as being " hit @-@ or @-@ miss " for different listeners while evoking memories of earlier Mana games . The rest of the soundtrack was generally praised : the first half 's restful melodies were the stand @-@ out tracks and said to be the strongest , while the later upbeat tracks were praised for their various energizing qualities . Some tracks , such as " The Drip Drip Drip of Memory " , being fairly weak and forgettable.Barker generally compared the music to that of Final Fantasy XII , recommending it for fans of the latter and finishing that the album was generally good despite some unmemorable pieces . Chris Greening of Video Game Music Online gave the album a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ star rating : he was most positive about the tracks from the guest composers like Ito and Shimomura . While he praised Sekito for moving away from his traditional musical style , he felt that the result was fairly mixed , with some tracks lacking the proper emotional drive and others " falling flat " . " Believe in the Spirit " was praised for avoiding J @-@ pop elements and sticking with its Celtic style , being favorably compared to the theme songs of Xenogears . Overall , Green felt that , while it had good production value and was substantially better than other mobile game soundtracks , but lacked the emotional impact of previous Mana titles in the majority of its tracks . Many reviewers of the game also praised the soundtrack .
= = Legacy = =
The track " Fear of the Heavens " from
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arc , was named by readers as # 65 in Marvel 's Top 70 Comics of all time .
Taking over after series creator Brian K. Vaughan completed his run , Whedon became the second writer of the Marvel comic Runaways . Having already been a committed reader , he had a letter published in the first volume , which was included in the Volume 1 hardcover edition . He also wrote short pieces for Stan Lee Meets Spider @-@ Man and Giant @-@ Size Astonishing X @-@ Men # 1 , and was the subject of an issue of Marvel Spotlight ( alongside artist Michael Lark ) . As part of a panel of writers , he contributed to Marvel Comics ' Civil War crossover event , lending advice in how to tell the story and how to end it . Whedon introduced several new characters into the Marvel Universe such as the villainous Ord , X @-@ Men Ruth " Blindfold " Aldine and Hisako " Armor " Ichiki , Runaway Klara Prast , and Special Agent Abigail Brand along with S.W.O.R.D. , the organization she commands .
= = = = Serenity = = = =
After Universal Pictures acquired the film and distribution rights from Fox , Whedon started writing the screenplay for Serenity . Transforming the series into a film , he says , " ... was the hardest piece of writing I 've ever done ... It had to be self @-@ contained and work as a movie , which meant I had to cope with problems like introducing nine main characters who 'd already met ! " The script was based on unused story ideas for Firefly 's unfilmed second season . On writing the dialogue , Whedon felt that part of it came from " getting to invent the language " , which " once I had ... reads like a kind of poetry " . The narrative centers on Captain Malcolm Reynolds as the hero accompanied by River Tam acting as the catalyst for what he does .
The score was composed by David Newman , and according to Whedon was intended to " deglorify space — to feel the intimacy of being on a ship as opposed to the grandeur " . He used two long steadicam shots for several minutes of the film 's opening sequence to establish " a sense of safety in space " . In 2006 , it won a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Long Form . The elements of science fiction that Whedon wanted to convey were essentially different in kind , and held " a sort of grittiness " and " realism " , which he said , together , " get the most exciting kind of film @-@ making " . Like Firefly , the film contained a statement on individual liberty . Critic Roger Ebert observed , " Like Brave New World and 1984 , the movie plays like a critique of contemporary society , with the Alliance as Big Brother , enemy of discontent " . The film received the 2005 Nebula Award for Best Script , the 2006 Prometheus Special Award , and was voted the best sci @-@ fi movie of all time in a poll set up by SFX magazine . There have since been multiple rumors regarding sequel possibilities .
The limited three @-@ issue comic book series called Serenity : Those Left Behind , the story of which was written by Whedon , was released in 2005 as a tie @-@ in to Serenity . Set between Firefly and the film , it was intended to bridge the two storylines together . Serenity : Better Days also spanned three issues , and was written by Whedon and Brett Matthews . Whedon later co @-@ wrote The Shepherd 's Tale with his half brother Zack .
= = = = Freelance directing and Sugarshock ! = = = =
As a guest director , he contributed two 2007 episodes of The Office ( " Business School " and " Branch Wars " ) and a 2010 episode of Glee ( " Dream On " ) . Denoting this period , Whedon has said , " I had free time , but I 'm pretty sure I mean my career was on the skids " .
In collaboration with Fábio Moon , Whedon created the free webcomic titled Sugarshock ! , as part of the revival of Dark Horse Presents , which was launched on Myspace . Whedon later executive produced another free comic book on the Internet , Serenity : The Other Half .
= = = = Dr. Horrible 's Sing @-@ Along Blog = = = =
As a response to the 2007 – 08 Writers Guild of America strike , Whedon directed , co @-@ wrote and produced Dr. Horrible 's Sing @-@ Along Blog . It tells the story of Dr. Horrible , an aspiring supervillain , who shares a love interest in a girl named Penny with his nemesis , Captain Hammer . To Whedon the miniseries was " a project of love " , an accomplishment that from their excitement would be embellished with passion and " ridiculousness " . His half brothers Zack and Jed and sister @-@ in @-@ law Maurissa Tancharoen share the other writing credits . Whedon said it was a " glorious surprise " to him to discover how well they worked together .
After having attended meetings with companies discussing the prospect of producing something for the Internet , and faced with negative feedback on his ideas , he realized that as long as the strike was still in progress , acquiring corporate funding was an unlikely prospect . Whedon funded the project himself with the investment of just over $ 200 @,@ 000 , and earned more from it than he did directing The Avengers . He enjoyed the independence gained from it , as it provided him the freedom to include content without the expectancy of lessening it on behalf of the runtime . He and Jed composed the music , parts of which were influenced by Stephen Sondheim . Whedon was awarded Best Directing and Best Writing for a Comedy Web Series at the Streamy Awards , a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , and a Creative Arts Emmy Award in 2009 .
= = = = Dollhouse = = = =
In 2009 , Whedon created his fourth television series Dollhouse , and explored themes throughout the show that were initially present in an unproduced spec script of his called Afterlife . The series follows Echo , whose brain is programmed to accomplish various assignments , on her journey towards self @-@ awareness . As stated by Whedon , Dollhouse was about " the sides of us that we don 't want people to see " , sexuality and , on some level , a celebration of perversion , which he equates to obsession , " the thing that makes people passionate and interesting and worthy " .
Despite low ratings in its first season , the series was renewed for a second and final season . The reason for the renewal given by Fox 's president of entertainment was to avoid any backlash that would have resulted from its cancelation . In reflection of Fox 's disruptive involvement , Whedon lamented the loss of ideas of identity and moral culpability , stating that they were dancing around them in the process which then devolved it into a procedural .
= = = 2010s = = =
= = = = The Cabin in the Woods = = = =
Whedon co @-@ wrote and produced a horror @-@ comedy film titled The Cabin in the Woods with director Drew Goddard , which finished production in 2009 . Whedon and Goddard both intended to make a film that concerned horror movies while still preserving the fun and frightening elements necessary to itself be a horror film . The script was written in three days , producing a minimum of 15 pages a day . Whedon described it as an attempt to revitalize horror , calling it a " loving hate letter " to the genre , continuing :
On another level it 's a serious critique of what we love and what we don 't about horror movies . I love being scared . I love that mixture of thrill , of horror , that objectification / identification thing of wanting definitely for the people to be alright but at the same time hoping they 'll go somewhere dark and face something awful . The things that I don 't like are kids acting like idiots , the devolution of the horror movie into torture porn and into a long series of sadistic comeuppances . Drew and I both felt that the pendulum had swung a little too far in that direction .
Part of what Whedon thought distinguished it from other horror films was that people were not expendable — " As a culture , for our own entertainment , we tend to assume that they are " . He reiterated his sentiment that the introduction of torture porn into this genre was becoming an exercise in nihilism and misogyny as a means to promote distress instead of trying to scare you .
= = = = Marvel Studios = = = =
In July 2010 , it was confirmed that Whedon would write and direct The Avengers , a live @-@ action adaptation of the superhero team of the same name . On his desire to take on the film , he explained that the core of the movie was about " finding yourself from community " and the togetherness derived from a group that ultimately doesn 't belong together .
It became the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time at the North American box office , and received considerable praise from critics . In retrospect , Whedon thought the film had " imperfections " , begrudging its quality in comparison to that of The Matrix and The Godfather Part II . Nonetheless , he felt he " pulled off " the endeavor of making a summer movie reminiscent of those from his childhood .
In March 2012 , Whedon stated that although television involves more compromise than film :
I think , ultimately , gun to my head , TV is the place . Being able to spend years with a character , to really develop them , to understand them , to challenge the actor , to learn from the actor , to work with a team of writers – that experience is so fulfilling . The idea of putting something out there and letting it grow is really exciting .
In August 2012 , Whedon signed a deal to develop the Marvel TV show Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. for ABC . The series focuses on the secret military law @-@ enforcement agency featured throughout the Marvel Cinematic Universe . Created by Whedon , Jed Whedon and Maurissa Tancharoen , the show involves individuals who possess powers within the spectacle of science fiction , while also focusing on " the peripheral people ... the people on the edges of the grand adventures " . The character Phil Coulson was resurrected after his death in The Avengers to helm the show .
Whedon spoke about certain complications that factored in with making the show for Marvel , noting confusion between him and the company regarding the degree to which they wanted him to create it , citing their demand that he prioritize Avengers : Age of Ultron . He eventually regretted his decision to bring back Phil Coulson , feeling that his death had lost meaning as a result .
Whedon returned to write and direct the sequel to The Avengers , following the deal with Marvel Studios , which expired in June 2015 . On the matter of approaching a sequel , Whedon reasoned not to go " bigger " , but " deeper " , and likened it to digging with a scalpel to cause pain . He said of the film 's characters , " Strong but damaged by power describes every person in this movie . It may , in fact , describe what the movie is about ... the more power that we have , the less human we are " . Whedon discerns that Age of Ultron " is an odd film " that proved challenging when it came to finding the rhythm between both its calm and exciting moments . Drawing parallels to a symphony , he wanted to bring about " grace in the middle of ultimate chaos " .
Whedon also served as a creative consultant on the films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe leading up to Age of Ultron . He rewrote some dialogue for Thor : The Dark World , directed the mid @-@ credits scene of Captain America : The Winter Soldier , and suggested that James Gunn make Guardians of the Galaxy " weirder " after reading an early draft . Whedon said it was unlikely that he would return to make another sequel , stating that he " couldn ’ t imagine doing this again " . He remarked that not having created his own fictional universe in over five years felt wrong and intended to use the proceeds made from Avengers : Age of Ultron for such ventures . In January 2016 , Whedon announced that he will no longer work with Marvel .
= = = = Much Ado About Nothing = = = =
To create Much Ado About Nothing , Whedon established Bellwether Pictures . He filmed it in black @-@ and @-@ white on digital video over a period of 12 days at his residence in Santa Monica , California . The film was scripted , produced , directed , edited and composed by Whedon , based on William Shakespeare 's play of the same name . His idea to adapt the play for the screen originated from having " Shakespeare readings " at his house with several of his friends , years prior . Despite the play 's comedy , he discovered that there were elements in the text " of debauchery " that brought out a core darkness , and said the visual nature of film influenced him to permeate a motif of sexuality into the script .
= = = = In Your Eyes and Twist = = = =
Whedon wrote and executive produced the paranormal romance film In Your Eyes , the second feature by Bellwether Pictures . The film tells the story of Rebecca Porter and Dylan Kershaw who can feel each other 's emotions , but are ultimately strangers . Whedon 's script marked a theme of human connection as the metaphor for the couple 's mysterious link . He conceived the idea in the early 1990s , and had written drafts of the screenplay since then .
In summer 2014 , Whedon encountered artist Shawnee Kilgore on Kickstarter . Whedon funded her album and when Kilgore contacted him about his fulfillment reward , he suggested they make a song together . She agreed , and the collaboration was later repurposed into producing an EP .
At the 2015 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Whedon announced Twist , which was described as a comic book about " a Victorian female Batman " .
= = Unrealized projects = =
Early in his career , Whedon sold two spec scripts that weren 't produced , Suspension and Afterlife . He sold Suspension for $ 750 @,@ 000 , with an additional $ 250 @,@ 000 if production had commenced . In September 2014 , Empire suggested the script4 was being made , with Liam Neeson attached to the project . In 1994 , he sold Afterlife for $ 1 @.@ 5 million , with an additional $ 500 @,@ 000 if production had commenced . In 2000 , Andy Tennant was in talks to direct and rewrite . In Afterlife there were precursors to themes Whedon would later explore in Dollhouse . The script was about Daniel Hoffstetter , a government scientist , who awakes after dying to discover his mind has been imprinted on a mind @-@ wiped body .
Whedon had a number of planned Buffy the Vampire Slayer spinoffs that became stuck in development or terminally stalled . Among these were Buffy the Animated Series , a set of television movies for The WB based on Angel and Buffy characters , and Ripper , a proposed BBC pilot about Rupert Giles .
Goners was announced in 2005 . According to Variety magazine , it was a fantasy thriller under development by Universal Pictures , and was to be produced by Mary Parent and Scott Stuber . From a 2006 interview with Fanboy Radio : " I 've been seeing a lot of horror movies that are torture @-@ porn , where kids we don 't care about are mutilated for hours , and I just cannot abide them ... it 's an antidote to that very kind of film , the horror movie with the expendable human beings in it . Because I don 't believe any human beings are " .
Whedon was hired to write and direct a Warner Bros. adaptation of Wonder Woman . However , in February 2007 , Whedon announced that he would no longer be involved with the project . " We just saw different movies , and at the price range this kind of movie hangs in , that 's never gonna work . Non @-@ sympatico . It happens all the time " . Conversely , he stated , " the fact of the matter is , it was a waste of my time . We never [ wanted ] to make the same movie ; none of us knew that " . Whedon also pitched a screenplay to adapt Batman for the same company as development started on what would eventually become Batman Begins . It was described as having included a new , " more of a ' Hannibal Lecter ' type " villain , and portrayed Bruce Wayne as " a morbid , death @-@ obsessed kid " whose grief was overcome by protecting a girl from being bullied in an alley similar to where his parents were murdered .
The sequel to Dr. Horrible 's Sing @-@ Along Blog has been shelved on multiple occasions . In 2009 , Whedon remarked upon the possibility of presenting it in the form of another miniseries or a feature film . The script was planned to be written in summer 2012 and the principal photography to take place the following year . However , production was delayed because of his commitment to projects at Marvel Studios .
Wastelanders , a web @-@ based " end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ world " project , once in development with author Warren Ellis , was postponed due to Whedon 's preoccupation with The Avengers .
= = Themes , style and influences = =
Thematically , Whedon 's work features allusions to components in existentialism , anti @-@ authoritarianism , power , powerlessness , sexuality , adulthood , sacrifice , misogyny and feminism . His projects usually revolve around an ensemble of protagonists , primarily focused on a loner hero who ends up working with others to accomplish a goal . He says of the recurring aspects of community , " Everything I write tends to turn into a superhero team , even if I didn 't mean for it to . I always start off wanting to be solitary , because a ) it 's simpler , and b ) that isolation is something that I relate to as a storyteller . And then no matter what , I always end up with a team " . Examining a typical motif , he says , " I tend to write about people who are helpless or out of control who then regain or retake control " .
Articulating his approach to screenwriting , Whedon has noted outlining and act structure as the hardest parts of storytelling , but emphasizes that he feels they are " completely essential " . Many of Whedon 's altered phrases and heavily popularized words have entered a common usage called " Slayer Slang " , which PBS included an entire section of in their article series Do You Speak American ? . In an issue of Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight , where Buffy travels to the future , Whedon writes Buffy 's reaction to the future dialect of Manhattan ; this allows Whedon to comment on the series ' distinctive style of dialogue ; " Buffy blames herself for what 's happened to the English language , and there 's a lot of hubris in that joke . I like to think that adding Y 's to words that don 't usually have Y 's is going to destroy the whole fabric of our society " . His use of self @-@ aware dialogue to humanize characters , which relies heavily on dry humor and subtext , treating clichés subversively , using misogyny to define the trait of a villain , and the recurring theme of self @-@ sacrifice led by subverting moral icons have been defining to his style of storytelling .
His penchant to kill off characters has been widely criticized . Whedon has admitted extreme tiredness to the criticism , explaining , " The percentage of people who die ... is a lot . I think it 's pretty near everybody . The percentage of people that I kill — not so many . I think the reason that my rep is so nasty is that I tend to do it ... unexpectedly , or to someone people are recently invested in , and that is a real mission statement for me , because , death doesn 't leave a card . Death doesn 't take Hitler . It doesn 't work according to story plans , and when a death feels like a loss , gives you grief ... then you have told a story that involves death " . Dramatic effect is used to convey the sense of realism and shock value that comes
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from fatal circumstances .
Whedon has kept ambivalent on whether to shoot on film or digital video , saying that he has " no allegiance to film as film . If the story is in front of me , I ’ m fine " . In terms of visual aesthetics , he prefers to incorporate as many practical effects as possible when using computer @-@ generated imagery , so people " really don 't know where one begins and the other ends " . On working with high or low budgets , he remarked that both offer " the exact same job " and whether one has $ 100 million or $ 100 @,@ 000 , " you 're trying to hit someone in the gut with an emotional moment " . Whedon determines that , although giving actors notes for guidance , he also aims to assuage their concerns when communicating the reasons and outcomes of a scene .
Whedon has cited Ray Bradbury , James Cameron , Rod Serling , William Shakespeare , Stephen Sondheim , Steven Spielberg , Charles Dickens , Stan Lee , Robert Klein , Jerome Robbins , Frank Borzage , Steve Gerber , Steven Bochco , Frances Hodgson Burnett and John Williams as influences . When asked about his five favorite films , Whedon listed The Matrix , Once Upon a Time in the West , The Bad and the Beautiful , Magnolia and The Court Jester .
= = Feminism = =
Elements of feminism are present throughout all of Whedon 's work , which he gives his mother credit for inspiring . The character Kitty Pryde from the X @-@ Men comics was an early model for Whedon 's strong teenage girl characters . He said , " If there 's a bigger influence on Buffy than Kitty , I don 't know what it was . She was an adolescent girl finding out she has great power and dealing with it " . Kitty Pryde later played a central role in Whedon 's run on Astonishing X @-@ Men . In response to perennially being asked why he writes such strong female characters , he famously replied , " Because you 're still asking me that question " .
In college , Whedon studied the theory called " womb envy " , a concept he says observes " a fundamental thing that women have something men don 't , the obvious being an ability to bear children , and the resilience to hang in as parents ... Men not only don 't get what 's important about what women are capable of , but in fact they fear it , and envy it , and want to throw stones at it , because it 's the thing they can 't have " . In 2007 , Whedon expressed his outrage over the murder of Du 'a Khalil Aswad , and because the act was caught on video , was prompted to attack the underlying attitude he felt led to the murder , comparing the video to torture porn . He wrote , " [ Womb envy is ] entirely true . How else to explain the fact that cultures who would die to eradicate each other have always agreed on one issue ? That every popular religion puts restrictions on women 's behavior that are practically untenable ? That the act of being a free , attractive , self @-@ assertive woman is punishable by torture and death ? "
In late 2013 , Whedon spoke at an Equality Now event , where he issued a pointed dissection of the word " feminist " . He begins to say , " I have the privilege living my life inside of words ... but part of being a writer is also living in the very smallest part of every word " . Arguing against the suffix " -ist " , he continues , " you can 't be born an – ist . It 's not natural " . Whedon explains that because of this , the word " includes the idea that believing men and women to be equal ... is not a natural state . That we don 't emerge assuming that everybody in the human race is a human . That the idea of equality is just an idea that 's imposed on us ... " This sparked an unfavorable reaction from the feminist community , but also an appreciation for Whedon 's arguments ' thought provocation .
News website Digital Spy released in early 2015 an interview they had conducted with Whedon , during which he criticized the entertainment industry for its " genuine , recalcitrant , intractable sexism , and old @-@ fashioned quiet misogyny " . Whedon exemplified The Hunger Games film series as an argument for the female led franchise , and hoped Marvel Studios would be a part of undertaking the same bearing .
= = Frequent casting = =
Whedon often hires the same actors for his projects , and has been described as " the gravitational center of the Whedonverse , a galaxy that spins recurring actors and themes through an orbital system of TV shows , films and comic books that all share similar traits : a unique brand of witty dialogue , relatable characters and fantasy / sci @-@ fi mythology " .
Note : Due to the frequency Whedon casts the same actors in various projects , the above list only includes those that have played three or more different roles in a Whedon production ( actors that have only played the same role in multiple Whedon productions are not included ) .
= = Personal life = =
Whedon is married to Kai Cole , who is an architect and the producer and co @-@ founder of Bellwether Pictures . They have two children , Arden and Squire , and live in Los Angeles .
In 2013 , Whedon revealed that he suffers from workaholism . This arose during the time that followed the completion of Much Ado About Nothing , which was made in the span of a two @-@ week vacation from The Avengers , and after making the pilot for Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. amidst the pre @-@ production for Avengers : Age of Ultron . " It is actually a problem . Sometimes it 's adorable ... and sometimes it 's not ... Not to get all dark and weird , but it is something I need to address " .
= = = Religious and philosophical views = = =
Whedon has identified himself as an atheist and absurdist . In a piece by The Onion , he elaborated on the issue .
The Onion : Is there a God ?
Whedon : No .
The Onion : That 's it , end of story , no ?
Whedon : Absolutely not . That 's a very important and necessary thing to learn .
A committed humanist , Whedon was presented with the Outstanding Lifetime Achievement Award in Cultural Humanism by the Humanist Chaplaincy at Harvard University . He has also spoken about existentialism , explaining in detail how it , and more specifically Jean @-@ Paul Sartre 's Nausea , was used as a basis for the Firefly episode " Objects in Space " . He called it " the most important book " he ever read , and said it was handed to him right after he saw Steven Spielberg 's Close Encounters of the Third Kind , whose impact , he recalls , had made him an existentialist .
= = = Political views = = =
In July 2012 , at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , in response to one woman who noted the anti @-@ corporate themes in many of his films , and asked him to give his economic philosophy in 30 seconds or less , Whedon spoke out against both socialism and capitalism , stating that " ultimately all these systems don 't work " . He went on to say that America is " turning into Tsarist Russia " . Endorsing Barack Obama in the 2012 United States presidential election , Whedon satirically equated Mitt Romney 's future as president with a zombie apocalypse , " Romney is ready to make the deep rollbacks in health care , education , social services and reproductive rights that will guarantee poverty , unemployment , overpopulation , disease , rioting — all crucial elements in creating a nightmare zombie wasteland " .
In 2015 , Whedon signed a petition as part of a political campaign calling for Elizabeth Warren to run for President of the United States . In observance of Earth Day , he spoke against climate change denial in a series of tweets , arguing , " The climate IS changing — if we can 't , that makes us dumber than weather … Policy makers who deny basic scientific truth should also be denied penicillin , horseless carriages , [ and ] air time on the magic box of shadows " .
= = Filmography = =
Whedon has written , directed and produced a number of films and television series .
= = = Marvel Comics = = =
Astonishing X @-@ Men vol . 3 # 1 – 24 ( July 2004 – March 2008 )
Volume 1 : Gifted ( collects # 1 – 6 , with John Cassaday , tpb , 144 pages , 2004 )
Volume 2 : Dangerous ( collects # 7 – 12 , with John Cassaday , tpb , 144 pages , 2005 )
Volume 3 : Torn ( collects # 13 – 18 , with John Cassaday , tpb , 144 pages , 2007 )
Volume 4 : Unstoppable ( tpb , 192 pages , 2008 ) collects :
" Unstoppable " ( with John Cassaday , in # 19 – 24 , 2007 – 2008 )
" Gone " ( with John Cassaday , in Giant Sized Astonishing X @-@ Men # 1 , 2008 )
" Some Steves " ( with Michael Gaydos , in Stan Lee Meets Spider @-@ Man # 1 , November 2006 )
Runaways vol . 2 # 25 – 30 ( April 2007 – June 2008 )
Volume 8 : Dead End Kids ( collects # 25 – 30 , with Michael Ryan , hc , 144 pages , 2008 )
= = = Dark Horse Comics = = =
Fray # 1 – 8 ( 8 @-@ issue limited series , June 2001 – July 2003 )
Future Slayer ( tpb , 216 pages , 2003 ) collects :
" Big City Girl " ( with Karl Moline , in # 1 , 2001 )
" The Calling " ( with Karl Moline , in # 2 , 2001 )
" Ready , Steady ... " ( with Karl Moline , in # 3 , 2001 )
" Out of the Past " ( with Karl Moline , in # 4 , 2001 )
" The Worst of It " ( with Karl Moline , in # 5 , 2001 )
" Alarums " ( with Karl Moline , in # 6 , 2002 )
" The Gateway " ( with Karl Moline , in # 7 , 2003 )
" All Hell " ( with Karl Moline , in # 8 , 2003 )
Angel vol . 2 # 1 – 4 ( 4 @-@ issue limited series , September 2001 – May 2002 )
Long Night 's Journey ( tpb , pages , year )
" Long Night 's Journey ... " ( with Brett Mathews and Melvin Rubi , in # 1 , 2001 )
" Rock and a Hard Place " ( with Brett Mathews and Melvin Rubi , in # 2 , 2001 )
" Thicker Than Water " ( with Brett Mathews and Melvin Rubi , in # 3 , 2001 )
" The End of the Beginning " ( with Brett Mathews and Melvin Rubi , in # 4 , 2002 )
Tales of the Slayers ( anthology graphic novel , tpb , 96 pages , 2002 ) collects :
" Prologue " ( with Leinil Francis Yu )
" Righteous " ( with Tim Sale )
" Tales " ( with Karl Moline )
Tales of the Vampires # 1 – 5 ( 5 @-@ issue anthology limited series December 2003 – April 2004 )
Tales of the Vampires ( tpb , 144 pages , 2004 ) collects :
" Tales of the Vampires I – VI " ( with Alex Sanchez , in # 1 – 5 , 2003 – 2004 )
" Stacy " ( with Cameron Stewart , in # 1 , 2003 )
Serenity
Serenity : Those Left Behind # 1 – 3 ( 3 @-@ issue limited series , with Brett Mathews and Will Conrad , July – September 2005 , collected in Serenity : Those Left Behind , tpb , 80 pages , 2006 )
Serenity : Better Days # 1 – 3 ( 3 @-@ issue limited series , with Brett Mathews and Will Conrad , March – May 2008 , collected in Serenity : Better Days , tpb , 80 pages , 2008 )
Buffy the Vampire Slayer
Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight # 1 – 5 , 10 – 11 , 16 – 19 , 31 , 36 – 40 ( March 2007 – January 2011 )
Volume 1 : The Long Way Home ( tpb , 136 pages , 2007 ) collects :
" The Long Way Home " ( with Georges Jeanty , in # 1 – 4 , 2007 )
" The Chain " ( with Paul Lee , in # 5 , 2007 )
Volume 2 : No Future for You ( tpb , 120 pages , 2008 ) collects :
" Anywhere But Here " ( with Cliff Richards , in # 10 , 2008 )
Volume 3 : Wolves at the Gate ( tpb , 120 pages , 2008 ) collects :
" A Beautiful Sunset " ( with Georges Jeanty , in # 11 , 2008 )
Volume 4 : Time of Your Life ( tpb , 136 pages , 2009 ) collects :
" Time of Your Life " ( with Karl Moline , in # 16 – 19 , 2008 )
Volume 7 : Twilight ( tpb , 168 pages , 2010 ) collects :
" Turbulence " ( with Georges Jeanty , in # 31 , 2010 )
" Willow : Goddesses and Monsters " ( with Karl Moline , one @-@ shot , 2009 )
Volume 8 : Last Gleaming ( tpb , 168 pages , 2011 ) collects :
" Last Gleaming " ( with Georges Jeanty , in # 36 – 40 , 2010 )
Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine # 1 ( September 2011 )
Volume 1 : Freefall ( tpb , 136 pages , 2012 ) collects :
" Freefall , Part I " ( with Georges Jeanty , in # 1 , 2011 )
Sugarshock # 1 ( with Fábio Moon , one @-@ shot , October 2009 )
Twist # 1 – ( 6 @-@ issue limited series , forthcoming )
= = = IDW Publishing = = =
Angel : After the Fall # 1 – 17 ( November 2007 – February 2009 )
Volume 1 ( collects # 1 – 5 , with Brian Lynch and Franco Urru , hc , 192 pages , 2008 )
Volume 2 : First Night ( collects # 6 – 8 , with Brian Lynch et al . , hc , 104 pages , 2008 )
Volume 3 ( collects # 9 – 12 , with Brian Lynch et al . , hc , 128 pages , 2009 )
Volume 4 ( collects # 13 – 17 , with Brian Lynch , Stephen Mooney , and Franco Urru , hc , 132 pages , 2009 )
= = = DC Comics = = =
Batman / Superman # 26 ( with other artists , June 2006 )
= = Selected accolades = =
= Type 26 revolver =
The Type 26 or Model 26 " hammerless " revolver ( 二十六年式拳銃 , Nijuuroku @-@ nen @-@ shiki kenjuu ) was the first modern revolver adopted by the Imperial Japanese Army . It was developed at the Koishikawa Arsenal and is named for its year of adoption in the Japanese dating system ( the 26th year of the reign of the Meiji emperor , i.e. , 1893 ) . The revolver saw action in conflicts including the Russo @-@ Japanese War , World War I and World War II .
It is a conglomeration of design features from other revolvers made during the time period . The revolver has a design flaw that allows the cylinder to over @-@ rotate and align the wrong chamber . Five distinct phases of production have different markings depending on the time and individual Type 26 produced . The 9mm Japanese revolver ammunition used is unique to the weapon . The Type 26 has a double @-@ action only mechanism and is therefore difficult to aim accurately . The Type 26 was replaced by the Nambu pistol in the first half of the 20th century .
= = History = =
Known as the Meiji 26 Nen Ken Ju ( meaning " Pistol , Pattern of the 26th year of the Meiji era " ) , the Type 26 revolver was the first indigenous revolver adopted by the Japanese military . The Type 26 was produced to replace the aging Smith & Wesson New Model No. 3 and was officially adopted March 29 , 1894 . The design is widely believed to be a mixture of features taken from other revolvers . The lock design is similar to Galand designs , the hinged frame is similar to Smith & Wesson designs , and the hinged side plate covering the lock is similar to the Modèle 1892 revolver . The cartridge was loaded with black powder until 1900 when the cartridges began to be loaded with smokeless powder . The Type 26 is considered a remarkable leap in Japanese pistol development despite the international influence , with the matchlock being the most common domestic Japanese handgun 40 years earlier . Production stopped after 1923 when much of the Koishikawa Arsenal was destroyed in the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake , with assembly continuing until the exhaustion of stockpiled parts . Approximately 59 @,@ 000 Type 26 revolvers were produced and an additional 900 revolvers were made in pre @-@ production . Restoration and re @-@ issue of revolvers that had been removed from service because of damage or wear , was carried out on an as needed basis over a period of many years . The original Type 26s are missing the external markings of later produced revolvers and are identifiable by numbers stamped on internal parts . Type 26s were still being used in 1945 which , according to firearms expert and author Ian Hogg , is considered a testament to their original workmanship and a much more suitable combat weapon than later Japanese produced pistols .
= = Design = =
The Type 26 revolver is 231 mm ( 9 @.@ 09 in ) in length and 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 12 in ) tall , weighing 880 g ( 1 lb 15oz ) unloaded . It has an octagonal barrel , with the foresight blade being embedded directly into the barrel . The rear sight is incorporated into the top of the frame . A hinged sideplate allows access to the mechanism for lubricating and servicing . The weapon was opened by lifting the top latch , after which the barrel was swung downward , activating the automatic ejector . The notch that allows access to the cylinder is at the top rear of the frame . The revolver is double @-@ action only because of the absence of a cocking spur , intended to avoid snagging on clothing and firing accidentally . The lock was self @-@ cocking and was slow to respond . The delay in response made accurate shooting virtually impossible . The cylinder contains a serious design flaw , with it only notching while the hammer is cocked . This allows the cylinder to revolve by being brushed against an object or the inertia from a sudden sideways motion . As the cylinder can move freely , an empty or already fired chamber can rotate into position instead of the next shot , a dangerous event for the user during combat . Later Type 26 Revolvers have grips with lateral serrations in place of an earlier knurled pattern as well as differences in external finish , depth , and look of die stamped markings . The bluing of the steel is excellent , even though the steel used is soft compared to Western standards . The 9mm Japanese revolver ammunition used by the Type 26 is unique to the weapon . Both the Type 26 Revolver and the ammunition used was later replaced by semi @-@ automatic pistols such as the Nambu in the beginning of the 20th century .
= = Five production periods = =
Differences in markings and appearance across surviving Type 26 revolvers , has led to the categorization of production runs into five categories .
= = = Limited early production with no markings = = =
Early production Type 26s have no external markings . The revolvers have markings that indicate they were arsenal re @-@ worked and believed to have been produced in late 1893 or early 1894 before official adoption . It is possible that around 300 revolvers with no external marking were produced . No known examples of Type 26 revolvers have duplicate serial numbers .
= = = Limited early production = = =
A small number of revolvers are known to have the external arsenal symbol stamped but without the external serial number stamped on the frame . The revolvers are interspersed among revolvers with standard production markings for unknown reasons . This production range has examples reported to chamber .38 S & W ammunition but this could be because of later modification .
= = = Standard production = = =
All standard production Type 26s have checked pattern grip panels as well as original finished characteristics . Most standard production revolvers have a serial number that is between 1 @,@ 000 and 58 @,@ 900 . The standard production models suffered from extreme wear because of the long military service the revolvers served .
= = = Limited final production = = =
The final production revolvers were possibly produced after the Great Kantō earthquake and possibly only 325 of these revolvers were produced . Known examples have serial numbers ranging from 58 @,@ 903 and 59 @,@ 227 .
= = = Arsenal reworked = = =
Arsenal reworked Type 26s lack the bright charcoal blue finish or standard checked patterned grip panels . Serrated grip panels are common among reworked Type 26s and the marking of the Nagoya Arsenal indicate repairing of the Type 26 past its production at the Koshikawa Arsenal . Two existing arsenal reworked Type 26s show stampings of Siamese numerals on the front grips indicating official procurement by the Thai government . Two additional reworked Type 26s have a five @-@ pointed star stamped on the side plate of the revolver indicating Indonesian service after World War II .
= = Accessories = =
= = = Holster = = =
The Type 26 revolver was issued with a clamshell holster similar to the French Modèle 1892 revolver . The earliest Type 26 holsters were black , and the cotton lanyards issued with them were a dark blue color known in Japan as kon . A leather pocket for the cleaning rod was provided , sewn onto the forward edge of the holster body . Most examples of holsters are stamped on the inside of the clamshell flap with the maker 's identification and arsenal inspection markings with the year of manufacture . Very early holsters , issued in the late 1890s and early 1900s , were of a slightly different size and shape and without a pocket for the cleaning rod . A few holsters developed in 1943 have been noted to be all black lacquered hardware , missing the brass and galvanized steel fittings . Holsters produced towards the end of World War II have a last ditch fabric similar to late production Type 94 Nambu pistol holsters , with no shoulder straps or pouches for cleaning rods and ammunition .
= = = Grenade launcher = = =
The Type 90 tear gas grenade launcher was developed to be fired with the Type 26 revolver . Gas grenades could be fired by a special 9x22 mm cartridge in place of the regular ball ammunition .
= Magnus Barefoot =
Magnus Olafsson ( Old Norse : Magnús Óláfsson , Norwegian : Magnus Olavsson ; 1073 – 24 August 1103 ) , better known as Magnus Barefoot ( Old Norse : Magnús berfœttr , Norwegian : Magnus Berrføtt ) , was King of Norway ( as Magnus III ) from 1093 until his death in 1103 . His reign was marked by aggressive military campaigns and conquest , particularly in the Norse @-@ dominated parts of the British Isles , and he extended his rule to the Kingdom of the Isles and Dublin .
As the only son of King Olaf Kyrre , Magnus was proclaimed king in southeastern Norway shortly after his father 's death in 1093 . In the north his claim was contested by his cousin , Haakon Magnusson ( son of King Magnus Haraldsson ) , and the two co @-@ ruled uneasily until Haakon 's death in 1095 . Disgruntled members of the nobility refused to recognise Magnus after his cousin 's death , but the insurrection was short @-@ lived . After securing his position domestically , Magnus campaigned around the Irish Sea from 1098 to 1099 . He raided through Orkney , the Hebrides and Mann ( the Northern and Southern Isles ) , and ensured Norwegian control by a treaty with the Scottish king . Based on Mann during his time in the west , Magnus had a number of forts and houses built on the island and probably also obtained suzerainty of Galloway . He sailed to Wales later in his expedition , winning control of Anglesey ( and possibly Gwynedd 's submission ) after repelling the invading Norman forces from the island .
Following his return to Norway Magnus led campaigns into Dalsland and Västergötland in Sweden , claiming an ancient border with the country . After two unsuccessful invasions and a number of skirmishes Danish king Eric Evergood initiated peace talks among the three Scandinavian monarchs , fearing that the conflict would get out of hand . Magnus concluded peace with the Swedes in 1101 by agreeing to marry Margaret , daughter of the Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson . In return , Magnus gained Dalsland as part of her dowry . He set out on his final western campaign in 1102 , and may have sought to conquer Ireland . Magnus entered into an alliance with Irish king Muirchertach Ua Briain of Munster , who recognised Magnus ' control of Dublin . Under unclear circumstances , while obtaining food supplies for his return to Norway , Magnus was killed in an ambush by the Ulaid the next year ; territorial advances characterising his reign ended with his death .
Into modern times , his legacy has remained more pronounced in Ireland and Scotland than in his native Norway . Among the few domestic developments known during his reign , Norway developed a more @-@ centralised rule and moved closer to the European model of church organisation . Popularly portrayed as a Viking warrior rather than a medieval monarch , Magnus was the last Norwegian king to fall in battle abroad , and he may in some respects be considered the final Viking king .
= = Background = =
Most information about Magnus is gleaned from Norse sagas and chronicles , which began appearing during the 12th century . The most important sources still available are the Norwegian chronicles Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium by Theodoric the Monk and the anonymous Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum ( or simply Ágrip ) from the 1180s and the Icelandic sagas Heimskringla ( by Snorri Sturluson ) , Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna , which date to about the 1220s . While the later sagas are the most detailed accounts , they are also generally considered the least reliable . Additional information about Magnus , in particular his campaigns , is found in sources from the British Isles , which included contemporary accounts .
Magnus was born around the end of 1073 as the only son of King Olaf Kyrre . His mother 's identity is uncertain ; she is identified as Tora Arnesdatter ( daughter of otherwise @-@ unknown Arne Låge ) in Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna , as Tora Joansdatter in Heimskringla , Hrokkinskinna and Hryggjarstykki and an unnamed daughter of " Ragnvald jarl " from Godøy , Sunnmøre in the genealogical text Af en gl. ætleg ( commonly known as Sunnmørsættleggen ) . The historical consensus ( including P. A. Munch and Claus Krag ) has favoured Tora Arnesdatter , but the other claims have also gained support . Anders Stølen has argued that she was a daughter of Ragnvald jarl ( who has been identified as Rognvald Brusason , Earl of Orkney by Ola Kvalsund ) , while historian Randi Helene Førsund has considered Tora Joansdatter more likely .
Magnus grew up among the hird ( royal retinue ) of his father in Nidaros ( modern Trondheim ) , de facto capital of Norway at the time . His father 's cousin , the chieftain Tore Ingeridsson , was foster @-@ father to Magnus . In his youth , he was apparently more similar to his warlike grandfather , King Harald Hardrada , than to his father ( who bore the byname Kyrre : " the Peaceful " ) . According to Snorri Sturluson , Magnus was considered handsome and gifted in learning ; although he was shorter in stature than his grandfather Harald , he was reportedly known as " Magnus the Tall " . Magnus ' more @-@ common byname , " Barefoot " or " Barelegs " , was — according to Snorri — due to his adopting the Gaelic dress of the Irish and Scots : a short tunic , which left the lower legs bare . Another version ( by Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus ) maintains that he acquired the nickname because he was forced to flee from a Swedish attack in his bare feet , while a third explains that he rode barefoot ( like the Irish ) . Due to Magnus ' aggressive nature and his campaigns abroad , he also had the nickname styrjaldar @-@ Magnús ( " Warrior Magnus " or " Magnus the Strife @-@ lover " ) .
= = Reign = =
= = = Establishing authority = = =
Norway had experienced a long period of
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he hinted that " Jason , Derek and I will continue with a different name when the time is right " . In August 2013 , Sherinian joined Bonamassa 's solo band as a full @-@ time member ; in February 2014 , Hughes and Bonham formed a new band with guitarist Andrew Watt named California Breed . Since the breakup of Black Country Communion , Hughes has revealed that he initially left the band on September 21 , 2012 as he was aware there was " no hope of touring " , claiming that a number of guitarists including Zakk Wylde , Steve Vai , and Joe Satriani were contacted about joining the band , and stressing that his relationship with Bonamassa is " fine " .
= = = 2017 : Planned reunion and fourth album = = =
In April 2016 , it was announced that Black Country Communion would be reuniting in 2017 , with the group planning to record a fourth album . Speaking about the supergroup 's comeback , Bonham explained that the reunion was initially suggested by Bonamassa , who reached out to the other band members with the proposal .
= = Style and songwriting = =
As a supergroup , Black Country Communion 's style is often described as a mix of various different sounds and influences . Particular significance is attributed to the band 's mix of blues rock ( attributed primarily to Bonamassa 's history as a solo musician ) and classic rock ( originating from Hughes ' previous work with Deep Purple and Black Sabbath , and from Bonham 's tie with Led Zeppelin via his father John ) , with some critics going as far as claiming the group 's sound is based on " the vintage Deep Purple template " . In reviews for the band 's second album 2 , a number of critics compared the sound of the group to that of drummer Bonham 's father 's band Led Zeppelin – Eduardo Rivadavia of website AllMusic noted that the album " sounds like the baby of drummer Jason Bonham " , while Paul Cole of newspaper Sunday Mercury claimed it is " haunted by the spirit of Zeppelin " . Speaking about how he intended the style of the band to appear , Hughes has proclaimed that BCC " are a rock and roll band in the true sense of the word " .
Traditionally the writing processes for BCC 's albums have been led by Hughes , who wrote the majority of the lyrics for both Black Country Communion and 2 . The majority of the music on Black Country Communion was composed by Hughes and Bonamassa , with Shirley increasing his composition presence for the second album . Noting the extensive touring commitments of Bonamassa , Hughes has claimed that he was " left as the keeper of the keys to write [ the band 's ] albums " , noting that for each record – which have been continuations of their predecessors – he has had more and more time to write material ( six weeks for Black Country Communion , four months for 2 , and six months for Afterglow ) . Talking about the writing of the first album , Hughes has compared the approach of himself and Bonamassa to such songwriting duos as Jimmy Page and Robert Plant of Led Zeppelin , Mick Jagger and Keith Richards of The Rolling Stones , and Steven Tyler and Joe Perry of Aerosmith . Bonham has described the band 's writing style as " spur of the moment " .
= = Band members = =
Glenn Hughes – vocals , bass
Joe Bonamassa – guitars , vocals
Jason Bonham – drums , percussion , backing vocals
Derek Sherinian – keyboards
Black Country Communion performing at the Azkena Rock Festival in 2011 .
= = Discography = =
Black Country Communion ( 2010 )
Black Country Communion 2 ( 2011 )
Afterglow ( 2012 )
= Capital Bikeshare =
Capital Bikeshare ( also abbreviated CaBi ) is a bicycle sharing system that serves Washington , D.C. ; Arlington County , Virginia ; the city of Alexandria , Virginia ; and Montgomery County , Maryland . It has more than 300 stations and 2 @,@ 500 bicycles , all owned by these local governments and operated in a public @-@ private partnership with Alta Bicycle Share . Opened in September 2010 , the system was the largest bike sharing service in the United States until New York City 's Citi Bike began operations in May 2013 .
= = History = =
The SmartBike DC bike sharing service , a predecessor to Capital Bikeshare , debuted in 2008 with 10 stations and 120 bicycles . It was the first of it 's kind in the United States . D.C. Department of Transportation Director Gabe Klein came into office four months later and he eager to expand it , but found the private partner had a " lackluster commitment . " Because the agreement specifically prohibited DDOT from paying for anything related to SmartBike , an expansion required DDOT to renegotiate the contract . But in his first meeting with Clear Channel he found that Clear Channel believed they had gotten a bad deal on the original contract that created SmartBike ; that following their purchase by Bain Capital they were no longer interested in “ municipal street furniture ” and that they had neither desire nor obligation to expand the program . In addition , it was difficult and expensive to install new stations , because they required the local utility company to bring electricity to each station . As a result , Klein chose to fold the program and instead partner with Arlington County , VA to build the regional bikesharing program Capital Bikeshare .
Capital Bikeshare was to be owned by the local governments but operated in a public @-@ private partnership with a private operator . Prior to launch Alta Bike Share was awarded the operations contract . The new service launched in September 2010 with 400 bicycles at 49 stations . Shortly thereafter , SmartBike DC ceased operations in January 2011 .
Planning and implementation costs for Capital Bikeshare totaled $ 5 million , with additional first @-@ year operating costs of US $ 2 @.@ 3 million for 100 stations . The District 's share of planning , implementation and first @-@ year operating costs was partially financed by a $ 6 million grant by the United States Department of Transportation . Arlington County 's operating cost share of the plan was $ 835 @,@ 000 for the first year , funded by public contributions including a grant from the Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation as well as subsidies from Arlington County Transportation , Crystal City Business Improvement District , and the Potomac Yard Transportation Management Association . In April 2011 , Capital Bikeshare administrators said they expect earned revenue to cover 50 % of the system 's annual operating costs . The District of Columbia also planned to sell advertising on Capital Bikeshare stations with the goal of raising US $ 500 @,@ 000 .
By February 2011 , Capital Bikeshare had expanded to 100 stations in the District of Columbia and 14 stations in the Pentagon City , Potomac Yard , and Crystal City neighborhoods in Arlington . In September 2011 , Capital Bikeshare announced it had reached 18 @,@ 000 members and one million rides in its first year of operation , doubling initial expectations . During the summer of 2013 , riders averaged almost 300 @,@ 000 rides per month . That means that during the peak season , each bike is being used about four times per day . Throughout 2013 , users traveled almost 2 @.@ 5 million miles and burned 100 million calories.The average weekly savings was $ 15 @.@ 39 , resulting in about $ 370 @,@ 000 in annual transportation cost savings for the approximately 24 @,@ 000 members .
Capital Bikeshare has grown steadily , which has driven demand for more stations and bikes . Transportation agencies in each jurisdiction select the location of the rental stations , as well as the number of bike docks , depending on planners ' estimates of local demand . Most of the system 's users live in or near the city center ; stations in the poorer eastern portion of the city are comparatively underused .
The National Park Service originally prohibited Capital Bikeshare stations on the property it manages , including large areas such as the National Mall . However , the agency later reversed itself and said that it would work to include new stations in future expansions . The first two of five approved Capital Bikeshare stations opened on the National Mall on March 16 , 2012 , shortly before the start of the 2012 National Cherry Blossom Festival .
Also in March 2012 , the Arlington County government gave away 550 red Capital Bikeshare helmets and twice as many flashing safety lights as part of a promotion .
In August 2015 , Capital Bikeshare announced that it had found a new equipment supplier and would add 435 bikes and 40 stations in D.C. and 140 bikes and 20 stations elsewhere . It also reported having 29 @,@ 000 members who had taken a total of more than 10 @.@ 5 million trips .
= = Expansion = =
In 2010 , a local transportation official said that the system could be expanded further throughout the D.C. area and have as many as 5 @,@ 000 bicycles within a few years .
In fall 2011 , the District Department of Transportation announced plans to add 32 stations and expand 18 existing ones by year 's end , then add 50 more in 2012 .
Arlington County also announced plans to add 30 stations in fall 2011 , primarily along the densely populated corridor between the Rosslyn and Ballston neighborhoods , and 30 more in 2012 .
In October 2011 , the neighboring city of Alexandria , Virginia , approved plans to deploy 54 bicycles at six stations in the Old Town and Carlyle neighborhoods in 2012 , then add six more stations in 2013 . The cost of the first year would be $ 400 @,@ 000 , including operating costs of $ 100 @,@ 440 . The first eight Alexandria stations were deployed in August 2012 .
Montgomery County , Maryland , similarly approved plans to install 20 stations and 200 bikes in the Rockville and Shady Grove areas near Washington Metro stations and high @-@ traffic destinations such as Montgomery College and Rockville Town Center . The expansion will be paid for by a $ 1 @.@ 288 million grant from the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board with a $ 688 @,@ 000 local match . Officials also cited plans to add 50 stations and 400 bicycles in southern areas of the county , including Bethesda , Silver Spring , Friendship Heights , and Takoma Park . However , bicycling advocates cautioned that clusters of stations in the county could be too far from each other as well as the larger network of stations within neighboring Washington , D.C. There was also concern that the county has too few bike lanes and trails to support the expected number of users . Despite these concerns , Montgomery County added its first stations in May 2013 .
By September 2012 , these additions and expansions were to have brought the network to 288 stations and 2 @,@ 800 bikes in four jurisdictions .
August 2015 media reports indicate about 60 stations will be added , following difficulties with supply related to supplier bankruptcy .
= = Technology = =
Capital Bikeshare uses a system designed by Montreal @-@ based PBSC Urban Solutions .
Rental stations are automated and powered by solar panels , allowing them to be located anywhere space is available . A wireless data link connects the docks and station kiosk to a central bike @-@ tracking and billing database . Riders can use the Capital Bikeshare website and smartphone applications to see where rental stations are located and how many bikes and empty docks they have .
Each bike dock has a repair button ; users press this to report a damaged or malfunctioning bike and take it out of service . Riders are expected to notify Capital Bikeshare if a bike is unable to dock at a station and are responsible for the rented bike until it has been returned .
The red @-@ colored aluminum unisex bicycles have three gears , an adjustable seat , and a front basket as well as a headlight and twin red taillights that are powered whenever the bicycle is in motion .
Alta Bike Share vans redistribute bikes among stations and pick up bikes for maintenance . Unlike some other networks , Capital Bikeshare maintains service year @-@ round except during severe weather .
In May 2011 , it cost $ 41 @,@ 500 to install a station with six docks and $ 49 @,@ 300 each for larger stations with 14 docks . Each bicycle cost about $ 1 @,@ 000 , and the annual operating cost per bike was $ 1 @,@ 860 .
= = Pricing = =
Capital Bikeshare has five payment options . As of July 2016 , casual riders may purchase a single trip ( $ 2 ) , a 24 @-@ hour pass ( $ 8 ) , or a 3 @-@ day pass ( $ 17 ) at any bike station . After swiping a credit card at the station 's kiosk , a rider gets a code to unlock a bike . Riders may also sign up online for monthly ( $ 28 ) , annual ( $ 85 ) , or annual installment ( $ 96 , paid in monthly increments of $ 8 ) passes ; these riders are mailed an RFID key that can unlock bikes without entering a code . The new , one @-@ trip fare of $ 2 was introduced in June 2016 during WMATA 's SafeTrack program , which would shut down segments of the Washington Metro for the following year .
Any rider may take unlimited trips of up to 30 minutes , as measured from the time the bike is withdrawn from a dock to the time it is returned . Longer trips incur fees for each additional half @-@ hour on a scale that rises from $ 1 @.@ 50 to $ 8 @.@ 00 . This pricing structure is designed to encourage short trips from place to place instead of longer leisure rides . If a destination station is full , riders can use the kiosk to get 15 more free minutes to return the bike to another location .
A replacement fee of $ 1 @,@ 000 is charged to the credit card on file if a rented bike is not returned within 24 hours .
= Amelia ( novel ) =
Amelia is a sentimental novel written by Henry Fielding and published in December 1751 . It was the fourth and final novel written by Fielding , and it was printed in only one edition while the author was alive , although 5 @,@ 000 copies were published of the first edition . Amelia follows the life of Amelia and Captain William Booth after they are married . It contains many allusions to classical literature and focuses on the theme of marriage and feminine intelligence , but Fielding 's stance on gender issues cannot be determined because of the lack of authorial commentary discussing the matter . Although the novel received praise from many writers and critics , it received more criticism from Fielding 's competition , possibly resulting from the " paper war " in which the author was involved .
= = Background = =
Fielding began writing Amelia in the autumn of 1749 . He turned to his own life for inspiration , and the main character , Amelia , was possibly modelled on Fielding 's first wife , Charlotte , who died in November 1744 . Likewise , the hero , Captain Booth , was partly modelled after Fielding himself . It was advertised on 2 December 1751 by the publisher , Andrew Millar , in The General Advertiser . In it , Millar claimed that " to satisfy the earnest Demand of the Publick , this Work is now printing at four Presses ; but the Proprietor not @-@ withstanding finds it impossible to get them bound in Time without spoiling the Beauty of the Impression , and therefore will sell them sew 'd at Half a Guinea a Sett . "
Millar ordered William Strahan to print the work on two of his printing presses to produce a total of 5 @,@ 000 copies for the first run of the work ( in comparison , only 3 @,@ 500 copies of The History of Tom Jones , a Foundling were printed for the first and second edition ) . This amount proved to be enough for Millar to sell , although he had to back down from a second printing of 3 @,@ 000 copies immediately after the first edition to ensure that the originals were completely sold . The work had two German translations published in 1752 , a Dutch translation in 1756 , and a French edition in 1762 .
It finally went into a second edition in 1762 . However , this edition was posthumous and in Millary 's Works of Henry Fielding . In the prefatory essay , the Works editor , Arthur Murphy , claimed that " Amelia , in this edition , is printed from a copy corrected by the author 's own hand . The exceptionable passages , which inadvertency had thrown out , are here retrenched ; and the work , upon the whole , will be found nearer perfection than it was in its original state . " Although most critics agree that Murphy was telling the truth , it is possible that only some of the alterations were completed by Fielding and that other alterations were by Murphy or another editor employed by Murphy .
= = Plot summary = =
Amelia is a domestic novel taking place largely in London during 1733 . It describes the hardships suffered by a young couple newly married . Against her mother 's wishes , Amelia marries Captain William Booth , a dashing young army officer . The couple run away to London . In Book II , William is unjustly imprisoned in Newgate , and is subsequently seduced by Miss Matthews . During this time , it is revealed that Amelia was in a carriage accident and that her nose was ruined . Although this brings about jokes at Amelia 's behalf , Booth refuses to regard her as anything but beautiful .
Amelia , by contrast , resists the attentions paid to her by several men in William 's absence and stays faithful to him . She forgives his transgression , but William soon draws them into trouble again as he accrues gambling debts trying to lift the couple out of poverty . He soon finds himself in debtors ' prison . Amelia then discovers that she is her mother 's heiress and , the debt being settled , William is released and the couple retires to the country .
The second edition contains many changes to the text . A whole chapter on a dispute between doctors was completely removed , along with various sections of dialogue and praise of the Glastonbury Waters . The edition also contains many new passages , such as an addition of a scene in which a doctor repairs Amelia 's nose and Booth remarking on the surgery ( in Book II , Chapter 1 , where Booth is talking to Miss Matthews ) .
= = Themes = =
= = = Virgilian = = =
There are strong Virgilian overtones in Amelia . Fielding claimed , in his 28 January The Covent Garden Journal , that there were connections of the work to both Homer and Virgil , but that the " learned Reader will see that the latter was the noble model , which I made use of on this Occasion . " The parallels are between more than the plot , and the novel follows a " twelve @-@ book structure " that matches the Aeneid .
Even the characters have Virgilian counterparts , with Booth being comparable to Aeneas and Miss Mathews Fielding 's version of Dido . Fielding does not shy away from such comparisons , but embraces them with his use of the line " Furens quid Foemina possit " ( translated as " what a woman can do in frenzy " ) , in Book IV , Chapter Five ; this line is directly taken from the Aeneid . Likewise , Fielding 's bailiff misstates Virgil 's " dolus an virtus , quis in hoste requirat " ( translated as " whether deceit or valour , who would ask in the enemy " ) when he says " Bolus and Virtus , quis in a Hostess equirit " in Book VIII , Chapter One . However , these are not the only quotes , and Fielding cites many passages of Latin and Greek while not providing direct translations for them . To these Virgilian parallels , Samuel Richardson claimed that Fielding " must mean Cotton 's Virgil Travestied ; where the women are drabs , and the men scoundrels .
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@-@ Halo work since 2001 .
= Flannan Isles =
The Flannan Isles ( Scottish Gaelic : Na h @-@ Eileanan Flannach , pronounced [ nə ˈhelanən ˈflˠ ̪ an ̪ ˠəx ] ) or alternatively , the Seven Hunters are a small island group in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland , approximately 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) west of the Isle of Lewis . They may take their name from Saint Flannan , the seventh @-@ century Irish preacher and abbot .
The islands have been devoid of permanent residents since the automation of Flannan Isles Lighthouse in 1971 . They are the location of an enduring mystery that occurred in December 1900 , when all three lighthouse keepers vanished without trace .
= = Geography = =
The islands are split into three groups : the main cluster of rocks that lie to the northeast include the two principal islands of Eilean Mòr ( Big Isle ) , which is approximately 17 @.@ 5 hectares ( 43 acres ) in extent , and Eilean Taighe ( House Isle ) ; to the south lie Soray ( Eastward Isle ) and Sgeir Tomain ; while the main western outcrops are Eilean a ' Gobha ( Isle of the Blacksmith ) , Roaireim ( which has a natural rock arch ) , and Bròna Cleit ( Sad Sunk Rock ) . The total land area amounts to approximately 50 hectares ( 120 acres ) and the highest point is 88 metres ( 289 ft ) above sea level on Eilean Mòr .
The geology consists of a dark breccia of gabbros and dolerites intruding Archaean gneiss . In prehistoric times , the area was covered by ice sheets that spread from Scotland out into the Atlantic Ocean . After the last retreat of the ice circa 20 @,@ 000 years BP , sea levels were as much as 122 metres ( 400 ft ) lower than at present and it is likely that the existing islands were part of a much larger land mass , although still separated from the Outer Hebrides by many miles of open water . Steadily rising sea levels thereafter would have reduced the land remaining above sea level to its present extent .
There are two possible landing places for yachts visiting Eilean Mòr to the east and west , although this may be hazardous given the regular heavy swells .
= = History = =
As the name implies , Eilean Taighe hosts a ruined stone shelter . Eilean Mòr is home to the lighthouse and a ruined chapel dedicated to St. Flannan , which the lighthouse keepers referred to as the " dog kennel " because of its small size . These ruined bothies were described collectively by the Ancient Monuments Commission as The Bothies of the Clan McPhail , or Bothain Chlann ‘ ic Phaill . It is not entirely clear which St. Flannan the chapel honours . It is likely that the honoree was either the seventh century Abbot of Killaloe in County Clare or alternatively , the half brother of the eighth century St. Ronan who gave his name to the nearby island of North Rona . There was also a certain Flann , son of an Abbot of Iona , called Maol @-@ duine , who died in 890 and may have loaned his name to these isolated isles .
The archipelago also is known as ' The Seven Hunters ' . During the Middle Ages they also may have been called the ' Seven Haley ( Holy ) Isles ' . Martin Martin ( 1703 ) lists a number of unusual customs associated with regular pilgrimages to Eilean Mòr , such as removing one 's hat and making a sunwise turn when reaching the plateau . It is possible that the saint or his acolytes lived on Eilean Mòr and perhaps , on Eilean Taighe as well . It is unlikely , however , that there were permanent residents on the islands once the Celtic Church fell into decline in the Hebrides ( as a result of ninth century Viking invasions ) , until the construction of the lighthouse and its occupation very shortly before the dawn of the twentieth century .
Flannan Isles Lighthouse was built near the highest point on Eilean Mòr for the Northern Lighthouse Board between 1895 and 1899 . In 1900 , its three keepers disappeared without trace , causing much public attention and speculation . The lighthouse is no longer occupied after it was automated in 1971 .
= = Wildlife = =
The isles provide nesting for a population of seabirds , including Atlantic puffins , northern fulmars , European storm @-@ petrels , Leach 's petrels , common shag , and black @-@ legged kittiwakes . There is a gannetry on Roaireim . From the late Middle Ages on , Lewismen regularly raided these nests for eggs , birds , and feathers . There is a population of rabbits , brought to the islands by the lighthouse keepers , and crofters from Bernera graze sheep on the most fertile islands . Minke and pilot whales , as well as Risso 's and other species of dolphin are commonly observed in the vicinity .
The islands became a Site of Special Scientific Interest in December 1983 .
= = In fiction = =
The Flannan Isles , Eilean Mòr in particular , feature prominently as the location of a murder central to the plot of Coffin Road , a 2016 novel by Peter May . They also feature in Neil Gunn 's epic novel The Silver Darlings .
= Crab Bowl Classic =
The Crab Bowl Classic , also known as the Crab Bowl or the Maryland – Navy rivalry , is an American college football rivalry between the Maryland Terrapins football team of the University of Maryland and the Navy Midshipmen football team of the United States Naval Academy . The two institutions , located in close proximity in the state of Maryland , first met for a football game in 1905 . Since then , the series has often been marked by controversy , with incidents by players and supporters occurring both on and off the field . The winner of the game is awarded the Crab Bowl Trophy .
Navy dominated the series early by winning the first eight games , between 1905 and 1930 , which remains the longest streak . Maryland secured its first win in 1931 at a neutral site in Washington , D.C. After two more meetings , the series was suspended in 1934 when the Maryland administration protested a play .
The teams met again in 1950 when Navy had a last @-@ minute opening in its schedule . The Terrapins won three consecutive games from 1950 to 1952 , and the Midshipmen won three from 1958 to 1963 . During the 1964 game , a Maryland player twice flashed an obscene gesture , which prompted Navy to cancel the series again . After contractual obligations were fulfilled with the following year 's game , the series was put on hiatus for 40 years . Maryland and Navy finally resumed the rivalry in 2005 and again in 2010 , with the Terps winning both contests .
= = Background = =
The Naval Academy and the University of Maryland are separated by about 30 miles in the state of Maryland . The schools by their nature , a Federal service academy and a public university , differ radically in terms of culture and lifestyle . For many years , the University of Maryland possessed the reputation of a blue @-@ collar , working @-@ class school . Some students viewed the Naval Academy , with its strictly regimented culture , as elitist . A former Terrapins linebacker , Jerry Fishman , believed that many Midshipmen " thought they were far superior to the Maryland redneck coal miners . " A former Navy fullback , Pat Donnelly , said that compared to a " public institution , [ the Naval Academy ] was night and day . I think there was a feeling of mutual dislike , but it wasn ’ t personal , it was more institutional . "
According to former Maryland head coach ( and former Maryland player ) Ralph Friedgen , the sentiment at Navy has been that beating their archrival " Army is a must , but Maryland is a necessity . " Darryl Hill , who attended both schools and broke the color barrier on each team , said that the Midshipmen " had a saying that beating Army is great , but beating Maryland is a must . "
Despite a lopsided start in the early 20th century , the Terps and Midshipmen were evenly matched for most of the history of the series . Between 1931 and 1965 , Navy won six and Maryland five games . In the 2005 season opener , Navy was coming off one of its best seasons in history with a 10 – 2 record the previous year . Maryland struggled later in 2005 , but proved a competitive match for Navy and achieved a last @-@ minute win , 23 – 20 .
In addition to proximity and competitiveness , the rivalry was fueled by controversial incidents both on and off the field . Maryland supporters long held that Navy players used unnecessary roughness during play , a charge counter @-@ accused by the Academy after the 1963 game . Some Midshipmen would travel to College Park to meet female students , which served to aggravate the ill feelings . Pranks and vandalism were commonplace on both campuses and exacerbated the already tense situation between Maryland and
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the United States . The system also produced light to moderate rainfall across Georgia and South Carolina , which proved beneficial as the region was in a major drought . However , its heaviest rainfall remained over open waters .
Moving across eastern North Carolina as a minimal hurricane , Charley produced locally strong wind gusts , peaking at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) in Frisco . However , no stations recorded sustained winds of hurricane force . The cyclone dropped rainfall along the coastline , amounting to over 7 in ( 175 mm ) near Manteo . As it moved ashore , the storm generated high tides reaching 5 @.@ 78 feet ( 1 @.@ 76 metres ) at the Duck Coe fishing pier . Near Cape Hatteras , a woman drowned while attempting to drive through a flooded roadway . The hurricane 's passage left roads and bridges flooded with up to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water , including a portion of North Carolina Highway 12 on Hatteras Island . Across the Outer Banks , the storm left about 8 @,@ 000 people without power , but damage was minimal and limited to shingles and roofs . Impact in the state was primarily caused by tidal flooding and downed trees , and a preliminary damage estimate placed total monetary losses at $ 400 @,@ 000 ( 1986 USD ) .
= = = Northeastern United States and Canada = = =
As Charley moved across eastern North Carolina , hurricane warnings were extended northward , first to Virginia Beach ; they were later extended to Cape Charles , then to the Maryland / Delaware border , and ultimately as far north as Sandy Hook , New Jersey . Prior to its arrival , the storm resulted in the closure of Norfolk International Airport , and more than 9 @,@ 000 people evacuated the coastline for emergency shelters . Tropical storm force winds spread across southeastern Virginia , with wind gusts reaching 82 mph ( 133 km / h ) on Cape Charles . Offshore , a station on the Chesapeake Bay Bridge – Tunnel recorded sustained winds of 97 mph ( 157 km / h ) with gusts to 104 mph ( 168 km / h ) . After the gust , the bridge @-@ tunnel was closed overnight . The winds downed many trees , and in Norfolk , a motorist died after crashing into a downed tree . In Virginia Beach , the winds blew off the roof of a hotel and destroyed two homes under construction . Across the area , the storm left about 110 @,@ 000 customers without power . Rainfall in Virginia was fairly light , including a 24 @-@ hour total of just over 1 in ( 25 mm ) in Norfolk . Strong waves destroyed 250 ft ( 76 m ) of Harrison 's Pier in Norfolk . A preliminary damage estimate for the area was $ 1 million ( 1986 USD ) .
Thunderstorms to the north of the circulation brought moderate rainfall to Maryland ; the same thunderstorms caused a light aircraft to crash near Baltimore , resulting in the death of its three occupants . Rainfall spread across much of Maryland , peaking at 4 @.@ 24 in ( 105 mm ) in Hollywood . Tropical storm force winds extended into Delaware , and a peak wind gust of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) was reported in Rehoboth Beach . Only isolated and minor damage occurred in Maryland and Delaware . In New Jersey , a hurricane force wind gust was reported on Long Beach Island , and 1 @.@ 3 in ( 33 mm ) of rainfall was reported in Atlantic City . In the southernmost counties in the state , the winds left about 15 @,@ 000 electrical customers without power . In New York , after Hurricane Gloria in the previous season left thousands of customers without power , the Long Island Lighting Co. arranged for additional workers for potential power restoration . Light rainfall and gusty winds extended into the New York metropolitan area .
Officials issued gale warnings through Chatham , Massachusetts , including Martha 's Vineyard and Nantucket . As Charley passed south of Massachusetts , it produced precipitation in the southeastern portion of the state . Nantucket reported 3 @.@ 20 in ( 81 mm ) of rainfall , and Chatham recorded 2 @.@ 68 in ( 68 mm ) in a 24 @-@ hour period . Nantucket also reported sustained winds of 60 mph ( 96 km / h ) , and as the storm passed the island it produced a storm tide of 3 @.@ 5 – 4 ft ( 1 – 1 @.@ 2 m ) . High tides and heavy rain caused significant street flooding on Nantucket . Several boats were damaged , others were beached , and one large boat sunk in Nantucket Harbor . Damage on the island $ 75 @,@ 000 ( 1986 USD ) .
Before becoming extratropical , the storm brushed the coast of Nova Scotia with wind gusts of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and moderate precipitation totaling 4 @.@ 57 in ( 116 mm ) . Strong waves damaged several boats along the coasts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick , killing one person in St. John 's , Newfoundland .
= = European impact = =
After Charley became extratropical , the United Kingdom Met Office issued weather alerts prior to the arrival of the storm , noting the potential for " extremely heavy rainfall [ which would ] cause local flooding . " In the United Kingdom , the threat of the storm resulted in the cancellation of ferry service between Northern Ireland and Great Britain , as well between Great Britain and France . The extratropical remnants of Hurricane Charley moved across Ireland and United Kingdom with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The storm 's rainfall significantly affected most of both countries , with the exception of Scotland in the United Kingdom . In the English Channel , waves up to 26 ft ( 8 m ) in height breached and flooded a ship ; the 31 passengers on board were rescued by helicopters and other ships . Throughout the region , the storm resulted in at least 11 deaths .
First passing just south of Ireland on August 25 , the storm dropped heavy rainfall and brought strong winds , significantly affecting the coastline where winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) were reported . Rainfall spread across the entire country , peaking at 11 @.@ 0 in ( 280 mm ) in Kippure . There , a station reported more than 7 @.@ 8 in ( 200 mm ) in 24 hours , which set the record for the greatest daily rainfall total in the country . Several 24 @-@ hour rainfall records were set during the storm , and new six @-@ hour and twelve @-@ hour record totals at Casement Aerodrome were set with 1 @.@ 63 in ( 41 @.@ 5 mm ) and 2 @.@ 61 in ( 66 @.@ 2 mm ) , respectively . The rainfall left some areas flooded , particularly in the Dublin area where 451 buildings were inundated , some up to a depth of 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) . Preliminarily , it was described as the worst flooding in the history of Dublin . Two small rivers , the Dodder and the Dargle , overflowed their banks due to the rainfall . The River Dargle overflowed in Bray , flooding some areas up to a depth of 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and forcing about 1 @,@ 000 people to evacuate ; several special @-@ needs people were evacuated by boat . The flood , which originated about one mile north of the town , damaged over 500 houses and brought down several trees . Despite local politicians promising for flood protection after the flood , the town remained vulnerable to such flooding at least 20 years after the storm . The River Dodder , which also overflowed , nearly exceeded the reservoir dam in Bohernabreena in South Dublin . Additional spillways were later added in the event of another similar flood . In the Wicklow Mountains , the rainfall resulted in significant runoff , which caused erosion along the Cloghoge River . The passage of the storm left heavy crop damage , part of a larger period of poor agriculture in the country . Throughout the country , the storm caused at least five deaths , four of which were drownings in flooded rivers ; the fifth death was caused by a heart attack while being evacuated from flooding . Two months after the storm struck , the government of Ireland allocated IR £ 6 @,@ 449 @,@ 000 ( 1986 IEP , $ 8 @,@ 650 @,@ 000 1986 USD ) to repair roads and bridges damaged by the weather system .
The storm also affected the United Kingdom as it moved across the southern portion of the country . In Wales , Charley produced record @-@ breaking daily rainfall , which surpassed 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in Dyfed . Some locations received hundred @-@ year rainfall . The storm struck the area during the Late Summer Bank Holiday , creating unfavorable conditions for driving and resulting in several accidents . Heavy rainfall flooded rivers , which swept away several people . This prompted officials to deploy boats and helicopters to assist in rescues , although at least three deaths were reported due to drowning in the rivers . Severe flooding was reported in Cumbria and Gloucestershire . The storm also left roads blocked by fallen trees and power lines . At the start of the storm , the inaugural Birmingham Super Prix motorsport race was just getting underway but poor visibility from precipitation contributed to an accident which temporarily called halt to proceedings . In Whitland , Wales , local soldiers assisted rescuing people , and later contributed to the cleanup of the town . Throughout the country , five people were missing after the storm , all of whom are presumed to have drowned ; an additional death was confirmed in Newry , Northern Ireland .
= John Albert Taylor =
John Albert Taylor ( June 6 , 1959 – January 26 , 1996 ) was an American who was convicted of burglary and carrying a concealed weapon in the state of Florida , and sexual assault and murder in the state of Utah . Taylor 's own sister tipped off police in June 1989 after 11 @-@ year @-@ old Charla King was found raped and strangled to death in Washington Terrace , Utah . His fingerprints were found at the crime scene , which was located in an apartment complex where he had been staying . In December 1989 , Taylor was sentenced to death and placed on death row at Utah State Prison .
Taylor gave up appealing his sentence after his request for retrial was rejected by the Utah Supreme Court . He became the second person to be executed by firing squad in the United States ( after Gary Gilmore ) since the death penalty was reinstated in 1976 . Taylor said he chose this method of execution to embarrass the state of Utah . On January 26 , 1996 , the day of Taylor 's execution , legislation was introduced in the Utah House of Representatives to eliminate the firing squad .
= = Background = =
John Albert Taylor was born in Ogden , Utah to Albert and Gaylene Taylor , who separated during his infancy . He moved several times during his youth , including a move to Colorado at the age of nine , when he was told that his father had died . According to Taylor , he was raised in Florida , where he was abused as a child and became involved in drugs by his teens . Taylor stated that he did not get along with his stepfather , a Vietnam veteran , or his mother : " But she could never control me . My mother had a lot of animosity toward my father . They alienated me for a long time . I was the whipping post . " At the age of 13 , he stabbed his stepfather . According to court records , he repeatedly raped and sodomized his sister Laurie during his teens , and raped , and sodomized other young girls , and was committed to a sex offender program . In 1974 , Taylor moved back to Ogden to live with his grandmother , but soon returned to Florida .
In 1977 , Taylor was arrested in Florida and charged with burglary and carrying a concealed weapon after he was caught with a stolen gun . He was convicted and imprisoned until December 1981 , when he was released on parole . In March 1982 , he was arrested in Fort Lauderdale , Florida for armed burglary , armed robbery , and sexual assault . He had been diagnosed at the age of 17 as " a remorseless pedophile . " He was acquitted of the charges in September 1982 , but was sentenced to 15 additional years in prison for parole violations . In 1989 , Taylor was released and departed for Utah to be with his sisters and biological father , who he discovered was still alive .
From all I saw , my father was a good man . But while I was growing up , I was told so many stories about him that I 've come to learn were all lies . My father was being painted a villain when he really wasn 't one . I 've come to learn that the real villain was my mother .
= = Murder of Charla King = =
At around 3 : 20 p.m. on June 23 , 1989 , Sherron King returned from work to her apartment in Washington Terrace , Utah to find the body of her daughter Charla in the bedroom with a nightgown wrapped around her head and panties stuffed in her mouth . After calling the police , she was instructed to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation and discovered that Charla had been strangled to death with a telephone cord . Charla 's foster grandmother Bertha Poster stated that she had dropped Charla off at the apartment at about 1 : 30 p.m. after visiting the mall . Charla had been planning to celebrate her 12th birthday at an amusement park on the next day . Prosecutors believe that John entered the house with intent on sexually molesting the girl . When she caught him in the house , Prosecutors believe , he chased her into the bedroom , and place her underwear in her mouth . He raped her , placed a nightgown over her head , and strangled her to death .
= = = Arrest = = =
On June 25 , a tipster , who was later revealed to be Taylor 's sister Laurie Galli , contacted Washington Terrace Police officer Marcia Gathercole with information connected to the murder . Taylor 's fingerprints were found on a telephone in the King residence and matched to records provided by authorities in Fort Lauderdale . He was arrested at about 9 p.m. on June 28 at the home of his half @-@ sister / incestous lover Tresa Taylor in Ogden , Utah and charged with , First Degree Burglary , First Degree Child Rape , and First @-@ Degree Murder the next morning . Taylor had arrived from Florida four days before the murder and had been staying with another sister in the same apartment complex .
I remember telling my father that whoever they arrested for this crime was history , and that was before my arrest .
Sherron King moved out of the apartment complex on June 28 . She was upset that the neighbors who came forward as witnesses did nothing when they heard her daughter screaming .
= = = Murder trial = = =
On November 27 , 1989 , the trial commenced under District Judge David Roth after Taylor waived his right to a jury . Taylor testified on his own behalf that he only entered the apartment in the act of burglary while no one was home , leaving his fingerprints on the phone when he found money underneath it . Weber County deputy attorney William Daines stated that Taylor previously denied being in the apartment and that two witnesses placed him at the scene at the time of the crime . Prison inmate Mike Gallegos testified that he had a brief conversation in which Taylor told him that he killed a girl by accident , and masturbated on the corpse . Duane Moyes and James Gaskill of the Weber State College crime laboratory testified that the person who cut the telephone cord with a knife and wrapped it around the neck of the victim was likely the same as the one who left behind fingerprints on the phone . Lab director Gaskill stated that the prints , three of which were matched to fingers on Taylor 's left hand , were the only evidence that placed Taylor at the crime scene . Gaskill said there was no evidence in the apartment to indicate a burglary took place or that any other person was connected to the murder .
On December 5 , 1989 , Judge Roth found Taylor guilty of the first @-@ degree child rape and first @-@ degree murder of Charla Nicole King . During the penalty phase of Taylor 's trial , his half @-@ sister Leslie Beale traveled from Florida to testify about his harsh treatment under his stepfather and the three years that Taylor spent in a sex offender program at a Florida mental institution . On December 19 , Taylor became the first convict in 40 years to be sent to death row by a Weber County court . Roth said that the facts of the case outweighed any mitigating circumstances . Taylor 's father Albert attended most of his son 's court proceedings until he died of heart failure on October 8 , 1990 . Taylor said he was not permitted to attend his father 's funeral .
= = = Appeals = = =
The case was automatically appealed to the Utah Supreme Court , which upheld Taylor 's conviction and sentence in October 1991 . Taylor 's execution was initially scheduled for January 15 , 1992 . The date was rescheduled to June 24 when Taylor 's attorney Martin Gravis requested to withdraw from the case . On June 17 , Judge Roth granted a stay of execution after Taylor 's new defense attorney Ron Yengich requested more time to prepare an appeal . At issue was a new 1992 law in Utah that established the sentence of life imprisonment without parole .
While incarcerated at Utah State Prison , Taylor kept busy in an effort to overcome his claustrophobia and boredom . He earned his high school diploma and studied to be a paralegal until his educational grant money ran out .
In October 1995 , Taylor decided to end further appeals after the Utah Supreme Court rejected his argument that his legal counsel was ineffective . He fired defense attorney Ed Brass , stating : " If I don 't fight for my appeal , I don 't need an attorney . " Taylor said he was prepared to die partly because of his failing health , including an enlarged heart , bleeding ulcers , and swollen legs and feet .
I don 't want to die alone in my cell .
Judge Roth ordered Taylor to choose a method of execution . Taylor chose to be executed by firing squad to make the process more difficult for Utah state officials . In an interview with the Deseret News , he stated : " I didn 't commit the murder , and I 'm not going to submit to letting them kill me on that table . " Regarding the option of lethal injection , Taylor said , " I don 't want to go flipping around like a fish out of water on that table . "
To be strapped to a table and injected full of drugs leaves me with a feeling of helplessness ; because I am innocent of the crime for which I was convicted of . Anyway , if my execution is carried out , it will be a murder . Granted , it may be legally sanctioned , but , nonetheless , murder it will be , and the firing squad is my way of showing that point ; and because of the cost and the inconvenience it will cause the state because they are not really prepared for an execution by firing squad .
= = Execution = =
When Taylor ordered a last meal of pizzas " with everything , " some law enforcement veterans recalled that the same request was made by Barton Kay Kirkham , the last man to be hanged in Utah . Like Taylor , Kirkham had selected his method of execution with the goal of inconveniencing the state . On January 25 , 1996 , Taylor spent his final evening sharing his pizza with his uncle Gordon Lee while joined by former attorney Ed Brass and Catholic priest Reyes Rodriguez , who administered the Last Rites . Taylor , whose stomach had been doing " flip @-@ flops " earlier in the day , requested antacid medication and declined deputy warden Wally Schulsen 's offer for more pizza , soda , and coffee . He gave his glasses to warden Hank Galetka and said , " There is no need for them . " Taylor refused an offer to be sedated before his execution , but was allowed his first cigarette in six years .
Five police officers , who volunteered to carry out the execution , were each paid $ 300 . The shooters used identical Winchester Model 94 rifles . One prison official selected each rifle at random from a table and handed them to another prison official sitting in a small room , out of sight . The second prison official would then load the rifle , and return it to the table . Four of the rifles were loaded with live ammunition . One was secretly loaded with a wax bullet so that none of the officers would be certain that they fired a deadly shot . The non @-@ lethal cartridge was tested to ensure that the report and recoil was difficult to distinguish from a real cartridge .
= = = Media coverage = = =
Over 168 news and television crews from around the world were on hand to report the execution , which was set up inside a warehouse at Utah State Prison in Draper . Nine media witnesses were allowed to record the actual event . Actor and activist Mike Farrell appeared as a commentator for the American Civil Liberties Union in opposition to the death penalty . Elliott King , the uncle of Charla King , was the sole member of the victim 's family to arrive as a witness and expressed that he had no sympathy for Taylor . Sister Helen Prejean , the author of Dead Man Walking , wrote Taylor a letter that was delivered right before his execution .
= = = Death = = =
Shortly before midnight , Taylor was led into the execution chamber and strapped to a chair 17 feet away from the shooters with a hood covering his head . Multiple bright lights covered Taylor . Sandbags were arranged behind him to prevent any ricochets . The captain walked down the aisle , tapping each shooter on the shoulder to check to see if they were ready . At 12 : 03 a.m. Mountain Standard Time on January 26 , 1996 , every shooter fired at the count of five and the white cloth target on Taylor 's chest flew off . His chest moved upward and his left hand tightened into a fist . His grip gradually loosened and his head fell back . A doctor checked Taylor 's neck for a pulse and cut two holes in his hood to check for a pupillary light reflex . Taylor was declared dead at 12 : 07 a.m. and became the 49th person to be executed in the state of Utah since 1852 .
I would like to say for my family and my friends — as the poem was written , ' Remember me , but let me go.'
= = = Aftermath = = =
After an autopsy , Taylor 's remains were cremated and shipped to his uncle Gordon Lee in Oregon . The Salt Lake County Sheriff 's Office said it would specify homicide as the cause of death on Taylor 's death certificate because the execution met the state 's definition of " intentional death by another hand . " However , Utah state law exempts the actions of executioners from prosecution . A commemorative coin was created to recognize the staff who had participated in the execution . Eight hours after Taylor 's execution , Utah State Representative Sheryl Allen first introduced a bill to eliminate the firing squad , and later succeeded in passing HB180 , which removed the right of the condemned to choose their method of execution after February 2004 .
If they choose the firing squad , it 's one last magnificent manipulation of the system to bring attention to themselves ... It 's time for Utah to do away with the firing squad .
= The Twilight Saga : New Moon =
The Twilight Saga : New Moon , commonly referred to as New Moon , is a 2009 American romantic fantasy film based on Stephenie Meyer 's 2006 novel New Moon . It is the second film in The Twilight Saga film series and is the sequel to 2008 's Twilight . Summit Entertainment greenlit the sequel in late November 2008 , following the early success of Twilight . Directed by Chris Weitz , the film stars Kristen Stewart , Robert Pattinson , and Taylor Lautner , reprising their roles as Bella Swan , Edward Cullen , and Jacob Black , respectively . Melissa Rosenberg , who handed in a draft of the film script during the opening weekend of Twilight , returned as screenwriter for New Moon as well .
Filming began in Vancouver in late March 2009 , and in Montepulciano , Italy in late May 2009 . The film was released on November 20 , 2009 in most countries , and set domestic box office records as the biggest midnight screening , grossing $ 26 @.@ 3 million , which was superseded by its sequel , Eclipse . This led to the highest single day , domestic gross on an opening day , with $ 72 @.@ 7 million , until it was beaten in 2011 by Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 , which made $ 91 @.@ 1 million , by nearly $ 20 million . Furthermore , New Moon opened with the third highest domestic opening weekend since 2002 grossing a total of $ 142 @,@ 839 @,@ 137 . The film also became the highest @-@ grossing film released by Summit Entertainment , and was the widest independent release , playing in over 4 @,@ 100 theaters in its theatrical run , until it was surpassed by The Twilight Saga : Eclipse .
New Moon was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on March 20 , 2010 through midnight release parties . As of July 2012 , $ 184 @,@ 916 @,@ 451 in North American DVD sales , selling more than 8 @,@ 835 @,@ 501 units , 4 million of which were sold within its first weekend , beating Twilight 's 3 @.@ 8 million units sold in its first two days . The film was well received by fans , but received generally negative reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
On her 18th birthday , Bella Swan wakes up from a dream in which she sees herself as an old woman . She expresses her distaste about growing older than her boyfriend Edward Cullen , a vampire who stopped aging physically at 17 . Despite her lack of enthusiasm , Edward 's adoptive family throw Bella a birthday party . While unwrapping a gift , Bella gets a paper cut . Edward 's brother , Jasper , becomes overwhelmed by the scent of Bella 's blood and attempts to kill her . Realizing the danger that he and his family pose to Bella , Edward ends their relationship , and the Cullens leave Forks , Washington .
Edward 's departure leaves Bella heartbroken and depressed for months ; however , when her father , Charlie , finally decides to send her to live with her mother in Florida , Bella refuses and agrees to spend more time with her friends . After seeing a movie with Jessica , Bella sees a group of men on motorcycles . This reminds her of when Edward previously rescued her from an assault , and she sees his image warning her to stay away . Bella discovers that any thrill @-@ seeking activities she engages in evoke Edward 's preserved image . She is also comforted by Jacob Black , a cheerful companion who helps to ease her pain over losing Edward . When Jacob suddenly begins avoiding her , Bella discovers that he , and others of his tribe , are descended from a long line of werewolves , and Jacob has just undergone his first transformation . Bella also learns that the werewolves are an age @-@ old enemy of vampires . Jacob 's pack members are on constant alert for Victoria , a vampire seeking to avenge the death of her mate , James , who was killed by Edward after James kidnapped and tried to kill Bella . They rescue Bella from Laurent , when he tries to kill her . With Jacob busy coming to terms with his shape @-@ shifting nature , Bella again finds herself alone , and she returns to seeking thrill @-@ inducing activities .
Bella jumps off a cliff into the ocean believing Edward will come and save her . Alice sees this in her vision and Edward believes Bella committed suicide . Instead Jacob saves her without Edward 's knowledge and she and Jacob are about to kiss , but he ceases himself to do so . Edward travels to Italy and attempts to provoke the Volturi ( powerful coven who act as vampiric overlords ) to kill him by exposing himself as a vampire to humans . Alice , Edward 's sister , and Bella rush to Italy to save Edward , and arrive just in time to stop him . Edward explains that he always loved Bella and only left to protect her . However , the Volturi determine that Bella , a human who knows that vampires exist , must either be killed or transformed into a vampire herself . Alice stops them from killing her by sharing her premonition , in which Bella has been transformed , with Aro ( Michael Sheen ) , a Volturi elder who is able to read thoughts through touch . Soon after , they return to Forks and Cullens again settle themselves in Forks
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s promises of an expanded army , a return to conscription , and a more aggressive foreign policy , the army continued to guard its traditions of independence during the early years of the Nazi regime .
To a lesser extent , the Sturmabteilung ( SA ) , a Nazi paramilitary organisation , remained somewhat autonomous within the party itself . The SA evolved out of the remnants of the Freikorps movement of the post @-@ World War I years . The Freikorps were nationalistic organisations primarily composed of disaffected , disenchanted , and angry German combat veterans founded by the government in January 1919 to deal with the threat of a Communist revolution when it appeared that there was a lack of loyal troops . A very large number of the Freikorps believed that the November Revolution had betrayed them when Germany was alleged to be on the verge of victory in 1918 . Hence , the Freikorps were in opposition to the new Weimar Republic , which was born as a result of the November Revolution , and whose founders were contemptuously called " November criminals " . Captain Ernst Röhm of the Reichswehr served as the liaison with the Bavarian Freikorps . Röhm was given the nickname " The Machine Gun King of Bavaria " in the early 1920s , since he was responsible for storing and issuing illegal machine guns to the Bavarian Freikorps units . Röhm left the Reichswehr in 1923 and later became commander of the SA . During the 1920s and 1930s , the SA functioned as a private militia used by Hitler to intimidate rivals and disrupt the meetings of competing political parties , especially those of the Social Democrats and the Communists . Also known as the " brownshirts " or " stormtroopers " , the SA became notorious for their street battles with the Communists . The violent confrontations between the two contributed to the destabilisation of Germany 's inter @-@ war experiment with democracy , the Weimar Republic . In June 1932 , one of the worst months of political violence , there were more than 400 street battles , resulting in 82 deaths .
Hitler 's appointment as chancellor , followed by the suppression of all political parties except the Nazis , did not end the violence of the stormtroopers . Deprived of Communist party meetings to disrupt , the stormtroopers would sometimes run riot in the streets after a night of drinking . They would attack passers @-@ by , and then attack the police who were called to stop them . Complaints of " overbearing and loutish " behaviour by stormtroopers became common by the middle of 1933 . The Foreign Office even complained of instances where brownshirts manhandled foreign diplomats .
Hitler 's move would be to strengthen his position with the army by moving against its nemesis , the SA . On July 6 , 1933 , at a gathering of high @-@ ranking Nazi officials , Hitler declared the success of the National Socialist , or Nazi , brown revolution . Now that the NSDAP had seized the reins of power in Germany , he said , it was time to consolidate its control . Hitler told the gathered officials , " The stream of revolution has been undammed , but it must be channelled into the secure bed of evolution . "
Hitler 's speech signalled his intention to rein in the SA , whose ranks had grown rapidly in the early 1930s . This would not prove to be simple , however , as the SA made up a large part of Nazism 's most devoted followers . The SA traced its dramatic rise in numbers in part to the onset of the Great Depression , when many German citizens lost both their jobs and their faith in traditional institutions . While Nazism was not exclusively – or even primarily – a working class phenomenon , the SA fulfilled the yearning of many unemployed workers for class solidarity and nationalist fervour . Many stormtroopers believed in the socialist promise of National Socialism and expected the Nazi regime to take more radical economic action , such as breaking up the vast landed estates of the aristocracy . When the Nazi regime did not take such steps , those who had expected an economic as well as a political revolution were disillusioned .
= = Conflict between the army and the SA = =
No one in the SA spoke more loudly for " a continuation of the German revolution " , as one prominent stormtrooper put it , than Röhm . Röhm , as one of the earliest members of the Nazi Party , had participated in the Munich Beer Hall Putsch , an attempt by Hitler to seize power by force in 1923 . A combat veteran of World War I , Röhm had recently boasted that he would execute 12 men in retaliation for the killing of any stormtrooper . Röhm saw violence as a means to political ends . He took seriously the socialist promise of National Socialism , and demanded that Hitler and the other party leaders initiate wide @-@ ranging socialist reform in Germany .
Not content solely with the leadership of the SA , Röhm lobbied Hitler to appoint him Minister of Defence , a position held by the conservative General Werner von Blomberg . Although nicknamed the " Rubber Lion " by some of his critics in the army for his devotion to Hitler , Blomberg was not himself a Nazi , and therefore represented a bridge between the army and the party . Blomberg and many of his fellow officers were recruited from the Prussian nobility , and regarded the SA as a plebeian rabble that threatened the army 's traditional high status in German society .
If the regular army showed contempt for the masses belonging to the SA , many stormtroopers returned the feeling , seeing the army as insufficiently committed to the National Socialist revolution . Max Heydebreck , an SA leader in Rummelsburg , denounced the army to his fellow brownshirts , telling them , " Some of the officers of the army are swine . Most officers are too old and have to be replaced by young ones . We want to wait till Papa Hindenburg is dead , and then the SA will march against the army . "
Despite such hostility between the brownshirts and the regular army , Blomberg and others in the military saw the SA as a source of raw recruits for an enlarged and revitalised army . Röhm , however , wanted to eliminate the generalship of the Prussian aristocracy altogether , using the SA to become the core of a new German military . Limited by the Treaty of Versailles to one hundred thousand soldiers , army leaders watched anxiously as membership in the SA surpassed three million men by the beginning of 1934 . In January 1934 , Röhm presented Blomberg with a memorandum demanding that the SA replace the regular army as the nation 's ground forces , and that the Reichswehr become a training adjunct to the SA .
In response , Hitler met Blomberg and the leadership of the SA and SS on February 28 , 1934 . Under pressure from Hitler , Röhm reluctantly signed a pledge stating that he recognised the supremacy of the Reichswehr over the SA . Hitler announced to those present that the SA would act as an auxiliary to the Reichswehr , not the other way around . After Hitler and most of the army officers had left , however , Röhm declared that he would not take instructions from " the ridiculous corporal " – a demeaning reference to Hitler . While Hitler did not take immediate action against Röhm for his intemperate outburst , it nonetheless deepened the rift between them .
= = Growing pressure against the SA = =
Despite his earlier agreement with Hitler , Röhm still clung to his vision of a new German army with the SA at its core . By early 1934 , this vision directly conflicted with Hitler 's plan to consolidate power and expand the Reichswehr . Because their plans for the army were mutually exclusive , Röhm 's success could only come at Hitler 's expense . Moreover , it was not just the Reichswehr that viewed the SA as a threat . Several of Hitler 's lieutenants feared Röhm 's growing power and restlessness , as did Hitler himself . As a result , a political struggle within the party grew , with those closest to Hitler , including Prussian premier Hermann Göring , Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels , SS Chief Heinrich Himmler , and Hitler 's deputy Rudolf Hess , positioning themselves against Röhm . While all of these men were veterans of the Nazi movement , only Röhm continued to demonstrate his independence from , rather than his loyalty to , Adolf Hitler . Röhm 's contempt for the party 's bureaucracy angered Hess . SA violence in Prussia gravely concerned Göring , Minister @-@ President of Prussia . Finally in the spring of 1934 , the growing rift between Röhm and Hitler over the role of the SA in the Nazi state led the former Chancellor , General Kurt von Schleicher , to start playing politics again . Schleicher criticised the current Hitler cabinet while some of Schleicher 's followers such as General Ferdinand von Bredow and Werner von Alvensleben started passing along lists of a new Hitler Cabinet in which Schleicher would become Vice @-@ Chancellor , Röhm Minister of Defence , Heinrich Brüning Foreign Minister and Gregor Strasser Minister of National Economy . The British historian Sir John Wheeler @-@ Bennett , who knew Schleicher and his circle well , wrote that Bredow displayed a " lack of discretion " that was " terrifying " as he went about showing the list of the proposed cabinet to anyone who was interested . Although Schleicher was in fact unimportant by 1934 , increasingly wild rumours that he was scheming with Röhm to reenter the corridors of power helped stoke the sense of crisis .
As a means of isolating Röhm , on April 20 , 1934 , Göring transferred control of the Prussian political police ( Gestapo ) to Himmler , who , Göring believed , could be counted on to move against Röhm . Himmler envied the independence and power of the SA , although by this time he and his deputy Reinhard Heydrich had already begun restructuring the SS from a bodyguard formation for Nazi leaders ( and a subset of the SA ) into its own independent elite corps , one loyal to both himself and Hitler . The loyalty of the SS men would prove useful to both when Hitler finally chose to move against Röhm and the SA . By May , lists of those to be " liquidated " started to circulate amongst Göring and Himmler 's people , who engaged in a trade , adding enemies of one in exchange for sparing friends of the other . At the end of May two former Chancellors , Heinrich Brüning and Kurt von Schleicher , received warnings from friends in the Reichswehr that their lives were in danger and they should leave Germany at once . Brüning fled to the Netherlands while Schleicher dismissed the tip @-@ off as a bad practical joke . By the beginning of June everything was set and all that was needed was permission from Hitler .
Demands for Hitler to constrain the SA strengthened . Conservatives in the army , industry , and politics placed Hitler under increasing pressure to reduce the influence of the SA and to move against Röhm . While Röhm 's homosexuality did not endear him to conservatives , they were more concerned about his political ambitions . Hitler for his part remained indecisive and uncertain about just what precisely he wanted to do when he left for Venice to meet Benito Mussolini on June 15 . Before Hitler left , and at the request of Presidential State Secretary Otto Meißner , Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath ordered the German Ambassador to Italy Ulrich von Hassell — without Hitler 's knowledge — to ask Mussolini to tell Hitler that the SA was blackening Germany 's good name . Neurath 's manoeuvre to put pressure on Hitler paid off , with Mussolini agreeing to the request ( Neurath was a former ambassador to Italy , and knew Mussolini well ) . During the summit in Venice , Mussolini upbraided Hitler for tolerating the violence , hooliganism , and homosexuality of the SA , which Mussolini stated were ruining Hitler 's good reputation all over the world . Mussolini used the affair occasioned by the murder of Giacomo Matteotti as an example of the kind of trouble unruly followers could cause a dictator . While Mussolini 's criticism did not win Hitler over to acting against the SA , it helped push him in that direction .
On June 17 , 1934 , conservative demands for Hitler to act came to a head when Vice @-@ Chancellor Franz von Papen , confidant of the ailing Hindenburg , gave a speech at Marburg University warning of the threat of a " second revolution " . Privately according to his memoirs , von Papen , a Catholic aristocrat with ties to army and industry , threatened to resign if Hitler did not act . While von Papen 's resignation as vice @-@ chancellor would not have threatened Hitler 's position , it would have nonetheless been an embarrassing display of independence from a leading conservative .
= = Heydrich and Himmler = =
In response to conservative pressure to constrain Röhm , Hitler left for Neudeck to meet with Hindenburg . Blomberg , who had been meeting with the President , uncharacteristically reproached Hitler for not having moved against Röhm earlier . He then told Hitler that Hindenburg was close to declaring martial law and turning the government over to the Reichswehr if Hitler did not take immediate steps against Röhm and his brownshirts . Hitler had hesitated for months in moving against Röhm , in part due to Röhm 's visibility as the leader of a national militia with millions of members . However , the threat of a declaration of martial law from Hindenburg , the only person in Germany with the authority to potentially depose the Nazi regime , put Hitler under pressure to act . He left Neudeck with the intention of both destroying Röhm and settling scores with old enemies . Both Himmler and Göring welcomed Hitler 's decision , since both had much to gain by Röhm 's downfall – the independence of the SS for Himmler , and the removal of a rival for the future command of the army for Göring .
In preparation for the purge both Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich , chief of the SS Security Service , assembled a dossier of manufactured evidence to suggest that Röhm had been paid 12 million marks ( EUR 48 @.@ 2 million in 2016 ) by France to overthrow Hitler . Leading officers in the SS were shown falsified evidence on June 24 that Röhm planned to use the SA to launch a plot against the government ( Röhm @-@ Putsch ) . Göring , Himmler , Heydrich , and Victor Lutze ( at Hitler 's direction ) drew up lists of people in and outside the SA to be killed . One of the men Göring recruited to assist him was Willi Lehmann , a Gestapo official and NKVD spy . On June 25 , General Werner von Fritsch placed the Reichswehr on the highest level of alert . On June 27 , Hitler moved to secure the army 's cooperation . Blomberg and General Walther von Reichenau , the army 's liaison to the party , gave it to him by expelling Röhm from the German Officers ' League . On June 28 Hitler went to Essen to attend a wedding celebration and reception ; from there he called Röhm 's adjutant at Bad Wiessee and ordered SA leaders to meet with him on June 30 at 11h . On June 29 , a signed article in Völkischer Beobachter by Blomberg appeared in which Blomberg stated with great fervour that the Reichswehr stood behind Hitler .
= = Purge = =
At about 04 : 30 on June 30 , 1934 , Hitler and his entourage flew into Munich . From the airport they drove to the Bavarian Interior Ministry , where they assembled the leaders of an SA rampage that had taken place in city streets the night before . Enraged , Hitler tore the epaulets off the shirt of Obergruppenführer August Schneidhuber , the chief of the Munich police , for failing to keep order in the city on the previous night . Hitler shouted at Schneidhuber that he would be shot . Schneidhuber was executed later that day . As the stormtroopers were hustled off to prison , Hitler assembled a large group of SS and regular police , and departed for the Hanselbauer Hotel in Bad Wiessee , where Ernst Röhm and his followers were staying .
With Hitler 's arrival in Bad Wiessee between 06 : 00 and 07 : 00 , the SA leadership , still in bed , were taken by surprise . SS men stormed the hotel and Hitler personally placed Röhm and other high @-@ ranking SA leaders under arrest . According to Erich Kempka , Hitler turned Röhm over to " two detectives holding pistols with the safety catch removed " , and the SS found Breslau SA leader Edmund Heines in bed with an unidentified eighteen @-@ year @-@ old male SA senior troop leader . Goebbels emphasised the latter in subsequent propaganda justifying the purge as a crackdown on moral turpitude . Both Heines and his partner were shot on the spot in the hotel grounds on the personal order of Hitler . Meanwhile , the SS arrested the other SA leaders as they left their train for the planned meeting with Röhm and Hitler .
Although Hitler presented no evidence of a plot by Röhm to overthrow the regime , he nevertheless denounced the leadership of the SA . Arriving back at party headquarters in Munich , Hitler addressed the assembled crowd . Consumed with rage , Hitler denounced " the worst treachery in world history " . Hitler told the crowd that " undisciplined and disobedient characters and asocial or diseased elements " would be annihilated . The crowd , which included party members and many SA members fortunate enough to escape arrest , shouted its approval . Hess , present among the assembled , even volunteered to shoot the " traitors " himself . Joseph Goebbels , who had been with Hitler at Bad Wiessee , set the final phase of the plan in motion . Upon returning to Berlin , Goebbels telephoned Göring at 10 : 00 with the codeword Kolibri to let loose the execution squads on the rest of their unsuspecting victims .
= = = Against conservatives and old enemies = = =
The regime did not limit itself to a purge of the SA . Having earlier imprisoned or exiled prominent Social Democrats and Communists , Hitler used the occasion to move against conservatives he considered unreliable . This included Vice @-@ Chancellor Papen and those in his immediate circle . In Berlin , on Göring 's personal orders , an armed SS unit stormed the Vice @-@ Chancellery . Gestapo officers attached to the SS unit shot Papen 's secretary Herbert von Bose without bothering to arrest him first . The Gestapo arrested and later executed Papen 's close associate Edgar Jung , the author of Papen 's Marburg speech ; they disposed of his body by dumping it in a ditch . The Gestapo also murdered Erich Klausener , the leader of Catholic Action , and a close Papen associate . Papen was unceremoniously arrested at the Vice @-@ Chancellery , despite his insistent protests that he could not be arrested in his position as Vice @-@ Chancellor . Although Hitler ordered him released days later , Papen no longer dared to criticise the regime and was sent off to Vienna as German ambassador .
Hitler , Göring , and Himmler unleashed the Gestapo against old enemies as well . Both Kurt von Schleicher , Hitler 's predecessor as Chancellor , and his wife were murdered at their home . Others killed included Gregor Strasser , a former Nazi who had angered Hitler by resigning from the party in 1932 , and Gustav Ritter von Kahr , the former Bavarian state commissioner who crushed the Beer Hall Putsch in 1923 . Kahr 's fate was especially gruesome . His body was found in a wood outside Munich ; he had been hacked to death , apparently with pickaxes . The murdered included at least one accidental victim : Willi Schmid , the music critic of the Münchner Neuste Nachrichten , a Munich newspaper . The Gestapo mistook him for Ludwig Schmitt , a past supporter of Otto Strasser , the brother of Gregor . As Himmler 's adjutant Karl Wolff later explained , friendship and personal loyalty were not allowed to stand in the way :
Among others , a charming fellow [ named ] Karl von Spreti , Röhm 's personal adjutant . He held the same position with Röhm as I held with Himmler . [ He ] died with words " Heil Hitler " on his lips . We were close personal friends , we often dined together in Berlin . He lifted his arm in the Nazi salute and called out " Heil Hitler , I love Germany " .
Several leaders of the disbanded Catholic Centre Party were also murdered in the purge . The Party had generally been aligned with the Social Democrats and Catholic Church during the rise of Nazism , being critical of Nazi ideology , but voting nonetheless for the enabling act of 1933 .
= = = Röhm 's fate = = =
Röhm was held briefly at Stadelheim Prison in Munich , while Hitler considered his future . In the end , Hitler decided that Röhm had to die . On July 1 , at Hitler 's behest , Theodor Eicke , later Commandant of the Dachau concentration camp , and SS Officer Michel Lippert visited Röhm . Once inside Röhm 's cell , they handed him a Browning pistol loaded with a single bullet and told him he had ten minutes to kill himself or they would do it for him . Röhm demurred , telling them , " If I am to be killed , let Adolf do it himself . " Having heard nothing in the allotted time , they returned to Röhm 's cell at 14 : 50 to find him standing , with his bare chest puffed out in a gesture of defiance . Lippert then shot Röhm three times , killing him . In 1957 , the German authorities tried Lippert in Munich for Röhm 's murder . Until then , Lippert had been one of the few executioners of the purge to evade trial . Lippert was convicted and sentenced to 18 months in prison .
= = Aftermath = =
As the purge claimed the lives of so many prominent Germans , it could hardly be kept secret . At first , its architects seemed split on how to handle the event . Göring instructed police stations to burn " all documents concerning the action of the past two days " . Meanwhile , Goebbels tried to prevent newspapers from publishing lists of the dead , but at the same time used a July 2 radio address to describe how Hitler had narrowly prevented Röhm and Schleicher from overthrowing the government and throwing the country into turmoil . Then , on July 13 , 1934 , Hitler justified the purge in a nationally broadcast speech to the Reichstag :
In this hour I was responsible for the fate of the German people , and thereby I became the supreme judge of the German people . I gave the order to shoot the ringleaders in this treason , and I further gave the order to cauterise down to the raw flesh the ulcers of this poisoning of the wells in our domestic life . Let the nation know that its existence — which depends on its internal order and security — cannot be threatened with impunity by anyone ! And let it be known for all time to come that if anyone raises his hand to strike the State , then certain death is his lot .
Concerned with presenting the massacre as legally sanctioned , Hitler had the cabinet approve a measure on July 3 that declared , " The measures taken on June 30 , July 1 and 2 to suppress treasonous assaults are legal as acts of self @-@ defence by the State . " Reich Justice Minister Franz Gürtner , a conservative who had been Bavarian Justice Minister in the years of the Weimar Republic , demonstrated his loyalty to the new regime by drafting the statute , which added a legal veneer to the purge . Signed into law by Hitler , Gürtner , and Minister of the Interior Wilhelm Frick , the " Law Regarding Measures of State Self @-@ Defence " retroactively legalised the murders committed during the purge . Germany 's legal establishment further capitulated to the regime when the country 's leading legal scholar , Carl Schmitt , wrote an article defending Hitler 's July 13 speech . It was named " The Führer Upholds the Law " .
= = = Reaction = = =
Almost unanimously , the army applauded the Night of the Long Knives , even though the generals Kurt von Schleicher and Ferdinand von Bredow were among the victims . The ailing President Hindenburg , Germany 's highly revered military hero , sent a telegram expressing his " profoundly felt gratitude " and he congratulated Hitler for " nipping treason in the bud " . General von Reichenau went so far as to publicly give credence to the lie that Schleicher had been plotting to overthrow the government . In his speech to the Reichstag on July 13 justifying his actions , Hitler denounced Schleicher for conspiring with Ernst Röhm to overthrow the government ; Hitler alleged both were traitors working in the pay of France . Since Schleicher was a good friend of the French Ambassador André François @-@ Poncet , and because of his reputation for intrigue , the claim that Schleicher was working for France had enough surface plausibility for most Germans to accept it . François @-@ Poncet was not declared persona non grata as would have been usual if an Ambassador were involved in a plot against his host government . The army 's support for the purge , however , would have far @-@ reaching consequences for the institution . The humbling of the SA ended the threat it had posed to the army but , by standing by Hitler during the purge , the army bound itself more tightly to the Nazi regime . One retired captain , Erwin Planck , seemed to realise this : " if you look on without lifting a finger , " he said to his friend , General Werner von Fritsch , " you will meet the same fate sooner or later . " Another rare exception was Field Marshal August von Mackensen , who spoke about the murders of Schleicher and Bredow at the annual General Staff Society meeting in February 1935 after they had been rehabilitated by Hitler in early January 1935 .
Rumours about the Night of the Long Knives rapidly spread . Although many Germans approached the official news of the events as described by Joseph Goebbels with a great deal of scepticism , many others took the regime at its word , and believed that Hitler had saved Germany from a descent into chaos . Luise Solmitz , a Hamburg schoolteacher , echoed the sentiments of many Germans when she cited Hitler 's " personal courage , decisiveness and effectiveness " in her private diary . She even compared him to Frederick the Great , the 18th @-@ century King of Prussia . Others were appalled at the scale of the executions and at the relative complacency of many of their fellow Germans . " A very calm and easy going mailman , " the diarist Victor Klemperer wrote , " who is not at all National Socialist , said , ' Well , he simply sentenced them . ' " It did not escape Klemperer 's notice that many of the victims had played a role in bringing Hitler to power . " A chancellor " , he wrote , " sentences and shoots members of his own private army ! " The extent of the massacre and the relative ubiquity of the Gestapo , however , meant that those who disapproved of the purge generally kept quiet about it . Among the few exceptions were General Kurt von Hammerstein @-@ Equord and Field Marshal August von Mackensen , who started a campaign to have Schleicher rehabilitated by Hitler . Hammerstein , who was a close friend of Schleicher , had been much offended at Schleicher 's funeral when the SS refused to allow him to attend the service and confiscated the wreaths that the mourners had brought . Besides working for the rehabilitation of Schleicher and Bredow , Hammerstein and Mackensen sent a memo to Hindenburg on July 18 setting out in considerable detail the circumstances of the murders of the two generals and noted that Papen had barely escaped . The memo went on to demand that Hindenburg punish those responsible , and criticised Blomberg for his outspoken support of the murders of Schleicher and Bredow . Finally , Hammerstein and Mackensen asked that Hindenburg reorganise the government by firing Baron Konstantin von Neurath , Robert Ley , Hermann Göring , Werner von Blomberg , Joseph Goebbels and Richard Walther Darré from the Cabinet . Instead , the memo asked that Hindenburg create a directorate to rule Germany comprising the Chancellor ( who was not named ) , General Werner von Fritsch as Vice @-@ Chancellor , Hammerstein as Minister of Defense , the Minister for National Economy ( also unnamed ) and Rudolf Nadolny as Foreign Minister . The request that Neurath be replaced by Nadolny , the former Ambassador to Moscow who had resigned earlier that year in protest against Hitler 's anti @-@ Soviet foreign policy , indicated that Hammerstein and Mackensen wanted a return to the " distant friendliness " towards the Soviet Union that existed until 1933 . Mackensen and Hammerstein ended their memo with :
Excellency , the gravity of the moment has compelled us to appeal to you as our Supreme Commander . The destiny of our country is at stake . Your Excellency has thrice before saved Germany from foundering , at Tannenberg , at the end of the War and at the moment of your election as Reich President . Excellency , save Germany for the fourth time ! The undersigned Generals and senior officers swear to preserve to the last breath their loyalty to you and the Fatherland .
Hindenburg never responded to the memo , and it remains unclear whether he even saw it , as Otto Meißner , who decided that his future was aligned with the Nazis , may not have passed it along . It is noteworthy that even those officers who were most offended by the killings , like Hammerstein and Mackensen , did not blame the purge on Hitler , whom they wanted to see continue as Chancellor , and at most wanted a reorganization of the Cabinet to remove some of Hitler 's more radical followers .
In late 1934 – early 1935 , Werner von Fritsch and Werner von Blomberg , who had been shamed into joining Hammerstein and Mackensen 's rehabilitation campaign , successfully pressured Hitler into rehabilitating Generals von Schleicher and von Bredow . Fritsch and Blomberg suddenly now claimed at the end of 1934 that as army officers they could not stand the exceedingly violent press attacks on Schleicher and Bredow that had been going on since July , which portrayed them as the vilest traitors , working against the Fatherland in the pay of France . In a speech given on January 3 , 1935 at the Berlin State Opera , Hitler stated that Schleicher and Bredow had been shot " in error " on the basis of false information , and that their names were to be restored to the honour rolls of their regiments at once . Hitler 's speech was not reported in the German press , but the army was appeased by the speech . However , despite the rehabilitation of the two murdered officers , the Nazis continued in private to accuse Schleicher of high treason . During a trip to Warsaw in January 1935 , Göring told Jan Szembek that Schleicher had urged Hitler in January 1933 to reach an understanding with France and the Soviet Union , and partition Poland with the latter , and Hitler had Schleicher killed out of disgust with the alleged advice . During a meeting with Polish Ambassador Józef Lipski on May 22 ,
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of India as well as other countries like Nepal . Widespread concerns about labour disputes , worker layoffs and closing of estates have affected investment and production . Several tea estates are being run on a workers ' cooperative model , while others are being planned for conversion into tourist resorts . More than 60 % of workers in the tea gardens are women . Besides tea , the most widely cultivated crops include maize , millets , paddy , cardamom , potato and ginger .
Darjeeling had become an important tourist destination as early as 1860 . It is reported to be the only location in eastern India that witnesses large numbers of foreign tourists . It is also a popular filming destination for Bollywood and Bengali cinema . Satyajit Ray shot his film Kanchenjungha ( 1962 ) here , and his Feluda series story , Darjeeling Jomjomaat , was also set in the town . Bollywood movies Aradhana ( 1969 ) , Main Hoon Na ( 2004 ) , and more recently Barfi ! ( 2012 ) have been filmed here . Tourist inflow into Darjeeling had been affected by the political instability in the region , and agitations in the 1980s and 2000s hit the tourism industry hard . However , post 2012 , Darjeeling has once again witnessed a steady inflow of both domestic and international tourists . Presently , around 50 @,@ 000 foreign and 5 lakh domestic tourists visit Darjeeling each year , and its repute as the ' Queen of the Hills ' remains unaltered . According to an India Today survey published on December 23 , 2015 , Darjeeling is the third most googled travel destination among all the tourist spots in India .
= = Transport = =
Darjeeling can be reached by the 88 km ( 55 mi ) long Darjeeling Himalayan Railway from New Jalpaiguri , or by National Highway 55 , from Siliguri , 77 km ( 48 mi ) away . The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway is a 600 mm ( 2 ft ) narrow @-@ gauge railway that was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1999 for being " an outstanding example of the influence of an innovative transportation system on the social and economic development of a multi @-@ cultural region , which was to serve as a model for similar developments in many parts of the world " , becoming only the second railway in the world to have this honour . Bus services and hired vehicles connect Darjeeling with Siliguri and Darjeeling has road connections with Bagdogra , Gangtok and Kathmandu and the neighbouring towns of Kurseong and Kalimpong . However , road and railway communications often get disrupted in the monsoons because of landslides . The nearest airport is Bagdogra Airport , located 90 km ( 56 mi ) from Darjeeling . Within the town , people usually traverse by walking . Residents also use two @-@ wheelers and hired taxis for travelling short distances . The Darjeeling Ropeway , functional since 1968 , was closed in 2003 after an accident killed four tourists . It reopened in February 2012 .
= = Demographics = =
According to provisional results of 2011 census of India , Darjeeling urban agglomeration has a population of 132 @,@ 016 , out of which 65 @,@ 839 were males and 66 @,@ 177 were females . The sex ratio is 1 @,@ 005 females per 1 @,@ 000 males . The 0 – 6 years population is 7 @,@ 382 . Effective literacy rate for the population older than 6 years is 93 @.@ 17 per cent .
According to the 2001 census , the Darjeeling urban agglomeration , with an area of 12 @.@ 77 km2 ( 4 @.@ 93 sq mi ) , had a population of 109 @,@ 163 , while the municipal area had a population of 107 @,@ 530 . The population density of the municipal area was 10 @,@ 173 per km2 . The sex ratio was 1 @,@ 017 females per 1 @,@ 000 males , which was higher than the national average of 933 females per 1000 males . Gorkhas , speaking Nepali as native language , form the majority which includes indigenous ethnic groups such as Limbu , Rai , Magars , Gurung , Tamangs , Lepchas , Bhutias , Sherpas , Newars along with indo @-@ aryan Khas . Other communities that inhabit Darjeeling include the Marwaris , Anglo @-@ Indians , Chinese , Biharis , Tibetans and Bengalis . The lingua franca is Nepali , although people speak English . Hindi and Bengali . Dzongkha is spoken by the Bhutias and the Tibetans .
Darjeeling has seen a significant growth in its population , its decadal growth rate being 47 % between 1991 and 2001 . The colonial town was designed for a population of only 10 @,@ 000 , and subsequent growth has created extensive infrastructural and environmental problems . The district 's forests and other natural wealth have been adversely affected by an ever @-@ growing population .
The official language of West Bengal is Bengali , additional official languages in Darjeeling are English and Nepali .
= = Religion = =
The predominant religions of Darjeeling are Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism , followed by Christianity . Indigenous communities such as the Lepchas and the Kiranti Limbus practice Animism and Shamanism .
Dashain , Tihar , Buddha Jayanti , Christmas , Losar , etc. are the main festivals . Besides , the diverse ethnic populace of the town also celebrates several local festivals . Buddhist ethnic groups which include the Lepchas , Bhutias , Sherpas , Yolmos , Gurungs , and Tamangs celebrate their new year called Losar in January / February , Maghe Sankranti , Chotrul Duchen and Tendong Lho Rumfaat.The Kiranti Rai people ( Khambus ) celebrate their annual Sakela festivals of Ubhauli and Udhauli . Deusi and Bhaileni are songs performed by men and women , respectively , during the festival of Tihar . All these provide a " regional distinctness " of Darjeeling 's local culture from the rest of India . Darjeeling Carnival , initiated by a civil society movement known as The Darjeeling Initiative , is a ten @-@ day carnival held yearly during the winter with portrayal of the Darjeeling Hill 's musical and cultural heritage as its central theme .
= = Culture = =
The culture of Darjeeling is diverse and involves a variety of indigenous practices and festivals as mentioned above . The Nepali Hindus as well as the various Buddhist ethnic groups such as the Lepchas , Bhutias , Kiranti Limbus , Tibetans , Yolmos , Gurungs and Tamangs , each have their own distinct language and culture and yet share a harmonious co @-@ existence . A popular food in Darjeeling is the Nepalese and Tibetan momo , a steamed dumpling containing meat cooked in a doughy wrapping and served with clear soup and achar . A form of Tibetan noodle called thukpa , served in soup form is also popular . Other commonly eaten dishes include alu dum , a potato preparation , and shaphalay , Tibetan bread stuffed with meat . Fermented foods and beverages are consumed by a large percentage of the population . Fermented foods include preparations of soybean , bamboo shoots , milk and Sel roti , which is made from rice . Tea is the most popular beverage , the Tibetan version is also drunk . Alcoholic beverages include Tongba , Jnaard and Chhaang , variations of a local beer made from fermenting finger millet .
Colonial architecture characterises many buildings in Darjeeling , exemplified by several mock Tudor residences , Gothic churches , the Raj Bhawan , Planters ' Club and various educational institutions . Buddhist monasteries showcase the pagoda style architecture . Darjeeling is regarded as a centre of music and a niche for musicians and music admirers . Singing and playing musical instruments are common pastimes among the resident population , who take pride in the traditions and role of music in cultural life .
Darjeeling also has a Peace Pagoda built in 1992 by the Japanese Buddhist organisation Nipponzan Myohoji .
= = Education = =
There are 52 primary schools , 67 high schools and 5 colleges in the town . Darjeeling 's schools are either run by the state government or by private and religious organisations . Schools mainly use English and Nepali as their media of instruction , although there is the option to learn the official language Hindi and the official state language Bengali . The schools are either affiliated with the ICSE , the CBSE , or the West Bengal Board of Secondary Education . Having been a summer retreat for the British in India , Darjeeling became the place of choice for the establishment of public schools on the model of Eton , Harrow and Rugby , allowing the children of British officials to obtain an exclusive education . Institutions such as Mount Hermon School , St. Robert 's H.S. School , St. Joseph 's College ( School Dept . ) , Loreto Convent and St. Paul 's School are renowned as centres of educational excellence .
Darjeeling has five colleges — St. Joseph 's College , Southfield College ( earlier known as Loreto College ) , Darjeeling Government College , Ghoom @-@ Jorebunglow Degree College and Sri Ramakrishna B.T. College — all affiliated to the University of North Bengal in Siliguri .
= Bonaparte Crossing the Alps =
Bonaparte Crossing the Alps ( also called Napoleon Crossing the Alps , despite the existence of another , more well @-@ known painting with that name ) is an 1848 – 1850 oil @-@ on @-@ canvas portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte , by French artist Hippolyte Delaroche . The painting depicts Bonaparte leading his army through the Alps on a mule , a journey Napoleon and his army of soldiers made in the spring of 1800 , in an attempt to surprise the Austrian army in Italy . The two main versions of this painting that exist are in the Louvre in Paris and the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool , England . Queen Victoria also obtained a reduced version of it .
The work was inspired by Jacques @-@ Louis David 's series of five Napoleon Crossing the Alps paintings ( 1801 – 1805 ) . David 's works also show Napoleon 's journey through the Great St. Bernard Pass , but there are significant stylistic differences between the two conceptions . Delaroche 's Napoleon is cold and downcast , whereas David 's wears a pristine uniform , and is idealized as a hero . Delaroche was commissioned to paint a realistic portrait ; the style of which was emerging at the time .
While the painting largely represented — and was one of the pioneers of — an emerging style , the work was criticised by several authorities on the subject . The reasons for this varied from Delaroche 's depiction of the scene to a general disapproval of Delaroche himself . Many of those who were in the latter state of mind felt that Delaroche was trying to match the genius of Napoleon in some way , and had failed miserably in doing so .
= = Background = =
= = = Historical background = = =
As part of his 1798 campaign during the French Revolutionary Wars , Napoleon prepared to invade and conquer Egypt , which was at the time a province of the Ottoman Empire . Such a military action promised numerous benefits , including securing French trade interests , and inhibiting British access to India . By 1 July 1798 , Napoleon had landed on the shores of Egypt . After a lengthy chain of conflicts with heavy casualties , the campaign resulted in an Ottoman @-@ British victory . Napoleon received news from France that Austrian forces had retaken Italy and he decided to return to Paris .
In order to regain the upper hand , he planned to launch a surprise assault on the Austrian army stationed in the Cisalpine Republic . Based on the assumption the Austrians would never expect Napoleon 's large force to be able to traverse the Alps , he chose that as his route . He selected the shortest route through the Alps , the Great St Bernard Pass , which would enable him to reach his destination as quickly as possible .
On 15 May 1800 , Napoleon and his army of 40 @,@ 000 — not including the field artillery and baggage trains — ( 35 @,@ 000 light artillery and infantry , 5 @,@ 000 cavalry
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) began the arduous journey through the mountains . During the five days spent traversing the pass , Napoleon 's army consumed almost 22 @,@ 000 bottles of wine , more than a tonne and a half of cheese , and around 800 kilograms of meat .
Following his crossing of the Alps , Napoleon commenced military operations against the Austrian army . Despite an inauspicious start to the campaign , the Austrian forces were driven back to Marengo after nearly a month . There , a large battle took place on 14 June , which resulted in the Austrian evacuation of Italy .
= = = Delaroche = = =
Delaroche 's early works had been based on topics from the Bible 's Old Testament , but gradually his interests switched to painting scenes from English and French history . He ' combined colouristic skill with an interest in detailed scenes from history ' .Bonaparte Crossing the Alps , which was painted roughly eight years before Delaroche 's death , exemplifies this phase in Delaroche 's career .
The commissioning aside , Delaroche was inspired to create Bonaparte Crossing the Alps because he felt that he both looked like Napoleon , and that his achievements were comparable to Napoleon 's . It is likely that Delaroche 's painting is relatively historically accurate ; details such as Napoleon 's clothes appear to have been researched by Delaroche in an effort at authenticity .
= = Painting = =
= = = Commissioning of painting = = =
The Liverpool painting was commissioned by Arthur George , Third Earl of Onslow , after Delaroche and George reportedly visited the Louvre in Paris , where they saw David 's version of the famous event . It had only recently been re @-@ hung in the museum after a resurgence of interest in Napoleon , nearly 40 years after he was exiled . Agreeing that the painting was unrealistic , George , who owned a sizable collection of Napoleonic paraphernalia , commissioned Delaroche to create a more realistic depiction . Elizabeth Foucart @-@ Walker asserts that in fact the painting that hangs in the Louvre was produced first as it was already in America by 1850 , when the Liverpool painting was produced . Stephen Bann suggests that Arthur George 's meeting with Delaroche may have occurred , but Delaroche chose to produce two works that are almost identical and send one to America . The Liverpool version of the painting is more refined .
= = = Contrast to David 's depiction = = =
The contrast between Jacques @-@ Louis David 's depiction of the same scene ( of Napoleon traversing the Alps on his way to Italy ) , which was a flattering portrait that the king of Spain requested for Napoleon ( as a gift ) and Delaroche 's depiction in Bonaparte Crossing the Alps is easily apparent . The first and most significant difference is in Napoleon , in his clothing , and in his general stature . David 's version depicts Napoleon , dressed in an immaculate , multi @-@ coloured uniform with a billowing cape . Delaroche 's version , however , sees Napoleon in a fairly ordinary , gray coat with the sole purpose of keeping the cold away , rather than showing him as the symbol he may have represented - that of a gallant and powerful war leader , which is the impression given in David 's version . However , there is another significant difference in Napoleon himself , in the way he holds himself . David 's Napoleon is flamboyant , confident in his leadership of the French army , and in his ability to cross the Alps and defeat the Austrians in Italy . Delaroche 's Napoleon is instead downcast , gaunt and embittered by the harsh cold . His eyes and expressionless face evidence his weariness , his tiredness a result of the long and unstable trek . The last properly significant difference in the two art works ( excluding the actual setting , background , men seen in the distance etc . ) is the difference in the animals that Napoleon rides on . In David 's version , Napoleon rides a large , strong steed with a long mane , and this is one figment of David 's version that is irrefutably untrue - Napoleon is known to have ridden a mule on his journey ( which was borrowed from a local peasant ) , rather than a horse . This presence of a horse rather than a mule was one of the most major grounds for Delaroche 's criticism of David 's version , and is the basis of Delaroche 's claim that Bonaparte Crossing the Alps , which includes a mule , is a more realistic portrayal of the scene .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Napoleon is seen wearing clothing appropriate for his location : over his uniform he wears a long topcoat which is wrapped firmly around him , in which he keeps his gloveless right hand warm . He retains a piece of his dignity in the gold @-@ trimmed black bicorne he wears on his head . The mule Napoleon rides is undernourished , tired from its ordeal in struggling through the Alps . On the left of the mule is his guide , Pierre Nicholas Dorsaz , who must constantly push himself and the mule forward , and who leans heavily on the shaft of wood he clutches in his left hand to allow himself to continue moving forward . His clothes are weather @-@ beaten , his face ruddy from the cold . He is not allowed the luxury of riding an animal , for he must be able to navigate independently , on the ground .
Elements of the cold , harsh environment of the Alps are apparent : distant mountains capped in snow rise up behind Napoleon and his troupe , while a steep cliff face appears on his left , and the path underfoot has a thick layer of ice . More members of Napoleon 's entourage can be seen slightly behind him , their robust figures accentuating Bonaparte 's fragility .
Napoleon is shown to be as he would have been high up in the mountains , as a mortal and imperilled man . While this seems in some way demeaning to Napoleon 's figure ( and contrasts in the extreme with David 's version , which shows Napoleon impervious to the cold , and in a heroic light ) , Delaroche 's artwork was not intended to portray him in a hostile or unbecoming way . Delaroche wanted to depict Napoleon as a credible man , who suffered and underwent human hardship too , on his most daring exploits , and felt that making him appear as he really would have been in the situation would by no means debase or diminish Napoleon 's iconic status or legacy , but rather make him a more admirable person .
= = = Artistic style = = =
Along with the mass of white seen behind Napoleon , the amber sunlight glow , originating from the West of Napoleon 's troupe , is the central source of lighting in the painting . It introduces contrast when coupled with shadow , and , by illumination , highlights key aspects of the scene ; this is particularly seen by the light that falls across Bonaparte 's pigeon chest . Napoleon and the mule he is saddled on are richly textured visually by the contrasting light and shade , as is the guide leading the mule . The ice and snow layers , also , are made whiter by the sunshine from the West , brightening the whole scene . However , the overhanging cliff on the left of Napoleon 's guide and the legs of the mule both cast shadows to balance the lighting scheme of the painting .
The textural hues and schemes that Delaroche uses in this painting are quite detailed and well considered , especially in regards to the most important figures ; such aspects of the work were described as being ' ... rendered with a fidelity that has not omitted the plait of a drapery , the shaggy texture of the four @-@ footed animal , nor a detail of the harness on his back ' . The mule , especially its fur , was intensely textured and detailed to make it look visually rough and bristly , and the mule itself weary and worn . The same techniques were applied to the red and yellow adornments draped and hung over the animal . The central detail of Napoleon is applied to his coat , in its ruffles and creases . Much detail and textural diversity is given to the guide too , most particularly to his face , his green , wind @-@ caught tunic , and his leather boots .
Delaroche 's attention to detail and literal precision in this painting evidences and demonstrates the slow but steady evolution of realism in art during the 19th century , and how its popularity began to rise .
= = Reception = =
The work , despite its attempt to depict Napoleon realistically , was criticised by several authorities for a variety of reasons . A few disapproved of Delaroche 's choice of painting , while others disapproved of Delaroche himself , saying , in some form , that he sought the genius of Napoleon , to no avail .
Soon after its completion , the work was taken to England , and there , in 1850 , it was reviewed by the critic of the Atheneum , a literary magazine . The magazine 's comments on the work indicated that , while they praised the painting for several of its features , they criticised Delaroche , for various reasons :
An Officer in a French costume , mounted on a mule , is conducted by a rough peasant through a dangerous pass , whose traces are scarcely discernible through the deep @-@ lying snow ; and his aide @-@ de @-@ camp is just visible in a ravine of the towering Alps . These facts are rendered with a fidelity that has not omitted the plait of a drapery , the shaggy texture of the four @-@ footed animal , nor a detail of the harness on his back . The drifting of the embedded snow , the pendent icicle which a solitary sun @-@ ray in a transient moment has made @-@ all are given with a truth which will be dear to those who exalt the Dutch School for like qualities into the foremost rank of excellence . But the lofty and daring genius that led the humble Lieutenant of Ajaccio to be ruler and arbiter of the destinies of the larger part of Europe will be sought in vain by M. Delaroche .
Some were displeased with Delaroche 's work at the time in general , and , in part , Bonaparte Crossing the Alps , criticising what was described as his ' lowered standards in art ' . Such critics included The Gentleman 's Magazine , who wrote the following text about Delaroche :
These all reveal a modification in his style , but not a happy one . His more recent works are not calculated to restore him the sympathy he had lost . It must be confessed that Delaroche is an artist of talent rather than a genius . Education and diligent study qualified him to be a painter , but not an artist , in the true sense of that word . For he has failed in the true mission of the artist @-@ that of advancing the education of the masses ; when it was in his power to give an impulse , he yielded to it ; he has been a reflection , but not a light ; and instead of elevating the public to himself , he has lowered himself to the public .
= = Gallery = =
= Bitch I 'm Madonna =
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " is a song by American singer Madonna from her thirteenth studio album , Rebel Heart ( 2015 ) , featuring guest vocals from rapper Nicki Minaj . The artists co @-@ wrote the song with MoZella , Toby Gad , Ariel Rechtshaid , Diplo , and Sophie ; the latter two co @-@ produced it with Madonna . It was released as the third single from the album by Interscope Records on June 15 , 2015 , along with a number of remixes commissioned . An EDM and vaporwave song , the lyrics speak about having continuous fun because she is " Madonna " .
The song divided music critics , as some called it " energetic " , applauding Minaj 's rap verse and the unusual composition , while others criticized it for being a " desperate to shock " endeavor . In the United States , " Bitch I 'm Madonna " became the first Madonna song to enter the Billboard Hot 100 in three years , peaking at number 84 . The song became Minaj 's 63rd and Madonna 's 57th Hot 100 entry , placing them at positions three and four on the list of women with the most entries on the chart . It also reached number @-@ one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , extending Madonna 's lead as the artist with the most number @-@ ones on the US dance chart . Worldwide , the song has reached the top @-@ thirty in Hungary , and the digital charts of Finland and Sweden .
The song 's accompanying video , directed by Jonas Åkerlund , has Minaj and Diplo appearing alongside Madonna . The video also contains cameos from Rita Ora , Chris Rock , Jon Kortajarena , Miley Cyrus , Alexander Wang , Beyoncé , Katy Perry , Kanye West , and Madonna 's two sons , Rocco and David . It was shot at the Standard Hotel in New York City and shows Madonna and her entourage having a party throughout the building , ending at the rooftop . The release of the video to the streaming service , Tidal , was plagued by technical difficulties and was met with a mixed response . Critics complimented the craziness of the clip but panned the absence of the guest stars from the set . Additionally , comparisons ensued with then recently released music video for singer Taylor Swift 's single " Bad Blood " , which had featured similar guest stars . In order to further promote the song , Madonna performed " Bitch I 'm Madonna " during her appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon , which was received positively .
= = Background and development = =
In February 2014 , Madonna announced that she had begun working on her thirteenth studio album , saying " I 'm right now in the process of talking to various co @-@ writers and producers and talking about where I want to go with my music " . By the next month she started posting a number of images on social media website Instagram , where she hinted at possible songwriters and collaborators with hashtag captions . Two months later , Madonna posted a selfie where she talked about working with American DJ Diplo . Madonna had invited him to her annual Oscar party , but he was unable to attend . They eventually started talking about music through texts and decided to collaborate on the album . In an interview with Idolator , Diplo explained that Madonna had asked him to provide his " craziest record " for the album . Together they wrote and recorded seven songs and Diplo added that " [ Madonna ] was up for anything . I love when an artist gives a producer the confidence he needs to work with them , and [ she ] was very open @-@ minded to my ideas . Those records are gonna be crazy @-@ sounding . We really pushed the envelope with some of the stuff we were doing . "
One of the tracks recorded was confirmed by Diplo as titled " Bitch I 'm Madonna " , which he believed would push his boundaries of songwriting . Madonna explained that the phrase was new to her and was introduced by Diplo , who explained that anyone who could remain cool when faced with criticism was appropriating Madonna , hence it was not just a unique reference to the singer . The origin of the song 's idea was traced back to rapper Lil B 's 2010 song , " Pretty Boy Farmer " , which presented the lyrics " I look like Madonna / Bitch , I 'm a farmer " . Diplo took this idea to Madonna and developed a song which addressed the singer 's detractors , who spoke negatively about her longevity in the music industry , adding " We made this record about , ' Fuck it , bitch , we 're all Madonna ' " . He also insisted that they recruit Trinidadian rapper Nicki Minaj , who had previously worked with Madonna on two songs from her MDNA album .
Diplo explained to Interview magazine that the song 's composition happened while they were drinking one night in the studio . There he played Madonna a Japanese pizzicato melody and a drop , which she liked . Since Madonna preferred to start her compositions on guitar , Diplo added guitar sounds over the melody and then progressed with the writing . Another Instagram post by Madonna confirmed Minaj 's involvement in the track , with the photo caption " We go hard or we go home we gon ' do this all night long ! # werk " . Madonna commented about her method working with Minaj :
Whenever we work together she always sits with me and listens to the song , and says " tell me what this song is about to you . " She 's very methodical in her thinking . We talk about it , she writes down words that I say describing what the song 's about and the sentiment that I 'd like her to get out there , and then she goes away and she works on it . She writes it , she comes back . She does a version of it , we talk about it . It 's a back and forth until she gets it right . It 's a total collaboration .
= = Release = =
On December 17 , 2014 , Billboard reported that the demo version of " Bitch I 'm Madonna " had leaked onto the Internet , alongside the other twelve demo recordings for Madonna 's then untitled thirteenth studio album . An aggravated Madonna clarified that the songs were demo versions from earlier recordings ; she compared the leak to that of " artistic rape " . She was subsequently criticized for referring to the hack as " terrorism " in the wake of the Peshawar school attack and Sydney hostage crisis . On December 20 , 2014 , the album became available for pre @-@ order on iTunes Store . When ordered , six tracks including " Bitch I 'm Madonna " were available for digital download . Madonna stated that the songs were meant to be " an early Christmas gift " with the final release in March 2015 .
Following " Living for Love " and " Ghosttown " , " Bitch I 'm Madonna " was confirmed as the third single from Rebel Heart by Madonna on her Instagram . She also released three remixes of the song on her YouTube and Tidal accounts for streaming . The cover art of the song was also released along with the remixes ; it was created from one of her images on Instagram . The majority of house remixes of " Bitch I 'm Madonna " were produced by Rosabel , Sander Kleinenberg and Oscar G , who posted a message on his Facebook account about the collaboration , " When Madonna calls you , you do exactly what she asks . I am very grateful for this opportunity ! " Another remix by Sick Individuals , which consist of Dutch duo Rinze " Ray " Hofstee and Joep " Jim " Smeele , was released exclusively to Billboard . The remixes were first released on June 15 , 2015 , in Australia and Germany , and the next day in other nations .
= = Composition and remixes = =
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " was co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Madonna , Diplo , and British electronic musician and PC Music co @-@ hort , Sophie , with additional writers including MoZella , Toby Gad , Ariel Rechtshaid and Minaj . Demacio " Demo " Castellon was the audio engineer for the track and also did the audio mixing and recording . Other engineers who worked on the track included Nick Rowe and Aubrey " Big Juice " Delaine , with Zeke Mishanec helping with additional recording and Angie Teo working on additional mixing . The song was the first time that PC Music , which generally catered to underground music and artists , was working with a mainstream artist like Madonna . Sophie recalled that it was Madonna who was " calling the final shots " for recording the song and noted that there was no label representative who dictated the process .
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " has musical elements from DJ Snake and Lil Jon 's " Turn Down for What " ( 2013 ) with Madonna 's vocals reminiscent of singer Miley Cyrus ' autotuned rapping . The song has a tearing sound alongside the " bleepy electro " and " churning " dubstep composition . It begins with the sound of acoustic guitar reminiscent of Avicii 's single " Wake Me Up " ( 2012 ) , as Madonna coos in the background , " You 're gonna love this " , but quickly changes into an EDM and vaporwave track . The track deviates from a traditional song structure and hook , instead featuring harsh cuts , synths and Madonna singing in a nasal tone . Minaj raps in the track , asking everybody to " go hard or go home " , while Madonna shouts lyrics like , " I just wanna have fun tonight , I wanna blow up this house tonight " , " alternating between pitch @-@ shifted shrieks of ' Who do you think you are ? ? ' and the sing @-@ songy title taunt . " Regarding her profuse usage of the word " bitch " in the song ( along with another song " Unapologetic Bitch " from Rebel Heart ) , Madonna defended her decision to Billboard , saying :
I think that 's bullshit . The word police can fuck off . I don 't want to be policed ! I 'm not interested in political correctness . The word " bitch " means a lot of different things . Everything is about context . When I first moved to England and heard the word " cunt " , I was horrified . People were calling each other cunts ! And then I realized that , in that culture , it was different — they slapped each other on the back and said , " Who 's the cunt , right , you 're my best mate ! " The word " fuck " doesn 't just mean sexual intercourse . I mean , " You 're a stupid fuck , " " Are you going to fuck with me ? " " Fuck off ! " ... Sex has nothing to do with any of those expressions , and the same goes for " bitch " . If I say to you , " I 'm a badass bitch , " I 'm owning myself , I 'm saying , " I 'm strong , I 'm tough , and don 't mess with me . " If I say , " Why are you being such a bitch to me ? , " well , that means something else .
Since Madonna had to rush @-@ release the first six songs from Rebel Heart due to the hack and leaks , Diplo clarified that the released version on the album was not his final mixing of the track ; he later posted his intended cut on his SoundCloud account . Three of the house remixes of " Bitch I 'm Madonna " were released as dub versions of the song , with a long drawn @-@ out beat section and minimal vocals from Madonna , as noted by Robbie Daw from Idolator . Kleinenberg 's remix had a completely different sound from the house mixes , although Daw believed all of them to be " cheap " sounding in comparison to the original . According to Sick Individuals , their remix of the song had " hard @-@ hitting " beats and it was also an energetic version , catering to the dance floors . Fedde le Grand 's remix of the song did not use any of the effects present in the album version , and was created as an electro house track with metallic sounds .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received divided opinion from music critics . Sasha Geffen from Chicago Reader gave a positive review of the track , complimenting it for bringing the underground PC Music to the mainstream , adding that " between Diplo 's blocky breakdowns and Sophie 's slippery arpeggios , [ the song i ] s a provocative piece of work [ ... ] The shift from SoundCloud to superstars was always coming — it just so happens that Madonna is the one who carried it over . " Another positive review came from Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph , who elaborated : " [ T ] he track in question fizzes with bright energy , a handclapping rave anthem powered by a fantastically wonky synth line that sounds like a vintage arcade game played on an electronic kazoo , and topped off with a snappy Nicki Minaj rap . Madonna delivers the melody like a playground nursery rhyme , chanting about bad behavior in a butter @-@ wouldn 't @-@ melt sing @-@ song voice . "
Dan Weiss from Spin observed that the " most surprising thing about a song that 's actually called ' Bitch , I 'm Madonna ' is that it doesn 't have any surprises " . In contrast , Andrew Unterberger of the same publication enjoyed the track , claiming that " it might not be your favorite Madonna , but it 's unquestionably her , and it 's far more compelling than the anonymous EDM enthusiast she played on MDNA ( 2012 ) " . Unterberger also praised the addition of PC Music " ping @-@ ponging oddball freneticism " and " Diplo 's block @-@ dropping beats " . Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone was also positive , calling it " frenetic " , and praised Minaj 's verse for being " pure fire " , while Anna Zelaski of The A.V. Club appreciated the song for being " the right kind of [ track ] ... that 's mindless fun and impossible to take seriously " . In the same vein , Andy Gill of The Independent called it " amusingly abrasive " and praised Minaj for " repris [ ing ] her role as Madge 's rapping henchgirl " .
In spite of noting that Diplo makes Madonna sound fun on the song , Gavin Haynes of NME commented that the song 's composition " showed the gulf between [ Madonna 's ] life and her music is now impossible to ignore " . Calling it " awry " , Alexis Petridis of The Guardian claimed that " Bitch I 'm Madonna " is " a fantastic title in search of a song . In lieu of one , producer Diplo comes up with a kind of hybrid of EDM and happy hardcore and throws Nicki Minaj at her most hyperactive into the mix ; the result genuinely sets your teeth on edge . " Criticizing Rebel Heart for being " overworked " , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine found that " the duality of its title [ is ] muddled by the inclusion of garish party jams like the infuriatingly catchy but lyrically cringe @-@ inducing ' Bitch I 'm Madonna ' " . John Murphy of musicOMH remarked that the song " never quite lives up to its fantastic title , and just sounds a bit of a mess , trying to cram in Diplo @-@ produced dance @-@ hall rhythms , a dubstep breakdown and the seemingly now obligatory Nicki Minaj guest rap " . Evan Sawdey of PopMatters opined that the song — and another Rebel Heart track , " Illuminati " — " absolutely reek of desperation , wanting so badly to shock and offend listeners that they fail to resolve as satisfying songs first and foremost " .
In their year end ranking of the best songs from 2015 , Entertainment Weekly listed " Bitch I 'm Madonna " at number 27 , saying " She go hard or she go home , she gon do this all night long — [ Madonna ] ' s standout from Rebel Heart has everything you love about her music : hooks , humor , attitude for days " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Bitch I 'm Madonna " debuted on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Songs chart dated January 3 , 2015 , at number 14 with sales of 12 @,@ 000 copies . The song started fluctuating down the chart and exited after four weeks , but following her appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon in April 2015 , the sales surged by 748 % to 9 @,@ 000 copies , making the song re @-@ enter the chart at number 21 . The song again started a downward trajectory on the chart until June 2015 , when the music video was released . Sales for that week increased to 13 @,@ 000 copies , enabling the song to reach a peak of number 5 on the chart , becoming Madonna 's second top @-@ ten single there following " Living for Love " . The song debuted at number 26 on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart and reached a peak of number @-@ one , her record @-@ extending 46th in total ; it was also Minaj 's fifth number @-@ one . " Bitch I 'm Madonna " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart week of July 4 , 2015 , at number 84 , becoming her first entry on the chart since " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " ( 2012 ) . The entry was aided by a 1 @,@ 454 % gain in streaming activity for the track , with a total of 2 @.@ 6 million US streams up to the week ending June 21 , 2015 . The track became Minaj 's 63rd and Madonna 's 57th Hot 100 entry , placing them at positions three and four on the list of women with the most entries on the chart . The following week , the song fell down by 11 places on the Hot 100 , landing at number 95 , which was its final appearance there .
In the United Kingdom , Alan Jones from Music Week reported that following the release of the music video , there was a sales surge for " Bitch I 'm Madonna " , which sold 1 @,@ 667 copies ( up from 148 copies of previous week ) ; however , it was not able to chart within the top 200 positions of the UK Singles Chart . In France , the song debuted at number 90 on the French Singles Chart the week of December 27 , 2014 , following the advanced release of the album 's six tracks for pre @-@ order on iTunes . Later , it fell to number 135 , before dropping off the chart . The song re @-@ entered at number 104 when the music video was released , and fell to number 149 the following week . In Spain , the song also debuted with the advanced release , reaching number 49 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
Along with announcing " Bitch I 'm Madonna " as the third single , Madonna also confirmed the release of a music video for the song . She teased in a post on Instagram saying that the video would have many " surprise " guests . A number of people were tagged in the Instagram post , including singers Beyoncé , Katy Perry , Miley Cyrus , and Rita Ora , as well as Minaj and Diplo . Other personnel tagged included costume designer Arianne Phillips , hair stylist Andy Lecompte and fashion designer Jeremy Scott . Comparisons ensued with the recently released music video for singer Taylor Swift 's single " Bad Blood " which had featured similar guest stars . Madonna had also released images from the set previously , showing her with pink hair and in provocative clothing . Another preview came from The Flaming Lips lead singer Wayne Coyne , who had visited the set and uploaded a short video of the shooting . Filming took place on the top floors of the Standard Hotel in New York City , and was directed by Jonas Åkerlund , who explained how he landed the project as follows :
'Madonna called me about ' Ghosttown ' . We hadn 't worked for a while because of different circumstances so when I heard all the songs [ on Rebel Heart ] , I was very excited about ' Ghosttown ' . I connected to it creatively . And , yeah , we enjoyed working together . I was supposed to start something else right after and that got pushed and she asked me to do ' Bitch I 'm Madonna ' . I saw it being so completely different from ' Ghosttown ' , something a little bit less serious , just fun and crazy .
The team had a short time for finalizing the different aspects of the shoot , including rehearsing the whole sequence . They also had just one night to complete shooting and due to the casual nature of the song , decided to invite Madonna 's close friends and family to be in it . Contrary to normal shooting schedules , the team had to work fast before the sun came up , since they were portraying a party at night . Following the choreography , every person on set had cues about their position and where their part would come in the shooting . A number of designers contributed clothing for the singer to wear , including Moschino , Discount Universe , SSUR , Chanel , Majesty Black and shoes by Giuseppe Zanotti . According to Amber Kallor from Style.com , various contemporary fashion trends appeared in the video , including candy @-@ colored hairs , black lips , white bows and glitter eye makeup .
= = = Release = = =
The video was confirmed to be released on June 16 , 2015 ; Madonna also released a teaser of it , which showed the aftermath of a party , as the song played slowly in the background . On the release day , a poster was uploaded on Madonna 's Instagram which confirmed that along with the aforementioned personnel , singer Beyoncé would also appear in it . Joe Lynch from Billboard compared the poster to those uploaded during the release of " Bad Blood " but nevertheless believed , " it 's likely that Madge had this project in the works before becoming aware of Taylor 's plans " . However , the video did not arrive on June 16 , instead a second teaser was released , showing Madonna twerking in jeans shorts and high heels , with multi @-@ colored graphics . It ultimately premiered the next day on Tidal , along with a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clip . It was an exclusive release to the streaming site for the first 24 hours , following which it was released on Madonna 's Vevo page . The full list of guest appearances in the video included Beyoncé , Perry , Cyrus , Minaj , Ora , and Diplo along with rapper Kanye West , actor and comedian Chris Rock , designer Alexander Wang , model Jon Kortajarena and Madonna 's sons Rocco and David . However , the video faced problems in Tidal with error messages and freezing in @-@ between , resulting in the company releasing an apology on Twitter : " We apologize to all the fans excited to watch the # BitchImMadonna video , we ’ re working on a fix . We 'll have it up and running soon . "
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with four young girls in outfits inspired by Madonna 's iconic " Like a Virgin " performance at the 1984 MTV Video Music Awards , who mime the opening lines of the song . Madonna is shown exercising alongside , wearing an animal print dress and a studded , pink motorcycle jacket . She finishes and comes out in a colorful hallway , drinks water , kisses a man and walks through the corridor , crossing Diplo at one point . As the chorus starts the scene cuts to four Japanese dancers making choreographed moves in a bathtub and inside a bar as Madonna joins them . Ora and Rock appears mouthing the phrase " Bitch I 'm Madonna " . The second verse starts with Madonna crawling along the hallway , getting entangled in balloons , meeting Diplo again and finally the camera pans away to reveal a number of sock puppets in neon glow swaying together to the song .
During the second chorus , Madonna and her dancers go from the hallway to a bar where the singer forcefully makes Kortajarena drink a beverage , dry humps a dancer and continues dancing . The guest appearances start with Cyrus pointing her middle finger towards the camera wearing glitter around her eyes , followed by Wang , Diplo and Rocco in the bar , Beyoncé posing like Madonna 's music video for " Vogue " ( 1990 ) , Perry moving around to the song , and David dancing while Madonna and the others cheer him ; all of them mouth the song name while they appear onscreen . As the chorus ends , a dancer brings a video screen behind them where Minaj appears rapping her part , interspersed by shots of West cheering . Madonna and her dancers continue moving through the room with falling confetti and reach a dance pole . She climbs through a set of dimly lit stairs and reaches the rooftop where the party is taking place . The song nears to an end and Madonna is shown surrounded by her dancers and some partygoers while she lies down ; interspersed scenes show her twerking and dancing alone in a room wearing a cap with Hebrew word " שלום " ( " Shalom " ) written on it . The video ends with a far away shot of the Standard Hotel 's brightly lit rooftop where the party continues .
An alternate ending was present in the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video , showing an exhausted Madonna leaving the party with a male model , as well as aftermath scenes of the party which were released
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the album helped itself get back into the Billboard Top 10 when it got to # 9 .
= = Legacy = =
Led Zeppelin II has been cited by music writers as a blueprint for heavy metal bands that followed it . Blues @-@ derived songs like " Whole Lotta Love " , " Heartbreaker " , " The Lemon Song " , " Moby Dick " , and " Bring It On Home " have been seen as representing standards of the genre , where the guitar @-@ based riff ( rather than vocal chorus or verses ) defines the song and provides the key hook . Such arrangements and emphasis were at the time atypical in popular music . Page 's guitar solo in " Heartbreaker " featuring rapid @-@ fire runs of notes tapped only by the left hand , was a major inspiration to the later work of metal soloists and " shredders " such as Eddie Van Halen and Steve Vai . As such , the album is generally considered to be very influential on the development of rock music , being an early forerunner of heavy metal , and inspiring a host of other rock bands including Aerosmith , Iron Maiden and Guns N ' Roses .
Since its initial critical reception , Led Zeppelin II has been acknowledged by many critics and music writers as one of the most influential albums of rock music , and has earned several accolades from music publications , frequently placed at or near the top of " best album " lists . In 1989 , Spin magazine ranked the album No. 5 on its list of The 25 Greatest Albums of All Time . In 2000 , Q magazine placed Led Zeppelin II at number 37 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 75 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = = Accolades = = =
( * ) designates unordered lists .
= = 2014 reissue = =
Along with the group 's self @-@ titled debut album and their third album , Led Zeppelin III , the album was remastered and reissued on 2 June 2014 . The reissue comes in six formats : a standard CD edition , a deluxe two @-@ CD edition , a standard LP version , a deluxe two @-@ LP version , a super deluxe two @-@ CD plus two @-@ LP version with a hardback book , and as high @-@ resolution , 96k / 24 @-@ bit digital downloads . The deluxe and super deluxe editions feature bonus material containing alternative takes , backing tracks and the previously unreleased instrumental , " La La " . The reissue was released with a negative version of the original album 's artwork as its bonus disc 's cover .
= = Track listing = =
Cassette tape releases of the album had " Heartbreaker " ending the first side and " Thank You " starting the second side .
Original LP pressings of the album incorrectly listed the running time of " Thank You " at 3 : 50 , as the song 's coda features a false fade at that point .
= = = Deluxe edition bonus disc = = =
= = Sales chart performance = =
Original release
2014 reissue
= = = Singles = = =
= = Sales certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
Led Zeppelin
John Bonham – drums
John Paul Jones – bass guitar , organ on " Thank You "
Jimmy Page – electric and acoustic guitars , backing vocals , theremin on " Whole Lotta Love "
Robert Plant – lead vocals , harmonica on " Bring It On Home "
= = Production = =
Barry Diament – engineering ( Transferred the Bob Ludwig mastered tape for the original 1987 Compact Disc )
George Chkiantz – engineer on " Whole Lotta Love " and " What Is and What Should Never Be "
Peter Grant – executive producer
Chris Huston – engineering on " The Lemon Song " and " Moby Dick "
Andy Johns – engineering on " Thank You "
Eddie Kramer – engineering , mixing
Bob Ludwig – mastering , engineering
George Marino – engineering ( 1990 remastered CD )
John Davis – engineering ( 2014 remastered CD )
= Ahalya =
In Hindu mythology , Ahalya ( Sanskrit : अहल ् या , IAST Ahalyā ) , also known as Ahilya , is the wife of the sage Gautama Maharishi . Many Hindu scriptures say that she was seduced by Indra ( the king of gods ) , cursed by her husband for infidelity , and liberated from the curse by Rama ( an avatar of the god Vishnu ) .
Created by the god Brahma as the most beautiful woman , Ahalya was married to the much older Gautama . In the earliest full narrative , when Indra comes disguised as her husband , Ahalya sees through his disguise but nevertheless accepts his advances . Later sources often absolve her of all guilt , describing how she falls prey to Indra 's trickery . In all narratives , Ahalya and Indra are cursed by Gautama . The curse varies from text to text , but almost all versions describe Rama as the eventual agent of her liberation and redemption . Although early texts describe how Ahalya must atone by undergoing severe penance while remaining invisible to the world and how she is purified by offering Rama hospitality , in the popular retelling developed over time , Ahalya is cursed to become a stone and regains her human form after she is brushed by Rama 's foot .
Ahalya 's seduction by Indra and its repercussions form the central narrative of her story in all scriptural sources for her life . Although the Brahmanas ( 9th to 6th centuries BCE ) are the earliest scriptures to hint at her relationship with Indra , the 5th- to 4th @-@ century BCE Hindu epic Ramayana – whose hero is Rama – is the first to explicitly mention her extra @-@ marital affair in detail . Medieval story @-@ tellers often focus on Ahalya 's deliverance by Rama , which is seen as proof of the saving grace of God . Her story has been retold numerous times in the scriptures and lives on in modern @-@ age poetry and short stories , as well as in dance and drama . While ancient narratives are Rama @-@ centric , contemporary ones focus on Ahalya , telling the story from her perspective . Other traditions deal with her children .
In traditional Hinduism , Ahalya is extolled as the first of the panchakanya ( " five virgins " ) , archetypes of female chastity whose names are believed to dispel sin when recited . While some praise her loyalty to her husband and her undaunted acceptance of the curse and gender norms , others condemn her adultery .
= = Etymology = =
The word Ahalya can be divided into two parts : a ( a prefix indicating negation ) and halya , which Sanskrit dictionaries define as being related to the plough , ploughing , or deformity . In the Uttar Kanda book of the Ramayana , the god Brahma explains the meaning of the Sanskrit word Ahalya as " one without the reprehension of ugliness " , or " one with an impeccable beauty " while telling Indra how he created Ahalya by taking the special beauty of all creation and expressing it in every part of her body . Because some Sanskrit dictionaries translate Ahalya as " unploughed , " some recent authors view this as an implicit reference to sexual intercourse and argue that the name refers to a virgin or a motherly figure . This fits the context of the character Ahalya , who is viewed as being in one way or another beyond Indra 's reach . However , Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore ( 1861 – 1941 ) , focusing on the literal meaning of " unploughed , " interpreted Ahalya as a symbol of stone @-@ like , infertile land that was made cultivable by Rama . Delhi University professor Bharati Jhaveri concurs with Tagore , interpreting Ahalya as unploughed land , on the basis of the tribal Bhil Ramayana of Gujarat , an undated oral tradition .
= = Creation and marriage = =
Ahalya is often described as an ayonijasambhava , one not born of a woman . The Bala Kanda of the Ramayana ( 5th to 4th century BCE ) mentions that Brahma moulds her " with great effort out of pure creative energy " . The Brahma Purana ( 401 – 1300 CE ) and the Vishnudharmottara Purana ( 401 – 500 CE ) also record her creation by Brahma . According to the Mahari dance tradition , Brahma created Ahalya out of water as the most beautiful woman in order to break the pride of Urvashi , the foremost celestial nymph . The tribal Bhil Ramayana begins with the tale of Ahalya , Gautama and Indra . In the tale , Ahalya is created from the ashes of the sacrificial fire by the Saptarishi ( seven seers ) and gifted to Gautama . In contrast , the Bhagavata Purana ( 501 – 1000 CE ) and the Harivamsa ( 1 – 300 CE ) regard Ahalya as a princess of the Puru Dynasty , the daughter of King Mudgala and sister of King Divodasa .
In the Uttara Kanda book of the Ramayana ( regarded by most scholars as a later addition to the epic ) , Brahma crafts Ahalya as the most beautiful woman and places her in the care of Gautama until she reaches puberty . When that time arrives , the sage returns Ahalya to Brahma , who , impressed by Gautama 's sexual restraint and asceticism , bestows her upon him . Indra , who believes that the best women are meant for him , resents Ahalya 's marriage to the forest @-@ dwelling ascetic .
The Brahma Purana gives a similar account of Ahalya 's birth and initial custody , recording that her marriage was determined through an open contest . Brahma declares that the first being to go around the three worlds ( heaven , earth and the underworld ) will win Ahalya . Indra uses his magical powers to complete the challenge , finally reaching Brahma and demanding the hand of Ahalya . However , the divine sage Narada tells Brahma that Gautama went around the three worlds before Indra . Narada explains that Gautama circumambulated the wish @-@ bearing cow Surabhi while she gave birth , as part of his daily puja ( ritual offering ) , making the cow equal to three worlds according to the Vedas . Brahma agrees and Ahalya marries Gautama , leaving Indra envious and infuriated . A similar , but shorter , version of Ahalya 's early life appears in the Padma Purana ( 701 – 1200 CE ) .
In all versions of the tale , after marrying Gautama , Ahalya settles into his ashram ( hermitage ) , which generally becomes the site of her epic curse . The Ramayana records that Gautama 's ashram is in a forest ( Mithila @-@ upavana ) near Mithila , where the couple practices asceticism together for several years . In other scriptures , the ashram is usually near the river bank . The Brahma Purana says that it is near the river Godavari and the Skanda Purana ( 701 – 1200 CE ) places it near the river Narmada . The Padma Purana and the Brahma Vaivarta Purana ( 801 – 1100 CE ) describe the ashram as near the holy city of Pushkar .
= = Hints of a relationship with Indra = =
The Brahmanas ( 9th to 6th centuries BCE ) are the oldest scriptures to mention a relationship between Ahalya and Indra in the " subrahmanya formula " , a chant used by Vedic priests " at the beginning of a sacrifice to invite the main participants : Indra , the gods and the Brahmins " ( priests ) . The Jaiminiya Brahmana and the Sadvimsha Brahmana from the Samaveda tradition , the Shatapatha Brahmana and the Taittiriya Brahmana from the Yajurveda tradition and two Shrautasutras ( Latyayana and Drahyayana ) invoke Indra , the " lover of Ahalya ... O Kaushika [ Brahmin ] , who calls himself Gautama " . The Samaveda tradition identifies her as Maitreyi , who the commentator Sayana ( died 1387 ) explains is " the daughter of [ the god ] Mitra " .
In the subrahmanya formula , Ahalya does not have a husband . The Sadvimsha Brahmana does not explicitly state that Ahalya has a husband , although Kaushika ( interpreted by most scholars as Ahalya 's husband ) is present in the story and his relationship to her can be inferred through Indra 's adoption of the Brahmin 's form to " visit " Ahalya . Renate Söhnen @-@ Thieme , research associate at the School of Oriental and African Studies , feels that the Kaushika of the Sadvismha Brahmana is the same individual described as cursing Indra in the 5th- to 4th @-@ century BCE epic Mahabharata ( discussed below in " Curse and redemption " ) .
The Shatapatha Brahmana 's commentator , Kumarila Bhatta ( c . 700 ) , reasons that the Ahalya – Indra narrative is an allegory for the Sun or the light ( Indra ) taking away the shade of night ( Ahalya ) . Edward Washburn Hopkins , an American indologist , interpreted the Ahalya of the subrahmanya formula not as a woman , but literally as " yet unploughed land " , which Indra makes fertile .
= = Seduction by Indra = =
The Bala Kanda of the Ramayana is the earliest text to describe Ahalya 's seduction in detail . It states that Indra becomes enamoured by Ahalya 's beauty , learns of her husband 's absence and comes to the ashram disguised as Gautama to request sexual intercourse with her , praising her as a shapely and slim @-@ waisted woman . She sees through his disguise , but consents owing to her " curiosity " . According to another interpretation , Ahalya 's pride in her beauty compels her . Having satiated his lust , Ahalya requests that Indra , her " lover " and the " best of gods " , flee and protect them from Gautama 's wrath . The Kathasaritsagara ( 11th century CE ) is one of the few texts that mirror the Bala Kanda 's Ahalya , who makes a conscious decision to accept Indra 's advances . However , in this text Indra arrives undisguised .
Although the Bala Kanda mentions that Ahalya consciously commits adultery , the Uttar Kanda of the Ramayana and the Puranas ( compiled between the 4th and 16th centuries CE ) absolve her of all guilt . The Uttar Kanda recasts the tale as Ahalya 's rape by Indra . In one allusion in the Mahabharata , King Nahusha reminds Brihaspati , Indra 's guru , how Indra " violated " the " renowned " rishi @-@ patni ( wife of a sage ) Ahalya . According to Söhnen @-@ Thieme , the usage of the words " violated " and " renowned " indicates that Ahalya is not considered an adulteress .
The Puranas introduce themes that are echoed in later works , including the deception of the unsuspecting Ahalya by Indra 's devious disguise as Gautama in his absence . The Padma Purana states that after Gautama leaves for his ritual bath , Indra masquerades as Gautama and asks Ahalya to satisfy him . Ahalya , engrossed in worship , rejects him , considering it inappropriate to have sex at the cost of neglecting the gods . Indra reminds her that her first duty is to serve him . Finally Ahalya gives in , but Gautama learns of Indra 's deception through his supernatural powers and returns to the ashram . A similar account is found in the Brahma Purana . At times , Indra takes the form of a cock that crows to dispatch Gautama for his morning ablutions , as in the 18th @-@ century Telugu rendition of the tale by the warrior @-@ poet Venkata Krishnappa Nayaka of the Madurai Nayak Dynasty . In other versions , he uses an accomplice , such as the moon @-@ god Chandra , to distract Gautama . In the Brahma Vaivarta Purana , Ahalya comes to bathe in the Svarnadi ( heavenly river ) and Indra becomes infatuated with her when he sees her . Assuming Gautama 's form , Indra has sex with her until they sink to the river bed in exhaustion . However , Gautama catches them in the act . Another version in the same Purana focuses on the question of how the chaste Ahalya was seduced by Indra . In this version , Indra approaches Ahalya on the banks of the Mandakini river in his own form to ask for a sexual favour , which is flatly refused by Ahalya . Indra subsequently poses as Gautama and fulfils his objective .
In some versions , though initially deluded by Indra 's disguise , Ahalya eventually recognises the impersonator . In the Skanda Purana , Ahalya smells Indra 's celestial fragrance and realises her folly as he embraces and kisses her and " so forth " ( probably indicating a sexual act ) . Threatening Indra with a curse , she compels him to reveal his true form . However , Kamban 's 12th @-@ century Tamil adaptation of the Ramayana , the Ramavataram , narrates that Ahalya realises that her lover is an imposter but continues to enjoy the dalliance . Here , Ahalya agrees to have sex with the disguised Indra because she has long been craving affection from her ascetic husband .
In Venkata Krishnappa Nayaka 's Telugu rendition , Ahalya is depicted as a romantic adulteress . When Brahma creates Ahalya as the most beautiful being , she falls in love with Indra and longs for him , but Brahma grants her to Gautama . After Ahalya 's marriage , Indra too craves for her . He frequently visits her and flirts with her in Gautama 's absence . At one point , Ahalya receives a visit from Indra 's female messenger , who proceeds to mock husbands who avoid sex by saying that it is not the right day for pleasure . Ahalya protests , maintaining that she imagines Gautama to be Indra as they have sex and that a woman should be a stone , forgoing all thought of sexual gratification . That night , when Ahalya longs for conjugal bliss , Gautama refuses her , saying that she is not in her fertile period . Agitated , she wishes that Indra was there to satisfy her . Indra perceives her wish and comes in Gautama 's disguise , but is revealed by his seductive speech . Ignoring the deception , Ahalya joyously makes love to him .
= = Curse and redemption = =
While most versions agree that Gautama curses Ahalya after discovering the affair , the curse varies from text to text . However , almost all versions describe Rama as the agent of her liberation and redemption .
= = = Punishments of Ahalya and Indra = = =
The Bala Kanda mentions that Gautama spots Indra , who is still in disguise , and curses him to lose his testicles . Gautama then curses Ahalya to remain invisible to all beings for thousands of years , fast by subsisting only on air , suffer and sleep in ashes and be tormented by guilt . Nevertheless , he assures her that her sin will be expiated once she extends her hospitality to Rama , who will visit the ashram . Thereafter , Gautama abandons the ashram and goes to the Himalayas to practise asceticism . The Ayodhya prince Rama , his brother Lakshmana and their guru , the sage Vishvamitra pass Gautama 's desolate ashram while travelling to King Janaka 's court in Mithila . As they near the ashram , Vishvamitra recounts the tale of Ahalya 's curse and instructs Rama to save Ahalya . Although Ahalya is cursed , Vishvamitra nevertheless describes her as goddess @-@ like and illustrious , repeatedly calling her mahabhaga , a Sanskrit compound ( maha and bhaga ) translated as " most illustrious and highly distinguished " ; this interpretation contrasts with that of Rambhadracharya , who believes that the word mahabhaga , in the context of Ahalya 's story , means " extremely unfortunate " ( maha and abhaga ) . Following Vishvamitra , the princes enter the ashram to see Ahalya , who , up till then , had been hidden from the universe . Ahalya is described as glowing from the intensity of her ascetic devotion , but hidden from the world like the Sun obscured by dark clouds , the light of a full moon hidden by mist or a blazing flame masked by smoke . Under the direction of his guru , Rama considers Ahalya pure and unblemished and , accompanied by Lakshamana , gives her obeisance by touching her feet , an act that restores her social status . She greets them , recalling Gautama 's words that Rama would be her redeemer . Ahalya extends her warmest reception , making a " welcome offering " of forest fruits and washing their feet , an act of respect according to the rites of that era . The gods and other celestial beings shower Rama and Ahalya with flowers and bow to Ahalya , who has been purified through her penance . Gautama then returns to his ashram and accepts her .
In one instance in the Mahabharata , Indra is said to have been cursed by having his beard turned to gold as he seduces Ahalya , while a curse by Kaushika ( sometimes interpreted as synonymous to Gautama ) is cited as the reason for his castration . In the Uttara Kanda , Indra is cursed to lose his throne and endure captivity and bear half the sin of every rape ever committed , while the innocent Ahalya is cursed to lose her status as the most beautiful woman , as it had prompted Indra 's seduction . Ahalya claims her innocence ( this part is not found in all manuscripts ) , but Gautama agrees to accept her only when she is sanctified by offering Rama hospitality .
Ahalya 's defence plea is also found in some of the Puranas . In the Brahma Purana , Ahalya is cursed to become a dried up stream , but pleads her innocence and produces servants , who were also deceived by Indra 's disguise , as witnesses . Gautama reduces the curse on his " faithful wife " and she is redeemed when she joins the Gautami ( Godavari ) river as a stream . Indra is cursed to carry his shame in the form of a thousand vulvae on his body , but the vulvae turn into eyes as he bathes in the Gautami . The Brahma Purana is a rare exception where Rama is dropped from the narrative . Instead , the greatness of the Gautami river is illustrated . The Padma Purana tells that as Indra attempts to flee in the form of a cat , Gautama curses him to lose his genitals and to bear a thousand vulvae on his body . The beguiled Ahalya declares herself blameless , but Gautama considers her impure and curses her to be reduced to a mere skeleton of skin and bones . He decrees that she will regain her beautiful form when Rama laughs at seeing her so afflicted , dried out ( a reminder of the dried stream motif ) , without a body ( the Ramayana curse ) and lying on the path ( an attribute often used to describe a stone ) . When Rama comes , he proclaims her innocence and Indra 's guilt , whereupon Ahalya returns to her heavenly abode and dwells with Gautama .
= = = Stone motifs = = =
In the popular retelling of the legend in later works , as well as in theatre and electronic media , Ahalya is turned to stone by Gautama 's curse and returns to her human form only after being brushed by Rama 's foot .
According to the Brahma Vaivarta Purana , Gautama curses Indra to bear a thousand vulvae , which will turn to eyes when he worships the sun @-@ god Surya . Ahalya , though innocent , is turned to stone for sixty thousand years and destined to be redeemed only by Rama 's touch . Ahalya accepts the verdict without debate . In another version in the same Purana , Gautama catches Indra fleeing as a cat and curses him with castration . Ahalya 's plea of innocence is acknowledged by Gautama , who declares that her mind is pure and she has kept the " vow of chastity and fidelity " , but another man 's seed has defiled her body . Gautama orders her to go to the forest and become a stone until rescued by the touch of Rama 's feet . In Venkata Krishnappa Nayaka 's Telugu rendition , when Indra reluctantly leaves , Gautama arrives and curses Ahalya to become a stone , to be later purified by Rama 's feet . After she is freed from the curse , Gautama and Ahalya are reconciled and they spend their days in bed , exploring sexual techniques .
The Skanda Purana tells that when Gautama arrives , Ahalya explains the whole tale truthfully , but is cursed by Gautama to become a stone , because he believes that she acted as a rolling stone , unable to recognise the difference between Indra 's and Gautama 's gestures and movements . The touch of Rama 's feet is prophesied to be her saviour . The terrified Indra escapes as a cat and is cursed with castration . Ahalya 's truthfulness is also observed in the Kathasaritsagara . When Gautama arrives after the act , Indra tries to flee as a cat but is cursed to bear the marks of a thousand vulvae . When asked by Gautama about her visitor , Ahalya wittily answers that it was a majjara , a word meaning either " cat " or , when split as ma @-@ jara , " my lover " . Gautama laughs and curses her to be turned into stone , but decrees that she will be released by Rama since she at least spoke the truth .
The petrification motif also appears in non @-@ scriptural works . The Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa ( generally dated 4th century CE ) notes that the wife of Gautama ( unnamed here ) momentarily becomes the wife of Indra . Without explicitly mentioning the curse , it relates further that she regains her beautiful form and casts away her stony appearance , owing to the grace provided by the dust of Rama 's feet , which redeems her . Gaut
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@,@ 670 to 11 @,@ 660 m ) , at which point the autopilot was disengaged .
Fuselage
Shrapnel from the proximity fuzed air @-@ to @-@ air missile that detonated 50 metres ( 160 ft ) behind the aircraft , punctured the fuselage and caused rapid decompression of the pressurized cabin . The interval of 11 seconds between the sound of missile detonation picked up by the cockpit voice recorder and the sound of the alarm sounding in the cockpit enabled ICAO analysts to determine that the total size of the ruptures to the pressurized fuselage was 1 @.@ 75 square feet ( 0 @.@ 163 m2 ) ) .
= = Search and rescue = =
As a result of Cold War tensions , the search and rescue operations of the Soviet Union were not coordinated with those of the United States , South Korea , and Japan . Consequently no information was shared , and each side endeavored to harass or obtain evidence to implicate the other . The flight data recorders were the key pieces of evidence sought by both factions , with the United States insisting that an independent observer from the ICAO be present on one of its search vessels in the event that they were found . International boundaries are not well defined on the open sea , leading to numerous confrontations between the large number of opposing naval ships that were assembled in the area .
= = = Soviet search and rescue mission to Moneron Island = = =
The Soviets did not acknowledge shooting down the aircraft until September 6 , 1983 . Eight days after the shootdown , Marshal of the Soviet Union and Chief of General Staff Nikolai Ogarkov denied knowledge of where KAL 007 had gone down , " We could not give the precise answer about the spot where it [ KAL 007 ] fell because we ourselves did not know the spot in the first place . "
Nine years later , the Russian Federation handed over transcripts of Soviet military communications that showed that at least two documented search and rescue ( SAR ) missions were ordered within a half @-@ hour of the attack to the last Soviet verified location of the descending jumbo jet , over Moneron Island : The first search was ordered from Smirnykh Air Base in central Sakhalin at 18 : 47 UTC , 9 minutes after KAL 007 had disappeared from Soviet radar screens , and brought rescue helicopters from Khomutovo Air base , the civilian and military airport at Yuzhno @-@ Sakhalinsk City in southern Sakhalin , and KGB boats to the area .
The second search was ordered 8 minutes later by the Deputy Commander of the Far Eastern Military District , Gen. Strogov , and involved civilian trawlers that were in the area around Moneron . " The border guards . What ships do we now have near Moneron Island , if they are civilians , send [ them ] there immediately . " Moneron is just 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) long and 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) wide , located 24 miles ( 39 km ) due west of Sakhalin Island at 46 ° 15 ′ N 141 ° 14 ′ E ; it is the only land mass in the whole Tatar Straits .
= = = Search for KAL 007 in international waters = = =
Immediately after the shootdown , South Korea , owner of the aircraft and therefore prime considerant for jurisdiction , designated the United States and Japan as search and salvage agents , thereby making it illegal for the Soviet Union to salvage the aircraft , providing it was found outside Soviet territorial waters . If it did so , the United States would now be legally entitled to use force against the Soviets , if necessary , to prevent retrieval of any part of the plane .
On the same day as the shootdown , Rear Admiral William A. Cockell , Commander , Task Force 71 , and a skeleton staff , taken by helicopter from Japan , embarked in USS Badger ( stationed off Vladivostok at time of the flight ) on September 9 for further transfer to the destroyer USS Elliot to assume duties as Officer in Tactical Command ( OTC ) of the Search and Rescue ( SAR ) effort . Surface search began immediately and on into September 13 . U.S. underwater operations began on September 14 . On September 10 , 1983 , with no further hope of finding survivors , Task Force 71 's mission was reclassified from a " Search and Rescue " ( SAR ) operation to a " Search and Salvage " ( SAS ) .
On October 17 , Rear Admiral William Cockell was relieved of command of the Task Force and its Search and Salvage mission , and Rear Admiral Walter T. Piotti , Jr . , was placed in command . First to be searched was a 60 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 160 km2 ) " high probability " area . This was unsuccessful . On October 21 , Task Force 71 extended its search within coordinates encompassing , in an arc around the Soviet territorial boundaries north of Moneron Island , an area of 225 square miles ( 583 km2 ) , reaching to the west of Sakhalin Island . This was the " large probability " area . The search areas were outside the 12 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 22 km ) Soviet @-@ claimed territorial boundaries . The northwestern @-@ most point of the search touched the Soviet territorial boundary closest to the naval port of Nevelsk on Sakhalin . Nevelsk was 46 nautical miles ( 85 km ) from Moneron . This larger search was also unsuccessful .
The vessels used in the search , for the Soviet side as well as the Allied side ( U.S. , South Korea , Japan ) were both civilian trawlers , especially equipped for both the SAR and SAS operations , and various types of warships and support ships . The Soviet side also employed both civilian and military divers . The Soviet search , beginning on the day of the shootdown and continuing until November 6 , was confined to the 60 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 160 km2 ) " high probability " area in international waters , and within Soviet territorial waters to the north of Moneron Island . The area within Soviet territorial waters was off @-@ limits to the U.S. , South Korean , and Japanese boats . From September 3 to 29 , four ships from South Korea had joined in the search .
Rear Admiral Walter T. Piotti Jr , commander of Task Force 71 of 7th Fleet would summarize the U.S. and Allied , and then the Soviets ’ , Search and Salvage operations :
“ Not since the search for the hydrogen bomb lost off Palomares , Spain , has the U.S. Navy undertaken a search effort of the magnitude or import of the search for the wreckage of KAL Flight 007 . ”
“ Within six days of the downing of KAL 007 , the Soviets had deployed six ships to the general crash site area . Over the next 8 weeks of observation by U.S. naval units this number grew to a daily average of 19 Soviet naval , naval @-@ associated and commercial ( but undoubtedly naval @-@ subordinated ) ships in the Search and Salvage ( SAS ) area . The number of Soviet ships in the SAS area over this period ranged from a minimum of six to a maximum of thirty @-@ two and included at least forty @-@ eight different ships comprising forty different ship classes . ”
These missions met with interference by the Soviets , in violation of the 1972 Incident at Sea agreement , and included false flag and fake light signals , sending an armed boarding party to threaten to board a U.S.-chartered Japanese auxiliary vessel ( blocked by U.S. warship interposition ) , interfering with a helicopter coming off the USS Elliot ( Sept . 7 ) , attempted ramming of rigs used by the South Koreans in their quadrant search , hazardous maneuvering of the Gavril Sarychev and near @-@ collision with the USS Callaghan ( September 15 , 18 ) , removing U.S. sonars , setting false pingers in deep international waters , sending Backfire bombers armed with air @-@ to @-@ surface nuclear @-@ armed missiles to threaten U.S. naval units , criss @-@ crossing in front of U.S. combatant vessels ( October 26 ) , cutting and attempted cutting of moorings of Japanese auxiliary vessels , particularly the Kaiko Maru III , and radar lock @-@ ons by a Soviet Kara @-@ class cruiser , the Petropavlovsk , and a Kashin @-@ class destroyer , the Odarennyy , targeting U.S. naval Ships and U.S. Coast Guard Cutter Munro . USS Towers , escorting USS Conserver , experienced all of the above interference and was involved in a near @-@ collision with the Odarennyy ( September 23 – 27 ) .
According to the ICAO : " The location of the main wreckage was not determined ... the approximate position was 46 ° 34 ′ N 141 ° 17 ′ E , which was in international waters . " This point is about 41 miles ( 66 km ) from Moneron Island , about 45 miles ( 72 km ) from the shore of Sakhalin and 33 miles ( 53 km ) from the point of attack .
Rear Admiral Walter T. Piotti Jr , commander of Task Force 71 of 7th Fleet , believed the search for KAL 007 in international waters to have been a search in the wrong place and assessed :
" Had TF [ task force ] 71 been permitted to search without restriction imposed by claimed territorial waters , the aircraft stood a good chance of having been found . No wreckage of KAL 007 was found . However , the operation established , with a 95 % or above confidence level , that the wreckage , or any significant portion of the aircraft , does not lie within the probability area outside the 12 nautical mile area claimed by the Soviets as their territorial limit . "
At a hearing of the ICAO on September 15 , 1983 , J. Lynn Helms , the head of the Federal Aviation Administration , stated : " The U.S.S.R. has refused to permit search and rescue units from other countries to enter Soviet territorial waters to search for the remains of KAL 007 . Moreover , the Soviet Union has blocked access to the likely crash site and has refused to cooperate with other interested parties , to ensure prompt recovery of all technical equipment , wreckage and other material . "
= = Human remains and artifacts = =
= = = Surface finds = = =
No body parts were recovered by the Soviet search team from the surface of the sea in their territorial waters , though they would later turn over clothes and shoes to a joint U.S. – Japanese delegation to Nevelsk on Sakhalin . On Monday , September 26 , 1983 , a delegation of seven Japanese and American officials arriving aboard the Japanese patrol boat Tsugaru , had met a six @-@ man Soviet delegation at the port of Nevelsk on Sakhalin Island . KGB Major General A. I. Romanenko , the Commander of the Sakhalin and Kuril Islands frontier guard , headed the Soviet delegation . Romanenko handed over to the Americans and Japanese , among other things , single and paired footwear . With footwear that the Japanese also retrieved , the total came to 213 men 's , women 's and children 's dress shoes , sandals , and sports shoes . The Soviets said that these were all that they had retrieved ; they had found floating in the water or washed up on the shores of Sakhalin and Moneron islands .
Family members of KAL 007 passengers later stated that these shoes were worn by their loved ones for the flight . Sonia Munder had no difficulty recognizing the sneakers of her children , one of Christian age 14 and one of Lisi age 17 , by the intricate way her children laced them . Another mother says , " I recognized them just like that . You see , there are all kinds of inconspicuous marks which strangers do not notice . This is how I recognized them . My daughter loved to wear them . "
Another mother , Nan Oldham , identified her son John 's sneakers from a photo in Life magazine of 55 of the 213 shoes — apparently , a random array on display those first days at Chitose Air Force Base in Japan . " We saw photos of his shoes in a magazine , " says Oldham , " We followed up through KAL and a few weeks later , a package arrived . His shoes were inside : size 11 sneakers with cream white paint . " John Oldham had taken his seat in row 31 of KAL 007 wearing those cream white paint @-@ spattered sneakers .
Nothing was found by the joint U.S. – Japanese – South Korean search and rescue / salvage operations
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. The Pennsylvania selected the GG1 over the R1 , as the R1 was not articulated and the GG1 's traction motors were similar to ones already in use . An order for the first 57 of a total 139 GG1s was placed in November 1934 , with delivery starting in April 1935 .
= = History = =
4876 was built in 1939 at the Pennsylvania Railroad 's Altoona Works in Altoona , Pennsylvania , and was the 77th locomotive in its class . It operated between New York City , Philadelphia and Washington , D.C. on the electrified Northeast Corridor .
At 8 : 38 AM on the morning of January 15 , 1953 , 4876 was the subject of a wreck , the only one to involve a GG1 , while pulling southbound Federal Express # 173 from Boston , Massachusetts , to Washington , D.C. Upon nearing an " Approach " signal about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) outside of Washington , the engineer applied the brakes to slow the train down from 70 to 60 miles per hour ( 113 to 97 km / h ) . Noting that the train still was not slowing after passing the signal , the engineer engaged the emergency brake and sounded the locomotive 's horn . Also observing the excessive speed of 4876 was an assistant train director in Interlocking Tower ' C ' , who radioed ahead to Tower ' K ' . The train director in Tower ' K ' had the switches changed to allow 4876 to enter Union Station on Track 16 , its regularly assigned track . Having insufficient time to switch the runaway on to another track , the director alerted the station master 's office which was situated at the end of Track 16 . Still traveling at around 35 to 40 miles per hour ( 56 to 64 km / h ) , 4876 rammed the buffer stop and continued into the concourse of Union Station , before partially falling through the floor into the baggage room below .
An investigation by the Interstate Commerce Commission discovered a design flaw on a style of passenger car used by the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad in which the handle of an angle cock , a valve used to close the brake pipe when the car is the last one in the train , came into contact with a bottom crossmember of the coupler pocket . The angle cock would become closed , rendering the brakes on all the trailing cars inoperable . The third car behind 4876 , New Haven 8665 , was of this design , but the fourth car had a slightly different style of coupler . The difference between the two cars increased the frequency and the intensity of which the angle cock at the rear of 8655 would hit the crossmember . Earlier in the morning , the train was stopped outside of Kingston , Rhode Island , because the brakes on the final two cars were " sticking " and could not be released from the locomotive . Upon inspection , the angle cock on 8655 was found to be closed and was reopened by the engineer , but , after a locomotive and shift change , the matter was forgotten .
With the inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower set to occur on January 20 , the passenger cars were re @-@ railed and 4876 was lowered the rest of the way into the baggage room . A temporary floor was erected over the locomotive so as to not impede the crowds traveling to Washington , D.C. for the inauguration . After the inauguration , 4876 was cut into 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) sections , hoisted from the baggage room , and reassembled in the Altoona shops . The insurance company deemed it less expensive to reassemble 4876 than to replace it with a new locomotive .
Ten months later , 4876 was returned to service , repainted in Tuscan red . It stayed in service until 1983 when she was retired and donated for preservation . Originally planned for donation to the Smithsonian Institution , it was ultimately donated to the B & O Railroad Museum in Baltimore , Maryland . Initially , the museum planned on restoring 4876 and putting it on display , however , these plans were placed on hold indefinitely when the museum 's roundhouse roof collapsed in 2003 , and the museum is currently focusing its efforts on restoring the equipment damaged by the collapse . The locomotive has been stored outside since it was acquired by the museum , has become defaced with graffiti and parts of its steel body are corroded .
= Jesse Hubbard =
Jesse Hubbard ( born September 18 , 1975 ) is a former professional lacrosse player who played professional box lacrosse in the National Lacrosse League ( NLL ) and professional field lacrosse in the Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) .
= = Background = =
Hubbard starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 1995 through 1998 , where he earned Ivy League Player of the Year , Ivy League Rookie of the Year , three All @-@ American recognitions from the United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) , four Ivy League championships , and three national championships . He holds Princeton 's lacrosse scoring records for both career and single @-@ season goals . In high school , he had set the Interstate Athletic Conference ( IAC ) scoring record , while playing for St. Albans School and becoming The Washington Post boy 's lacrosse player of the year .
As a professional , he was the MLL 's leading goal scorer for its first three seasons and its all @-@ time goal leader as recently as the 2010 MLL season . His 54 goals in 2002 continue to be a league single @-@ season record . He is a five @-@ time Major League Lacrosse All @-@ Star . In August 2010 , he was selected to the MLL 10th Anniversary team . He has represented Team USA in the World Lacrosse Championships and is an ambassador of the sport both through service with Warrior Sports and his own annual youth camps .
Hubbard got his first lacrosse stick when he was 11 or 12 years old . Hubbard played middle and high school lacrosse at St. Albans School in Washington , DC , where he was a captain and earned All @-@ Metropolitan and All @-@ American honors . The Washington Post named Hubbard to the 1993 All @-@ Met Boys Lacrosse First Team as a midfielder after he led the IAC in goals with 59 as a junior . Then , when as a senior Hubbard became the All @-@ time IAC goal scorer with 217 , they named him the 1994 All @-@ Met Boys Lacrosse Team Player of the Year .
= = College career = =
When Hubbard went to Princeton , he was expected to be one of the key incoming midfielders . Hubbard became was part of a trio of revered attackmen who were Princeton classmates along with Jon Hess and Chris Massey . As starters , the trio of All @-@ Americans , which retired second ( Hess ) , third ( Hubbard ) and fourth ( Massey ) in career points at Princeton , had a 43 – 2 record and combined for 618 points . He was a first team USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 1996 and 1998 and second team selection in 1997 . He was also first team All @-@ Ivy League in 1996 ( when he was Ivy League Player of the Year ) , 1997 and 1998 and a second team selection in 1995 ( when he was named Ivy League Rookie of the Year ) . The 1995 team , which earned the school 's sixth consecutive NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship invitation , was Ivy League co @-@ champion , while the 1996 – 1998 teams were 6 – 0 undefeated outright conference champions . These undefeated league champions won the 1996 , 1997 and 1998 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championships , becoming the first team to threepeat since Syracuse from 1988 – 90 and the first to be recognized to have done so without an NCAA scandal since Johns Hopkins from 1978 – 80 .
In 1996 , he earned co @-@ Ivy League Player of the year by recording six or more goals four times during the regular season . In the 1996 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament quarterfinals 22 – 6 victory over Towson State , Hubbard again scored six goals . Hubbard added three more goals in the championship game against Virginia including the first goal and the final goal in overtime of the 13 – 12 victory . In the 1997 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament quarterfinals , he again scored six goals in an 11 – 9 victory over the UMass . He scored in the semifinal 10 – 9 victory over Duke , and he scored four goals in the 19 – 7 championship victory against Maryland . The 1997 team is regarded as the best in school history with a record number of wins during its 15 – 0 season . He served as co @-@ captain of the 1998 team . He scored three goals in the 1998 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament 11 – 10 semifinal victory over Syracuse . He also scored four goals and added six assists in the 15 – 5 championship game victory over Maryland .
When Hubbard was on the field , the Princeton offense was explosive . Hubbard holds the Princeton University single @-@ season ( 53 , 1996 ) and career ( 163 , 1995 – 98 ) goals records . He also broke Kevin Lowe 's school single @-@ season points record of 69 in 1996 by three , but Hess broke the record in 1997 with 76 points . Hubbard 's 23 goals as a freshman was a Princeton freshman record until B. J. Prager posted 25 in 1999 . Hubbard threatened the Ivy League record for career goals in conference games needing just eight in his final two games , but as of 2010 , Jon Reese 's 1990 record remained on the books . He was named number 11 of the top 20 athletes in Princeton Tiger history by the Daily Princetonian .
= = Professional career = =
Hubbard represented Team USA in the 1998 World Lacrosse Championship . Hubbard also played in the National Lacrosse League for the Baltimore Thunder ( 1999 ) , Pittsburgh CrosseFire ( 2000 ) and Washington Power ( 2001 ) . In 1999 , he was named NLL Rookie of the Year . In the 1999 World Cup , Hubbard scored a goal to give Team USA and 8 – 7 lead over Team Canada in a 20 – 10 victory to sweep the event .
Hubbard was a member of the New Jersey Pride from 2001 until 2007 . Prior to the 2008 MLL season , Hubbard was traded to the Los Angeles Riptide in exchange for a first round 2009 MLL Collegiate Draft pick . Hubbard played for the Los Angeles Riptide during the 2008 season . After the 2008 season , Hubbard was assigned to the Washington Bayhawks ( now Chesapeake Bayhawks ) . Prior to the start of the 2009 season with the Bayhawks , Hubbard suffered a herniated disc and was unable to play the 2009 season . Hubbard has not played in the MLL since .
In 2000 , the MLL organized a Major League Lacrosse Summer Showcase , which was a seven @-@ game promotional series to introduce the first outdoor professional lacrosse league set to begin play the following year . Hubbard was one of the 40 players selected to promote the league . When the MLL began its first season in 2001 , Hubbard was instrumental in marketing the league looking to showcase premium talent . Hubbard led the MLL in scoring each season from 2001 to 2003 , and was named to the MLL All @-@ Star Team 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2005 , 2006 . In the 2002 All @-@ Star game he scored a goal to break a 16 – 16 tie in a 21 – 16 victory for the National Division All @-@ Stars over the American Division All @-@ Stars . When he surpassed his 2001 total of 44 goals with 54 at the end of the 2002 season , it established a league single @-@ season goals record that continues to survive through the 2010 MLL season and his 2003 season total of 50 goals continues to be the only other 50 @-@ goal season in league history . The MLL schedule was reduced from 14 games to 12 in 2003 , meaning that Hubbard 's 50 goals is the record for a 12 game season . The closest anyone has come to his single @-@ season goal scoring record was John Grant 's 47 @-@ goal 2008 season . As a result of having been the goals scored leader for the MLL 's first three season , he built up a career goals scored lead that stood up until during the 2005 season when Mark Millon took a 206 – 193 lead in career goals scored . However , Millon only scored five goals in 2007 when his career came to an end . In July 2008 , Hubbard surpassed Millon 's career total of 239 by reaching 247 . On August 1 , 2010 , Tim Goettelmann surpassed Hubbard with his 246th , 247th and 248th career goals . In August 2010 , Hubbard was selected to the MLL 10th anniversary team .
Hubbard is a spokesman for Warrior Sports and annually runs the Jesse Hubbard Experience , a youth lacrosse camp for boys ages 9 – 17 held each summer at George Mason University .
= = Personal = =
Hubbard has an older brother named Andy . Andy was a midfielder on the 1992 and 1994 teams that earned Princeton 's first two NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championships .
= = Statistics = =
= = = NLL = = =
= = = MLL = = =
= = = Princeton University = = =
= French destroyer Espingole =
Espingole was a Durandal @-@ class destroyer built for the French Navy in the late 1890s . Commissioned in 1900 , she saw only a few years of service before running aground and sinking in 1903 off the Côte d 'Azur . Her captain was acquitted at his court @-@ martial seven years later . Multiple salvage attempts failed and a legal dispute arising from the last attempt was not settled until 1926 .
= = Design and description = =
Espingole had an overall length of 57 @.@ 64 meters ( 189 ft 1 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 3 meters ( 20 ft 8 in ) , and a maximum draft of 3 @.@ 2 meters ( 10 ft 6 in ) . She displaced 311 metric tons ( 306 long tons ) at deep load . The two triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , were designed to produce 5 @,@ 200 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 825 kW ) , using steam provided by two water @-@ tube boilers . The ship had a designed speed of 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) , but Espingole reached 27 @.@ 41 knots ( 50 @.@ 76 km / h ; 31 @.@ 54 mph ) during her sea trials in August and September 1900 . The ship carried 37 @.@ 6 metric tons ( 37 @.@ 0 long tons ) of coal , enough to give her a range of 2 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 600 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her hull was subdivided by nine watertight transverse bulkheads . She had a crew of four officers and sixty enlisted men .
Espingole carried a single 65 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) gun forward of the bridge . The gun had a maximum range of 9 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 800 yd ) and a rate of fire of five rounds per minute . The ship carried 375 rounds for the gun . She also mounted six 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns , three on each broadside . The guns had a sustained rate of fire of seven rounds per minute and a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) . She carried a total of 2 @,@ 850 rounds of 47 mm ammunition . Espingole mounted two single 381 @-@ millimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes : one between the funnels and the other on the stern . Two reload torpedoes were also carried ; their air flasks , however , had to be charged before they could be used , a process that took several hours . The Modèle 1887 torpedo that they used had a warhead weight of 42 kilograms ( 93 lb ) .
= = Construction and career = =
The ship was laid down in 1896 – 97 by Normand at their Le Havre shipyard , as the last of the four Durandal @-@ class destroyers . She was named after a French type of blunderbuss ; all of the ships in her class were named after weapons . Espingole was launched on 28 June 1900 and completed around September when she ran her speed trials . Construction costs were 1 @,@ 690 @,@ 994 francs . She was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet in December and made a number of port visits in France , Corsica and French North Africa throughout 1901 . Her rudder was damaged after striking the bottom off Golfe @-@ Juan and Espingole was under repair 3 – 27 September .
In October 1901 , the 1st Battleship Division , under the command of Rear Admiral ( contre @-@ amiral ) Leonce Caillard , consisting of the battleships Gaulois and Charlemagne , the armored cruiser Pothuau , and escorted by Espingole and the destroyer Epée , was ordered to proceed to the port of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos , then part by the Ottoman Empire . After Caillard landed two companies of marines that occupied the major ports of the island on 7 November , Sultan Abdul Hamid II agreed to enforce contracts made with French companies and to repay loans made by French banks . The ships made a number of port visits while they were in the Aegean , including the islands of Milos , Syros , and Tinos , in addition to the ports of Smyrna and Piraeus . The 1st Division returned to Toulon on 12 December . The ship was refitted from 3 to 17 April 1902 before she resumed her normal routine of port visits . Lieutenant ( Lieutenant de vaisseau ( LV ) ) Marcotte de Sainte @-@ Marie relieved LV Langier in June and Espingole was refitted again from 13 November to 2 December . She made a port visit in early 1903 at Rochefort before resuming training .
The ship struck a rock in Cavalaire Bay , off Cavalaire @-@ sur @-@ Mer , on 4 February 1903 after straying outside the channel , and ripped a hole 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @-@ meter ( 8 ft 2 in – 9 ft 10 in ) in the bottom of the hull . Coal , ammunition , and two 47 mm guns were thrown overboard to lighten the ship and her sister ship Hallebarde attempted to pull her off . The hawser broke after only moving Espingole roughly 5 – 6 meters ( 16 ft 5 in – 19 ft 8 in ) , injuring two of Hallebarde 's crewmen . Hallebarde then rescued Espingole 's 62 @-@ man crew before the ship sank at coordinates 43 ° 09 ′ 20 ″ N 06 ° 36 ′ 30 ″ E. LV Marcotte de Sainte @-@ Marie was finally acquitted at his court @-@ martial seven years after his ship ran aground .
The initial salvage attempts were unsuccessful and the Espingole was struck off the naval register on 16 September . The navy sold her wreck at auction in December 1909 and decided to offer an escalating series of bonuses if the winner could refloat the ship and deliver it intact . The salvage company was no more successful and abandoned the effort after five months of work . The company claimed that the navy had disturbed the wreck and sued for 60 @,@ 000 francs plus damages . The dispute was not settled until 3 March 1926 .
= External morphology of Lepidoptera =
The external morphology of Lepidoptera is the physiological structure of the bodies of insects belonging to the order Lepidoptera , also known as butterflies and moths . Lepidoptera are distinguished from other orders by the presence of scales on the external parts of the body and appendages , especially the wings . Butterflies and moths vary in size from microlepidoptera only a few millimetres long , to a wingspan of many inches such as the Atlas moth . Comprising over 160 @,@ 000 described species , the Lepidoptera possess variations of the basic body structure which has evolved to gain advantages in adaptation and distribution .
Lepidopterans undergo complete metamorphosis , going through a four @-@ stage life cycle : egg ; larva or caterpillar ; pupa or chrysalis ; and imago ( plural : imagines ) / adult . The larvae – caterpillars – have a toughened ( sclerotised ) head capsule , chewing mouthparts , and a soft body , that may have hair @-@ like or other projections , 3 pairs of true legs , and up to 5 pairs of prolegs . Most caterpillars are herbivores , but a few are carnivores ( some eat ants , aphids or other caterpillars ) or detritivores . Larvae are the feeding and growing stages and periodically undergo hormone @-@ induced ecdysis , developing further with each instar , until they undergo the final larval – pupal moult . The larvae of many lepidopteran species will either make a spun casing of silk called a cocoon and pupate inside it , or will pupate in a cell under the ground . In many butterflies , the pupa is suspended from a cremaster and is called a chrysalis .
The adult body has a hardened exoskeleton , except for the abdomen which is less sclerotised . The head is shaped like a capsule with appendages arising from it . Adult mouthparts include a prominent proboscis formed from maxillary galeae , and are adapted for sucking nectar . Some species do not feed as adults , and may have reduced mouthparts , while others have them modified for piercing and suck blood or fruit juices . Mandibles are absent in all except the Micropterigidae which have chewing mouthparts . Adult Lepidoptera have two immobile , multi @-@ faceted compound eyes , and only two simple eyes or ocelli , which may be reduced . The three segments of the thorax are fused together . Antennae are prominent and besides the faculty of smell , act as olfactory radar , and also aid navigation , orientation and balance during flight . In moths , males frequently have more feathery antennae than females , for detecting the female pheromones at a distance . There are two pairs of membranous wings which arise from the mesothoracic ( middle ) and metathoracic ( third ) segments ; they are usually completely covered by minute scales . The two wings on each side act as one by virtue of wing @-@ locking mechanisms . In some groups , the females are flightless and have reduced wings . The abdomen has ten segments connected with movable inter @-@ segmental membranes . The last segments of the abdomen form the external genitalia . The genitalia are complex and provide the basis for family identification and species discrimination .
The wings , head parts of thorax and abdomen of Lepidoptera are covered with minute scales , from which feature the order ' Lepidoptera ' derives its names , the word " lepidos " in Ancient Greek meaning ' scale ' . Most scales are lamellar ( blade @-@ like ) and attached with a pedicel , while other forms may be hair @-@ like or specialised as secondary sexual characteristics . The lumen , or surface of the lamella , has a complex structure . It gives colour either due to the pigments contained within it or through its three @-@ dimensional structure . Scales provide a number of functions , which include insulation , thermoregulation and aiding gliding flight , amongst others , the most important of which is the large diversity of vivid or indistinct patterns they provide which help the organism protect itself by camouflage , mimicry , and to seek mates .
= = External morphology = =
In common with other members of the superorder Holometabola , Lepidoptera undergo complete metamorphosis , going through a four @-@ stage life cycle : egg , larva / caterpillar , pupa / chrysalis , and imago ( plural : imagines ) / adult .
Lepidopterans range in size from a few millimetres in length , such as in the case of microlepidoptera , to a wingspan of many inches , such as the Atlas moth and the world 's largest butterfly Queen Alexandra 's Birdwing .
= = = General body plan = = =
The body of an adult butterfly or moth ( imago ) has three distinct divisions , called tagmata , connected at constrictions ; these tagmata are the head , thorax and abdomen . Adult lepidopterans have four wings : a forewing and a hindwing on both the left and the right side of the thorax and , like all insects , have three pairs of legs .
The morphological characteristics which distinguish the order Lepidoptera from other insect orders are :
Head : The head has large compound eyes and if mouthparts are present , they are almost always a drinking straw @-@ like proboscis .
Scales : Scales cover the external surface of the body and appendages .
Thorax : The prothorax is usually reduced .
Wings : Two pairs of wings are present in almost all taxa . The wings have very few cross @-@ veins .
Abdomen : The posterior abdominal segments are extensively modified for reproduction . Cerci are absent .
Larva : Lepidoptera larvae are known as caterpillars , and have a well @-@ developed head and mandibles . They can have from 0 to 5 pairs of prolegs , usually 4 .
Pupa : The pupae in most species are adecticous ( with no functional mandibles in the pupal state ) and obtect ( with appendages fused or glued to the body ) , while others are decticous ( with functional mandibles present in the pupal state ) and exarate ( having the antennae , legs , and wings free ) .
= = = Distinguishing taxonomic features = = =
The chief characteristics used to classify lepidopteran species , genera and families are :
the mouthparts
the shape and venation of the wings
whether the wings are homoneurous ( the venation of the forewings and hind wings alike ) or heteroneurous ( forewings and hind wings different )
whether the wings are aculeate ( more or less covered with specialized bristles called microsetae ) or nonaculeate
the type of wing coupling ( jugate or frenate )
the anatomy of the reproductive organs
the structure of larva and position of primary setae
whether the pupa is exarate or obtect
The morphological characteristics of caterpillars and pupae used for classification are completely different from that of adults ; different classification schemes are sometimes provided separately for classifying adults , larvae and pupae . The characteristics of immature stages are increasingly used for taxonomic purposes as they provide insights into systematics and phylogenies of Lepidoptera that are not apparent from examination of adults .
= = Head = =
Like all animal heads , the head of a butterfly or moth contains the feeding organs and the major sense organs . The head typically consists of two antennae , two compound eyes , two palpi and a proboscis . Lepidoptera have ocelli which may or may not be visible . They also have sensory structures called chaetosemata , the functions of which are largely unknown . The head is filled largely by the brain , the sucking pump and its associated muscle bundles . Unlike the adults , the larvae have one @-@ segmented mandibles .
The head capsule is well sclerotised and has a number of sclerites or plates , separated by sutures . The sclerites are difficult to distinguish from sulci ( singular – sulcus ) which are secondary thickenings . The regions of the head have been divided into a number of areas which act as a topographical guide for description by lepidopterists but cannot be discriminated in terms of their development . The head is covered by hair @-@ like or lamellar scales and found either as tufts on the frons or vertex ( referred to as rough @-@ scaled ) or pressed close to the head ( referred to as smooth @-@ scaled ) .
The sensory organs and structures on the head show great variety , and the shape and form of these structures , as also their presence or absence , are important taxonomic
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" David Wallace , whose Wallace Roberts and Todd designed the master site plan for the Inner Harbor , declared it the " linchpin for the Inner Harbor . If you look at it from a boat , it 's a punctuation point at one corner of the Inner Harbor , signifying where the central business district meets the waterfront . " Construction started on his eight @-@ story 2021 K Street NW office building in November 1970 . In the summer of 1971 , he completed his site plan for Friendship Heights , a 150 acres ( 61 ha ) site straddling the boundary between the District of Columbia and Maryland border at Friendship Heights / Friendship Village . The plan contemplated several high @-@ rise office buildings , a loop roadway around the site , pedestrian concourses , and several multi @-@ story shopping malls clustered around the intersection of Wisconsin Avenue and Western Avenue . ( The project was built throughout the 1970s and into the 1980s . ) In March 1971 , the American Automobile Association commissioned him to design a six @-@ story , $ 10 @-@ million headquarters for the group at 8111 Gatehouse Road in Fairfax , Virginia . Eight months later , the Air Line Pilots Association ( ALPA ) began construction on a Koubek @-@ designed headquarters at 1625 Massachusetts Avenue NW , three blocks northwest from his 1965 office building and across the street from the Philippine Embassy . In March 1974 , developer Melvin Lenkin commissioned Koubek to design an all @-@ glass Modernist building for 1900 M Street NW . Koubek designed an eight @-@ story cubist building with an all @-@ glass facade ; cutaway , cantilevered front corner ; and ground floor arcade . In March 1975 , the National Bank of Washington , one of the city 's oldest and most storied banks , commissioned a new operations center ( 4340 Connecticut Avenue NW ) from Koubek . In May 1975 , Koubek joined a consortium of prominent local architects to design the Washington Harbor complex of buildings on the Georgetown waterfront . The three @-@ block @-@ long , eight @-@ building complex , which contained luxury condominiums , office space , restaurants , luxury retail space , a boardwalk , and plaza , was the first large @-@ scale redevelopment of Georgetown 's waterfront in the city 's history . By the end of 1975 , the New York Times was reporting that Koubek 's firm had designed roughly half the office buildings built in the District of Columbia since the 1950s .
= = = The Willard renovation = = =
In 1974 , Koubek was hired to help renovate the long @-@ shuttered , historic Willard Hotel . The original hotel ( consisting of six townhouses joined together ) was built in 1816 , renovated and enlarged by leaseholder Henry Willard in 1847 , and the current 12 @-@ story structure erected in 1901 . Due to mismanagement and competition from more modern hotels , the Willard closed in 1968 . With the redevelopment of Pennsylvania Avenue in the 1960s and 1970s , the Willard was threatened repeatedly with demolition . In May 1974 , the National Trust for Historic Preservation paid Koubek $ 25 @,@ 000 to study saving the hotel , either as a hotel , as a mixed @-@ used structure , or as an office building . The Willard 's owners , Charles Benenson and Robert Arnow , had earlier commissioned Koubek to design a modern office building for the site which would have required demolition of the structure .
Ultimately , the New York City architecture firm of Hardy Holzman Pfeiffer Associates was hired to lead the hotel 's rehabilitation and expansion . After this firm pulled out of the project , Koubek executed their concept , overseeing work until the hotel 's reopening in 1986 . Declaring the design worthy of " genuine architectural distinction , " Washington Post architectural critic Benjamin Forgey noted that Koubek was responsible for adding the giant ocular windows in the office complex , the marble office entryway with its marble canopy and columns , and the restructuring of the diagonal courtyard between the original hotel and the office additions . Forgey concluded that " ... a lot of the details , such as the exquisite storefronts or the sequence of pilasters , entablatures and cornices in the same elongated courtyard , are a treat to the eye . " Critic Paul Goldberger , writing for New York Timesin 1986 , declared the renovation ingenious . In 1988 , the Washington Chapter of the American Institute of Architects gave its 1988 Award for Excellence to Koubek for the Willard Hotel design and renovation .
= = = Other 1970s projects = = =
In February 1976 , Koubek contributed a third high @-@ rise office building to Farragut Square , this one a brick @-@ and @-@ solarized glass structure with a glass @-@ and @-@ aluminum penthouse at 818 Connecticut Avenue NW . His massive , grid @-@ like 400 North Capitol Street , one of the few office buildings he designed with a plaza between two wings , opened in June . His 12 @-@ story International Square building — with its inverted setbacks above the Farragut West Washington Metro station , ninth @-@ floor balcony with non @-@ structural columns , interior atrium , and ground level set @-@ back retail concourse — opened in November . Originally just a single office building on a corner for a city block , it expanded to occupy nearly the entire block with the addition of two almost identical towers in 1979 and 1980 . ( The atrium was upgraded and a fountain added in 1992 . ) Two blocks to the west , in April 1977 Koubek also designed a fairly nondescript office building at 1990 K Street NW .
Koubek also helped co @-@ design Metropolitan Square , a 12 @-@ story hotel and office building complex that occupies the entire block between F and G Streets NW and 14th and 15th Streets NW ( due east across the street from the Treasury Building ) . In November 1977 , developer Oliver T. Carr proposed tearing down the entire block , which was occupied by the Beaux @-@ Arts Keith @-@ Albee Building and Metropolitan National Bank Building as well as the 180 @-@ year @-@ old Rhodes Tavern . A years @-@ long legal and political battle ensued , as historic preservationists fought to keep all three buildings . Carr eventually agreed to retain the facades of the two Beaux @-@ Arts buildings facing G and 15th Streets . The battle to save the entire Rhodes ' Tavern , however , lasted into 1983 and involved a city @-@ wide ballot initiative and an appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States . To preserve the facades , Carr hired Koubek and the New York City firm of Skidmore , Owings and Merrill and charged them with designing ground @-@ floor retail entrances and two upper floors which would reflect but not mimic the Beaux @-@ Arts style of the retained facades which building a more modern structure behind them . Construction on the new building began in 1980 .
In late 1977 , Koubek also completed the Camden Yards Sports Complex master site plan , which laid out projected baseball and football stadiums , museums , restaurants , and retail shopping buildings in an attempt to revitalized the economically depressed Camden Yards area of downtown Baltimore . In September 1978 , Koubek was commissioned to design an addition to the American Security Bank operations center at 635 Massachusetts Avenue NW . ( National Public Radio purchased the building in 1992 , but sold the black @-@ glass and travertine marble structure to Boston Properties in 2008 . After the broadcaster 's new building at 1111 North Capitol Street was completed in 2013 , Boston Properties tore down 635 Massachusetts Avenue . A Class A office building will be erected in its place by 2015 . ) Also in 1978 , Koubek 's 22 @-@ story Virginia Electric and Power Company headquarters in Richmond also opened . ( It is now known as One James River Plaza . ) In March 1979 , Koubek agreed to design the interior renovations to the East Capitol Street Car Barn , an 83 @-@ year @-@ old trolley barn at 14th and East Capitol Streets NE listed on the National Register of Historic Places , turning the old industrial site into a $ 10 million apartment and condominium complex . The renovation was called " striking " . Koubek also participated in the redevelopment of Vermont Avenue NW . In June 1979 , as buildings were razed across the street for the construction of 1090 Vermont Avenue , he was commissioned by the D.C. chapter of the American Medical Association to build a Modernist 12 @-@ story office building at 1100 Vermont Avenue NW . A month later , construction began on Koubek 's Spring Valley Center , a luxury shopping , restaurant , and office building located at 4801 Massachusetts Avenue NW ( on the site of the old Apex Theater ) . The six @-@ story post @-@ Modernist brick structure was not well received . In 1998 , one critic noted that it is " a structure easy to dislike . Clad in brick and encircled by horizontal window bands , it [ is ] volumetrically and dimensionally out of scale with its more domestically scaled neighbors . Unrelieved planar walls and minimalist detailing made it even less charming . " ( The structure was sold to American University 's Washington College of Law in 1994 after a lengthy legal battle , and turned into classrooms and professors ' offices . )
= = = Works of the 1980s = = =
The 1980s saw the last of Koubek 's major projects . In August 1980 , ground was broken on the 18 @-@ story Hyatt Regency Crystal City hotel ( 2799 Jefferson Davis Highway ) and adjacent 12 @-@ story office building ( 2687 Clark Street ) in the Crystal City neighborhood of Arlington , Virginia . The same year , construction began on Pentagon City I and Pentagon City II — 12 @-@ story twin office towers built by Rose Associates prior to the construction of the Fashion Centre at Pentagon City , Pentagon Centre mall , Southampton Condominiums , and Claridge House condominiums . Koubek was also the lead architect for Capitol Place , a 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) , $ 125 million project at the southeast corner of F Street NW and New Jersey Avenue NW . The project involved construction of a 13 @-@ story office building ( now the headquarters of the American Federation of Teachers ) and a hotel with a glass atrium ( now the Washington Court Hotel ) . Groundbreaking began in December 1982 , by which time another two office buildings ( integrated with the first ) had been added . In 1983 , construction was completed on Koubek 's black @-@ glass curtain @-@ walled Union Labor Life Insurance Company headquarters at 111 Massachusetts Avenue NW . ( Commonly called the " Darth Vader Building " for its imposing black surface , the company sold the building to developer Douglas Jemal in 2003 . ) In 1984 , Koubek partnered with architect Robert Brannen of Brannen / Jung Associates to design 1615 L Street NW , a 12 @-@ story office building with a two @-@ story red brick facade on the ground surmounted by light @-@ green glass and dark @-@ green spandrels on the upper floors . The building was highly praised by the Washington Post for its deeply recessed and double @-@ wide entrance and its spectacular , two @-@ story lobby with seven different kinds of polished marble . In 1988 , 1615 L Street NW won the Tucker Award of Excellence , " the stone industry 's most prestigious award , " for its use of stone in the building 's lobby and other interiors . In March 1986 , Koubek was commissioned to design One Judiciary Square , an 11 @-@ story office building on top of the Judiciary Square Metro station . He designed the Westin Georgetown hotel ( 2350 M Street NW ) in 1988 , a structure which successfully used large glass walls to " mingle outside with inside " . He also designed Shockoe Slip ( formerly Shockoe Plaza ) , a seven @-@ building complex at E. Cary and Governor Streets in Richmond , Virginia .
= = = Final works = = =
Although by 1990 Koubek Associates was the 12th largest architectural firm in D.C.-Baltimore area , Koubek personally worked on only a few projects in the 1990s . With John V. Yanik AIA as Associate Architect For Design , Koubek was the Architect of Record for the conversion of the 1919 gymnasium at The Catholic University of America into " The Edward M. Crough Center For Architectural Studies . " In 1990 , The Washington Chapter of The American Institute of Architects presented a Merit Award to the Center and the Architects " For extraordinary Achievement in Architecture . " Although he was not the lead architect on the project , he did the working drawings for the AARP Building at 601 E Street NW . He also did the working drawings for the massive , block @-@ long new headquarters for the International Finance Corporation at 2121 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in 1997 .
Some of his last projects were the 13 @-@ story , Beaux @-@ Arts Holiday Inn Crowne Plaza in 1992 ( 1001 14th Street NW ) , the 29 @-@ story , post @-@ Modernist 100 Harborview Drive condominiums in Baltimore in 1993 , and Baltimore 's 33 @-@ story , post @-@ Modernist Water Tower ( 414 Water Street ) condominiums in 2000 ( in association with Sasaki Associates ) .
= = Other activities = =
In addition to his architectural work , Koubek performed civic service as well . He and his wife , Eva , were both highly active in the Czech émigré community in the United States and especially the Washington , D.C. , area . In 1990 , Czechoslovakian President Václav Havel appointed Koubek to a 15 @-@ member international board of consultants . In 1969 , President Richard Nixon appointed Koubek to serve on an architectural advisory panel to the General Services Administration . In 1984 , Koubek served as a consultant to the United States Department of State , inspecting security arrangements at United States Foreign Service housing in Europe and Asia .
Koubek was a nationally known authority on how to draft construction documents for commercial buildings . He also became a multi @-@ millionaire through his architectural work and through investments .
= = Later years and death = =
Although Koubek designed more than 100 apartment buildings , condominiums , hotels , office buildings , and shopping malls during his long career , he did only a handful of private residences . He actively continued his architectural career and his office until the end of January 2003 . By the time of his passing he had designed buildings representing a combined investment of more than $ 2 billion .
Vlastimil Koubek 's marriage to Eva Koubek ended in divorce . He married Peggy Koubek in 1984 . Vlastimil Koubek died of cancer on February 15 , 2003 , at his home in Arlington , Virginia .
= = Design philosophy = =
Koubek 's architectural philosophy has been described as cosmetic and practical . Because the height of buildings in D.C. was limited to 130 feet ( 40 m ) by law and the cost of land was so high , buildings in the city were built to the maximum size possible . " There is nothing left for the architect to do except apply the cosmetics , " Koubek said . Koubek limited his " cosmetics " to the needs and budgets of his clients , often falling back on the design aesthetics of Marcel Breuer , I. M. Pei , and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe . His work was described as restrained , and an unnamed D.C. city planning official once described Koubek 's work as " last year 's Skidmore , Owings and Merrill . "
Koubek defended his work from criticisms that it was boxlike , sterile , repetitive , and dull . " Good architecture ... has to fit the fabric of the city and be functional inside and make economic sense . The most wonderful building in the world is not going to get built if it will not make money . " Others defended his work as well . Oliver T. Carr , chairman of the giant real estate developer CarrAmerica , said , " He was good . He was different from so many architects of that time . His buildings had clean architectural lines , and yet they were functional and practical and offered good work space . For that period of time , he was a perfect fit . "
Koubek did not like mixing older , smaller buildings with his designs . " There is no place for big buildings next to little buildings , " he told the Washington Post in 1979 . He was
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in mills and factories . On a 1781 visit to Wales Boulton had seen a powerful copper @-@ rolling mill driven by water , and when told it was often inoperable in the summer due to drought suggested that a steam engine would remedy that defect . Boulton wrote to Watt urging the modification of the engine , warning that they were reaching the limits of the pumping engine market : " There is no other Cornwall to be found , and the most likely line for increasing the consumption of our engines is the application of them to mills , which is certainly an extensive field . " Watt spent much of 1782 on the modification project , and though he was concerned that few orders would result , completed it at the end of the year . One order was received in 1782 , and several others from mills and breweries soon after . George III toured the Whitbread brewery in London , and was impressed by the engine . As a demonstration , Boulton used two engines to grind wheat at the rate of 150 bushels per hour in his new Albion Mill in London . While the mill was not financially successful , according to historian Jenny Uglow it served as a " publicity stunt par excellence " for the firm 's latest innovation . Before its 1791 destruction by fire , the mill 's fame , according to early historian Samuel Smiles , " spread far and wide " , and orders for rotative engines poured in not only from Britain but from the United States and the West Indies .
Between 1775 and 1800 the firm produced approximately 450 engines . It did not let other manufacturers produce engines with separate condensers , and approximately 1 @,@ 000 Newcomen engines , less efficient but cheaper and not subject to the restrictions of Watt 's patent , were produced in Britain during that time . Boulton boasted to James Boswell when the diarist toured Soho , " I sell here , sir , what all the world desires to have — POWER . " The development of an efficient steam engine allowed large @-@ scale industry to be developed , and the industrial city , such as Manchester became , to exist .
= = = Involvement with coinage = = =
By 1786 , two @-@ thirds of the coins in circulation in Britain were counterfeit , and the Royal Mint responded by shutting itself down , worsening the situation . Few of the silver coins being passed were genuine . Even the copper coins were melted down and replaced with lightweight fakes . The Royal Mint struck no copper coins for 48 years , from 1773 until 1821 . The resultant gap was filled with copper tokens that approximated the size of the halfpenny , struck on behalf of merchants . Boulton struck millions of these merchant pieces . On the rare occasions when the Royal Mint did strike coins , they were relatively crude , with quality control nonexistent .
Boulton had turned his attention to coinage in the mid @-@ 1780s ; they were just another small metal product like those he manufactured . He also had shares in several Cornish copper mines , and had a large personal stock of copper , purchased when the mines were unable to dispose of it elsewhere . However , when orders for counterfeit money were sent to him , he refused them : " I will do anything , short of being a common informer against particular persons , to stop the malpractices of the Birmingham coiners . " In 1788 he established the Soho Mint as part of his industrial plant . The mint included eight steam @-@ driven presses , each striking between 70 and 84 coins per minute . The firm had little immediate success getting a licence to strike British coins , but was soon engaged in striking coins for the British East India Company for use in India .
The coin crisis in Britain continued . In a letter to the Master of the Mint , Lord Hawkesbury ( whose son would become Prime Minister as Earl of Liverpool ) on 14 April 1789 , Boulton wrote :
In the course of my journeys , I observe that I receive upon an average two @-@ thirds counterfeit halfpence for change at toll @-@ gates , etc. and I believe the evil is daily increasing , as the spurious money is carried into circulation by the lowest class of manufacturers , who pay with it the principal part of the wages of the poor people they employ . They purchase from the subterraneous coiners 36 shillings ' -worth of copper ( in nominal value ) for 20 shillings , so that the profit derived from the cheating is very large .
Boulton offered to strike new coins at a cost " not exceeding half the expense which the common copper coin hath always cost at his Majesty 's Mint " . He wrote to his friend , Sir Joseph Banks , describing the advantages of his coinage presses :
It will coin much faster , with greater ease , with fewer persons , for less expense , and more beautiful than any other machinery ever used for coining ... Can lay the pieces or blanks upon the die quite true and without care or practice and as fast as wanted . Can work night and day without fatigue by two setts of boys . The machine keeps an account of the number of pieces struck which cannot be altered from the truth by any of the persons employed . The apparatus strikes an inscription upon the edge with the same blow that strikes the two faces . It strikes the [ back ] ground of the pieces brighter than any other coining press can do . It strikes the pieces perfectly round , all of equal diameter , and exactly concentric with the edge , which cannot be done by any other machinery now in use .
Boulton spent much time in London lobbying for a contract to strike British coins , but in June 1790 the Pitt Government postponed a decision on recoinage indefinitely . Meanwhile , the Soho Mint struck coins for the East India Company , Sierra Leone and Russia , while producing high @-@ quality planchets , or blank coins , to be struck by national mints elsewhere . The firm sent over 20 million blanks to Philadelphia , to be struck into cents and half @-@ cents by the United States Mint — Mint Director Elias Boudinot found them to be " perfect and beautifully polished " . The high @-@ technology Soho Mint gained increasing and somewhat unwelcome attention : rivals attempted industrial espionage , while lobbying for Boulton 's mint to be shut down .
The national financial crisis reached its nadir in February 1797 , when the Bank of England stopped redeeming its bills for gold . In an effort to get more money into circulation , the Government adopted a plan to issue large quantities of copper coins , and Lord Hawkesbury summoned Boulton to London on 3 March 1797 , informing him of the Government 's plan . Four days later , Boulton attended a meeting of the Privy Council , and was awarded a contract at the end of the month . According to a proclamation dated 26 July 1797 , King George III was " graciously pleased to give directions that measures might be taken for an immediate supply of such copper coinage as might be best adapted to the payment of the laborious poor in the present exigency ... which should go and pass for one penny and two pennies " . The proclamation required that the coins weigh one and two ounces respectively , bringing the intrinsic value of the coins close to their face value . Boulton made efforts to frustrate counterfeiters . Designed by Heinrich Küchler , the coins featured a raised rim with incuse or sunken letters and numbers , features difficult for counterfeiters to match . The twopenny coins measured exactly an inch and a half across ; 16 pennies lined up would reach two feet . The exact measurements and weights made it easy to detect lightweight counterfeits . Küchler also designed proportionate halfpennies and farthings ; these were not authorised by the proclamation , and though pattern pieces were struck , they never officially entered circulation . The halfpenny measured ten to a foot , the farthing 12 to a foot . The coins were nicknamed " cartwheels " , both because of the size of the twopenny coin and in reference to the broad rims of both denominations . The penny was the first of its denomination to be struck in copper .
The cartwheel twopenny coin was not struck again ; much of the mintage was melted down in 1800 when the price of copper increased and it had proved too heavy for commerce and was difficult to strike . Much to Boulton 's chagrin , the new coins were being counterfeited in copper @-@ covered lead within a month of issuance . Boulton was awarded additional contracts in 1799 and 1806 , each for the lower three copper denominations . Though the cartwheel design was used again for the 1799 penny ( struck with the date 1797 ) , all other strikings used lighter planchets to reflect the rise in the price of copper , and featured more conventional designs . Boulton greatly reduced the counterfeiting problem by adding lines to the coin edges , and striking slightly concave planchets . Counterfeiters turned their sights to easier targets , the pre @-@ Soho pieces , which were not withdrawn , due to the expense , until a gradual withdrawal took place between 1814 and 1817 .
Watt , in his eulogy after Boulton 's death in 1809 , stated :
In short , had Mr. Boulton done nothing more in the world than he has accomplished in improving the coinage , his name would deserve to be immortalised ; and if it be considered that this was done in the midst of various other important avocations , and at enormous expense , — for which , at the time , he could have had no certainty of an adequate return , — we shall be at a loss whether most to admire his ingenuity , his perseverance , or his munificence . He has conducted the whole more like a sovereign than a private manufacturer ; and the love of fame has always been to him a greater stimulus than the love of gain . Yet it is to be hoped that , even in the latter point of view , the enterprise answered its purpose .
= = Activities and views = =
= = = Scientific studies and the Lunar Society = = =
Boulton never had any formal schooling in science . His associate and fellow Lunar Society member James Keir eulogised him after his death :
Mr. [ Boulton ] is proof of how much scientific knowledge may be acquired without much regular study , by means of a quick & just apprehension , much practical application , and nice mechanical feelings . He had very correct notions of the several branches of natural philosophy , was master of every metallic art & possessed all the chemistry that had any relations to the object of his various manufactures . Electricity and astronomy were at one time among his favourite amusements .
From an early age , Boulton had interested himself in the scientific advances of his times . He discarded theories that electricity was a manifestation of the human soul , writing " we know tis matter & tis wrong to call it Spirit " . He called such theories " Cymeras [ chimeras ] of each others Brain " . His interest brought him into contact with other enthusiasts such as John Whitehurst , who also became a member of the Lunar Society . In 1758 the Pennsylvania printer Benjamin Franklin , the leading experimenter in electricity , journeyed to Birmingham during one of his lengthy stays in Britain ; Boulton met him , and introduced him to his friends . Boulton worked with Franklin in efforts to contain electricity within a Leyden jar , and when the printer needed new glass for his " glassychord " ( a mechanised version of musical glasses ) he obtained it from Boulton .
Despite time constraints imposed on him by the expansion of his business , Boulton continued his " philosophical " work ( as scientific experimentation was then called ) . He wrote in his notebooks observations on the freezing and boiling point of mercury , on people 's pulse rates at different ages , on the movements of the planets , and on how to make sealing wax and disappearing ink . However , Erasmus Darwin , another fellow enthusiast who became a member of the Lunar Society , wrote to him in 1763 , " As you are now become a sober plodding Man of Business , I scarcely dare trouble you to do me a favour in the ... philosophical way . "
The Birmingham enthusiasts , including Boulton , Whitehurst , Keir , Darwin , Watt ( after his move to Birmingham ) , potter Josiah Wedgwood and clergyman and chemist Joseph Priestley began to meet informally in the late 1750s . This evolved into a monthly meeting near the full moon , providing light to journey home afterwards , a pattern common for clubs in Britain at the time . The group eventually dubbed itself the " Lunar Society " , and following the death of member Dr William Small in 1775 , who had informally coordinated communication between the members , Boulton took steps to put the Society on a formal footing . They met on Sundays , beginning with dinner at 2 p.m. , and continuing with discussions until at least 8 .
While not a formal member of the Lunar Society , Sir Joseph Banks was active in it . In 1768 Banks sailed with Captain James Cook to the South Pacific , and took with him green glass earrings made at Soho to give to the natives . In 1776 Captain Cook ordered an instrument from Boulton , most likely for use in navigation . Boulton generally preferred not to take on lengthy projects , and he warned Cook that its completion might take years . In June 1776 Cook left on the voyage on which he was killed almost three years later , and Boulton 's records show no further mention of the instrument .
In addition to the scientific discussions and experiments conducted by the group , Boulton had a business relationship with some of the members . Watt and Boulton were partners for a quarter century . Boulton purchased vases from Wedgwood 's pottery to be decorated with ormolu , and contemplated a partnership with him . Keir was a long @-@ time supplier and associate of Boulton , though Keir never became his partner as he hoped .
In 1785 both Boulton and Watt were elected as Fellows of the Royal Society . According to Whitehurst , who wrote to congratulate Boulton , not a single vote was cast against him .
Though Boulton hoped his activities for the Lunar Society would " prevent the decline of a Society which I hope will be lasting " , as members died or moved away they were not replaced . In 1813 , four years after his death , the Society was dissolved and a lottery was held to dispose of its assets . Since there were no minutes of meetings , few details of the gatherings remain . Historian Jenny Uglow wrote of the lasting impact of the Society :
The Lunar Society [ ' s ] ... members have been called the fathers of the Industrial Revolution ... [ T ] he importance of this particular Society stems from its pioneering work in experimental chemistry , physics , engineering , and medicine , combined with leadership in manufacturing and commerce , and with political and social ideals . Its members were brilliant representatives of the informal scientific web which cut across class , blending the inherited skills of craftsmen with the theoretical advances of scholars , a key factor in Britain 's leap ahead of the rest of Europe .
= = = Community work = = =
Boulton was widely involved in civic activities in Birmingham . His friend Dr John Ash had long sought to build a hospital in the town . A great fan of the music of Handel , Boulton conceived of the idea to hold a music festival in Birmingham to raise funds for the hospital . The festival took place in September 1768 , the first of a series stretching well into the twentieth century . The hospital opened in 1779 . Boulton also helped build the General Dispensary , where outpatient treatment could be obtained . A firm supporter of the Dispensary , he served as treasurer , and wrote , " If the funds of the institution are not sufficient for its support , I will make up the deficiency . " The Dispensary soon outgrew its original quarters , and a new building in Temple Row was opened in 1808 , shortly before Boulton 's death .
Boulton helped found the New Street Theatre in 1774 , and later wrote that having a theatre encouraged well @-@ to @-@ do visitors to come to Birmingham , and to spend more money than they would have otherwise . Boulton attempted to have the theatre recognised as a patent theatre with a Royal Patent , entitled to present serious drama ; he failed in 1779 but succeeded in 1807 . He also supported Birmingham 's Oratorio Choral Society , and collaborated with button maker and amateur musical promoter Joseph Moore to put on a series of private concerts in 1799 . He maintained a pew at St Paul 's Church , Birmingham , a centre of musical excellence . When performances of the Messiah were organised at Westminster Abbey in 1784 in the ( incorrect ) belief it was the centennial of Handel 's birth and the ( correct ) belief that it was the 25th anniversary of his death , Boulton attended and wrote , " I scarcely know which was grandest , the sounds or the scene . Both was transcendibly fine that it is not in my power of words to describe . In the grand Halleluja my soul almost ascended from my body . "
Concerned about the level of crime in Birmingham , Boulton complained , " The streets are infested from Noon Day to midnight with prostitutes . " In an era prior to the establishment of the police , Boulton served on a committee to organise volunteers to patrol the streets at night and reduce crime . He supported the local militia , providing money for weapons . In 1794 he was elected High Sheriff of Staffordshire , his county of residence .
Besides seeking to improve local life , Boulton took an interest in world affairs . Initially sympathetic to the cause of the rebellious American colonists , Boulton changed his view once he realised that an independent America might be a threat to British trade , and in 1775 organised a petition urging the government to take a hard line with the Americans — though when the revolution proved successful , he resumed trade with the former colonies . He was more sympathetic to the cause of the French Revolution , believing it justified , though he expressed his horror at the bloody excesses of the Revolutionary government . When war with France broke out , he paid for weapons for a company of volunteers , sworn to resist any French invasion .
= = Family and later life , death , and memorials = =
When Boulton was widowed in 1783 he was left with the care of his two teenage children . Neither his son Matthew Robinson Boulton nor his daughter Anne enjoyed robust health ; the younger Matthew was often ill and was a poor student who was shuttled from school to school until he joined his father 's business in 1790 ; Anne suffered from a diseased leg that prevented her from enjoying a full life . Despite his lengthy absences on business , Boulton cared deeply for his family . He wrote to his wife in January 1780 @,@
Nothing could in the least palliate this long , this cold , this very distant separation from my dearest wife and children but the certain knowledge that I am preparing for their ease , happiness and prosperity , and when that is the prise , I know no hardships that I would not encounter with , to obtain it .
With the expiry of the patent in 1800 both Boulton and Watt retired from the partnership , each turning over his role to his namesake son . The two sons made changes , quickly ending public tours of the Soho Manufactory in which the elder Boulton had taken pride throughout his time in Soho . In retirement Boulton remained active , continuing to run the Soho Mint . When a new Royal Mint was built on Tower Hill in 1805 , Boulton was awarded the contract to equip it with modern machinery . His continued activity distressed Watt , who had entirely retired from Soho , and who wrote to Boulton in 1804 , " [ Y ] our friends fear much that your necessary attention to the operation of the coinage may injure your health " .
Boulton helped deal with the shortage of silver , persuading the Government to let him overstrike the Bank of England 's large stock of Spanish dollars with an English design . The Bank had attempted to circulate the dollars by countermarking the coins on the side showing the Spanish king with a small image of George III , but the public was reluctant to accept them , in part due to counterfeiting . This attempt inspired the couplet , " The Bank to make their Spanish Dollars pass / Stamped the head of a fool on the neck of an ass . " Boulton obliterated the old design in his restriking . Though Boulton was not as successful in defeating counterfeiters as he hoped ( high quality fakes arrived at the Bank 's offices within days of the issuance ) , these coins circulated until the Royal Mint again struck large quantities of silver coin in 1816 , when Boulton 's were withdrawn . He oversaw the final issue of his coppers for Britain in 1806 , and a major issue of coppers to circulate only in Ireland . Even as his health failed , he had his servants carry him from Soho House to the Soho Mint , and he sat and watched the machinery , which was kept exceptionally busy
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of each fraternity , he later drew up a katikavata ( " code of conduct " ) for Buddhist monks and recorded this in an inscription at Uttararama . The area in front of the images , which now resembles a terrace , is believed to be the location of the assembly hall where this congregation was held . The inscription recording the code has been carved on the flat , polished rock face between the Vijjadhara Guha and the standing image .
The Uttararama was abandoned during the fall of the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa . It had functioned as an educational establishment from its inception to its abandonment , being a centre of Buddhist education in the country .
= = Images = =
The main feature of Gal Vihara is the four images of the Buddha that have been carved on a single , large granite rock face , considered to be among the best examples of the rock carving and sculpting arts of the ancient Sinhalese . The rock has been cut almost 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) deep to create a rock face to accommodate the statues , and is the only example in the country where a natural rock has been excavated to this extent for such a purpose . The images position the temple alongside some of the most significant monuments which survive from the ancient kingdoms of Sri Lanka , and make it the most celebrated and visited temple in Polonnaruwa . Three of the images are quite large ; the smallest of them is more than 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) tall , and the largest is more than 46 feet ( 14 m ) long . However , the fourth image is just over 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) and located inside an artificial cavern carved into the rock . A seated image is on the left side of the rock , and to the right is a cavern and another seated image . Further to the right are a standing image , and then a reclining image . Unlike other statues of the same period ( such as the one found in the Lankathilaka image house ) , they are all well preserved , and therefore provide a good indication about less well @-@ preserved examples . The size of each image seems to have been decided based on the height of the rock at that point , so that the maximum possible area could be used for it . According to the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana , the images were evidently coated in gold in their early years . The style of the images differs somewhat from that of statues from the earlier Anuradhapura period . The most notable changes are the broader forehead in the Gal Vihara images . The robe is carved with two parallel lines , rather than the single line seen in the Anuradhapura period , influenced by the Amaravati school of art .
= = = Seated image = = =
The large seated image is 15 feet 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 4 @.@ 636 m ) tall , and depicts the dhyana mudra . The seat was carved in the shape of a lotus flower , its base decorated with carvings of flowers and lions . The statue sits on a carved throne , decorated with makara images , with four small images of the Buddha ( identical to the larger image ) carved inside small chambers . This is an unusual feature in ancient Sinhalese sculpture , and is presumably the result of Mahayana influence .
= = = Vidyhadhara Guha = = =
A small statue only 4 feet 7 inches ( 1 @.@ 40 m ) in height , but similar in appearance to its larger neighbour , is located inside the artificial cave named the Vidyhadhara Guha . The cave was created by carving 4 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) into the rock , leaving four square shafted stone columns at the sides of the 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) wide and 12 @-@ foot @-@ 9 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 89 m ) high opening . The base of the lotus shaped seat of the Buddha image here is also decorated with designs of lions . A throne and a parasol are carved behind it , more elaborate in design than the larger image . A prabhamandala , or halo , is carved behind the head of the statue , which rests between two four @-@ armed deities . According to archaeologist H. C. P. Bell , the god on the right is Brahma , and the god on the left is Vishnu . The walls of the cave were once decorated with frescoes , traces of which remain in the two corners at the back of the cave .
= = = Standing image = = =
The standing image is the focus of much discussion among historians and archaeologists , since there is a general belief that it is not a statue of the Buddha . The image is 22 feet 9 inches ( 6 @.@ 93 m ) tall , and stands on a low pedestal shaped like a lotus . It leans back in a relaxed manner , its arms folded across its chest . The statue 's face carries a sorrowful expression and the reclining image — which depicts the Buddha 's parinirvana — lies next to it , which has led some to believe that it is the monk Ānanda , who is lamenting the Buddha 's demise at his deathbed . The remains of the walls , however , indicate that the two images were once in separate chambers , rather than next to each other . Paranavithana believes that the statue is of the Buddha , which depicts the para dukkha dukkhitha mudra or " sorrow for the sorrow of others " . However , this is a rarely used gesture in Sinhalese sculpture , and is seen at only a few locations in the country . Another possibility is that the image shows the Buddha during his second week after enlightenment , which he spent gazing at the Bodhi Tree in gratitude for providing him shelter . The image is not mentioned in the Chulavamsa , which only mentions the other three . While this may be an indication that it is not an image of the Buddha , it is also possible that it may have been made at an earlier period than the others .
= = = Reclining image = = =
At 46 feet 4 inches ( 14 @.@ 12 m ) in length , the reclining image is the largest statue in Gal Vihara , and also one of the largest sculptures in Southeast Asia . It depicts the parinirvana of the Buddha , who is lying on his right side with the right arm supporting the head on a bolster , while the left arm lies along the body and thigh . The palm of the right hand and the soles of the feet have a single lotus flower carved on them . Charles Godakumbure , a former Commissioner of the Archaeological Department of Sri Lanka , has stated that the bolster upon which the Buddha rests his head has been so well carved that it looks like a cotton stuffed pillow rather than one carved from rock . The upper foot — the left foot of the image — is slightly withdrawn to indicate that the image depicts that the Buddha has attained parinirvana , and is not merely lying down . Unlike the other images , the reclining image does not have a decorated pedestal , and lies on levelled bare rock . On the wall behind the image , several sockets have been carved into the rock , as well as the remains of two stone columns , suggesting that its now missing image house had a wooden roof .
= Stanislaw Ulam =
Stanisław Marcin Ulam ( pronounced [ ' staɲiswaf ' mart ͡ ɕin ' ulam ] ; 13 April 1909 – 13 May 1984 ) was a Polish @-@ American mathematician . He participated in America 's Manhattan Project , originated the Teller – Ulam design of thermonuclear weapons , invented the Monte Carlo method of computation , and suggested nuclear pulse propulsion . In pure and applied mathematics , he proved some theorems and proposed several conjectures .
Born into a wealthy Polish Jewish family , Ulam studied mathematics at the Lwów Polytechnic Institute , where he earned his PhD in 1933 under the supervision of Kazimierz Kuratowski . In 1935 , John von Neumann , whom Ulam had met in Warsaw , invited him to come to the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey , for a few months . From 1936 to 1939 , he spent summers in Poland and academic years at Harvard University in Cambridge , Massachusetts , where he worked to establish important results regarding ergodic theory . On 20 August 1939 , he sailed for America for the last time with his 17 @-@ year @-@ old brother Adam Ulam . He became an assistant professor at the University of Wisconsin – Madison in 1940 , and a United States citizen in 1941 .
In October 1943 , he received an invitation from Hans Bethe to join the Manhattan Project at the secret Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico . There , he worked on the hydrodynamic calculations to predict the behavior of the explosive lenses that were needed by an implosion @-@ type weapon . He was assigned to Edward Teller 's group , where he worked on Teller 's " Super " bomb for Teller and Enrico Fermi . After the war he left to become an associate professor at the University of Southern California , but returned to Los Alamos in 1946 to work on thermonuclear weapons . With the aid of a cadre of female " computers " , including his wife Françoise Aron Ulam , he found that Teller 's " Super " design was unworkable . In January 1951 , Ulam and Teller came up with the Teller – Ulam design , which is the basis for all thermonuclear weapons .
Ulam considered the problem of nuclear propulsion of rockets , which was pursued by Project Rover , and proposed , as an alternative to Rover 's nuclear thermal rocket , to harness small nuclear explosions for propulsion , which became Project Orion . With Fermi and John Pasta , Ulam studied the Fermi – Pasta – Ulam problem , which became the inspiration for the field of non @-@ linear science . He is probably best known for realising that electronic computers made it practical to apply statistical methods to functions without known solutions , and as computers have developed , the Monte Carlo method has become a common and standard approach to many problems .
= = Poland = =
Ulam was born in Lemberg , Galicia , on 13 April 1909 . At this time , Galicia was in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , known to Poles as the Austrian partition . In 1918 , it became part of the newly restored Poland , the Second Polish Republic , and the city took its Polish name again , Lwów .
The Ulams were a wealthy Polish Jewish family of bankers , industrialists , and other professionals . Ulam 's immediate family was " well @-@ to @-@ do but hardly rich " . His father , Józef Ulam , was born in Lwów and was a lawyer , and his mother , Anna ( née Auerbach ) , was born in Stryj . His uncle , Michał Ulam , was an architect , building contractor , and lumber industrialist . From 1916 until 1918 , Józef 's family lived temporarily in Vienna . After they returned , Lwów became the epicenter of the Polish – Ukrainian War , during which the city experienced a Ukrainian siege .
In 1919 , Ulam entered Lwów Gymnasium Nr. VII , from which he graduated in 1927 . He then studied mathematics at the Lwów Polytechnic Institute . Under the supervision of Kazimierz Kuratowski , he received his Master of Arts degree in 1932 , and became a Doctor of Science in 1933 . At the age of 20 , in 1929 , he published his first paper Concerning Function of Sets in the journal Fundamenta Mathematicae . From 1931 until 1935 , he traveled to and studied in Wilno ( Vilnius ) , Vienna , Zurich , Paris , and Cambridge , England , where he met G. H. Hardy and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar .
Along with Stanisław Mazur , Mark Kac , Włodzimierz Stożek , Kuratowski , and others , Ulam was a member of the Lwów School of Mathematics . Its founders were Hugo Steinhaus and Stefan Banach , who were professors at the University of Lwów . Mathematicians of this " school " met for long hours at the Scottish Café , where the problems they discussed were collected in the Scottish Book , a thick notebook provided by Banach 's wife . Ulam was a major contributor to the book . Of the 193 problems recorded between 1935 and 1941 , he contributed 40 problems as a single author , another 11 with Banach and Mazur , and an additional 15 with others . In 1957 , he received from Steinhaus a copy of the book , which had survived the war , and translated it into English . In 1981 , Ulam 's friend R. Daniel Maudlin published an expanded and annotated version .
= = Coming to America = =
In 1935 , John von Neumann , whom Ulam had met in Warsaw , invited him to come to the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey , for a few months . In December of that year , Ulam sailed to America . At Princeton , he went to lectures and seminars , where he heard Oswald Veblen , James Alexander , and Albert Einstein . During a tea party at von Neumann 's house , he encountered G. D. Birkhoff , who suggested that he apply for a position with the Harvard Society of Fellows . Following up on Birkhoff 's suggestion , Ulam spent summers in Poland and academic years at Harvard University in Cambridge , Massachusetts from 1936 to 1939 , where he worked with John C. Oxtoby to establish results regarding ergodic theory . These appeared in Annals of Mathematics in 1941 .
On 20 August 1939 , in Gdynia , Józef Ulam , along with his brother Szymon , put his two sons , Stanislaw and 17 year old Adam , on a ship headed for America . Two weeks later , the Germans invaded Poland . Within two months , the Germans completed their occupation of western Poland , and the Soviets invaded and occupied eastern Poland . Within two years , Józef Ulam and the rest of his family were victims of the Holocaust , Hugo Steinhaus was in hiding , Kazimierz Kuratowski was lecturing at the underground university in Warsaw , Włodzimierz Stożek and his two sons had been killed in the massacre of Lwów professors , and the last problem had been recorded in the Scottish Book . Stefan Banach survived the Nazi occupation by feeding lice at Rudolf Weigl 's typhus research institute . In 1963 , Adam Ulam , who had become an eminent kremlinologist at Harvard , received a letter from George Volsky , who hid in Józef Ulam 's house after deserting from the Polish army . This reminiscence gave a chilling account of Lwów 's chaotic scenes in late 1939 . In later life Ulam described himself as " an agnostic . Sometimes I muse deeply on the forces that are for me invisible . When I am almost close to the idea of God , I feel immediately estranged by the horrors of this world , which he seems to tolerate " .
In 1940 , after being recommended by Birkhoff , Ulam became an assistant professor at the University of Wisconsin – Madison . Here , he became a United States citizen in 1941 . That year , he married Françoise Aron . She had been a French exchange student at Mount Holyoke College , whom he met in Cambridge . They had one daughter , Claire . In Madison , Ulam met his friend and colleague C. J. Everett , with whom he would collaborate on a number of papers .
= = Manhattan Project = =
In early 1943 , Ulam asked von Neumann to find him a war job . In October , he received an invitation to join an unidentified project near Santa Fe , New Mexico . The letter was signed by Hans Bethe , who had been appointed as leader of the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory by Robert Oppenheimer , its scientific director . Knowing nothing of the area , he borrowed a New Mexico guide book . On the checkout card , he found the names of his Wisconsin colleagues , Joan Hinton , David Frisch , and Joseph McKibben , all of whom had mysteriously disappeared . This was Ulam 's introduction to the Manhattan Project , which was America 's wartime effort to create the atomic bomb .
= = = Hydrodynamical calculations of implosion = = =
A few weeks after Ulam reached Los Alamos in February 1944 , the project experienced a crisis . In April , Emilio Segrè discovered that plutonium made in reactors would not work in a gun @-@ type plutonium weapon like the " Thin Man " , which was being developed in parallel with a uranium weapon , the " Little Boy " that was dropped on Hiroshima . This problem threatened to waste an enormous investment in new reactors at the Hanford site and to make slow separation of uranium isotopes the only way to prepare fissile material suitable for use in bombs . To respond , Oppenheimer implemented , in August , a sweeping reorganization of the laboratory to focus on development of an implosion @-@ type weapon and appointed George Kistiakowsky head of the implosion department . He was a professor at Harvard and an expert on precise use of explosives .
The basic concept of implosion is to use chemical explosives to crush a chunk of fissile material into a critical mass , where neutron multiplication leads to a nuclear chain reaction , releasing a large amount of energy . Cylindrical implosive configurations had been studied by Seth Neddermeyer , but von Neumann , who had experience with shaped charges used in armor @-@ piercing ammunition , was a vocal advocate of spherical implosion driven by explosive lenses . He realized that the symmetry and speed with which implosion compressed the plutonium were critical issues , and enlisted Ulam to help design lens configurations that would provide nearly spherical implosion . Within an implosion , because of enormous pressures and high temperatures , solid materials behave much like fluids . This meant that hydrodynamical calculations were needed to predict and minimize asymmetries that would spoil a nuclear detonation . Of these calculations , Ulam said :
The hydrodynamical problem was simply stated , but very difficult to calculate – not only in detail , but even in order of magnitude . In this discussion , I stressed pure pragmatism and the necessity to get a heuristic survey of the problem by simple @-@ minded brute force , rather than by massive numerical work .
Nevertheless , with the primitive facilities available at the time , Ulam and von Neumann did carry out numerical computations that led to a satisfactory design . This motivated their advocacy of a powerful computational capability at Los Alamos , which began during the war years , continued through the cold war , and still exists . Otto Frisch remembered Ulam as " a brilliant Polish topologist with a charming French wife . At once he told me that he was a pure mathematician who had sunk so low that his latest paper actually contained numbers with decimal points ! "
= = = Statistics of branching and multiplicative processes = = =
Even the inherent statistical fluctuations of neutron multiplication within a chain reaction have implications with regard to implosion speed and symmetry . In November 1944 , David Hawkins and Ulam addressed this problem in a report entitled " Theory of Multiplicative Processes " . This report , which invokes probability @-@ generating functions , is also an early entry in the extensive literature on statistics of branching and multiplicative processes . In 1948 , its scope was extended by Ulam and Everett .
Early in the Manhattan project , Enrico Fermi 's attention was focused on the use of reactors to produce plutonium . In September 1944 , he arrived at Los Alamos , shortly after breathing life into the first Hanford reactor , which had been poisoned by a xenon isotope . Soon after Fermi 's arrival , Teller 's " Super " bomb group , of which Ulam was a part , was transferred to a new division headed by Fermi . Fermi and Ulam formed a relationship that became very fruitful after the war .
= = Post war Los Alamos = =
In September 1945 , Ulam left Los Alamos to become an associate professor at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles . In January 1946 , he suffered an acute attack of encephalitis , which put his life in danger , but which was alleviated by emergency brain surgery . During his recuperation , many friends visited , including Nicholas Metropolis from Los Alamos and the famous mathematician Paul Erdős , who remarked : " Stan , you are just like before . " This was encouraging , because Ulam was concerned about the state of his mental faculties , for he had lost the ability to speak during the crisis . Another friend , Gian @-@ Carlo Rota , asserted in a 1987 article that the attack changed Ulam 's personality ; afterwards , he turned from rigorous pure mathematics to more speculative conjectures concerning the application of mathematics to physics and biology . This assertion was not accepted by Françoise Aron Ulam .
By late April 1946 , Ulam had recovered enough to attend a secret conference at Los Alamos to discuss thermonuclear weapons . Those in attendance included Ulam , von Neumann , Metropolis , Teller , Stan Frankel , and others . Throughout his participation in the Manhattan Project , Teller 's efforts had been directed toward the development of a " super " weapon based on nuclear fusion , rather than toward development of a practical fission bomb . After extensive discussion , the participants reached a consensus that his ideas were worthy of further exploration . A few weeks later , Ulam received an offer of a position at Los Alamos from Metropolis and Robert D. Richtmyer , the new head of its theoretical division , at a higher salary , and the Ulams returned to Los Alamos .
= = = Monte Carlo method = = =
Late in the war , under the sponsorship of von Neumann , Frankel and Metropolis began to carry out calculations on the first general @-@ purpose electronic computer , the ENIAC at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland . Shortly after returning to Los Alamos , Ulam participated in a review of results from these calculations . Earlier , while playing solitaire during his recovery from surgery , Ulam had thought about playing hundreds of games to estimate statistically the probability of a successful outcome . With ENIAC in mind , he realized that the availability of computers made such statistical methods very practical . John von Neumann immediately saw the significance of this insight . In March 1947 he proposed a statistical approach to the problem of neutron diffusion in fissionable material . Because Ulam had often mentioned his uncle , Michał Ulam , " who just had to go to Monte Carlo " to gamble , Metropolis dubbed the statistical approach " The Monte Carlo method " . Metropolis and Ulam published the first unclassified paper on the Monte Carlo method in 1949 .
Fermi , learning of Ulam 's breakthrough , devised an analog computer known as the Monte Carlo trolley , later dubbed the FERMIAC . The device performed a mechanical simulation of random diffusion of neutrons . As computers improved in speed and programmability , these methods became more useful . In particular , many Monte Carlo calculations carried out on modern massively parallel supercomputers are embarrassingly parallel applications , whose results can be very accurate .
= = = Teller – Ulam design = = =
On 29 August 1949 , the Soviet Union tested its first fission bomb , the RDS @-@ 1 . Created under the supervision of Lavrentiy Beria , who sought to duplicate the American effort , this weapon was nearly identical to Fat Man , for its design was based on information provided by spies Klaus Fuchs , Theodore Hall , and David Greenglass . In response , on 31 January 1950 , President Harry S. Truman announced a crash program to develop a fusion bomb .
To advocate an aggressive development program , Ernest Lawrence and Luis Alvarez came to Los Alamos , where they conferred with Norris Bradbury , the laboratory director , and with George Gamow , Edward Teller , and Ulam . Soon , these three became members of a short @-@ lived committee appointed by Bradbury to study the problem , with Teller as chairman . At this time , research on the use of a fission weapon to create a fusion reaction had been ongoing since 1942 , but the design was still essentially the one originally proposed by Teller . His concept was to put tritium and / or deuterium in close proximity to a fission bomb , with the hope that the heat and intense flux of neutrons released when the bomb exploded , would ignite a self @-@ sustaining fusion reaction . Reactions of these isotopes of hydrogen are of interest because the energy per unit mass of fuel released by their fusion is much larger than that from fission of heavy nuclei .
Because the results of calculations based on Teller 's concept were discouraging , many scientists believed it could not lead to a successful weapon , while others had moral and economic grounds for not proceeding . Consequently , several senior people of the Manhattan Project opposed development , including Bethe and Oppenheimer . To clarify the situation , Ulam and von Neumann resolved to do new calculations to determine whether Teller 's approach was feasible . To carry out these studies , von Neumann decided to use electronic computers : ENIAC at Aberdeen , a new computer , MANIAC , at Princeton , and its twin , which was under construction at Los Alamos . Ulam enlisted Everett to follow a completely different approach , one guided by physical intuition . Françoise Ulam was one of a cadre of women " computers " who carried out laborious and extensive computations of thermonuclear scenarios on mechanical calculators , supplemented and confirmed by Everett 's slide rule . Ulam and Fermi collaborated on further analysis of these scenarios . The results showed that , in workable configurations , a thermonuclear reaction would not ignite , and if ignited , it would not be self @-@ sustaining . Ulam had used his expertise in Combinatorics to analyze the chain reaction in deuterium , which was much more complicated than the ones in uranium and plutonium , and he concluded that no self @-@ sustaining chain reaction would take place at the ( low ) densities that Teller was considering . In late 1950 , these conclusions were confirmed by von Neumann 's results .
In January 1951 , Ulam had another idea : to channel the mechanical shock of a nuclear explosion so as to compress the fusion fuel . On the recommendation of his wife , Ulam discussed this idea with Bradbury and Mark before he told Teller about it . Almost immediately , Teller saw its merit , but noted that soft X @-@ rays from the fission bomb would compress the thermonuclear fuel more strongly than mechanical shock and suggested ways to enhance this effect . On 9 March 1951 , Teller and Ulam submitted a joint report describing these innovations . A few weeks later , Teller suggested placing a fissile rod or cylinder at the center of the fusion fuel . The detonation of this " spark plug " would help to initiate and enhance the fusion reaction . The design based on these ideas , called staged radiation implosion , has become the standard way to build thermonuclear weapons . It is often described as the " Teller – Ulam design " .
In September 1951 , after a series of differences with Bradbury and other scientists , Teller resigned from Los Alamos , and returned to the University of Chicago . At about the same time , Ulam went on leave as a visiting professor at Harvard for a semester . Although Teller and Ulam submitted a joint report on their design and
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move to Caltech . The President of Harvard , Abbott Lawrence Lowell , made a counter offer : immediate promotion to professor , effective September 1 , 1927 , with a salary of $ 7 @,@ 000 ( roughly equivalent to US $ 95 @,@ 358 as of 2016 ) and a grant of $ 9 @,@ 000 per annum for research . Conant accepted and stayed at Harvard . In 1929 , he became the Sheldon Emery Professor of Organic Chemistry , and then , in 1931 , the Chairman of the Chemistry Department .
Between 1928 and 1933 , Conant published 55 papers . Much of his research , like his double thesis , combined natural product chemistry with physical organic chemistry . Based on his exploration of reaction rates in chemical equilibria , Conant was one of the first to recognise that the kinetics of these systems is sometimes straightforward and simple , yet quite complex in other cases . Conant studied the effect of haloalkane structure on the rate of substitution with inorganic iodide salts which , together with earlier work , led to what is now known as either the Conant @-@ Finkelstein reaction or more commonly simply the Finkelstein reaction . A recent application of this reaction involved the preparation of an iodinated polyvinyl chloride from regular PVC . A combination of Conant 's work on the kinetics of hydrogenation and George Kistiakowsky 's work on the enthalpy changes of these reactions supported the later development of the theory of hyperconjugation .
Conant 's investigations helped in the development of a more comprehensive understanding of the nature of acids and bases . He investigated the properties of certain acids which were many times stronger than mineral acid solutions in water . Conant christened them " superacids " and laid the foundation for the development of the Hammett acidity function . These investigations used acetic acid as the solvent and demonstrated that sodium acetate behaves as a base under these conditions . This observation is consistent with Brønsted – Lowry acid – base theory ( published in 1923 ) but cannot be explained under older Arrhenius theory approaches . Later work with George Wheland and extended by William Kirk McEwen looked at the properties of hydrocarbons as very weak acids , including acetophenone , phenylacetylene , fluorene and diphenylmethane . Conant can be considered alongside Brønsted , Lowry , Lewis , and Hammett as a developer of modern understanding of acids and bases .
Between 1929 and his retirement from chemical research in 1933 , Conant published papers in Science , Nature , and the Journal of the American Chemical Society about chlorophyll and its structure . Though the complete structure eluded him , his work did support and contribute to Nobel laureate Hans Fischer 's ultimate determination of the structure in 1939 . Conant 's work on chlorophyll was recognised when he was inducted as a foreign Fellow of the Royal Society on May 2 , 1941 . He also published three papers describing the polymerisation of isoprene to prepare synthetic rubber .
Another line of research involved the biochemistry of the hemoglobin @-@ oxyhemoglobin system . Conant ran a series of experiments with electrochemical oxidation and reduction , following in the footsteps of the famous German chemist and Nobel laureate Fritz Haber . He determined that the iron centre in methemoglobin is a ferric ( FeIII ) centre , unlike the ferrous ( FeII ) centre found in normal hemoglobin , and this difference in oxidation state is the cause of methemoglobinemia , a medical condition which causes tissue hypoxia .
Conant wrote a chemistry textbook with his former science teacher Black , entitled Practical Chemistry , which was published in 1920 , with a revised edition in 1929 . This was superseded in 1937 by their New Practical Chemistry , which in turn had a revised edition in 1946 . The text proved a popular one ; it was adopted by 75 universities , and Conant received thousands of dollars in royalties . For his accomplishments in chemistry , he was awarded the American Chemical Society 's Nichols Medal in 1932 , Columbia University 's Chandler Medal in 1932 , and the American Chemical Society 's highest honor , the Priestley Medal , in 1944 . He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1924 , and the National Academy of Sciences in 1929 . Notable students of Conant 's included Paul Bartlett , George Wheland , and Frank Westheimer . In 1932 he was also honored by membership of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina .
After some months of lobbying and discussion , Harvard 's ruling body , the Harvard Corporation , announced on May 8 , 1933 , that it had elected Conant as the next President of Harvard . Alfred North Whitehead , Harvard 's eminent professor of philosophy disagreed with the decision , declaring :
" The Corporation should not have elected a chemist to the Presidency . "
" But , " Corporation member Grenville Clark reminded him , " Eliot was a chemist , and our best president too . " " I know , " replied Whitehead " but Eliot was a bad chemist . "
= = President of Harvard = =
On October 9 , 1933 , Conant became the President of Harvard University with a low @-@ key installation ceremony in the Faculty Room of University Hall . This set the tone for Conant 's presidency as one of informality and reform . At his inauguration he accepted the charter and seal presented to John Leverett the Younger in 1707 , but dropped a number of other customs , including the singing of Gloria Patri and the Latin Oration . This was a sign of things to come . While , unlike some other universities , Harvard did not require Greek or Latin for entrance , they were worth double credits towards admission , and students like Conant who had studied Latin were awarded an A.B. degree while those who had not , received an S.B. One of his first efforts at reform was to attempt to abolish this distinction , which took over a decade to accomplish . But in 1937 he wrote :
I do not see how one can make very much headway as a student ... of history and literature without a reading knowledge of Latin . I do not see how a person can go very far in any branch of science without a thorough understanding of mathematics , and if the underpinning was bad in school , probably the necessary calculus and so forth would not have been taken during the college years . I know that a man cannot be a research chemist without a reading knowledge of German . It is hard to acquire it as the first language in college .
Other reforms included the abolition of class rankings and athletic scholarships , but his first , longest and most bitter battle was over tenure reform , shifting to an " up or out " policy , under which scholars who were not promoted were terminated . A small number of extra @-@ departmental positions was set aside for outstanding scholars . This policy led junior faculty to revolt , and nearly resulted in Conant 's dismissal in 1938 . Conant was fond of saying : " Behold the turtle . It makes progress only when it sticks its neck out . "
Conant added new graduate degrees in education , history of science and public policy , and he introduced the Nieman Fellowship for journalists to study at Harvard , the first of which was awarded in 1939 . He supported the " meatballs " , as lower class students were called . He instituted the Harvard national scholarships for underprivileged students . Dudley House was opened as a place where non @-@ resident students could stay . Conant asked two of his assistant deans , Henry Chauncey and William Bender , to determine whether the Scholastic Aptitude Test ( SAT ) was a good measure of academic potential . When they reported that it was , Conant adopted it . He waged a ten @-@ year campaign for the consolidation of testing services , which resulted in the creation of the Educational Testing Service in 1946 , with Chauncey as its director . Theodore H. White , a Boston Jewish meatball who received a personal letter of introduction from Conant so that he could report on the Chinese Civil War , noted that " Conant was the first president to recognize that meatballs were Harvard men too . "
Instead of conducting separate but identical undergraduate courses for Harvard students and students from Radcliffe College , Conant instituted co @-@ educational classes . It was during his presidency that the first class of women were admitted to Harvard Medical School in 1945 , and Harvard Law School in 1950 . Lowell , Conant 's predecessor , had imposed a 15 percent quota on Jewish students in 1922 , something Conant had voted to support . This quota was later substituted with geographic distribution preferences , having the same effect of limiting Jewish admission . In the words of historians Morton and Phyllis Keller , " Conant 's pro @-@ quota position in the early 1920s , his preference for more students from small towns and cities and the South and West , and his cool response to the plight of the Jewish academic refugees from Hitler suggest that he shared the mild antisemitism common to his social group and time . But his commitment to meritocracy made him more ready to accept able Jews as students and faculty . "
In 1934 , Harvard @-@ educated German businessman Ernst Hanfstaengl attended the 25th anniversary reunion of his class of 1909 , and gave a number of speeches , including the 1934 commencement address . Hanfstaengl wrote out a check for 2 @,@ 500 Reichsmarks ( roughly equivalent to US $ 185 @,@ 735 as of 2016 ) to Conant for a scholarship to enable an outstanding Harvard student to study for a year in Germany . The President and Fellows of Harvard College rejected the offer due to Hanfstaengl 's Nazi associations . When the issue of Hanfstaengl 's scholarship came up again in 1936 , Conant turned the money down a second time . Hanfstaengl 's presence on campus prompted a series of anti @-@ Nazi demonstrations , in which a number of Harvard and MIT students were arrested . Conant made a personal plea for clemency that resulted in two girls being acquitted , but six boys and a girl were sentenced to six months in prison .
When the University of Berlin awarded an honorary degree in 1934 to American legal scholar and Dean of Harvard Law School Roscoe Pound , who had toured Germany earlier that year and made no secret of his admiration for the Nazi regime , Conant refused to order Pound not to accept it , and attended the informal award ceremony at Harvard where Pound was presented with the degree by Hans Luther , the German ambassador to the United States . While Conant declined to participate in the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced German Scholars , Harvard awarded honorary degrees to two notable displaced scholars , Thomas Mann and Albert Einstein , in 1935 . What Conant feared most was disruption to Harvard 's tercentennial celebrations in 1936 , but there was no trouble , despite the presence of Franklin D. Roosevelt , the President of the United States , and a Harvard graduate of the class of 1904 , whom many Harvard graduates regarded as a socialist and a class traitor . It was only with difficulty that Lowell was persuaded to be presiding officer at an event at which Roosevelt spoke .
An incident took place during the 1941 Harvard – Navy lacrosse game , when the Harvard Crimson men 's lacrosse team attempted to field a player of African @-@ American descent . The Navy Midshipmen men 's lacrosse team 's coach then refused to field his team . Harvard 's athletic director , William J. Bingham , overruled his lacrosse coach , and had the player , Lucien Victor Alexis , Jr . , sent back to Cambridge on a train . Conant subsequently apologized to the Commandant of Midshipmen . After serving in World War II , Alexis was refused admittance to Harvard Medical School on the grounds that , as the only black student , he would have no one to room with . Alexis graduated from Harvard Business School instead .
= = National Defense Research Committee = =
In June 1940 , with World War II already raging in Europe , Vannevar Bush , the director of the Carnegie Institution of Washington , recruited Conant to the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) , although he remained president of Harvard . Bush envisaged the NDRC as bringing scientists together to " " conduct research for the creation and improvement of instrumentalities , methods and materials of warfare . " Although the United States had not yet entered the war , Conant was not alone in his conviction that Nazi Germany had to be stopped , and that the United States would inevitably become embroiled in the conflict . The immediate task , as Conant saw it , was therefore to organize American science for war . He became head of the NDRC 's Division B , the division responsible for bombs , fuels , gases and chemicals . On June 28 , 1941 , Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8807 , which created the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , with Bush as its director . Conant succeeded Bush as Chairman of the NDRC , which was subsumed into the OSRD . Roger Adams , a contemporary of Conant 's at Harvard in the 1910s , succeeded him as head of Division B. Conant became the driving force of the NDRC on personnel and policy matters . The NDRC would work hand in hand with the Army and Navy 's research efforts , supplementing rather than supplanting them . It was specifically charged with investigating nuclear fission .
In February 1941 , Roosevelt sent Conant to Britain as head of a mission that also included Frederick L. Hovde from Purdue University and Carroll L. Wilson from MIT , to evaluate the research being carried out there and the prospects for cooperation . The 1940 Tizard Mission had revealed that American technology was some years behind that of Britain in many fields , most notably radar , and cooperation was eagerly sought . Conant had lunch with Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Frederick Lindemann , his leading scientific adviser , and an audience with King George VI at Buckingham Palace . At a subsequent meeting , Lindemann told Conant about British progress towards developing an atomic bomb . What most impressed Conant was the British conviction that it was feasible . That the British program was ahead of the American one raised the possibility in Conant 's mind that the German nuclear energy project might be even further ahead , as Germany was generally acknowledged to be a world leader in nuclear physics . Later that year , Churchill , as Chancellor of the University of Bristol , conferred an honorary Doctor of Laws degree on Conant in absentia .
Conant subsequently moved to restrict cooperation with Britain on nuclear energy , particularly its post @-@ war aspects , and became involved in heated negotiations with Wallace Akers , the representative of Tube Alloys , the British atomic project . Conant 's tough stance , under which the British were excluded except where their assistance was vital , resulted in British retaliation , and a complete breakdown of cooperation . His objections were swept aside by Roosevelt , who brokered the 1943 Quebec Agreement with Churchill , that restored full cooperation . After the Quebec Conference , Churchill visited Conant at Harvard , where Conant returned the 1941 gesture and presented Churchill with an honorary Doctor of Laws degree . After the United States entered the war in December 1941 , the OSRD handed the atomic bomb project , better known as the Manhattan Project , over to the Army , with Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves as project
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director . A meeting that included Conant decided Groves should be answerable to a small committee called the Military Policy Committee , chaired by Bush , with Conant as his alternate . Thus , Conant remained involved in the administration of the Manhattan Project at its highest levels .
In August 1942 , Roosevelt appointed Conant to the Rubber Survey Committee . Chaired by Bernard M. Baruch , a trusted adviser and confidant of Roosevelt , the committee was tasked with reviewing the synthetic rubber program . Corporations used patent laws to restrict competition and stifle innovation . When the Japanese occupation of Malaya , North Borneo and Sarawak , followed by the Japanese occupation of Indonesia , cut off 90 percent of the supply of natural rubber , the rubber shortage became a national scandal , and the development of synthetic substitutes , an urgent priority . Baruch dealt with the difficult political issues ; Conant concerned himself with the technical ones . There were a number of different synthetic rubber products to choose from . In addition to DuPont 's neoprene , Standard Oil had licensed German patents for a copolymer called Buna @-@ N and a related product , Buna @-@ S. None had been manufactured on the scale now required , and there was pressure from agricultural interests to choose a process which involved making raw materials from farm products . The Rubber Survey Committee made a series of recommendations , including the appointment of a rubber director , and the construction and operation of 51 factories to supply the materials needed for synthetic rubber production . Technical problems dogged the program through 1943 , but by late 1944 plants were in operation with an annual capacity of over a million tons , most of which was Buna @-@ S.
In May 1945 , Conant became part of the Interim Committee that was formed to advise the new president , Harry S. Truman on nuclear weapons . The Interim Committee decided that the atomic bomb should be used against an industrial target in Japan as soon as possible and without warning . On July 16 , 1945 , Conant was among the dignitaries present at the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range for the Trinity nuclear test , the first detonation of an atomic bomb . After the war , Conant became concerned about growing criticism in the United States of the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by figures like Norman Cousins and Reinhold Niebuhr . He played an important behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role in shaping public opinion by instigating and then editing an influential February 1947 Harper 's article entitled " The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb " . Written by former Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson with the help of McGeorge Bundy , the article stressed that the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were used to avoid the possibility of " over a million casualties " , from a figure found in the estimates given to the Joint Chiefs of Staff by its Joint Planning Staff in 1945 .
= = Cold War = =
The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 replaced the wartime Manhattan Project with the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) on January 1 , 1947 . The Act also established the General Advisory Committee ( GAC ) within the AEC to provide it with scientific and technical advice . It was widely expected that Conant would chair the GAC , but the position went to Robert Oppenheimer , the wartime director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory that had designed and developed the first atomic bombs . At the same time , the Joint Research and Development Board ( JRDC ) was established to coordinate defense research , and Bush asked Conant to head its atomic energy subcommittee , on which Oppenheimer also served . When the new AEC chairman David E. Lilienthal raised security concerns about Oppenheimer 's relationships with communists , including Oppenheimer 's brother Frank Oppenheimer , his wife Kitty and his former girlfriend Jean Tatlock , Bush and Conant reassured Lilienthal that they had known about it when they had placed Oppenheimer in charge at Los Alamos in 1942 . With such expressions of support , AEC issued Oppenheimer a Q clearance , granting him access to atomic secrets .
By September 1948 , the Red Scare began to take hold , and Conant called for a ban on hiring teachers who were communists , although not for the dismissal of those who had already been hired . A debate ensued over whether communist educators could teach apolitical subjects . Conant was a member of the Educational Policies Commission ( EPC ) , a body to which he had been appointed in 1941 . When it next met in March 1949 , Conant 's push for a ban was supported by the president of Columbia University , General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower . The two found common ground in their belief in ideology @-@ based education , which Conant called " democratic education " . He did not see public education as a side effect of American democracy , but as one of its principal driving forces , and he disapproved of the public funding of denominational schools that he observed in Australia during his visit there in 1951 . He called for increased federal spending on education , and higher taxes to redistribute wealth . His thinking was outlined in his books Education in a Divided World in 1948 , and Education and Liberty in 1951 . In 1952 , he went further and endorsed the dismissal of academics who invoked the Fifth under questioning by the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee .
A sign of Conant 's declining influence occurred in 1950 , when he was passed over for the post of President of the National Academy of Sciences in favor of Detlev Bronk , the President of Johns Hopkins University , after a " revolt " by scientists unhappy with Conant . The GAC was enormously influential throughout the late 1940s , but the opposition of Oppenheimer and Conant to the development of the hydrogen bomb , only to be overridden by Truman in 1950 , diminished its stature . It was reduced further when Oppenheimer and Conant were not reappointed when their terms expired in 1952 , depriving the GAC of its two best @-@ known members . Conant was appointed to the National Science Board , which administered the new National Science Foundation , and was elected its chairman , but this body had little financial or political clout . In April 1951 , Truman appointed Conant to the Science Advisory Committee , but it would not develop into an influential body until the Eisenhower administration .
Conant 's experience with the Manhattan Project convinced him that the public needed a better understanding of science , and he moved to revitalize the history and philosophy of science program at Harvard . He took the lead personally by teaching a new undergraduate course , Natural Science 4 , " On Understanding Science " . His course notes became the basis for a book of the same name , published in 1948 . In 1952 , he began teaching another undergraduate course , Philosophy 150 , " A Philosophy of Science " . In his teachings and writing on the philosophy of science , he drew heavily on those of his Harvard colleague Willard Van Orman Quine . Conant contributed four chapters to the 1957 Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science , including an account of the overthrow of the phlogiston theory . In 1951 , he published Science and Common Sense , in which he attempted to explain the ways of scientists to laymen . Conant 's ideas about scientific progress would come under attack by his own protégés , notably Thomas Kuhn in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions . Conant commented on Kuhn 's manuscript in draft form .
= = High Commissioner = =
In April 1951 Conant had been approached by the Secretary of State , Dean Acheson , about replacing John J. McCloy as United States High Commissioner for Germany , but had declined . However , after Eisenhower was elected president in 1952 , Conant was again offered the job by the new Secretary of State , John Foster Dulles , and this time he accepted . At the Harvard Board of Overseers meeting on January 12 , 1952 , Conant announced that he would retire in September 1953 after twenty years at Harvard , having reached the pension age of sixty .
In Germany , there were major issues to be decided . Germany was still occupied by the Soviet Union , the United States , Great Britain and France . Dealing with the wartime allies was a major task for the high commissioner . West Germany , made up of the zones occupied by the three western powers , had been granted control of its own affairs , except for defense and foreign policy , in 1949 . While most Germans wanted a neutral and reunited Germany , the Eisenhower administration sought to reduce its defense spending by rearming Germany and replacing American troops with Germans . Meanwhile , the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee slammed Conant 's staff as communist sympathizers and called for books by communist authors held in United States Information Agency ( USIA ) libraries in Germany to be burned .
The first crisis to occur on Conant 's watch was the uprising of 1953 in East Germany . This brought the reunification issue to the fore . Konrad Adenauer 's deft handling of the issue enabled him to handily win re @-@ election as Chancellor of West Germany in September , but this also strengthened his hand in negotiations with Conant . Adenauer did not want his country to become a bargaining chip between the United States and the Soviet Union , nor did he want it to become a nuclear battlefield , a prospect raised by the arrival of American tactical nuclear weapons in 1953 as part of the Eisenhower administration 's New Look policy . Conant lobbied for the European
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Defense Community , which would have established a pan @-@ European military . This seemed to be the only way that German rearmament would be accepted , but opposition from France killed the plan . In what Conant considered a minor miracle , France 's actions cleared the way for West Germany to become part of NATO with its own army .
At noon on May 6 , 1955 , Conant , along with the high commissioners from Britain and France , signed the documents ending Allied control of West Germany , admitting it to NATO , and allowing it to rearm . The office of the United States High Commissioner was abolished and Conant became instead the first United States Ambassador to West Germany . His role was now to encourage West Germany to build up its forces , while reassuring the Germans that doing so would not result in a United States withdrawal . Being fluent in German , Conant was able to give speeches to German audiences . He paid numerous visits to German educational and scientific organizations .
= = Later life = =
Conant returned to the United States in February 1957 , and moved to an apartment on the Upper East Side of New York . Between 1957 and 1965 , the Carnegie Corporation of New York gave him over a million dollars to write studies of education . In 1959 he published The American High School Today . This became a best seller , resulting in Conant 's appearance on the cover of Time magazine on September 14 , 1959 . In it , Conant called for a number of reforms , including the consolidation of high schools into larger bodies that could offer a broader range of curriculum choices . Although it was slammed by critics of the American system , who hoped for a system of education based on the European model , it did lead to a wave of reforms across the country . His subsequent Slums and Suburbs in 1961 was far more controversial in its treatment of racial issues . Regarding busing as impractical , Conant urged Americans " to accept de facto segregated schools " . This did not go over well with civil rights groups , and by 1964 Conant was forced to admit that he had been wrong . In The Education of American Teachers in 1963 , Conant found much to criticize about the training of teachers . Most controversial was his defense of the arrangement by which teachers were certified by independent bodies rather than the teacher training colleges .
President Lyndon Johnson presented Conant with the Presidential Medal of Freedom , with special distinction , on December 6 , 1963 . He had been selected for the award by President John F. Kennedy , but the ceremony had been delayed , and went ahead after Kennedy 's assassination in November 1963 . In February 1970 , President Richard Nixon presented Conant with the Atomic Pioneers Award from the Atomic Energy Commission . Other awards that Conant received during his long career included being made a Commander of Legion d 'Honneur by France in 1936 and an Honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Britain in 1948 , and he was awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1957 . He was also awarded over 50 honorary degrees , and was posthumously inducted into the Alpha Chi Sigma Hall of Fame in 2000 .
Between 1965 and 1969 , Conant , suffering from a heart condition , worked on his biography , My Several Lives . He became increasingly infirm , and suffered a series of strokes in 1977 . He died in a nursing home in Hanover , New Hampshire , on February 11 , 1978 . His body was cremated and his ashes interred in the Thayer @-@ Richards family plot at Mount Auburn Cemetery . He was survived by his wife and sons . His papers are in the Harvard University Archives . Among them was a sealed brown Manila envelope that Conant had given the archives in 1951 , with instructions that it was to be opened by the President of Harvard in the 21st century . It was given to the 28th President of Harvard University , Drew Faust in 2007 . She broke the seal , and found that it contained a letter in which Conant expressed his hopes and fears for the future to his successor . " You will receive this note and be in charge of a more prosperous and significant institution than the one over which I have the honor to preside " , he wrote . " That [ Harvard ] will maintain the traditions of academic freedom , of tolerance for heresy , I feel sure . "
= = Graduate students = =
Former graduate students of Conant include :
Louis Fieser – organic chemist and professor emeritus at Harvard University renowned as the inventor of a militarily effective form of napalm . His award @-@ winning research included work on blood @-@ clotting agents including the first synthesis of vitamin K , synthesis and screening of quinones as antimalarial drugs , work with steroids leading to the synthesis of cortisone , and study of the nature of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons .
Benjamin S. Garvey – noted chemist at BF Goodrich who worked on the development of synthetic rubber , contributed to understanding of vulcanization , and developed early techniques for small scale evaluation of rubbers .
Frank Westheimer – was the Morris Loeb Professor of Chemistry Emeritus at Harvard University .
= Basarab I of Wallachia =
Basarab I ( Romanian pronunciation : [ basaˈrab ] ) , also known as Basarab the Founder ( Romanian : Basarab Întemeietorul ) , was a voivode , and later the first independent ruler of Wallachia who lived in the first half of the 14th century . Many details of his life are uncertain . Although his name is of Turkic origin , 14th @-@ century sources unanimously state that he was a Vlach . Basarab came into power before 1324 , but the circumstances of his ascension are unknown . According to two popular theories , he succeeded either his father , Thocomerius , or the legendary founder of Wallachia , Radu Negru .
A royal charter issued on 26 July 1324 is the first document to reference Basarab . According to the charter , he was subject to Charles I of Hungary as the voivode of Wallachia . Basarab became " disloyal to the Holy Crown of Hungary " in 1325 . He seized the Banate of Severin and raided the southern regions of the Kingdom of Hungary . Basarab supported Michael Shishman of Bulgaria 's attack against the Kingdom of Serbia , but their united armies were defeated in the Battle of Velbazhd on 28 July 1330 . Soon after , Charles I of Hungary invaded Wallachia , but the Wallachians ambushed and almost annihilated the royal troops in the Battle of Posada , which occurred between 9 and 12 November 1330 .
The Battle of Posada ended Hungarian suzerainty in Wallachia , and the first independent Romanian principality was consequently founded . Basarab 's descendants ruled Wallachia for at least two centuries . The region of Bessarabia , situated between the rivers Dniester and Prut , was named for the Basarab dynasty .
= = Origins = =
Basarab was the son of Thocomerius , according to a charter written by Charles I of Hungary in 1332 . Thocomerius ' social position cannot be determined . A scholarly hypothesis states that he was descended from Seneslau , a mid @-@ 13th @-@ century Vlach lord . Historian Vlad Georgescu writes that Thocomerius was the probable successor to Bărbat , the late 13th @-@ century ruler of Oltenia . Historian Tudor Sălăgean says that Thocomerius was " a local potentate . "
Basarab 's name is of Turkic origin . Its first part is the present participle for the verb bas- ( " press , rule , govern " ) ; the second part matches the Turkic honorific title aba or oba ( " father , elder kinsman " ) , which can be recognized in Cuman names , such as Terteroba , Arslanapa and Ursoba . Basarab 's name implies that he was of Cuman or Pecheneg ancestry , but this hypothesis has not been proven . At least four royal charters from the 14th century refer to Basarab as a Vlach . Charles I of Hungary referred to him as " Basarab , our disloyal Vlach " in 1332 .
Pope John XXII addressed Basarab as a " devout Catholic prince " in a letter written on 1 February 1327 . On the same day , the pope sent similar letters to Charles I of Hungary and his high officials , including Thomas Szécsényi , the Voivode of Transylvania , and Mikcs Ákos , the Ban of Slavonia , asking them to support the Dominicans ' actions against the " heretics " . According to scholar Neagu Djuvara , this correspondence with the Holy See proves that Basarab was a Catholic , which also testifies to Basarab 's Cuman origin , because the Cumans had been baptized according to Catholic rite . Historians Matei Cazacu and Dan Mureșan reject Djuvara 's theory , saying that all other sources prove that Basarab was an Eastern Orthodox . For instance , the Illuminated Chronicle , completed in the late 1350s , referred to Basarab as a " perfidious schismatic . "
= = Reign = =
= = = Charles I 's voivode = = =
The details of Basarab 's accession are obscure . Early Romanian chronicles attribute the establishment of Wallachia to the legendary Radu Negru . According to 17th @-@ century Wallachian chronicles , Negru , after departing from Făgăraș , arrived in Wallachia in either 1290 or 1292 , accompanied by " many peoples " . One of those chronicles , Istoria Țării Românești , states that " Basarab " was the surname of an Oltenian boyar family , who accepted Radu Negru 's suzerainty following his " dismounting " . Historian Neagu Djuvara tentatively associates Basarab ( or , alternatively , Basarab 's father ) with Radu Negru ; Laurenţiu Rădvan writes that Basarab either dethroned or peacefully succeeded Radu Negru between 1304 and 1324 . Other historians , such as Vlad Georgescu , state that Basarab succeeded his father , Thocomerius , around 1310 .
Basarab was first mentioned in a royal charter issued by Charles I of Hungary on 26 July 1324 , in which he was described as " our voivode of Wallachia " . This shows that Charles I regarded Basarab as a loyal vassal at that time . Historian István Vásáry states that Basarab only accepted Charles ' suzerainty after the king restored royal authority in the Banate of Severin , a Hungarian border province , in 1321 . In exchange for his loyalty , Basarab 's possession of Severin Fort was confirmed , according to historians Tudor Sălăgean and Attila Bárány .
= = = Towards independence = = =
A royal charter dated 18 June 1325 records that a person named Stephen , who was the son of a Cuman ispán in Hungary , stated that the king was weaker than Basarab and " did not even reach up to [ his ] ankle " . The same charter describes Basarab as " disloyal to the Holy Crown of Hungary " , showing that Basarab had betrayed the crown . A royal charter from 1329 listed Basarab , along with the Bulgarians , Serbs and Tatars , as an enemy who " [ made ] hostile inroads " around Mehadia . Basarab seems to have entirely controlled the Banate of Severin between 1324 and 1330 , since royal charters did not mention a Ban of Severin during this period . In a letter written in 1327 , Pope John XXII alluded to " territories of the Kingdom of Hungary which were subjected " to Basarab .
Michael III Shishman , Tsar of Bulgaria , attacked Serbia in 1330 . He was accompanied by " the ruler of the Yas " , along with Vlach and " black Tatar " auxiliary troops . According to Serbian sources and a letter written by Stephen Dušan , who became King of Serbia in 1331 , Basarab personally led his army to Serbia to assist Shishman . The Serbs routed the united army of Michael Shishman and his allies at the Battle of Velbazhd on 28 July 1330 . Shishman was killed while fleeing from the battlefield .
Taking advantage of the weakened state of Basarab 's allies , Charles I of Hungary decided to restore his suzerainty in Wallachia . According to a royal charter issued two years after the events , Charles wanted to recapture " marginal lands " that Basarab " illegally " held in Wallachia . He invaded Oltenia , captured Severin Fort and appointed Denis Szécsi Ban of Severin in September 1330 . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , Basarab offered 7 @,@ 000 " marks of silver " as compensation , along with a yearly tribute to the king . He also promised to send one of his sons to the royal court in Visegrád .
However , Charles I refused Basarab 's offer , saying that " [ h ] e is the shepherd of my sheep , and I will drag him by his beard from his lair " . Charles continued his campaign , but he and his soldiers suffered from hunger while marching to Curtea de Argeș through a sparsely populated region . Charles was compelled to sign an armistice with Basarab , and the royal army started retreating from Wallachia . On 9 November , however , the Wallachians ambushed the king and his soldiers at a narrow pass in the Southern Carpathians . Standing on the cliffs above the valley , the Wallachians shot arrows and threw rocks upon the army . The battle lasted until 12 November . The royal army was decimated , and King Charles narrowly escaped . Historian Sălăgean writes that Basarab repelled Charles ' invasion without assistance from his allies . A charter written in 1351 by Louis I , Charles ' son and successor , states that pagan " neighbors and a troop formed of other subjects unfaithful " to Charles supported Basarab during the war , suggesting that Tatar auxiliaries fought for Basarab . However , the credibility of the report , written decades after the events , is uncertain .
= = = Independent ruler = = =
Archaeological research shows that after his capital of Curtea de Argeș was destroyed during Charles I 's campaign , Basarab moved his seat to Câmpulung . Basarab 's victory in the Battle of Posada enabled the introduction of an active foreign policy . He supported the efforts of his son @-@ in @-@ law , Ivan Alexander , to seize the Bulgarian crown , which he did in February 1331 . With Basarab 's support , Ivan Alexander successfully campaigned against the Byzantine Empire in 1331 and 1332 . According to Sălăgean , Basarab allegedly took possession of Severin Fort in the early 1330s .
The reconstruction of Curtea de Argeș started after 1340 , with the erection of new fortifications and a new palace . The construction of the Princely Church of St. Nicholas also commenced during Basarab 's rule , but it was completed after his death . Basarab seems to have made his son , Nicholas Alexander , his co @-@ ruler around 1344 . Louis I of Hungary , who had succeeded Charles I in 1342 , marched to southeastern Transylvania in the summer of 1344 . To prevent a campaign against Wallachia , Nicholas Alexander visited Louis I and swore loyalty to him , according to the nearly contemporaneous John of Küküllő 's chronicle . Wallachian troops supported Andrew Lackfi 's attack against the Mongols in 1345 , according to a Wallachian chronicle , but historian Victor Spinei rejects this report . According to a charter of his grandson , Vladislav I Vlaicu , Basarab died in the year 6860 of the Byzantine calendar , which is AD 1351 or 1352 .
= = Family = =
In his letter concerning the Battle of Velbazhd , Stephen Dušan mentioned that Basarab was " the father @-@ in @-@ law of Tsar Alexander of Bulgaria " , showing that Basarab 's daughter , Theodora , was Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria 's wife . Historian Vásáry states that Basarab married her to Ivan Alexander around 1323 to strengthen his alliance with Bulgaria . She gave birth to children , but Ivan Alexander abandoned her and married a converted Jew , Sarah @-@ Theodora , in the 1350s . Basarab 's son and successor , Nicholas Alexander , discontinued Basarab 's alliance with Bulgaria .
= = Legacy = =
Basarab 's victory at the Battle of Posada was a turning point in the history of Wallachia . Sălăgean writes that the victory " sanctioned the independence of Wallachia from the Hungarian crown " and altered its international status . Georgescu describes Wallachia as the " first independent Romanian principality . " Although the kings of Hungary continued to demand loyalty from the voivodes of Wallachia , Basarab and his successors yielded to them only temporarily in the 14th century .
The descendants of Basarab ruled Wallachia for at least two centuries . Examples of his descendants include Mircea the Old and Vlad Dracula . Neagoe Basarab , a member of the Craiovești boyar family , forged a genealogy to prove that he was a descendant of Basarab , and adopted " Basarab " as his family name after his accession in 1512 .
From the middle of the 14th century , Bulgarian , Hungarian , Moldavian and Serbian chronicles used the name " Basarab " when referring to Wallachia . From the next century onward , the southern region of the land between the Dniester and Prut rivers was named Basarabia . After the Russian Empire annexed Basarabia in 1812 , the region was renamed to Bessarabia . The region is now part of the Republic of Moldova .
= Rock Your Body =
" Rock Your Body " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for his debut studio album , Justified ( 2002 ) . It was written by Timberlake along with The Neptunes ( consisting of Chad Hugo and Pharrell Williams ) , who also produced the track . The song was released on April 7 , 2003 by Jive Records as the third single from Justified . The track is an uptempo , disco groove , soul infused song containing influences from Michael Jackson and Stevie Wonder . The female section of the track is sung by Vanessa Marquez . Originally intended to be featured on Jackson 's tenth studio album Invincible ( 2001 ) , the latter rejected the song along with several other tracks , which were instead given to Timberlake for his debut album .
" Rock Your Body " topped the Australian Singles Chart . It peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart , the third single from Justified to do so , following " Like I Love You " and " Cry Me a River " . It charted at number three on the Danish Singles Chart , number four on the New Zealand Singles Chart and Irish Singles Chart , and number five on the US Billboard Hot 100 . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 500 copies , respectively . The song received generally positive reviews , with music critics noting it as a stand @-@ out track , while complimenting its musical elements .
The accompanying music video for " Rock Your Body " , which was directed by Francis Lawrence , features Timberlake with several back @-@ up dancers performing choreography within a multi @-@ color lighted cube . Timberlake performed the song live several times , including the highly controversial performance at the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show , where while performing with R & B singer Janet Jackson , Timberlake ripped off part of Jackson 's costume , momentarily exposing her right breast on live television .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Rock Your Body " was written and produced by Hugo and Williams , and bought by Timberlake for a writing credit . It was recorded at Master Sound Recording Studios and Windmark Recording , both located in Virginia Beach with Andrew Coleman serving as a recording engineer . It was mixed by Serban Ghenea at Windmark Recording , with Daniel Botancourt and Tim Roberts aiding as additional engineers . John Hanes provided additional pro tools engineering . All the instrumentation was delivered by Hugo and Williams , with vocal arrangements handled by the latter and Timberlake . Vanessa Marquez provided additional vocals , which were recorded by Eddie Delena at the Record Plant located in Los Angeles . " Rock Your Body " was initially given to Michael Jackson for his tenth and final studio album Invincible ( 2001 ) , along with several other songs by The Neptunes . The singer did not want any of the tracks , and so all the material was passed onto Timberlake for his debut album , Justified .
= = Composition and reception = =
" Rock Your Body " has a running duration of four minutes and twenty @-@ seven seconds . The uptempo R & B , disco groove , soul infused song contains influences from both Michael Jackson and Stevie Wonder . The song incorporates tinny , " keyboard @-@ set @-@ to @-@ emulate @-@ clavichord " synthesizers of The Neptunes ' late 90s productions , overlaid with " keys and a propulsive drum vamp " . Timberlake makes use of his falsetto range , and Vanessa Marquez sings the female section . Alex Needham of NME noted the track to contain characteristics from material within Jackson 's debut solo album Off the Wall ( 1979 ) .
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Rock Your Body " is written in the key of E minor and has a tempo of 104 beats per minute . It follows the chord progression of F / G @-@ G / A @-@ Em , with Justin Timberlake 's vocal range spanning from the low note of B3 to the high note of D6 . Andy Kellman of AllMusic noted " Rock Your Body " as a stand @-@ out from Justified , as did Jane Stevenson of Jam ! , who interpreted its Jackson influence . Giving Justified a negative review , Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian noted " Rock Your Body " as " predictable " . Complex 's Tannis Spenser listed the song as the fifth best Justin Timberlake song , praising its " near perfect sing along chorus " and Timberlake 's vocals .
Pitchfork Media listed the song at 23 on their list of the best singles of 2003 , with editor Dominique Leone writing " Rock Your Body " is " an approximation of Off the Wall @-@ era MJ as I 've ever heard . The pleading falsetto is right on time , immediately preceded by tough talk about grabbing your girl ( and a " couple more " ) -- the drama ! "
= = Chart performance = =
On the week of March 22 , 2003 , " Rock Your Body " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 61 , earning the Hot Shot Debut honor . The following week , the song entered the top 40 at number 37 , and in its third week , reached number 28 . In its fourth week , the song charted at number 20 on the Hot 100 , and in its fifth week , rose further to number 13 . Within the its sixth week , it moved up two positions to number eleven , and reached number ten the following week . " Rock Your Body " eventually reached its peak at number five , where it remained for one week . The song remained on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks before dropping out . The song topped the US Mainstream Top 40 chart , where it remained for one week . It was less successful on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , where it peaked at number 45 . On February 5 , 2005 , the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies .
Internationally , the song was met with a similar response . " Rock Your Body " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number one . It dropped to number three the following week , where it remained in the top ten for six weeks ; it stayed on the chart for eleven weeks before dropping out . The song was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies . On the UK Singles Chart , " Rock Your Body " became Timberlake 's third consecutive number two hit , following " Like I Love You " and " Cry Me a River " . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , " Rock Your Body " achieved its peak on the week of June 22 , 2003 , its second week on the chart at number four . The song remained on the chart for twenty weeks , and was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , for shipments of 7 @,@ 500 copies .
It charted within the top five on the Danish Singles Chart and Irish Singles Chart , peaking at number three and four , respectively . It peaked at number six on Belgian Singles Chart ( Flanders ) , Finnish Singles Chart and Dutch Singles Chart . " Rock Your Body " was less successful in other territories . It charted within the top twenty on the Belgian Singles Chart ( Wallonia ) , French Singles Chart , Swedish Singles Charts and Norwegian Singles Chart . It charted outside the top twenty on the German Singles Chart , Swiss Singles Chart and Austrian Singles Chart ; the latter chart is the song 's lowest charting territory , where it peaked at number 56 .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Francis Lawrence . The video opens within a black cube with an array of different colored lights with several people dancing . The video inter @-@ cuts to Justin Timberlake singing to the song . Timberlake then floats to the floor from an opening in the cubic 's ceiling , performing choreography with his supporting dancers and singing to the track 's first verse . Throughout the video , it inter @-@ cuts to Timberlake dancing by himself , with the sections sometimes featuring the camera panning around Timberlake 's face . Entering the second verse , Timberlake is in the cube on his own , manipulating the motion of the cube with his hands , with his legs following the moving platform . Timberlake then returns performing choreography again with his dancers . Following the second chorus , Timberlake is dancing with a female ( Staci Flood ) , who lip syncs Vanessa Marquez 's section . A break @-@ down of the song , where Timberlake is beatboxing , shows him dancing by himself . The breakdown then ends , with the video continuing with Timberlake and his back @-@ up dancers . The closing beat boxing section of the track features the camera panning around several duplicates of Timberlake beatboxing and talking in sync to the song 's lyrics . The video ends with the final Timberlake duplicate pointing and running towards the opposite direction .
= = Live performances = =
Justin Timberlake performed " Rock Your Body " during his Justified World Tour and the Christina Aguilera conjoint tour Justified & Stripped Tour , both in support of his debut album Justified . Timberlake performed the song live on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live in October 2003 , where he served as host and musical guest . On February 1 , 2004 , Timberlake performed the song with pop singer Janet Jackson during her performance at the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show . At the moment he sang the lyric " I 'll have you naked by the end of this song , " the singer ripped off part of Jackson 's outfit , momentarily exposing her right breast on live television . Timberlake distanced himself from the controversy while Jackson faced much criticism and backlash . He later commented that " America 's harsher on women ... [ and ] unfairly harsh on ethnic people . " Timberlake performed the song at the Hollywood Palladium , following his performance at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards on February 10 , 2013 . He performed " Rock Your Body " in a medley with other of his songs at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards . In 2016 , the singer performed the song along with " Can 't Stop the Feeling ! " during the interval act of the Eurovision Song Contest 2016 grand finale .
" Rock Your Body " was featured on The Justified World Tour ( 2003 / 04 ) , Justified and Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , FutureSex / LoveShow ( 2007 ) , Legends of the Summer ( 2013 ) and The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 / 14 ) .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
David Betancourt – assistant engineer
Andrew Coleman – engineer
Eddie DeLena – vocal engineer
Serban Ghenea – mixing
Ian Green – engineer , programming
Chaz Harpe – mastering
Chad Hugo – instrumentation , producer
Eelke Kalberg – producer
Sander Kleinenberg – producer , remixing
S. Molijn – producer
Paul Oakenfold – remixing
Herb Powers – mastering
Tim Roberts – assistant engineer
Justin Timberlake – primary artist , vocal arrangement , vocals
Pharrell Williams – instrumentation , producer , vocal arrangement , vocals
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = Cover versions and appearances in other media = =
Shawn Lee 's Ping Pong Orchestra performed an instrumental cover of the song on their album , Hits the Hits ! .
The song was regularly covered live by the experimental rock band Tub Ring , and was recorded as a B @-@ side to their 2007 album , The Great Filter .
The song was briefly featured in the ninth season of South Park episode " Marjorine " .
The song appears in the 2007 video game Dance Dance Revolution SuperNova 2 .
= SMS Nürnberg ( 1916 ) =
SMS Nürnberg was a Königsberg @-@ class light cruiser built during World War I by Germany for the Imperial Navy . She had three sisters : Königsberg , Karlsruhe , and Emden . The ship was named after the previous light cruiser Nürnberg , which had been sunk at the Battle of the Falkland Islands . The new cruiser was laid down in 1915 at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen , launched in April 1916 , and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in February 1917 . Armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns , the ship had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 kn ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Nürnberg saw relatively limited service during the war , due to her commissioning late in the conflict . She participated in Operation Albion in October 1917 against the Russian Navy in the Baltic . The following month , she was engaged in the Second Battle of Helgoland Bight , but was not significantly damaged during the engagement . She was assigned to the final , planned operation of the High Seas Fleet that was to have taken place in the closing days of the war , though a major mutiny forced the cancellation of the plan . After the end of the war , the ship was interned in Scapa Flow . In the scuttling of the German fleet in June 1919 , British ships managed to beach Nürnberg and she was later refloated and sunk as a gunnery target in 1922 .
= = Construction = =
Nürnberg was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Thetis " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1915 . She was launched on 14 April 1916 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 15 February 1917 . The ship was 151 @.@ 4 meters ( 497 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 2 m ( 47 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 96 m ( 19 @.@ 6 ft ) forward . She displaced 7 @,@ 125 t ( 7 @,@ 012 long tons ; 7 @,@ 854 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of steam turbines powered by ten coal @-@ fired and two oil @-@ fired Marine @-@ type boilers . These provided a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 kn ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) and a range of 4 @,@ 850 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 980 km ; 5 @,@ 580 mi ) at 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
The ship was armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , two were located on either side amidships , and two were arranged in a super firing pair aft . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 040 rounds of ammunition , for 130 shells per gun . Nürnberg also carried two 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels . She was also equipped with a pair of 60 cm ( 24 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes in deck @-@ mounted swivel launchers amidships . She also carried 200 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
= = = Operation Albion = = =
In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Nürnberg and the rest of the II Scouting Group , commanded by Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , provided the cruiser screen for the task force .
The operation began on the morning of 12 October , when Moltke and the III Squadron ships engaged Russian positions in Tagga Bay while the IV Squadron shelled Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula on Ösel . After the beginning of the bombardment , Nürnberg entered Tagga Bay with the II Transport Section and began landing troops , while Königsberg covered the landing of the I Transport Section . On 18 – 19 October , the rest of the II Scouting Group covered minesweepers operating off the island of Dagö , but due to insufficient minesweepers and bad weather , the operation was postponed . On the 19th , Nürnberg , Königsberg , and Danzig were sent to intercept two Russian torpedo boats reported to be in the area . Reuter could not locate the vessels , and broke off the operation . By 20 October , the islands were under German control and the Russian naval forces had either been destroyed or forced to withdraw . The Admiralstab ordered the naval component to return to the North Sea .
= = = Second
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Battle of Helgoland Bight = = =
On 17 November , Nürnberg , Königsberg , Frankfurt , and Pillau were assigned to cover a minesweeping operation in the Helgoland Bight , still under the command of Reuter . The force was supported by two battleships — Kaiser and Kaiserin . Six British battlecruisers supported a force of light cruisers that attacked the German minesweepers . Königsberg and the other three cruisers covered the fleeing minesweepers before retreating under a smoke screen . Nürnberg opened fire on the British cruisers at 08 : 55 , at a range of 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) . Heavy smoke and fog obscured the British ships , however , and Nürnberg was quickly forced to cease firing .
At around 10 : 00 , Nürnberg came under heavy fire from the British cruisers , as well as the powerful battlecruisers Courageous and Glorious , armed with 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) guns . Nürnberg was not hit directly , but shell splinters from near misses rained down on her deck and killed one man and wounded four more , one of whom later died of his wounds . One of her rangefinders was also damaged by the shell fragments . She returned fire briefly before the haze again concealed the British ships . Kaiser and Kaiserin intervened at almost exactly the same time , prompting the British to break off the engagement immediately . Within an hour , the German forces were reinforced by several capital ships , including the battlecruiser Hindenburg ; after realizing the British had fled , the German forces returned to port .
= = = Fate = = =
In October 1918 , Admirals Reinhard Scheer and Franz von Hipper planned a final , climactic attack on the British by the High Seas Fleet . The planned operation called for raids on Allied shipping in the Thames estuary and Flanders to draw out the Grand Fleet . The German fleet would then attack the Grand Fleet and do as much damage as possible in order to enhance Germany 's military position in the coming peace talks . Nürnberg , Karlsruhe and Graudenz were assigned to the force tasked with attacking Flanders . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest spread to the rest of the fleet and ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation .
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet 's ships , under the command of Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Nürnberg was among the ships interned . The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . British sailors used explosive charges to blast away Nürnberg 's anchor chains so she could be dragged aground before she sank . The ship was refloated in July and eventually expended as a target ship on 7 July 1922 off the Isle of Wight .
= My Lord John =
My Lord John is an unfinished historical fiction novel by the British author Georgette Heyer , published posthumously in 1975 after her death the previous year . It traces the early lives of the " young lordings " – Harry , Thomas , John , and Humfrey – all sons of the future Lancastrian king Henry IV of England . They grow up amidst turbulent events including the 1394 pestilence , the exile of their father by Richard II , the death of their powerful grandfather John of Gaunt , and the seizure of the throne by their father . John of Lancaster serves as the novel 's main character .
Heyer intended the novel to be the first instalment in a trilogy covering the House of Lancaster at the peak of its power ( 1393 – 1435 ) , with John as its central character . She felt that John , now largely unknown today , was ideal because he was a " great man " who lived during the entirety of her selected time period and was the most trusted brother of Henry V. However , Heyer failed to complete the trilogy , finding herself distracted with the writing of her popular Regency novels to please her fans and offset her tax liabilities . She died in 1974 , and My Lord John was published by her family a year later . It covered only the early life of John of Lancaster , from 1393 to 1413 .
Upon its publication , My Lord John garnered a mostly negative reception from contemporary readers and literary critics , who felt that it lacked narrative flow and was inferior to Heyer 's Regency novels . Modern critics also have viewed the work critically . Featuring significant historical detail , it has been labelled " more serious " than her previous undertakings ; one reviewer felt it resembled a historical narrative more than a novel . A German translation was released in 1980 .
= = Background and development = =
Georgette Heyer is best known for writing romantic stories set in the Regency era , but her body of work encompassed many different historical periods , including the English Civil War and the Middle Ages . One of her favoured periods centred on the House of Lancaster 's peak of power , between 1393 and 1435 . In 1950 , Heyer began working on what she called " the magnum opus of my latter years " , a medieval trilogy intended to cover the House of Lancaster during that period . She estimated that she would need five years to complete this project . Her impatient readers continually clamoured for new books , however ; to satisfy them and her tax liabilities , Heyer interrupted herself to write Regency romances , such as April Lady ( 1957 ) and Charity Girl ( 1970 ) .
According to Heyer 's husband George Ronald Rougier , the Lancaster trilogy was to centre on John of Lancaster because he was Henry V 's most trusted brother , lived during the entirety of her selected time period , and " was a great man " little known today . In her novel , Heyer describes John as possessing the " best temper of all his family , and the greatest talent for peacemaking . " Rougier stated that the perfectionist Heyer prepared for the trilogy by embarking on holistic research that covered " every aspect of the period , " including its wars , social conditions , and heraldry . Heyer learned to read medieval English and created indexed files that catalogued every single day for the forty year time period . She and her husband travelled England and Scotland , where Heyer took copious notes while visiting seventy @-@ five castles and twenty @-@ three abbeys .
After each break taken to write another Regency novel however , Heyer found it difficult to return to writing the trilogy and " recapture the spirit of her main work , " as each time she had to refresh her knowledge of the era . As a result , she only managed to complete nearly a third of the trilogy , and My Lord John was the result of these efforts . It became her only completed volume of the series . Heyer died in 1974 , with a story that only covered a quarter of John of Lancaster 's life , from 1393 to 1413 . The novel 's structure is split into four parts , each covering a specific period of John 's life .
= = Plot = =
= = = Historical background = = =
The reign of Richard II of England forms the backdrop of the novel . Having become monarch at a young age , Richard has become a vain king " not universally held in high esteem . " In his minority , governance has been dominated by select favourites such as the 9th Earl of Oxford , who is deeply unpopular . In response to policies they deem bad for the realm , Henry of Bolingbroke , Earl of Derby and other members of the " Lords Appellant " , such as the Duke of Norfolk and the Earl of Arundel , successfully take up arms against Oxford at the Battle of Radcot Bridge and remove him from power .
Now twenty @-@ two , King Richard takes the reigns of government back into his own hands , appointing new favourites labelled " contemptible foppets " by his uncle John of Gaunt , 1st Duke of Lancaster . Gaunt is , however , loyal and trusted by the King despite his disagreements with court favourites . As one of the most powerful men in the kingdom , Gaunt has been involved in an ongoing conflict with Arundel , an " orgulous " man whom Gaunt blames for inciting a rising in Cheshire .
= = = Plot summary = = =
The novel 's story begins in 1393 England . John of Lancaster – the third eldest son of Henry of Bolingbroke – resides at Kenilworth Castle with his mother Countess Mary and three brothers Harry , Thomas , and Humfrey . The boys are visited by their grandfather , John of Gaunt , and a large retinue that includes his mistress Katherine Swynford , his daughter Lady Elizabeth , and his three Beaufort sons . Mary privately worries to Katherine that the King will never forgive her husband 's participation at Radcot Bridge and the loss of his " dear friend " Oxford .
Mary and the children travel to London to greet the recently travelling Bolingbroke – " a handsome , jolly knight , richly caparisoned , splendidly horsed " – who is very popular with the city 's residents , unlike his father . The Earl of Derby pays homage to King Richard , who decides that Harry will become his squire . Gaunt succeeds in getting Arundel ousted from court . Mary dies of the plague , as does Queen Anne and Gaunt 's wife Constance .
Harry becomes King Richard 's squire while John is sent to live with the Countess Marshal at Framlingham Castle . There , he is lonely though kindly treated . John hears of the increasingly erratic behaviour of the king , who has had the body of Oxford embalmed and publicly displayed . Former members of the Lords Appellant are arrested , including Arundel , Gloucester , and Warwick . Richard also decides that those " who were of his own blood " will be raised to the status of dukes , and Henry of Bolingbroke is made Duke of Hereford .
Fearful of Hereford 's power , Richard unjustly orders that his cousin be banished from the realm for six years , to the dismay of the House of Commons and many others . Slowly dying of old age , Gaunt 's final advice to Richard , that he put aside his favourites and become a just king , falls on deaf ears . Gaunt dies soon after ; Richard becomes increasingly dictatorial and prevents Gaunt 's vast inheritance from being granted to Bolingbroke ; his banishment is converted to life , though his sons remain in the country . In the wake of these troublesome events , Richard leaves England for Ireland , a decision widely considered folly considering the turmoil England is in . Bolingbroke returns to England and many nobleman flock to his banner ; Richard is overthrown .
John watches as his father is crowned Henry IV of England and Harry is made Prince of Wales , but remains sceptical that his family has a more immediate claim to the crown than others in their family . The new king 's supporters insist Henry kill Richard and others who oppose him , but Henry resists the calls for violence . Henry deals with opposition to his rule in the form of rebellions , imposters , and men who expected him to right every wrong in the kingdom . Amidst these events , John grows up under the fostership of various households . John is a talented student , but is more interested in the problems of the realm than mere writings of long dead men . He is the only one of Henry IV 's sons interested in crown finances , and acquires as much information on the running of government as possible .
As a teenager John proves his worth and is gradually granted positions of authority , first as Master of the Falcons , then as Lord Warden of the East Marches and Constable of England . He takes all three positions seriously , devoting himself to the acquirement of knowledge necessary for effective administration . He comes of age in the midst of these busy tasks , a ready pupil to the string of men sent to advise him . He helps his father withstand the Glyndŵr and Northern Risings , and wisely gives military command to his more experienced uncle Westmorland . He understands that his administrative skill is more useful than acting as a soldier , and earns the respect of the people under his control by not being unduly harsh with punishment and embarking on negotiations with the Scots .
The novel abruptly ends mid @-@ sentence , with John journeying north to negotiate a long truce with the Scots on behalf of his brother Harry .
= = Analysis = =
My Lord John , as one of Heyer 's few historical novels , marks a departure from her more popular Regency stories . It has been labelled " more serious " than her previous undertakings , and features extensive historical detail . Geneva Stephenson of the Columbus Dispatch likened My Lord John more to a historical narrative than a novel , only deciding on the latter category due to the work 's " in @-@ depth characterisation , movement , colour , [ and ] motivation . "
By featuring the life of John of Lancaster from early childhood to young adulthood , Heyer conveys a full glimpse of medieval life – court intrigues as well as the lives of ordinary people are part of the story . Furthermore , while near to major historical players , John 's apartness from power allows Heyer to create a fuller depiction of his life without having to change major historical events .
= = Release and reception = =
Heyer 's family published My Lord John in 1975 , a year after Heyer 's death . Several days after its release , A. S. Byatt reported that The Bodley Head " have received their biggest paperback offer ever " for the novel . That publishing company released the novel in the United Kingdom , while its American release was handled by Dutton , a company based in New York . A German translation was released in 1980 .
In the period immediately following its publication , the novel received fourteen professional reviews – a number much larger than most of her other works . Critics gave largely negative reviews , and Mary Fahnestock @-@ Thomas writes that " many fans [ found My Lord John ] virtually unreadable . " The year of its release in 1975 , Library Journal contributor Eleanore Singer praised it for being " well @-@ documented historical writing , " though she felt that " as a novel , it doesn 't have enough dramatic or narrative flow to keep it from being often boring . " Singer added that My Lord John " falls far short of that superb blending of history and compelling storytelling that characterizes successful examples of the genre . " Jane Aiken Hodge of History Today , while praising Heyer 's Regency novels as " triumphs of a language that never was on sea or land , " thought that My Lord John was " less successful . " The language of the novel , Aiken Hodge said , was grating and " scattered with too lavish a hand , " with words like lordings and bel sire . Aiken Hodge also felt that while it contained " some happy moments of unmistakable Heyer humour , " it failed to contain enough to " hold a young reader for long . "
R.M. Franklin of The Times Literary Supplement opined that because the novel ended before the " most interesting parts of John of Bedford 's career , " it " has an air of anticlimax about it , and more than once themes are indicated which vanish inexplicably . " In a 2008 contribution for The Times , Hilary Rose praised Heyer 's Regency novels but found My Lord John to be " oddly difficult , possibly on account of it being concerned more with medieval history than masquerade balls at Vauxhall Gardens . " Writing for Tor.com in 2012 , Mari Ness opined that while Heyer hoped My Lord John would be her masterpiece , it instead " serves mainly as an illustration that authors are often terrible at determining which of their works is actually a masterpiece . My Lord John , absolutely not . "
= The Catlins =
The Catlins ( sometimes referred to as The Catlins Coast ) comprises an area in the southeastern corner of the South Island of New Zealand . The area lies between Balclutha and Invercargill , straddling the boundary between the Otago and Southland regions . It includes the South Island 's southernmost point , Slope Point .
A rugged , sparsely populated area , the Catlins features a scenic coastal landscape and dense temperate rainforest , both of which harbour many endangered species of birds , most notably the rare yellow @-@ eyed penguin . The coast attracts numerous marine mammals , among them New Zealand fur seals and Hooker 's sea lions . In general terms the area enjoys a maritime temperate climate . Its exposed location leads to its frequently wild weather and heavy ocean swells , which are an attraction to big @-@ wave surfers , and have also caused numerous shipwrecks .
People have lived in the area since around 1350 AD . Prior to European settlement , the region was sparsely inhabited by nomadic groups of Māori , most of whom lived close to river mouths . In the early days of European settlement the area was frequented by whalers and sealers , and saw milling became a major local industry from the mid @-@ 19th century until the 1930s . Ecotourism has become of growing importance in the Catlins economy , which otherwise relies heavily on dairy farming and fishing .
The region 's population has fallen to less than half its peak in the early 20th century . Some 1 @,@ 200 people now live in the Catlins , many of them in the settlement of Owaka . This is linked to population centres to the north and southwest via the area 's only major road , part of the Southern Scenic Route . Owaka contains the area 's main school , The Catlins Area School , catering for students from year 1 to year 13 . There are three other small primary schools throughout the Catlins district . Owaka also has a medical centre , the nearest hospital being in Balclutha . The Catlins is governed at local level as part of the Clutha and Southland Districts and is represented at national level as part of the Clutha @-@ Southland electorate .
= = Geography = =
The Catlins area covers some 1 @,@ 900 km2 ( 730 sq mi ) and forms a rough triangular shape , extending up to 40 km ( 25 mi ) inland and along a stretch of coast 100 km ( 60 mi ) in extent . The mouths of two large rivers , the Clutha River in the northeast and the Mataura River in the west , mark its coastal limits . To the north and northwest , the rough bush @-@ clad hills give way to rolling pastoral countryside drained and softened by the actions of tributaries of these two rivers such as the Pomahaka River .
The rugged , scenic coastline of the Catlins features sandy beaches , blowholes , a petrified forest at Curio Bay , and the Cathedral Caves , which visitors can reach at low tide . Much of the coastline consists of high cliffs , up to 200 m ( 660 ft ) in height , and the land rises sharply from the coast at most points . For this reason , many of the area 's rivers cascade over waterfalls as they approach the ocean ( notably the iconic Purakaunui Falls on the short Purakaunui River ) .
The South Island 's southernmost point , Slope Point , projects near the southwestern corner of the Catlins . To the west of this lies Waipapa Point , often considered the boundary of the Catlins region , beyond which lies the swampy land around the mouth of the Mataura River at the eastern end of Toetoes Bay . But various people place the western boundary of the Catlins region in different places , and some more stringent definitions exclude even Slope Point . A proposed boundary circulated in 2009 by the New Zealand Geographic Board ran roughly north from Slope Point , then inland around the Catlins Ranges and east to Nugget Point . Tourist organisations objected , asking that the boundary be moved further west to include Fortrose .
Several parallel ranges of hills dominate the interior of the Catlins , separated by the valleys of the Owaka , Catlins and Tahakopa Rivers , which all drain southeastwards into the Pacific Ocean . The most notable of these ranges is the Maclennan Range . Between them , these hills are often simply referred to as the Catlins Ranges . Their northwestern slopes are drained by several tributaries of the Clutha and Mataura Rivers , most notably the Mokoreta River , which flows mainly westwards , reaching the Mataura close to the town of Wyndham .
The highest point in the Catlins , Mount Pye ( 720 m or 2 @,@ 360 ft ) stands 25 km ( 16 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Waikawa and close to the source of the Mokoreta River , and marks part of the Otago @-@ Southland border . Other prominent peaks above 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) include Mount Rosebery , Catlins Cone , Mount Tautuku , and Ajax Hill . The Catlins has several small lakes , notably scenic Lake Wilkie close to the Tautuku Peninsula . Catlins Lake , near Owaka , actually consists of the tidal estuary of the Catlins River .
Shipping has found the Catlins coast notoriously dangerous , and many shipwrecks have occurred on the headlands that jut into the Pacific Ocean here . Two lighthouses stand at opposite ends of the Catlins to help prevent further mishaps . The Nugget Point Lighthouse stands 76 m ( 249 ft ) above the water at the end of Nugget Point , casting its light across a series of eroded stacks ( the " nuggets " which give the point its name ) . It was built in 1869 – 70 . The Waipapa Point light , which stands only 21 m ( 69 ft ) above sea level , was the last wooden lighthouse to be built in New Zealand , and was constructed in 1884 in response to the tragic 1881 wreck of the Tararua . Both of these lighthouses are now fully automated .
Due to its position at the southern tip of New Zealand , the Catlins coastline lies exposed to some of the country 's largest ocean swells , often over 5 m ( 16 ft ) . The region has enjoyed a growing reputation for big wave surfing , with regular competitions , award @-@ winning rides , and coverage on the Discovery Channel gathering publicity for the sport . The Department of Conservation proposed protecting the Papatowai surf break in 2008 , citing its national significance for surfing .
The landscape of the Catlins features in many poems by celebrated poet Hone Tuwhare . Born in Northland , Tuwhare lived in Kaka Point from 1992 until his death in 2008 , and became one of the area 's best @-@ known inhabitants . His family plan to establish a writers ' retreat at his crib there . The film Two Little Boys , starring comedians Bret McKenzie and Hamish Blake , was filmed in the Catlins early in 2011 .
= = Climate = =
The Catlins has a cool maritime temperate climate , somewhat cooler than other parts of the South Island , and strongly modified by the effect of the Pacific Ocean . Winds can reach considerable strength , especially on the exposed coast ; most of the South Island 's storms develop to the south or southwest of the island , and thus the Catlins catches the brunt of many of these weather patterns .
The Catlins — and especially its central and southern areas — experiences considerably higher precipitation than most of the South Island 's east coast ; heavy rain occurs infrequently , but drizzle is common and the region averages around 150 days of rain per year . Rain days are spread fairly evenly throughout the year ; there is no particularly rainy season in the northern Catlins , and only a slight tendency towards more autumn rain in the southwest . The average annual rainfall recorded at the Tautuku Outdoor Education Centre is about 1 @,@ 300 mm ( 51 in ) , with little variation from year to year .
Fine days can be sunny and warm , and daily maxima may exceed 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in mid @-@ summer ( January / February ) . A more usual daily maximum in summer would be 18 – 20 ° C ( 64 – 68 ° F ) . Snow is rare except on the peaks even in the coldest part of winter , though frost is quite common during the months of June to September . Typical daily maximum temperatures in winter are 10 – 13 ° C ( 50 – 55 ° F ) .
= = History = =
The first people known to live in the Catlins , Māori of the Kāti Mamoe , Waitaha , and Kāi Tahu iwi ( tribes ) , merged via marriage and conquest into the iwi now known as Kāi Tahu . Archaeological evidence of human presence dates back to approximately 1350 AD . The area 's inhabitants were semi @-@ nomadic , travelling from Stewart Island / Rakiura in the south and inland to Central Otago . They generally dwelt near river mouths for easy access to the best food resources . In legend , the Catlins forests further inland were inhabited by Maeroero ( wild giants ) .
The Catlins may have offered one of the last places where the giant flightless bird , the moa , could be hunted , and the timber of the forest proved ideal for canoe construction ( the name of the settlement Owaka means " Place of the canoe " ) . No formal Māori pa ( villages ) were located in the Catlins , but there were many hunting camps , notably at Papatowai , near the mouth of the Tahakopa River .
Europeans first sighted the area in 1770 when the crew of James Cook 's Endeavour sailed along the coast . Cook named a bay in the Catlins area Molineux 's Harbour after his ship 's master Robert Molineux . Although this was almost certainly the mouth of the Waikawa River , later visitors applied the name to a bay to the northeast , close to the mouth of the Clutha River , which itself was for many years known as the Molyneux River .
Sealers and whalers founded the first European settlements in the early years of the 19th century , at which time the hunting of marine mammals dominated European economic activity in New Zealand . A whaling station was established on the Tautuku Peninsula in 1839 , with smaller stations at Waikawa and close to the mouth of the Clutha River .
The Catlins take their name from the Catlins River , itself named for whaling captain Edward Cattlin ( sometimes spelt Catlin ) . He purchased an extensive block of land along Catlins River on 15 February 1840 from Kāi Tahu chief Hone Tūhawaiki ( also known as " Bloody Jack " ) for muskets and £ 30 ( roughly NZ $ 3000 in 2005 dollars ) . New Zealand 's land commissioners declined to endorse the purchase , however , and the Māori received much of the land back after long negotiations ending more than a decade after Cattlin 's death .
During the mid @-@ 19th century the area developed into a major saw @-@ milling region , supplying the newly developing town of Dunedin with timber shipped from the ports of Waikawa and Fortrose . A 70 m ( 230 ft ) -long jetty was built at Fortrose in 1875 , although this has long since disappeared . Several shipwrecks occurred along the treacherous coastline during this period . Most notably , one of New Zealand 's worst shipping disasters occurred here : the wreck of the passenger @-@ steamer Tararua , en route from Bluff to Port Chalmers , which foundered off Waipapa Point on 29 April 1881 with the loss of all but 20 of the 151 people aboard .
Another noted shipwreck , that of the Surat , occurred on New Year 's Day in 1874 . This ship , holed on rocks near Chasland 's Mistake eight kilometres southeast of Tautuku Peninsula , limped as far as the mouth of the Catlins River before its 271 immigrants abandoned ship . A beach at the mouth of the Catlins River is named Surat Bay in commemoration of this wreck .
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game of the Red Devils ' tour of South Africa against Orlando Pirates on 16 July 2006 . On 31 August 2006 , he moved to Sunderland for free on a three @-@ year deal , joining up with new Sunderland manager and former team @-@ mate Roy Keane . He left Manchester United after playing just nine league games in two seasons .
= = = Leeds United loan = = =
On 4 November 2005 , Miller joined Leeds United on loan for three months , though this was later extended to the end of the 2005 – 06 season . He scored one goal during his time at Leeds , the winning goal in the 4 – 3 away win against Southampton on 19 November 2005 and helped Leeds to reach the Championship play @-@ off final with a 3 – 1 on aggregate over Preston North End . Miller featured in the play off final . However , Leeds failed to overcome Watford ; they were beaten 3 – 0 and so missed out on promotion to the Premier League . During his time at Elland Road , he had scored one goal in 28 games .
= = = Sunderland = = =
Miller made his debut for Sunderland in a 2 – 1 win over Derby County on 9 September 2006 at the Stadium of Light , and scored his first goal in the following game against Leeds United on 13 September 2006 in a 3 – 0 win shooting across the goalkeeper from 14 yards .
On 6 January 2007 , he was sent off by referee Iain Williamson in the 37th minute of an FA Cup match against Preston North End , after receiving his second yellow card for a foul on David Nugent ; Sunderland went on to lose the match 1 – 0 . He scored his first Premier League goal for Sunderland on 22 September 2007 against North @-@ East rivals Middlesbrough in the 89th minute with a 20 yard left @-@ footed shot . He was sent off for the second time in his Sunderland career by Peter Walton ; against Chelsea on 8 December 2007 for a push on Claudio Pizarro . Sunderland went on to lose the game 2 – 0 .
Manager Roy Keane placed him on the transfer list on 27 February 2008 due to a ' lack of discipline ' and ' poor timekeeping ' , evidenced by his frequent lateness arriving to training sessions . He was linked with a move to Toronto FC , a Canadian club with ties to former Sunderland players Danny Dichio , Carl Robinson and Andy Welsh .
= = = Queens Park Rangers = = =
Miller received interest in January 2009 as Queens Park Rangers expressed their wishes to secure a loan deal . Sunderland manager Ricky Sbragia said " There 's been some interest in Liam from QPR , so something might happen there " . The following day , Miller signed a permanent contract until the end of the season for an undisclosed fee . However , on 19 May 2009 , just six months after joining , QPR released Miller along with five other players .
= = = Hibernian = = =
Miller was left without a club after the summer transfer window closed on 31 August 2009 , and he was training with clubs in Ireland to maintain his fitness . He called Hibs manager John Hughes to offer his services . Hughes , who was surprised that Miller was available to him on a free transfer , quickly offered a two @-@ year deal , which Miller signed in September 2009 . Miller quickly established himself in the Hibs first team , with Graham Spiers describing him as the " king of Hibs " after a 1 – 1 draw against Rangers at Ibrox . His early performances for Hibs were rewarded with the Scottish Premier League player of the month award for October 2009 .
Miller 's form mirrored the rest of the Hibs team as it went into a slump in 2010 , leading to the departure of Hughes . New manager Colin Calderwood signed three new midfielders in January 2011 and left Miller out of the starting lineup for two games soon afterwards . Calderwood expressed hope that improved results would bring better form out of Miller , who he described as a top @-@ level player . Miller expressed a desire to stay at Hibs in March 2011 , but the two parties did not agree a new contact , which allowed him to leave the club .
= = = Perth Glory = = =
Australian A @-@ League club Perth Glory signed Miller on a two @-@ year contract on 3 June 2011 . He scored his first goal against Adelaide United as Perth Glory won the game 3 – 0 . On 17 April 2013 , it was announced he would not be signing a new deal with Perth Glory , despite an offer being on the table .
= = = Brisbane Roar = = =
On 22 May 2013 , it was announced that Miller had joined Brisbane Roar on a free transfer , following his release from Perth Glory . He was given a two @-@ year contract , while wearing the number 11 shirt .
On 20 July 2013 , Miller started for the A @-@ League All Stars in the inaugural A @-@ League All Stars Game against Manchester United , a match in which the A @-@ League All Stars were thrashed 5 – 1 , courtesy of goals from Danny Welbeck , Jesse Lingard and Robin van Persie . Miller was substituted off in the 45th minute of the match , and was replaced by Melbourne Victory midfielder Billy Celeski .
On 30 October 2014 , Miller was released by Brisbane Roar after asking to have his contract terminated following being dropped from the squad for two games with no explanation , which he found unprofessional and disrespectful .
= = = Melbourne City = = =
On 11 November 2014 , 11 days after leaving the Roar , Miller signed for another A @-@ League club , Melbourne City , on a short @-@ term contract as a National Replacement Player in place of Aaron Mooy , joining fellow Irish international Damien Duff . After playing a good game for on his short @-@ term contract , Miller signed another contract with Melbourne City as an Injury Replacement Player in place of Jonatan Germano until the end of December .
= = = Cork City = = =
Miller joined League of Ireland outfit Cork City on 15 January 2015 . Miller made his debut for local team in the 1 – 1 away draw with Sligo Rovers .
= = = Wilmington Hammerheads = = =
Miller signed with American third @-@ tier United Soccer League side Wilmington Hammerheads on 18 February 2016 .
= = International career = =
Miller was part of the Irish squad that won the UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Football Championship in 1998 . He made nine appearances for the Republic of Ireland at under @-@ 16 level . He then progressed to the Ireland under @-@ 21 team . He was fielded in a game against Albania despite having been suspended after receiving two yellow cards in UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship games against Switzerland and Albania . The Football Association of Ireland admitted the mistake and apologised to UEFA .
Miller 's debut for the first team came on 31 March 2004 against Czech Republic in a 2 – 1 win ; he came on as a substitute for Matt Holland . His first goal for Ireland came in a 3 – 0 win over Sweden on 1 March 2006 where he had made a run and a 25 yard shot rifled into the top of the net . Despite Miller being without a club during the summer of 2009 , manager Giovanni Trapattoni continued to select him for the Ireland squad . Miller later commented that " I am very grateful to the manager . He didn 't need to pick me in the squad but he showed faith in me and I 'm delighted with that " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 16 March 2014
1 - includes A @-@ League final series statistics 2 - AFC Champions League statistics are included in season commencing during group stages ( i.e. ACL 2010 and A @-@ League season 2009 – 2010 etc . ) 3 - Includes other competitive competitions , including the FA Community Shield , UEFA Super Cup , Intercontinental Cup , FIFA Club World Cup and Football League playoff matches .
= = = International goals = = =
Score and results list Republic of Ireland 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
Republic of Ireland
UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Football Championship : 1998
Celtic
Scottish Premier League ( 1 ) : 2003 – 04
Sunderland
Football League Championship ( 1 ) : 2006 – 07
Brisbane Roar
A @-@ League ( 1 ) : 2013 – 14
A @-@ League Finals ( 1 ) : 2014
= Better than Today =
" Better than Today " is a song recorded by Australian singer Kylie Minogue for her eleventh studio album , Aphrodite ( 2010 ) . The track was originally written and produced by Nerina Pallot and Andy Chatterley for Pallot 's 2009 extended play , Buckminster Fuller EP . It was re @-@ recorded by Minogue in 2009 , and received additional production by Stuart Price . Musically , " Better than Today " is a pop song that emulates other styles using guitars , synthesizers and drum programming .
" Better than Today " was released on 3 December 2010 as the album 's third single . It was not as successful as Minogue 's preceding releases . After debuting on the chart early with album downloads , it peaked on the UK Singles Chart at number 32 , making it her lowest placing since " The One " in 2008 . The single was released in Australia on 28 February 2011 . It debuted on the ARIA Singles Chart at number 55 , making it her third single to miss the top @-@ fifty , after " Finer Feelings " in 1992 ( number 60 ) and " Get Outta My Way " in 2010 ( number 69 ) . Despite under @-@ performing in the United Kingdom and Australia , it became Minogue 's sixth number @-@ one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart and her third consecutive number @-@ one single from the album Aphrodite on that chart .
" Better than Today " received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . They applauded the dance @-@ oriented lyrics , comparing the track 's composition to Minogue 's works in the early 1990s on Rhythm of Love and the songs of the Scissor Sisters . Many critics praised the song as a part of the album , but did not believe it was strong as an independent single . An accompanying music video , directed by Minogue and her tour staff , was released on 19 November 2010 . The video reflected the fashion and choreography of the performances done during her 2009 For You , For Me Tour , where she debuted the song . Reception for the video was mainly positive , with most publications noting its similarities to Minogue 's previous music videos .
= = Background = =
" Better than Today " was written and produced by married couple Nerina Pallot and Andy Chatterley . The song was originally included on Pallot 's project Buckminster Fuller EP in February 2009 . After hearing Pallot 's work , Minogue 's A & R contacted her manager . Pallot stated when Minogue called her later , she " really didn 't believe it was her " , continuing , " when [ Minogue ] came to the studio in a nasty part of London I thought : ' OK , she really does want to do this ' . " Pallot and Chatterley were the first two writers and producers to work with Minogue when recording sessions for Aphrodite began in April 2009 . " Better than Today " was one of the prominent results of the collaboration . Pallot commented on working with Minogue , calling her " accommodating and lovely and approachable and normal [ sic ] " . Subsequent sessions Minogue had with the duo were not as successful . After Parlophone president Miles Leonard made Stuart Price the executive producer over the album in December 2009 , Price and Jake Shears ( a friend and former collaboration partner of Price and Minogue ) began to re @-@ produce the album . After being retooled by Price , " Better than Today " was left as one of only two remaining collaborations Minogue had with Pallot and Chatterly , along with the album 's title track .
= = Composition = =
" Better than Today " is a pop song with many additional styles , including rock , funk , soul and country . It also incorporates the use of the electric and acoustic guitar , synthesizers and drum programming by both Pallot and Chatterley . According to the sheet music published by Hal Leonard Corporation , it is set in common time with a tempo of 110 beats per minute . Minogue 's version is composed in the key of F major with her vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of A4 to the high @-@ note of F6 . The chord progression F @-@ E ♭ -Dm @-@ Dm @-@ E ♭ -F follows throughout her edition while the middle eight remains in F ( Pallot 's version did not contain a middle eight ) .
Many comparisons have been made on the song 's style . Popjustice compared " Better than Today " to the style used in Minogue 's 1990 album Rhythm of Love . Hannah Kim of the Korea JoongAng Daily stated the track adds on to a " classic 70s disco sound " . When reviewing the album , Ian Wade of BBC Music called the song a " tech @-@ country strut " . Fraser McAlpine of BBC said that without research , it " bears the musical fingerprint " of Shears . " It 's got that ' Laura ' bounce ... And the bit where Kylie goes way up high ? Well you 've heard the verses to ' I Don 't Feel Like Dancin ' ' right ? Sonically similar ... " Christel Loar of PopMatters and Nick Levine of Digital Spy praised the lyric in the song , " What 's the point in living if you don 't wanna dance ? " Levine specifically applauded Pallot and Chatterly for " coming up with probably the Kyliest Kylie lyric ever " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The song has received positive and mixed reception from critics . Reviews in context of the album were usually positive . In a review of Aphrodite , Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly called " Better than Today " a standout track on the album . Wade of BBC Music also gave a favorable review , saying the track " throws up imagery of line @-@ dancing cyborgs " . Loar of PopMatters labeled it a " sugary bounce " . However in contrast to the positive album reviews , Nick Ward of The Nelson Mail was not impressed . He said that there is no " oomph " that " would have made [ ' Better than Today ' ] complete " .
When " Better than Today " became a single , reviews for the song itself were mixed . McAlpine of BBC said " the relentless swaggering momentum " of the track " gets a little wearing " . He continued , " At some point , something ELSE needs to happen , y 'see [ sic ] . No matter how many times Kylie 's voice swoops up high and skips back down again , no matter how firmly she pushes herself into those demanding choruses ; it begins like Tigger and ends like a route march around an aerobics class . " He gave the single three out of five stars . Popjustice , while stating the song is " rather enjoyable " , added that it is a " no @-@ harm @-@ intended album track " instead of " the big balls @-@ out I 'm @-@ bloody @-@ Kylie comeback single " . They remarked at a later date , saying that they were " slightly alarmed " when the song became a single . Nima Baniamer of Contact Music described the song as " a fun electro number " , but it " sadly doesn 't seem to pack a punch enough to stand firm as a lead @-@ out track " . Originally in an album review , Levine of Digital Spy called the tune " as uplifting a dance @-@ pop ditty as we 're likely to hear all year " . In a single review , Levine re @-@ evaluated the song , stating that it is not " the freshest confection you 'll sample this party season " but he continued , calling it " sweet , seductive and pretty much impossible not to succumb to over and over again " . He gave the single four out of five stars .
= = = Chart performance = = =
During the week of 20 November 2010 , " Better than Today " made its UK Singles Chart debut at number 67 . This was based purely on digital sales from the album as the single was not released until 3 December 2010 . The day before its release , it reached a new peak of number 40 , before dropping to number 63 , only to go on to peak at number 32 on 18 December 2010 . As a result , " Better than Today " is one of Minogue 's lowest charting singles in the United Kingdom . It proved to be her least successful UK charting since 2008 's " The One " which peaked at number 36 . The single had similar results in other European countries , peaking at number 27 in Scotland and number 63 in France .
In the United States , " Better than Today " debuted at number 44 on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . It rose to number @-@ one on the issue date entitled 5 March 2011 , not only becoming Minogue 's sixth number @-@ one single on the chart
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