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= = = Background = = =
The race , originally scheduled to be held as the third round of the season on 16 April 1995 , was moved to October as the local infrastructure and communications were badly damaged from the Great Hanshin earthquake .
Heading into the 15th race of the season , Benetton driver Michael Schumacher was leading the Drivers ' Championship with 82 points ; Williams driver Damon Hill was second on 55 points , 27 points behind Schumacher . A maximum of 30 points were available for the remaining three races , which meant that Hill could still win the title . Schumacher only needed a fourth @-@ place finish to become Drivers ' Champion as , even if Hill won , Schumacher would be more than 20 points ahead of Hill with two races remaining . Behind Hill and Schumacher in the Drivers ' Championship , David Coulthard was third on 43 points in a Williams , with Johnny Herbert and Jean Alesi both on 40 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , Benetton were leading on 112 points and Williams were second on 92 points , with a maximum of 48 points available . In the two weeks leading up to the race , there was heavy criticism towards Damon Hill , with pundits feeling that Hill had not been " forceful " enough in his battle at the European Grand Prix against Schumacher . In an interview leading up to the race , part @-@ time Ligier driver Martin Brundle said :
Damon has to do two things . First , he has to establish himself as the No1 at Williams for next year so the team can give him their full support . Second , he has to re @-@ establish himself as a racer . Maybe he needs to lose a front wheel once or twice to re @-@ establish himself .
Schumacher , his title @-@ rival , said that Hill made " half @-@ hearted attempts " to overtake , which led to him " getting into trouble " . The comments were prompted after a series of battles between Hill and Schumacher in previous race meetings , most notably at the Belgian Grand Prix , where Hill accused Schumacher of blocking him . At a Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) World Motor Sport Council meeting on October 19 to discuss driver etiquette , they opted against introducing new rules on the issue . Formula One 's governing body emphasised that the International Sporting Code would be enforced on the basis that drivers are free to drive as they wish " provided they do not deliberately endanger another driver or repeatedly obstruct him on a straight " , following incidents during the year involving Hill and Schumacher .
Williams were favourites to win the race due to the nature of the track — their Williams FW17 car was more suited to high @-@ downforce tracks like Aida , and thus had the advantage over Benetton . In an attempt to match the pace of the Williams cars , Benetton introduced a revised rear suspension geometry to the Benetton B195 for the race .
There were five driver changes heading into the race . Having been in one of the two Ligier cars since the tenth race of the season at Germany , Martin Brundle was replaced by Aguri Suzuki as part of the two sharing the drive for the season . Jan Magnussen was drafted into the McLaren team to replace Mika Häkkinen because of the Finn 's operation for appendicitis . The third driver change was Ukyo Katayama 's return to Tyrrell after missing the European Grand Prix due to a crash at the Portuguese Grand Prix . Gianni Morbidelli returned to the Footwork team replacing Max Papis , while at Pacific , Bertrand Gachot came back to replace Jean @-@ Denis Délétraz , both men having driven for these teams at the start of the season . Délétraz was replaced as he had not made agreed payment instalments to the Pacific team for the privilege of the drive . Pacific had originally intended to run local driver Katsumi Yamamoto in place of Délétraz , but he was not granted an FIA Super Licence and so Gachot retook the seat . Similarly , the Forti team 's plans to replace Roberto Moreno with Hideki Noda came to nought for the same reason , even though Noda had started three Grands Prix for the Larrousse team the previous year .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Two practice sessions were held before the race ; the first was held on Friday morning and the second on Saturday morning . Both sessions lasted 1 hour and 45 minutes with weather conditions dry throughout . Schumacher set the fastest time in the first session , posting a lap of 1 : 16 @.@ 057 , three @-@ tenths of a second quicker than Hill and Coulthard , in second and third places respectively . The Ferrari cars were fourth and fifth fastest ; Gerhard Berger ahead of Jean Alesi , with McLaren driver Mark Blundell rounding out the top six . Coulthard lapped faster than Schumacher in the second practice session with a time of 1 : 15 @.@ 730 . Hill was second in the Williams , three @-@ tenths of a second behind Coulthard . Eddie Irvine in the Jordan car was fourth , seven @-@ tenths behind Coulthard . He was split by the Ferraris who were third and fifth ; Alesi in front of Berger . The Benetton cars were sixth and seventh ; Schumacher in front of Herbert . Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen and Jean @-@ Christophe Boullion were eighth and tenth in the Saubers , with Rubens Barrichello ninth in the Jordan , two seconds off the pace .
The qualifying session was split into two one @-@ hour sessions ; the first was held on Friday afternoon with the second held on Saturday afternoon . The fastest time from either sessions counted towards their final grid position . Coulthard clinched his fourth consecutive pole position , in his Williams , with a time of 1 : 14 @.@ 013 . He was joined on the front row by teammate Hill , who was two @-@ tenths of a second behind . Schumacher was third in the Benetton , edging closer to the Williams drivers throughout both days of qualifying by steadily reducing the downforce on his car . His last run , right at the end of the second session , pressured Coulthard into leaving the pits to cover the German . The pole position man thus used an additional set of slick tyres , meaning that out of the allocation of seven sets of slick tyres as set out by the FIA , he had only two sets of brand @-@ new rubber for the race , whereas Schumacher had the advantage of three sets of new rubber . Hill , concerned about starting from the dirty side of the track ( the side of the track that is opposite to the racing line ) , had only two sets of brand new tyres for the race .
Berger took fourth despite going off into the gravel late in the second part of qualifying . Berger 's teammate Alesi was fifth , with Irvine completing the top six for his best qualifying position of the season . Rookie Magnussen qualified 12th , only two places behind teammate Blundell , after not making a mistake in either of the two sessions . Returning drivers Suzuki , Katayama , Morbidelli and Gachot qualified 13th , 17th , 19th and 24th respectively , with the grid covered by 7 @.@ 392 seconds .
= = = Race = = =
The conditions for the race were dry with the air temperature 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) . The drivers took to the track at 09 : 30 JST ( GMT + 9 ) for a 30 @-@ minute warm @-@ up session . Both Williams cars maintained their good performance from qualifying ; Coulthard had the fastest time of 1 : 16 @.@ 831 . Hill was third in the other Williams car ; Boullion split them in the Sauber for second position . Olivier Panis completed the top four in a Ligier car , eight @-@ tenths of a second behind Hill . Hill drove the spare Williams car along the inside of the start – finish straight in an effort to clean up his grid position on the dusty side of the track . Schumacher finished the session in eighth , despite going off the track , damaging his race car in the process . The remote and inaccessible nature of the circuit and the fact that the Japanese Grand Prix took place just one week later resulted in a meagre race @-@ day crowd of only 15 @,@ 000 spectators .
The race started at 14 : 00 JST . Coulthard , from pole position on the grid , held onto the lead into the first corner . Hill , who started alongside Coulthard , had a bad start . Schumacher attempted to go around the outside of Hill at the first corner , but Hill held Schumacher off . Both drivers ran off the racing line in the process , allowing Alesi through into second place . At the end of lap one , Coulthard led Alesi by 2 @.@ 8 seconds , with Hill a further three @-@ tenths back . Berger was fourth , with Schumacher demoted to fifth . Bertrand Gachot in the Pacific became the first person to retire from the race with a gearbox problem on lap two . He was followed by Suzuki and Boullion , who both spun off the track and were unable to continue . Boullion blamed his spin on Minardi driver Pedro Lamy , whom he accused of weaving in front of him . Schumacher passed Berger for fourth position on lap five , and immediately began closing on Hill in third , who himself was only a few tenths behind Alesi . Schumacher attempted to pass Hill on lap 11 for third place at the hairpin , but Hill held him off . As Hill and Schumacher were held up by the slower Ferraris , Coulthard pulled away by more than a second a lap in the first eight laps . By lap 18 , Coulthard 's gap to second place was 14 seconds , and it appeared that he would win the race comfortably .
Alesi , Hill and Schumacher all pitted for their first of three stops on lap 18 . The Benetton pitcrew made a quick stop for Schumacher , allowing him to get out ahead of Alesi and Hill . Hill lost additional time with a sticking refuelling valve , causing his stop to last almost twice as long as Schumacher 's . Schumacher exited the pit stop in fourth place ( behind Coulthard , and the yet @-@ to @-@ stop Berger and Herbert )
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Commission on Civil Rights to investigate voting rights deprivations . Further protections were enacted in the Civil Rights Act of 1960 , which allowed federal courts to appoint referees to conduct voter registration in jurisdictions that engaged in voting discrimination against racial minorities .
Although these acts helped empower courts to remedy violations of federal voting rights , strict legal standards made it difficult for the Department of Justice to successfully pursue litigation . For example , to win a discrimination lawsuit against a state that maintained a literacy test , the Department needed to prove that the rejected voter @-@ registration applications of racial minorities were comparable to the accepted applications of whites . This involved comparing thousands of applications in each of the state 's counties in a process that could last months . The Department 's efforts were further hampered by resistance from local election officials , who would claim to have misplaced the voter registration records of racial minorities , remove registered racial minorities from the electoral rolls , and resign so that voter registration ceased . Moreover , the Department often needed to appeal lawsuits several times before the judiciary provided relief because many federal district court judges opposed racial minority suffrage . Thus , between 1957 and 1964 , the African @-@ American voter registration rate in the South improved marginally even though the Department litigated 71 voting rights lawsuits .
Congress responded to rampant discrimination against racial minorities in public accommodations and government services by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . The Act included some voting rights protections ; it required registrars to equally administer literacy tests in writing to each voter and to accept applications that contained minor errors , and it created a rebuttable presumption that persons with a sixth @-@ grade education were sufficiently literate to vote . However , despite lobbying from civil rights leaders , the Act did not prohibit most forms of voting discrimination . President Lyndon B. Johnson recognized this , and shortly after the 1964 elections in which Democrats gained overwhelming majorities in both chambers of Congress , he privately instructed Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach to draft " the goddamndest , toughest voting rights act that you can " . However , Johnson did not publicly push for the legislation at the time ; his advisers warned him of political costs for vigorously pursuing a voting rights bill so soon after Congress had passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , and Johnson was concerned that championing voting rights would endanger his Great Society reforms by angering Southern Democrats in Congress .
Following the 1964 elections , civil rights organizations such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference ( SCLC ) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee ( SNCC ) pushed for federal action to protect the voting rights of racial minorities . Their efforts culminated in protests in Alabama , particularly in the city of Selma , where County Sheriff Jim Clark 's police force violently resisted African @-@ American voter registration efforts . Speaking about the voting rights push in Selma , James Forman of SNCC said :
Our strategy , as usual , was to force the U.S. government to intervene in case there were arrests — and if they did not intervene , that inaction would once again prove the government was not on our side and thus intensify the development of a mass consciousness among blacks . Our slogan for this drive was " One Man , One Vote . "
In January 1965 , Martin Luther King , Jr . , James Bevel , and other civil rights leaders organized several demonstrations in Selma that led to violent clashes with police . These marches received national media coverage and drew attention to the issue of voting rights . King and other demonstrators were arrested during a march on February 1 for violating an anti @-@ parade ordinance ; this inspired similar marches in the following days , causing hundreds more to be arrested . On February 4 , civil rights leader Malcolm X gave a militant speech in Selma in which he said that many African Americans did not support King 's nonviolent approach ; he later privately said that he wanted to frighten whites into supporting King . The next day , King was released and a letter he wrote addressing voting rights , " Letter From A Selma Jail " , appeared in The New York Times . With the nation paying increasing attention to Selma and voting rights , President Johnson reversed his decision to delay voting rights legislation , and on February 6 , he announced he would send a proposal to Congress . However , he did not reveal the proposal 's content or when it would come before Congress .
On February 18 in Marion , Alabama , state troopers violently broke up a nighttime voting @-@ rights march during which officer James Bonard Fowler shot and killed young African @-@ American protester Jimmie Lee Jackson , who was unarmed and protecting his mother . Spurred by this event , and at the initiation of Bevel , on March 7 SCLC and SNCC began the Selma to Montgomery marches in which Selma residents proceeded to march to Alabama 's capital , Montgomery , to highlight voting rights issues and present Governor George Wallace with their grievances . On the first march , demonstrators were stopped by state and county police on horseback at the Edmund Pettus Bridge near Selma . The police shot tear gas into the crowd and trampled protesters . Televised footage of the scene , which became known as " Bloody Sunday " , generated outrage across the country .
In the wake of the events in Selma , President Johnson , addressing a televised joint session of Congress on March 15 , called on legislators to enact expansive voting rights legislation . He concluded his speech with the words " we shall overcome " , a major theme of the Civil Rights Movement . The legislation that Johnson referred to was the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , which was introduced in Congress two days later while civil rights leaders , now under the protection of federal troops , led a march of 25 @,@ 000 people from Selma to Montgomery .
= = Legislative history = =
= = = Original bill = = =
= = = = Senate = = = =
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was introduced in Congress on March 17 , 1965 as S. 1564 , and it was jointly sponsored by Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield ( D @-@ MT ) and Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen ( R @-@ IL ) , both of whom had worked with Attorney General Katzenbach to draft the bill 's language . Although Democrats held two @-@ thirds of the seats in both chambers of Congress after the 1964 Senate elections , Johnson worried that Southern Democrats would filibuster the legislation , as they had opposed other civil rights efforts . He enlisted Dirksen to help gain Republican support . Dirksen did not originally intend to support voting rights legislation so soon after supporting the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , but he expressed willingness to accept " revolutionary " legislation after learning about the police violence against marchers in Selma on Bloody Sunday . Given Dirksen 's key role in helping Katzenbach draft the legislation , it became known informally as the " Dirksenbach " bill . After Mansfield and Dirksen introduced the bill , 64 additional Senators agreed to cosponsor it , with a total 46 Democratic and 20 Republican cosponsors .
The bill contained several special provisions that targeted certain state and local governments : a " coverage formula " that determined which jurisdictions were subject to the Act 's other special provisions ( " covered jurisdictions " ) ; a " preclearance " requirement that prohibited covered jurisdictions from implementing changes to their voting procedures without first receiving approval from the U.S. Attorney General or the U.S. District Court for D.C. that the changes were not discriminatory ; and the suspension of " tests or devices " , such as literacy tests , in covered jurisdictions . The bill also authorized the assignment of federal examiners to register voters , and of federal observers to monitor elections , to covered jurisdictions that were found to have engaged in egregious discrimination . The bill set these special provisions to expire after five years .
The scope of the coverage formula was a matter of contentious Congressional debate . The coverage formula reached a jurisdiction if : ( 1 ) the jurisdiction maintained a " test or device " on November 1 , 1964 , and ( 2 ) less than 50 % of the jurisdiction 's voting @-@ age residents either were registered to vote on November 1 , 1964 or cast a ballot in the November 1964 presidential election . This formula reached few jurisdictions outside the Deep South . To appease legislators who felt that the bill unfairly targeted Southern jurisdictions , the bill included a general prohibition on racial discrimination in voting that applied nationwide . The bill also included provisions allowing a covered jurisdiction to " bail out " of coverage by proving in federal court that it had not used a " test or device " for a discriminatory purpose or with a discriminatory effect during the 5 years preceding its bailout request . Additionally , the bill included a " bail in " provision under which federal courts could subject discriminatory non @-@ covered jurisdictions to remedies contained in the special provisions .
The bill was first considered by the Senate Judiciary Committee , whose chair , Senator James Eastland ( D @-@ MS ) , opposed the legislation with several other Southern Senators on the committee . To prevent the bill from dying in committee , Mansfield proposed a motion to require the Judiciary Committee to report the bill out of committee by April 9 , which the Senate overwhelmingly passed by a vote of 67 to 13 . During the committee 's consideration of the bill , Senator Ted Kennedy ( D @-@ MA ) led an effort to amend the bill to prohibit poll taxes . Although the Twenty @-@ fourth Amendment — which banned the use of poll taxes in federal elections — was ratified a year earlier , Johnson 's administration and the bill 's sponsors did not include a provision in the voting rights bill banning poll taxes in state elections because they feared courts would strike down the legislation as unconstitutional . Additionally , by excluding poll taxes from the definition of " tests or devices " , the coverage formula did not reach Texas or Arkansas , mitigating opposition from those two states ' influential congressional delegations . Nonetheless , with the support of liberal committee members , Kennedy 's amendment to prohibit poll taxes passed by a 9 @-@ 4 vote . In response , Dirksen offered an amendment that exempted from the coverage formula any state that had at least 60 % of its eligible residents registered to vote or that had a voter turnout that surpassed the national average in the preceding presidential election . This amendment , which effectively exempted all states from coverage except Mississippi , passed during a committee meeting in which three liberal members were absent . Dirksen offered to drop the amendment if the poll tax ban were removed . Ultimately , the bill was reported out of committee on April 9 by a 12 @-@ 4 vote without a recommendation .
On April 22 , the full Senate started debating the bill . Dirksen spoke first on the bill 's behalf , saying that " legislation is needed if the unequivocal mandate of the 15th Amendment ... is to be enforced and made effective , and if the Declaration of Independence is to be made truly meaningful . " Senator Strom Thurmond ( R @-@ SC ) retorted that the bill would lead to " despotism and tyranny " , and Senator Sam Ervin ( D @-@ NC ) argued that the bill was unconstitutional because it deprived states of their right under Article I , Section 2 of the Constitution to establish voter qualifications and because the bill 's special provisions targeted only certain jurisdictions . On May 6 , Ervin offered an amendment to abolish the coverage formula 's automatic trigger and instead allow federal judges to appoint federal examiners to administer voter registration . This amendment overwhelmingly failed , with 42 Democrats and 22 Republicans voting against it . After lengthy debate , Ted Kennedy 's amendment to prohibit poll taxes also failed 49 @-@ 45 on May 11 . However , the Senate agreed to include a provision authorizing the Attorney General to sue any jurisdiction , covered or non @-@ covered , to challenge its use of poll taxes . An amendment offered by Senator Robert Kennedy ( D @-@ NY ) to enfranchise English @-@ illiterate citizens who had attained at least a sixth @-@ grade education in a non @-@ English @-@ speaking school also passed by 48 @-@ 19 . Southern legislators offered a series of amendments to weaken the bill , all of which failed .
On May 25 , the Senate voted for cloture by a 70 @-@ 30 vote , thus overcoming the threat of filibuster and limiting further debate on the bill . On May 26 , the Senate passed the bill by a 77 @-@ 19 vote ( Democrats 47 @-@ 16 , Republicans 30 @-@ 2 ) ; only Senators representing Southern states voted against it .
= = = = House of Representatives = = = =
Emanuel Celler ( D @-@ NY ) , Chair of the House Judiciary Committee , introduced the Voting Rights Act in the House of Representatives on March 19 , 1965 as H.R. 6400 . The House Judiciary Committee was the first committee to consider the bill . The committee 's ranking Republican , William McCulloch ( R @-@ OH ) , generally supported expanding voting rights , but he opposed both the poll tax ban and the coverage formula , and he led opposition to the bill in committee . The committee eventually approved the bill on May 12 , but it did not file its committee report until June 1 . The bill included two amendments from subcommittee : a penalty for private persons who interfered with the right to vote , and a prohibition of all poll taxes . The poll tax prohibition gained Speaker of the House John McCormack 's support . The bill was next considered by the Rules Committee , whose chair , Howard W. Smith ( D @-@ VA ) , opposed the bill and delayed its consideration until June 24 , when Celler initiated proceedings to have the bill discharged from committee . Under pressure from the bill 's proponents , Smith allowed the bill to be released a week later , and the full House started debating the bill on July 6 .
To defeat the Voting Rights Act , McCulloch introduced an alternative bill , H.R. 7896 . It would have allowed the Attorney General to appoint federal registrars after receiving 25 serious complaints of discrimination about a jurisdiction , and it would have imposed a nationwide ban on literacy tests for persons who could prove they attained a sixth @-@ grade education . McCulloch 's bill was co @-@ sponsored by House Minority Leader Gerald Ford ( R @-@ MI ) and supported by Southern Democrats as an alternative to the Voting Rights Act . The Johnson administration viewed H.R. 7896 as a serious threat to passing the Voting Rights Act . However , support for H.R. 7896 dissipated after William M. Tuck ( D @-@ VA ) publicly said he preferred H.R. 7896 because the Voting Rights Act would legitimately ensure that African Americans could vote . His statement alienated most supporters of H.R.
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7896 , and the bill failed on the House floor by a 171 @-@ 248 vote on July 9 . Later that night , the House passed the Voting Rights Act by a 333 @-@ 85 vote ( Democrats 221 @-@ 61 , Republicans 112 @-@ 24 ) .
= = = = Conference committee = = = =
The chambers appointed a conference committee to resolve differences between the House and Senate versions of the bill . A major contention concerned the poll tax provisions ; the Senate version allowed the Attorney General to sue states that used poll taxes to discriminate , while the House version outright banned all poll taxes . Initially , the committee members were stalemated . To help broker a compromise , Attorney General Katzenbach drafted legislative language explicitly asserting that poll taxes were unconstitutional and instructed the Department of Justice to sue the states that maintained poll taxes . To assuage concerns of liberal committee members that this provision was not strong enough , Katzenbach enlisted the help of Martin Luther King , Jr . , who gave his support to the compromise . King 's endorsement ended the stalemate , and on July 29 , the conference committee reported its version out of committee . The House approved this conference report version of the bill on August 3 by a 328 @-@ 74 vote ( Democrats 217 @-@ 54 , Republicans 111 @-@ 20 ) , and the Senate passed it on August 4 by a 79 @-@ 18 vote ( Democrats 49 @-@ 17 , Republicans 30 @-@ 1 ) . On August 6 , President Johnson signed the Act into law with King , Rosa Parks , John Lewis , and other civil rights leaders in attendance at the signing ceremony .
= = = Amendments = = =
Congress enacted major amendments to the Act in 1970 , 1975 , 1982 , 1992 , and 2006 . Each amendment coincided with an impending expiration of some or all of the Act 's special provisions . Originally set to expire by 1970 , Congress repeatedly reauthorized the special provisions in recognition of continuing voting discrimination . Congress extended the coverage formula and special provisions tied to it , such as the Section 5 preclearance requirement , for five years in 1970 , seven years in 1975 , and 25 years in both 1982 and 2006 . In 1970 and 1975 , Congress also expanded the reach of the coverage formula by supplementing it with new 1968 and 1972 trigger dates . Coverage was further enlarged in 1975 when Congress expanded the meaning of " tests or devices " to encompass any jurisdiction that provided English @-@ only election information , such as ballots , if the jurisdiction had a single language minority group that constituted more than five percent of the jurisdiction 's voting @-@ age citizens . These expansions brought numerous jurisdictions into coverage , including many outside of the South . To ease the burdens of the reauthorized special provisions , Congress liberalized the bailout procedure in 1982 by allowing jurisdictions to escape coverage by complying with the Act and affirmatively acting to expand minority political participation .
In addition to reauthorizing the original special provisions and expanding coverage , Congress amended and added several other provisions to the Act . For instance , Congress expanded the original ban on " tests or devices " to apply nationwide in 1970 , and in 1975 , Congress made the ban permanent . Separately , in 1975 Congress expanded the Act 's scope to protect language minorities from voting discrimination . Congress defined " language minority " to mean " persons who are American Indian , Asian American , Alaskan Natives or of Spanish heritage . " Congress amended various provisions , such as the preclearance requirement and Section 2 's general prohibition of discriminatory voting laws , to prohibit discrimination against language minorities . Congress also enacted a bilingual election requirement in Section 203 , which requires election officials in certain jurisdictions with large numbers of English @-@ illiterate language minorities to provide ballots and voting information in the language of the language minority group . Originally set to expire after 10 years , Congress reauthorized Section 203 in 1982 for seven years , expanded and reauthorized it in 1992 for 15 years , and reauthorized it in 2006 for 25 years . The bilingual election requirements have remained controversial , with proponents arguing that bilingual assistance is necessary to enable recently naturalized citizens to vote and opponents arguing that the bilingual election requirements constitute costly unfunded mandates .
Several of the amendments responded to judicial rulings with which Congress disagreed . In 1982 , Congress amended the Act to overturn the Supreme Court case Mobile v. Bolden ( 1980 ) , which held that the general prohibition of voting discrimination prescribed in Section 2 prohibited only purposeful discrimination . Congress responded by expanding Section 2 to explicitly ban any voting practice that had a discriminatory effect , regardless of whether the practice was enacted or operated for a discriminatory purpose . The creation of this " results test " shifted the majority of vote dilution litigation brought under the Act from preclearance lawsuits to Section 2 lawsuits . In 2006 , Congress amended the Act to overturn two Supreme Court cases : Reno v. Bossier Parish School Board ( 2000 ) , which interpreted the Section 5 preclearance requirement to prohibit only voting changes that were enacted or maintained for a " retrogressive " discriminatory purpose instead of any discriminatory purpose , and Georgia v. Ashcroft ( 2003 ) , which established a broader test for determining whether a redistricting plan had an impermissible effect under Section 5 than assessing only whether a minority group could elect its preferred candidates . In 2014 , the Voting Rights Amendments Act was introduced in Congress to create a new coverage formula and amend various other provisions in response to the Supreme Court case Shelby County v. Holder ( 2013 ) , which struck down the coverage formula as unconstitutional . It was referred to the Constitution and Civil Justice congressional subcommittee on February 11 , 2015 , but no action was taken on it that year .
= = Provisions = =
The Act contains two types of provisions : " general provisions " , which apply nationwide , and " special provisions " , which apply to only certain states and local governments . Most provisions are designed to protect the voting rights of racial and language minorities . The term " language minority " means " persons who are American Indian , Asian American , Alaskan Natives or of Spanish heritage . " The Act 's provisions have been colored by numerous judicial interpretations and Congressional amendments .
= = = General provisions = = =
= = = = General prohibition of discriminatory voting laws = = = =
Section 2 prohibits any jurisdiction from implementing a " voting qualification or prerequisite to voting , or standard , practice , or procedure ... in a manner which results in a denial or abridgement of the right ... to vote on account of race , " color , or language minority status . The Supreme Court has allowed private plaintiffs to sue to enforce this prohibition . In Mobile v. Bolden ( 1980 ) , the Supreme Court held that as originally enacted in 1965 , Section 2 simply restated the Fifteenth Amendment and thus prohibited only those voting laws that were intentionally enacted or maintained for a discriminatory purpose . In 1982 , Congress amended Section 2 to create a " results " test , which prohibits any voting law that has a discriminatory effect irrespective of whether the law was intentionally enacted or maintained for a discriminatory purpose . The 1982 amendments provided that the results test does not guarantee protected minorities a right to proportional representation .
When determining whether a jurisdiction 's election law violates this general prohibition , courts have relied on factors enumerated in the Senate Judiciary Committee report associated with the 1982 amendments ( " Senate Factors " ) , including :
The history of official discrimination in the jurisdiction that affects the right to vote ;
The degree to which voting in the jurisdiction is racially polarized ;
The extent of the jurisdiction 's use of majority vote requirements , unusually large electoral districts , prohibitions on bullet voting , and other devices that tend to enhance the opportunity for voting discrimination ;
Whether minority candidates are denied access to the jurisdiction 's candidate slating processes , if any ;
The extent to which the jurisdiction 's minorities are discriminated against in socioeconomic areas , such as education , employment , and health ;
Whether overt or subtle racial appeals in campaigns exist ;
The extent to which minority candidates have won elections ;
The degree that elected officials are unresponsive to the concerns of the minority group ; and
Whether the policy justification for the challenged law is tenuous .
The report indicates not all or a majority of these factors need to exist for an electoral device to result in discrimination , and it also indicates that this list is not exhaustive , allowing courts to consider additional evidence at their discretion .
Section 2 prohibits two types of discrimination : " vote denial " , in which a person is denied the opportunity to cast a ballot or to have their vote properly counted , and " vote dilution " , in which the strength or effectiveness of a person 's vote is diminished . Most Section 2 litigation has concerned vote dilution , especially claims that a jurisdiction 's redistricting plan or use of at @-@ large / multimember elections prevents minority voters from casting sufficient votes to elect their preferred candidates . An at @-@ large election can dilute the votes cast by minority voters by allowing a cohesive majority group to win every legislative seat in the jurisdiction . Redistricting plans can be gerrymandered to dilute votes cast by minorities by " packing " high numbers of minority voters into a small number of districts or " cracking " minority groups by placing small numbers of minority voters into a large number of districts .
In Thornburg v. Gingles ( 1986 ) , the Supreme Court used the term " vote dilution through submergence " to describe claims that a jurisdiction 's use of an at @-@ large / multimember election system or gerrymandered redistricting plan diluted minority votes , and it established a legal framework for assessing such claims under Section 2 . Under the Gingles test , plaintiffs must show the existence of three preconditions :
The racial or language minority group " is sufficiently numerous and compact to form a majority in a single @-@ member district " ;
The minority group is " politically cohesive " ( meaning its members tend to vote similarly ) ; and
The " majority votes sufficiently as a bloc to enable it ... usually to defeat the minority 's preferred candidate . "
The first precondition is known as the " compactness " requirement and concerns whether a majority @-@ minority district can be created . The second and third preconditions are collectively known as the " racially polarized voting " or " racial bloc voting " requirement , and they concern whether the voting patterns of the different racial groups are different from each other . If a plaintiff proves these preconditions exist , then the plaintiff must additionally show , using the remaining Senate Factors and other evidence , that under the " totality of the circumstances " , the jurisdiction 's redistricting plan or use of at @-@ large or multimember elections diminishes the ability of the minority group to elect candidates of its choice .
Subsequent litigation further defined the contours of " vote dilution through submergence " claims . In Bartlett v. Strickland ( 2009 ) , the Supreme Court held that the first Gingles precondition can be satisfied only if a district can be drawn in which the minority group comprises a majority of voting @-@ age citizens . This means that plaintiffs cannot succeed on a submergence claim in jurisdictions where the size of the minority group , despite not being large enough to comprise a majority in a district , is large enough for its members to elect their preferred candidates with the help of " crossover " votes from some members of the majority group . In contrast , the Supreme Court has not addressed whether different protected minority groups can be aggregated to satisfy the Gingles preconditions as a coalition , and lower courts have split on the issue .
The Supreme Court provided additional guidance on the " totality of the circumstances " test in Johnson v. De Grandy ( 1994 ) . The Court emphasized that the existence of the three Gingles preconditions may be insufficient to prove liability for vote dilution through submergence if other factors weigh against such a determination , especially in lawsuits challenging redistricting plans . In particular , the Court held that even where the three Gingles preconditions are satisfied , a jurisdiction is unlikely to be liable for vote dilution if its redistricting plan contains a number of majority @-@ minority districts that is proportional to the minority group 's population . The decision thus clarified that Section 2 does not require jurisdictions to maximize the number of majority @-@ minority districts . The opinion also distinguished the proportionality of majority @-@ minority districts , which allows minorities to have a proportional opportunity to elect their candidates of choice , from the proportionality of election results , which Section 2 explicitly does not guarantee to minorities .
An issue regarding the third Gingles precondition remains unresolved . In Gingles , the Supreme Court split as to whether plaintiffs must prove that the majority racial group votes as a bloc specifically because its members are motivated to vote based on racial considerations and not other considerations that may overlap with race , such as party affiliation . A plurality of justices said that requiring such proof would violate Congress 's intent to make Section 2 a " results " test , but Justice White maintained that the proof was necessary to show that an electoral scheme results in racial discrimination . Since Gingles , lower courts have split on the issue .
Although most Section 2 litigation has involved claims of vote dilution through submergence , courts also have addressed other types of vote dilution under this provision . In Holder v. Hall ( 1994 ) , the Supreme Court held that claims that minority votes are diluted by the small size of a governing body , such as a one @-@ person county commission , may not be brought under Section 2 . A plurality of the Court reasoned that no uniform , non @-@ dilutive " benchmark " size for a governing body exists , making relief under Section 2 impossible . Another type of vote dilution may result from a jurisdiction 's requirement that a candidate be elected by a majority vote . A majority @-@ vote requirement may cause a minority group 's candidate of choice , who would have won the election with a simple plurality of votes , to lose after a majority of voters unite behind another candidate in a runoff election . The Supreme Court has not addressed whether such claims may be brought under Section 2 , and lower courts have reached different conclusions on the issue .
In addition to claims of vote dilution , courts have considered vote denial claims brought under Section 2 . The Supreme Court , in Richardson v. Ramirez ( 1974 ) , held that felony disenfranchisement laws cannot violate Section 2 because , among other reasons , Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment permits such laws . A federal district court in Mississippi held that a " dual registration " system that requires a person to register to vote separately for state elections and local elections may violate Section 2 if the system has a racially disparate impact in light of the Senate Factors . Starting in 2013 , lower federal courts began to consider various challenges to voter ID laws brought under Section 2 .
= = = = Specific prohibitions = = = =
The Act contains several specific prohibitions on conduct that may interfere with a person 's ability to cast an effective vote . One of these prohibitions is prescribed in Section 201 , which prohibits any jurisdiction from requiring a person to comply with any " test or device " to register to vote or cast a ballot . The term " test or device " is defined as literacy tests , educational or knowledge requirements , proof of good moral character , and requirements that a person be vouched for when voting . Before the Act 's enactment , these devices were the primary tools used by jurisdictions to prevent racial minorities from voting . Originally , the Act suspended tests or devices temporarily in jurisdictions covered by the Section 4 ( b ) coverage formula , but Congress subsequently expanded the prohibition to the entire country and made it permanent . Relatedly , Section 202 prohibits jurisdictions from imposing any " durational residency requirement " that requires persons to have lived in the jurisdiction for more than 30 days before being eligible to vote in a presidential election .
Several further protections for voters are contained in Section 11 . Section 11 ( a ) prohibits any person acting under color of law from refusing or failing to allow a qualified person to vote or to count a qualified voter 's ballot . Similarly , Section 11 ( b ) prohibits any person from intimidating , harassing , or coercing another person for voting or attempting to vote . Two provisions in Section 11 address voter fraud : Section 11 ( c ) prohibits people from knowingly submitting a false voter registration application to vote in a federal election , and Section 11 ( e ) prohibits voting twice in a federal election .
Finally , under Section 208 , a jurisdiction may not prevent anyone who is English @-@ illiterate or has a disability from being accompanied into the ballot box by an assistant of the person 's choice . The only exceptions are that the assistant may not be an agent of the person 's employer or union .
= = = = Bail @-@ in = = = =
Section 3 ( c ) contains a " bail @-@ in " or " pocket trigger " process by which jurisdictions that fall outside the coverage formula of Section 4 ( b ) may become subject to preclearance . Under this provision , if a jurisdiction has racially discriminated against voters in violation of the Fourteenth or Fifteenth Amendments , a court may order the jurisdiction to have future changes to its election laws preapproved by the federal government . Because courts have interpreted the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to prohibit only intentional discrimination , a court may bail in a jurisdiction only if the plaintiff proves that the jurisdiction enacted or operated a voting practice to purposely discriminate .
Section 3 ( c ) contains its own preclearance language and differs from Section 5 preclearance in several ways . Unlike Section 5 preclearance , which applies to a covered jurisdiction until such time as the jurisdiction may bail out of coverage under Section 4 ( a ) , bailed @-@ in jurisdictions remain subject to preclearance for as long as the court orders . Moreover , the court may require the jurisdiction to preclear only particular types of voting changes . For example , the bail @-@ in of New Mexico in 1984 applied for 10 years and required preclearance of only redistricting plans . This differs from Section 5 preclearance , which requires a covered jurisdiction to preclear all of its voting changes .
During the Act 's early history , Section 3 ( c ) was little used ; no jurisdictions were bailed in until 1975 . Between 1975 and 2013 , 18 jurisdictions were bailed in , including 16 local governments and the states of Arkansas and New Mexico . Although the Supreme Court held the Section 4 ( b ) coverage formula unconstitutional in Shelby County v. Holder ( 2013 ) , it did not hold Section 3 ( c ) unconstitutional . Therefore , jurisdictions may continue to be bailed @-@ in and subjected to Section 3 ( c ) preclearance . In the months following Shelby County , courts began to consider requests by the Attorney General and other plaintiffs to bail in the states of Texas and North Carolina , and in January 2014 a federal court bailed in Evergreen , Alabama .
A more narrow bail @-@ in process pertaining to federal observer certification is prescribed in Section 3 ( a ) . Under this provision , a federal court may certify a non @-@ covered jurisdiction to receive federal observers if the court determines that the jurisdiction violated the voting rights guaranteed by the Fourteenth or Fifteenth Amendments . Jurisdictions certified to receive federal observers under Section 3 ( a ) are not subject to preclearance .
= = = Special provisions = = =
= = = = Coverage formula = = = =
Section 4 ( b ) contains a " coverage formula " that determines which states and local governments may be subjected to the Act 's other special provisions ( except for the Section 203 ( c ) bilingual election requirements , which fall under a different formula ) . Congress intended for the coverage formula to encompass the most pervasively discriminatory jurisdictions . A jurisdiction is covered by the formula if :
As of November 1 , 1964 , 1968 , or 1972 , the jurisdiction used a " test or device " to restrict the opportunity to register and vote ; and
Less than half of the jurisdiction 's eligible citizens were registered to vote on November 1 , 1964 , 1968 , or 1972 ; or less than half of eligible citizens voted in the presidential election of November 1964 , 1968 , or 1972 .
As originally enacted , the coverage formula contained only November 1964 triggering dates ; subsequent revisions to the law supplemented it with the additional triggering dates of November 1968 and November 1972 , which brought more jurisdictions into coverage . For purposes of the coverage formula , the term " test or device " includes the same four devices prohibited nationally by Section 201 — literacy tests , educational or knowledge requirements , proof of good moral character , and requirements that a person be vouched for when voting — and one further device defined in Section 4 ( f ) ( 3 ) : in jurisdictions where more than 5 % of the citizen voting age population are members of a single language minority group , any practice or requirement by which registration or election materials are provided only in English . The types of jurisdictions that the coverage formula applies to include states and " political subdivisions " of states . Section 14 ( c ) ( 2 ) defines " political subdivision " to mean any county , parish , or " other subdivision of a State which conducts registration for voting . "
Throughout its history , the coverage formula remained controversial because it singled out certain jurisdictions , most of which were in the Deep South . In Shelby County v. Holder ( 2013 ) , the Supreme Court declared the coverage formula unconstitutional because the criteria used were outdated and thus violated principles of equal state sovereignty and federalism . The other special provisions that are dependent on the coverage formula , such as the Section 5 preclearance requirement , remain valid law . However , without a valid coverage formula , these provisions are unenforceable .
= = = = Preclearance requirement = = = =
Section 5 requires that covered jurisdictions receive federal approval , known as " preclearance " , before implementing changes to their election laws . A covered jurisdiction has the burden of proving that the change does not have the purpose or effect of discriminating on the basis of race or language minority status ; if the jurisdiction fails to meet this burden , the federal government will deny preclearance and the jurisdiction 's change will not go into effect . The Supreme Court broadly interpreted Section 5 's scope in Allen v. State Board of Election ( 1969 ) , holding that any change in a jurisdiction 's voting practices , even if minor , must be submitted for preclearance . The Court also held that if a jurisdiction fails to have its voting change precleared , private plaintiffs may sue the jurisdiction in the plaintiff 's local district court before a three @-@ judge panel . In these Section 5 " enforcement actions " , a court considers whether the jurisdiction made a covered voting change , and if so , whether the change has been precleared . If the jurisdiction improperly failed to obtain preclearance , then the court will order the jurisdiction to obtain preclearance before implementing the change . However , the court may not consider the merits of whether the change should be approved .
Jurisdictions may seek preclearance through either an " administrative preclearance " process or a " judicial preclearance " process . If a jurisdiction seeks administrative preclearance , the Attorney General will consider whether the proposed change has a discriminatory purpose or effect . After the jurisdiction submits the proposed change , the Attorney General has 60 days to interpose an objection to it . The 60 @-@ day period may be extended an additional 60 days if the jurisdiction later submits additional information . If the Attorney General interposes an objection , then the change is not precleared and may not be implemented . The Attorney General 's decision is not subject to judicial review , but if the Attorney General interposes an objection , the jurisdiction may independently seek judicial preclearance , and the court may disregard the Attorney General 's objection at its discretion . If a jurisdiction seeks judicial preclearance , it must file a declaratory judgment action against the Attorney General in the U.S. District Court for D.C. A three @-@ judge panel will consider whether the voting change has a discriminatory purpose or effect , and the losing party may appeal directly to the Supreme Court . Private parties may intervene in judicial preclearance lawsuits .
In several cases , the Supreme Court has addressed the meaning of " discriminatory effect " and " discriminatory purpose " for Section 5 purposes . In Beer v. United States ( 1976 ) , the Court held that for a voting change to have a prohibited discriminatory effect , it must result in " retrogression " ( backsliding ) . Under this standard , a voting change that causes discrimination , but does not result in more discrimination than before the change was made , cannot be denied preclearance for having a discriminatory effect . For example , replacing a poll tax with an equally expensive voter registration fee is not a " retrogressive " change because it causes equal discrimination , not more . Relying on the Senate report for the Act , the Court reasoned that the retrogression standard was the correct interpretation of the term " discriminatory effect " because Section 5 's purpose is " ' to insure that [ the gains thus far achieved in minority political participation ] shall not be destroyed through new [ discriminatory ] procedures ' " . The retrogression standard applies irrespective of whether the voting change allegedly causes vote denial or vote dilution .
In 2003 , the Supreme Court held in Georgia v. Ashcroft that courts should not determine that a new redistricting plan has a retrogressive effect solely because the plan decreases the number of minority @-@ majority districts . The Court emphasized that judges should analyze various other factors under the " totality of the circumstances " , such as whether the redistricting plan increases the number of " influence districts " in which a minority group is large enough to influence ( but not decide ) election outcomes . In 2006 , Congress overturned this decision by amending Section 5 to explicitly state that " diminishing the ability [ of a protected minority ] to elect their preferred candidates of choice denies or abridges the right to vote within the meaning of " Section 5 . Uncertainty remains as to what this language precisely means and how courts may interpret it .
Before 2000 , the " discriminatory purpose " prong of Section 5 was understood to mean any discriminatory purpose , which is the same standard used to determine whether discrimination is unconstitutional . In Reno v. Bossier Parish ( Bossier Parish II ) ( 2000 ) , the Supreme Court extended the retrogression standard , holding that for a voting change to have a " discriminatory purpose " under Section 5 , the change must have been implemented for a retrogressive purpose . Therefore , a voting change intended to discriminate against a protected minority was permissible under Section 5 so long as the change was not intended to increase existing discrimination . This change significantly reduced the number of instances in which preclearance was denied based on discriminatory purpose . In 2006 , Congress overturned Bossier Parish II by amending Section 5 to explicitly define " purpose " to mean " any discriminatory purpose . "
= = = = Federal examiners and observers = = = =
Until the 2006 amendments to the Act , Section 6 allowed the appointment of " federal examiners " to oversee certain jurisdictions ' voter registration functions . Federal examiners could be assigned to a covered jurisdiction if the Attorney General certified that
The Department of Justice received 20
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or more meritorious complaints that the covered jurisdiction denied its residents the right to vote based on race or language minority status ; or
The assignment of federal examiners was otherwise necessary to enforce the voting rights guaranteed by the Fourteenth or Fifteenth Amendments .
Federal examiners had the authority to register voters , examine voter registration applications , and maintain voter rolls . The goal of the federal examiner provision was to prevent jurisdictions from denying protected minorities the right to vote by engaging in discriminatory behavior in the voter registration process , such as refusing to register qualified applicants , purging qualified voters from the voter rolls , and limiting the hours during which persons could register . Federal examiners were used extensively in the years following the Act 's enactment , but their importance waned over time ; 1983 was the last year that a federal examiner registered a person to vote . In 2006 , Congress repealed the provision .
Under the Act 's original framework , in any jurisdiction certified for federal examiners , the Attorney General could additionally require the appointment of " federal observers " . By 2006 , the federal examiner provision was used solely as a means to appoint federal observers . When Congress repealed the federal examiner provision in 2006 , Congress amended Section 8 to allow for the assignment of federal observers to jurisdictions that satisfied the same certification criteria that had been used to appoint federal examiners .
Federal observers are tasked with observing poll worker and voter conduct at polling places during an election and observing election officials tabulate the ballots . The goal of the federal observer provision is to facilitate minority voter participation by deterring and documenting instances of discriminatory conduct in the election process , such as election officials denying qualified minority persons the right to cast a ballot , intimidation or harassment of voters on election day , or improper vote counting . Discriminatory conduct that federal observers document may also serve as evidence in subsequent enforcement lawsuits . Since 1965 , the Attorney General has certified 153 local governments across 11 states , but given time and resource constraints , federal observers are not assigned to every certified jurisdiction for every election . Separate provisions allow for a certified jurisdiction to " bail out " of its certification .
= = = = Bailout = = = =
Under Section 4 ( a ) , a covered jurisdiction may seek exemption from coverage through a process called " bailout . " To achieve an exemption , a covered jurisdiction must obtain a declaratory judgment from a three @-@ judge panel of the District Court for D.C. that the jurisdiction is eligible to bail out . As originally enacted , a covered jurisdiction was eligible to bail out if it had not used a test or device with a discriminatory purpose or effect during the 5 years preceding its bailout request . Therefore , a jurisdiction that requested to bail out in 1967 would have needed to prove that it had not misused a test or device since at least 1962 . Until 1970 , this effectively required a covered jurisdiction to prove that it had not misused a test or device since before the Act was enacted five years earlier in 1965 , making it impossible for many covered jurisdictions to bail out . However , Section 4 ( a ) also prohibited covered jurisdictions from using tests or devices in any manner , discriminatory or otherwise ; hence , under the original Act , a covered jurisdiction would become eligible for bailout in 1970 by simply complying with this requirement . But in the course of amending the Act in 1970 and 1975 to extend the special provisions , Congress also extended the period of time that a covered jurisdiction must not have misused a test or device to 10 years and then to 17 years , respectively . These extensions continued the effect of requiring jurisdictions to prove that they had not misused a test or device since before the Act 's enactment in 1965 .
In 1982 , Congress amended Section 4 ( a ) to make bailout easier to achieve in two ways . First , Congress provided that if a state is covered , local governments in that state may bail out even if the state is ineligible to bail out . Second , Congress liberalized the eligibility criteria by replacing the 17 @-@ year requirement with a new standard , allowing a covered jurisdiction to bail out by proving that in the 10 years preceding its bailout request :
The jurisdiction did not use a test or device with a discriminatory purpose or effect ;
No court determined that the jurisdiction denied or abridged the right to vote based on racial or language minority status ;
The jurisdiction complied with the preclearance requirement ;
The federal government did not assign federal examiners to the jurisdiction ;
The jurisdiction abolished discriminatory election practices ; and
The jurisdiction took affirmative steps to eliminate voter intimidation and expand voting opportunities for protected minorities .
Additionally , Congress required jurisdictions seeking bailout to produce evidence of minority registration and voting rates , including how these rates have changed over time and in comparison to the registration and voting rates of the majority . If the court determines that the covered jurisdiction is eligible for bailout , it will enter a declaratory judgment in the jurisdiction 's favor . The court will retain jurisdiction for the following 10 years and may order the jurisdiction back into coverage if the jurisdiction subsequently engages in voting discrimination .
The 1982 amendment to the bailout eligibility standard went into effect on August 5 , 1984 . Between that date and 2013 , 196 jurisdictions bailed out of coverage through 38 bailout actions ; in each instance , the Attorney General consented to the bailout request . Between that date and 2009 , all jurisdictions that bailed out were located in Virginia . In 2009 , a municipal utility jurisdiction in Texas bailed out after the Supreme Court 's opinion in Northwest Austin Municipal Utility District No. 1 v. Holder ( 2009 ) , which held that local governments that do not register voters have the ability to bail out . After this ruling , jurisdictions succeeded in at least 20 bailout actions before the Supreme Court held in Shelby County v. Holder ( 2013 ) that the coverage formula was unconstitutional .
Separate provisions allow a covered jurisdiction that has been certified to receive federal observers to bail out of its certification alone . Under Section 13 , the Attorney General may terminate the certification of a jurisdiction if 1 ) more than 50 % of the jurisdiction 's minority voting age population is registered to vote , and 2 ) there is no longer reasonable cause to believe that residents may experience voting discrimination . Alternatively , the District Court for D.C. may order the certification terminated .
= = = = Bilingual election requirements = = = =
Two provisions require certain jurisdictions to provide election materials to voters in multiple languages : Section 4 ( f ) ( 4 ) and Section 203 ( c ) . A jurisdiction covered by either provision must provide all materials related to an election — such as voter registration materials , ballots , notices , and instructions — in the language of any applicable language minority group residing in the jurisdiction . Language minority groups protected by these provisions include Asian Americans , Hispanics , Native Americans , and Native Alaskans . Congress enacted the provisions to break down language barriers and combat pervasive language discrimination against the protected groups .
Section 4 ( f ) ( 4 ) applies to any jurisdiction encompassed by the Section 4 ( b ) coverage formula where more than 5 % of the citizen voting age population are members of a single language minority group . Section 203 ( c ) contains a formula that is separate from the Section 4 ( b ) coverage formula , and therefore jurisdictions covered solely by 203 ( c ) are not subject to the Act 's other special provisions , such as preclearance . The Section 203 ( c ) formula encompasses jurisdictions where the following conditions exist :
A single language minority is present that has an English @-@ illiteracy rate higher than the national average ; and
Either :
The number of " limited @-@ English proficient " members of the language minority group is at least 10 @,@ 000 voting @-@ age citizens or large enough to comprise at least 5 % of the jurisdiction 's voting @-@ age citizen population ; or
The jurisdiction is a political subdivision that contains an Indian reservation , and more than 5 % of the jurisdiction 's American Indian or Alaska Native voting @-@ age citizens are members of a single language minority and are limited @-@ English proficient .
Section 203 ( b ) defines " limited @-@ English proficient " as being " unable to speak or understand English adequately enough to participate in the electoral process " . Determinations as to which jurisdictions satisfy the Section 203 ( c ) criteria occur once a decade following completion of the decennial census ; at these times , new jurisdictions may come into coverage while others may have their coverage terminated . Additionally , under Section 203 ( d ) , a jurisdiction may " bail out " of Section 203 ( c ) coverage by proving in federal court that no language minority group within the jurisdiction has an English illiteracy rate that is higher than the national illiteracy rate . After the 2010 census , 150 jurisdictions across 25 states were covered under Section 203 ( c ) , including statewide coverage of California , Texas , and Florida .
= = Impact = =
After its enactment in 1965 , the law immediately decreased racial discrimination in voting . The suspension of literacy tests and assignments of federal examiners and observers allowed for high numbers of racial minorities to register to vote . Nearly 250 @,@ 000 African Americans registered in 1965 , one @-@ third of whom were registered by federal examiners . In covered jurisdictions , less than one @-@ third ( 29 @.@ 3 % ) of the African American population was registered in 1965 ; by 1967 , this number increased to more than half ( 52 @.@ 1 % ) , and a majority of African American residents became registered to vote in 9 of the 13 Southern states . Similar increases were seen in the number of African Americans elected to office : between 1965 and 1985 , African Americans elected as state legislators in the 11 former Confederate states increased from 3 to 176 . Nationwide , the number of African American elected officials increased from 1 @,@ 469 in 1970 to 4 @,@ 912 in 1980 . By 2011 , the number was approximately 10 @,@ 500 . Similarly , registration rates for language minority groups increased after Congress enacted the bilingual election requirements in 1975 and amended them in 1992 . In 1973 , the percent of Hispanics registered to vote was 34 @.@ 9 % ; by 2006 , that amount nearly doubled . The number of Asian Americans registered to vote in 1996 increased 58 % by 2006 .
After the Act 's initial success in combating tactics designed to deny minorities access to the polls , the Act became predominately used as a tool to challenge racial vote dilution . Starting in the 1970s , the Attorney General commonly raised Section 5 objections to voting changes that decreased the effectiveness of racial minorities ' votes , including discriminatory annexations , redistricting plans , and election methods such as at @-@ large election systems , runoff election requirements , and prohibitions on bullet voting . In total , 81 % ( 2 @,@ 541 ) of preclearance objections made between 1965 and 2006 were based on vote dilution . Claims brought under Section 2 have also predominately concerned vote dilution . Between the 1982 creation of the Section 2 results test and 2006 , at least 331 Section 2 lawsuits resulted in published judicial opinions . In the 1980s , 60 % of Section 2 lawsuits challenged at @-@ large election systems ; in the 1990s , 37 @.@ 2 % challenged at @-@ large election systems and 38 @.@ 5 % challenged redistricting plans . Overall , plaintiffs succeeded in 37 @.@ 2 % of the 331 lawsuits , and they were more likely to succeed in lawsuits brought against covered jurisdictions .
By enfranchising racial minorities , the Act facilitated a political realignment of the Democratic and Republican parties . Between 1890 and 1965 , minority disenfranchisement allowed conservative Southern Democrats to dominate Southern politics . After Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Act into law , newly enfranchised racial minorities began to vote for liberal Democratic candidates throughout the South , and Southern white conservatives began to switch their party registration from Democrat to Republican en masse . These dual trends caused the two parties to ideologically polarize , with the Democratic Party becoming more liberal and the Republican Party becoming more conservative . The trends also created competition between the two parties , which Republicans capitalized on by implementing the Southern strategy . Over the subsequent decades , the creation of majority @-@ minority districts to remedy racial vote dilution claims also contributed to these developments . By packing liberal @-@ leaning racial minorities into small numbers of majority @-@ minority districts , large numbers of surrounding districts became more solidly white , conservative , and Republican . While this increased the elected representation of racial minorities as intended , it also decreased white Democratic representation and increased the representation of Republicans overall . By the mid @-@ 1990s , these trends culminated in a political realignment : the Democratic Party and the Republican Party became more ideologically polarized and defined as liberal
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2 based on his own experience of working in a group facility for teenagers . He first wrote and produced a short film based on the idea and later adapted it into a feature @-@ length screenplay . While Larson and John Gallagher , Jr. won their roles after auditioning through Skype , most of the children featured in the film were cast through open casting calls . Filming took place over 20 days in Los Angeles , California in September 2012 .
Short Term 12 premiered on March 10 , 2013 at the South by Southwest film festival and was released in theaters on August 23 . It grossed over US $ 1 million and was met with critical acclaim . Reviewers praised the film 's realism and intimacy , drawing particular attention to Larson 's performance and Cretton 's direction . The film won South by Southwest 's Grand Jury and Audience Awards for a Narrative Feature , as well as three Independent Spirit Award nominations .
= = Plot = =
Grace is the young supervisor of Short Term 12 , a group home for troubled teenagers . She lives with her long @-@ term boyfriend and coworker , Mason , but finds it difficult to open up to him emotionally . When Grace finds out she is pregnant , she schedules an appointment for an abortion ; she eventually tells an overjoyed Mason about the pregnancy , but not about her plan to have an abortion . At the facility , Grace and Mason focus their efforts on Marcus , a Short Term 12 resident who is about to turn 18 and is struggling with the prospect of leaving the facility .
Grace bonds with Jayden , a recent arrival at Short Term 12 who has a history of self @-@ harm . Jayden distances herself from the other teenagers as she does not intend to stay at the facility for long , and when her father fails to pick her up on her birthday , she reacts violently towards the staff . After her outburst , she sits in the " cool @-@ down room " with Grace , who shows Jayden her own scars from cutting herself . That night , Jayden leaves the facility in the middle of her birthday celebrations and , unable to force her to return , Grace follows Jayden to her father 's house . After finding the house empty , they return to Short Term 12 . When Jayden reads Grace a cryptic story she has written , Grace begins to suspect that Jayden was abused by her father .
At a party hosted by Mason 's foster parents , he proposes to Grace , who accepts . The following morning , Grace is upset by a phone call that reveals her father is being released from prison , and refuses to be consoled by Mason . She arrives at Short Term 12 to discover that Jayden has been picked up by her father overnight . She is angry at the decision to send Jayden back to her father , but her boss maintains that Jayden denied that she was abused by him . Later that day , Grace finds that Marcus has attempted to commit suicide after the death of his fish .
While waiting at the hospital as Marcus is being treated , Grace breaks down and Mason becomes upset with her for refusing to talk to him about how she feels ; instead , she tells him that she no longer wants to marry him and that she plans to have an abortion . Upset , she returns to Jayden 's father 's house and breaks in , intending to injure him while he sleeps , but she is interrupted by Jayden , who suggests that they smash his car instead . Grace opens up to Jayden about being sexually abused by her own father , and after Jayden shows Grace bruises from where her father hit her they return together to Short Term 12 , where Jayden reports her father for physical abuse . Grace goes home to apologize to Mason , who tells her that Marcus will recover .
Several weeks later , Grace starts seeing a therapist and she is shown viewing a sonogram with Mason . Mason tells the rest of the staff about running into Marcus , who is doing well and has a girlfriend .
= = Cast = =
Brie Larson as Grace Howard
John Gallagher , Jr. as Mason
Kaitlyn Dever as Jayden Cole
Rami Malek as Nate
Keith Stanfield as Marcus
Kevin Hernandez as Luis
Melora Walters as Dr. Hendler
Stephanie Beatriz as Jessica
Lydia Du Veaux as Kendra
Alex Calloway as Sammy
Frantz Turner as Jack
Diana @-@ Maria Riva as Nurse Beth
= = Production = =
Short Term 12 was originally conceived by Destin Daniel Cretton as a short film based on his experiences as a line staff worker at a group facility for teenagers where he had worked for two years ; it served as his thesis project for his Master 's degree in film at San Diego State University . The short film ran for 22 minutes and premiered at the 2009 Sundance Film Festival , where it won the Jury Prize in Short Filmmaking . After graduating from film school , Cretton decided to adapt the short into a feature @-@ length screenplay , which won one of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ' five Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting in 2010 . The largest change Cretton made when adapting the short film into a longer screenplay was changing the lead character 's gender : Denim , a man loosely based on Cretton himself , became Grace , a young woman and the facility 's supervisor . Cretton researched similar facilities and interviewed former employees for the film , noting that the script featured stories directly told by children in these facilities from his interviews .
Brie Larson auditioned for the role of Grace via Skype after the script had been sent to her ; John Gallagher , Jr. also won his role after a Skype conversation with Cretton , calling the screenplay " probably the best script that I 've been sent , ever " . Larson and Gallagher prepared for their roles by shadowing line staff at a group home similar to that in the film , and collaborated to create backstories for their characters . Keith Stanfield was the only actor from the original short film to reprise his role in the feature . Cretton struggled to contact Stanfield when casting the film in 2012 — Stanfield had stopped acting , left his managers , and did not own a cell phone — but Cretton was eventually able to reach him by email to tape an audition . Most of the children featured in the film were cast through open casting calls , and most had no prior acting experience . Alex Calloway , who played Sammy , found a casting call through Craigslist and won the role after sending in a cell phone video audition .
The film was shot over 20 days in September 2012 . Filming took place in Los Angeles , and scenes set at the group home were shot at a former short @-@ stay facility located near the neighborhood of Sylmar . The film was edited by Nat Sanders as it was filmed . Both the original cut of the film and the shortened director 's cut were over 2 hours long , whereas Cretton wanted the final cut to be under 100 minutes . Sanders said that the original cut of the film felt too heavy and " made you feel pretty depressed about humanity " , so a number of scenes were deleted or trimmed to " lighten up " the film 's mood , with a final running time of 96 minutes .
= = Release = =
Short Term 12 premiered in March 2013 at the South by Southwest Film Festival in Austin , Texas , where it won the Grand Jury and Audience Awards in the Narrative Feature category and was purchased for distribution by Cinedigm . Its international premiere was held at the Locarno Film Festival in August 2013 , where it received a standing ovation .
In theaters , the film was given a platform release : on August 23 , it was released in Los Angeles and New York City , expanding the next weekend to Phoenix , Washington , D.C. , Philadelphia , Boston and Berkeley , and progressively expanding to more cities until its widest release on September 13 .
= = = Box office = = =
The film grossed $ 56 @,@ 206 in its opening weekend , playing in four theaters , with a per @-@ theater average of $ 14 @,@ 052 that was considered a strong result by Forbes magazine 's Mark Hughes . Overall , it earned a total of $ 1 @,@ 013 @,@ 100 in North America over a total of 26 weeks in theaters , with a widest release of 75 theaters , and $ 632 @,@ 064 outside the United States for a total of $ 1 @,@ 645 @,@ 164 .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film has a " Certified Fresh " score of 99 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 153 reviews with an average rating of 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 . The critical consensus states : " Short Term 12 is an emphatic , revealing drama that pulls audiences into the perspective of neglected youths . " The film also has a score of 82 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 36 critics indicating " universal acclaim " .
Germain Lussier of / Film wrote of the film , " The whole thing just feels perfect or magical , a shining example of what cinema is all about " , adding , " The performances are mindblowing , the writing sharp , and the direction beautiful . It 's a very special movie . " In Variety , critic Peter Debruge wrote , " the stunning SXSW fest winner puts the recent Park City competition lineup to shame ... this compelling human drama finds fresh energy in the inspirational @-@ teacher genre , constantly revealing new layers to its characters . " In a review for the Los Angeles Times , Kenneth Turan described Short Term 12 as " a small wonder " , " a film of exceptional naturalness and empathy " , and " moving and intimate " , offering particular praise to the film 's honesty and plausibility . Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian , on the other hand , criticized the film 's credibility , describing it as " well intentioned , but somehow inauthentic " with a " too @-@ cute @-@ to @-@ be @-@ true ending " .
The Hollywood Reporter 's John DeFore called the film " genuinely moving " and " effortlessly balanced ... Brett Pawlak 's handheld camerawork and Cretton 's unsentimental direction have a frankness that acknowledges the dramatic extremes in these lives without needing to parade it before the audience . " Manohla Dargis from The New York Times also praised Cretton 's direction , saying he " brings you into this coed group home and the lives of its inhabitants casually , with images and scenes that , no matter how transparently considered , feel as if they had been caught on the fly . "
Brie Larson 's performance as Grace was singled out for praise by critics . Katie Walsh of Indiewire writing , " [ Larson ] manages to convey her character as someone fierce and strong and steely , and also utterly fragile , delicate , scared and broken ... It 's an incredible emotional and physical performance , and she 's a whirlwind . " Similarly , Empire critic Ian Freer felt that Larson gave " a whirling dervish of a performance ... She , like the film , breaks your heart and raises your spirit in one fell swoop . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= Magdalena Neuner =
Magdalena " Lena " Neuner ( born 9 February 1987 ) is a retired German professional biathlete . She is the most successful woman of all time at Biathlon World Championships and a two @-@ time Olympic gold medalist . At the age of 21 , she became the youngest Overall World Cup winner in the history of the International Biathlon Union ( IBU ) . With 34 World Cup wins , Neuner is ranked second all @-@ time for career victories on the Biathlon World Cup tour . She has won the Overall World Cup title three times , in 2007 – 08 , in 2009 – 10 and her final season in 2011 – 12 . Neuner retired from the sport in March 2012 , citing a lack of motivation and her desire for a normal life .
Neuner started biathlon when she was nine years old and won five junior world championship titles from 2004 to 2006 . She made her World Cup debut in 2006 and won her first World Cup race in January 2007 . One month later , she claimed three gold medals in her first appearance at the Biathlon World Championships . In the 2007 – 08 season , Neuner won the Overall World Cup and once more claimed three titles at the 2008 World Championships . After a less successful winter in 2008 – 09 , she participated in her first Winter Olympic Games in 2010 , winning the gold medal in both the pursuit and the mass start , and silver in the sprint race . Neuner also claimed the 2009 – 10 Overall World Cup title . At the 2011 World Championships , she won three more gold medals . In her final winter on the World Cup tour , Neuner won two more titles at the 2012 World Championships and claimed the Overall World Cup for a third time .
During her seven World Cup seasons , Neuner won 34 World Cup races and achieved 63 podium finishes . As part of Germany 's World Cup team , she won ten relay races and three mixed relay events . During six appearances at Biathlon World Championships , Neuner claimed 17 medals : twelve gold , four silver and one bronze . In addition , she has won seven junior world championship titles . Neuner was known as one of the fastest cross @-@ country skiers in biathlon . She had been noted for her volatile shooting performances in the standing position , particularly in the early years of her career , often at the expense of better results .
Neuner has lived in the Bavarian village of Wallgau since birth . At the age of 16 , she joined the German Customs Administration to become a member of the government @-@ funded Customs @-@ Ski @-@ Team . Since winning three world championship gold medals in 2007 , Neuner is one of her home country 's most popular female athletes . She was named German Sportswoman of the Year in 2007 , 2011 and 2012 .
= = Early life = =
Magdalena Neuner was born in the German alpine resort town of Garmisch @-@ Partenkirchen , the second of four children of bank clerk Paul Neuner and his wife Margit . She has an elder brother Paul , and two younger siblings — her brother Christoph and her sister Anna . Her sister is also an aspiring biathlete who participates in junior competitions and is a member in the youth squad of the Bavarian Ski Association .
Neuner grew up in the small Bavarian village of Wallgau , approximately 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from Garmisch @-@ Partenkirchen . She started alpine skiing when she was four years old and later tried various other winter sports at her hometown ski club SC Wallgau . At the age of 16 , Neuner finished high school ( Realschule ) in Garmisch @-@ Partenkirchen and decided to pursue a career in biathlon . Her parents were reluctant , but they eventually supported her ambition to become a professional biathlete .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career and World Cup debut = = =
Neuner started biathlon when she was nine years old after she had participated in a try out course at her local ski club . She won 29 races at the biathlon Student 's Cup of the German Ski Association ( DSV ) , claiming the overall title in her respective age @-@ group for four years in a row from 1999 to 2002 . After finishing school , Neuner joined the German Customs Administration in August 2003 to become a member in the government @-@ supported Customs @-@ Ski @-@ Team ( Zoll @-@ Ski @-@ Team ) . She officially holds the rank of Erste Zollhauptwachtmeisterin ( first head customs officer ) , although she is a full @-@ time professional athlete with no customs obligations . One of her team mates is alpine skiing world champion Maria Höfl @-@ Riesch .
In December 2003 , Neuner won the German Cup for 17 @-@ year @-@ olds , which led to her appointment for the 2003 – 04 European Cup competition for juniors . With four wins at European level , Neuner qualified for the 2004 Junior / Youth World Championships in Haute Maurienne , France , where she won the sprint and relay events , as well as silver in the pursuit . One year later at the 2005 Junior / Youth World Championships in Kontiolahti , Finland , she claimed two silver medals ( pursuit and relay ) , and again won the sprint discipline . With her success at junior level , Neuner at 18 years old , was considered one of Germany 's biggest biathlon talents ever . Even before achieving any results at senior level , she had signed a sponsorship deal .
During the 2005 – 06 season , Neuner made her first appearances in the Biathlon World Cup . Germany 's women 's national coach Uwe Müßiggang had already considered her for the team two years earlier , however , her parents and her hometown coaches Bernhard Kröll and Herbert Mayer were reluctant to let her start prematurely . On 13 January 2006 , Neuner made her debut in the World Cup sprint race in Ruhpolding , Germany , where she substituted for the injured Uschi Disl . Although her first appearance ended unsuccessfully , coming in 41st place , she was appointed for nine more World Cup races for the remainder of the season .
Neuner returned as one of the favourites at the 2006 Junior / Youth World Championships in Presque Isle , Maine , United States , where she won two more titles ( pursuit and relay ) in addition to a silver medal in the sprint race . She did not participate in the 2006 Winter Olympics for the German team . At the World Cup in Kontiolahti in March 2006 , Neuner achieved her first top ten finishes : she was fourth in the sprint and came in ninth in the mass start race .
= = = Three world championship titles ( 2006 – 07 season ) = = =
While she had only competed in ten races during her first World Cup winter , Neuner became a fixture in the German team in the 2006 – 07 season . She proved to be one of the fastest cross @-@ country skiers in biathlon , and at 19 years old , regularly set the fastest course times . On 5 January 2007 , Neuner won her first World Cup event , the sprint race in Oberhof , Germany . Her victory on home soil , before a crowd of 19 @,@ 000 people , received considerable media attention and put her into the national spotlight for the first time . Two days later at the pursuit race , she forgot to reload her rifle after warm @-@ up . She was handed a new magazine during the prone shooting and managed to finish third despite a total of six shooting errors .
Neuner was scheduled to compete at the junior world championships in 2007 . However , following her first World Cup win , she was instead appointed for the senior World Championships in Antholz , Italy . On 3 February 2007 , she won gold in the sprint , beating Sweden 's Anna Carin Olofsson by 2 @.@ 3 seconds . It was her first world championship event ever and only her second victory at senior level . One day later , she also claimed the pursuit title , in spite of four shooting errors . Following a 14th place in the mass start , Neuner , alongside Martina Beck , Andrea Henkel and Kati Wilhelm , also won gold in the relay race on 11 February 2007 . With three titles , she was the championship 's most successful athlete and became the youngest triple world champion .
At the end of the season , she continued her successful run with four more World Cup wins . In March 2007 , Neuner won the pursuit and mass start races at Holmenkollen in Oslo , Norway , and she won the sprint and pursuit events at the season final in Khanty @-@ Mansiysk , Russia , giving her seven career World Cup wins . She ended her first complete season fourth in the Overall World Cup standings and finished second in the pursuit discipline . In the course of three months , Neuner had emerged from anonymity to become one of Germany 's most popular female athletes . At the end of 2007 , she had earned an estimated 1 @.@ 3 million euros through sponsorship and endorsement deals .
= = = Overall World Cup winner ( 2007 – 08 season ) = = =
After missing the podium at the 2007 – 08 season 's first two World Cups , Neuner was part of Germany 's winning relay team in Pokljuka , Slovenia in December 2007 . She claimed her eighth World Cup win at the mass start in Oberhof in January 2008 , and later that month won the relay race in Ruhpolding with the German team . Shortly before her 21st birthday , Neuner decided to again compete at the Junior / Youth World Championships , held in Ruhpolding in January 2008 — the last time she was eligible to enter . She won gold in the sprint and the pursuit , but withdrew from the individual race to prepare for the senior world championships alongside her German team mates .
Leading up to the 2008 World Championships in Östersund , Sweden , Neuner tried to lower expectations , stating a repeat of last year 's performance would be impossible . She failed to defend her titles in the sprint and pursuit races , with shooting errors preventing better results ; she finished 17th and sixth respectively . On 12 February 2008 , she won the mixed relay with Sabrina Buchholz , Andreas Birnbacher and Michael Greis to claim her first gold medal . Four days later , she won her second title in the mass start , beating Norway 's Tora Berger by 3 @.@ 0 seconds . She had four shooting errors compared to Berger 's one and skied side by side with the Norwegian for most of the last lap , in what she later described as her hardest fought victory ever . Alongside Martina Beck , Andrea Henkel and Kati Wilhelm , Neuner also claimed gold in the relay race on 17 February 2008 . By winning three more titles , she became the youngest six @-@ time world champion , solidifying her status as Germany 's biggest biathlon star .
In the following World Cups , she won the sprint races in Pyeongchang , South Korea , and in Khanty @-@ Mansiysk — her tenth and eleventh World Cup victories . With a second @-@ place finish in the penultimate mass start race of the season , Neuner won the 2007 – 08 Mass start World Cup . At the season final in Oslo , she also claimed the season 's Sprint World Cup and took over the yellow bib of the Overall World Cup leader for the first time in her career . In the last race of the season , a ninth place in the mass start ensured Neuner the 2007 – 08 Overall Biathlon World Cup victory . She was the youngest Overall World Cup winner since the International Biathlon Union was established in 1993 .
= = = First setbacks ( 2008 – 09 season ) = = =
Neuner 's preparation for the 2008 – 09 season was affected by several illnesses . In the summer , she battled an intestinal fungus which forced her to pause training for seven weeks ; she later attributed it to pressure of public expectations . In October 2008 , she contracted influenza and in November , a bacterial infection caused her to miss two weeks of training . Subsequently , her ski speed saw a substantial drop at the start of the season . In the first four World Cups , Neuner only achieved two individual podiums ; atypically courtesy of good shooting performances , not her skiing .
Following the Christmas break , her skiing times had improved . In Ruhpolding in January 2009 , Neuner was part of the winning German relay team . She beat team mate Kati Wilhelm by 0 @.@ 2 seconds in the Ruhpolding sprint and also won the following pursuit event , which marked her World Cup wins twelve and thirteen . Neuner again missed the podium in Antholz . She was leading the mass start by 53 @.@ 6 seconds before the final shooting , in which she missed all five targets , eventually finishing sixth . This result received much public attention . She later described it as a pivotal moment in her career and called it the " total end of the world " .
Neuner suffered further setbacks at the 2009 World Championships in Pyeongchang , where she struggled with a cold and a high number of shooting errors . She finished eighth in the sprint , in which she crashed on a downhill slope , and came in eleventh in the pursuit race . She was not appointed for the individual race and could not start in the mixed relay due to her cold . On 21 February 2009 , Neuner claimed silver as part Germany 's women 's relay team , alongside Martina Beck , Andrea Henkel and Kati Wilhelm . On the last day of the championships , she came in seventh in the mass start race .
At the Olympic rehearsal in Vancouver , Canada , in March 2009 , Neuner claimed the 2008 – 09 Individual World Cup , despite never having won a race in that discipline . She also won the Vancouver relay race with the German team , and was second in the sprint , 0 @.@ 7 seconds behind Sweden 's Helena Ekholm . At the season final in Khanty @-@ Mansiysk , Neuner won the pursuit race — her 14th World Cup win . She ended the season fourth in the Overall Biathlon World Cup , which was generally considered disappointing in the media .
Neuner later revealed that due to public expectations and constant media attention , the 2008 – 09 season had been extremely difficult for her psychologically , and she even briefly contemplated retirement . She started working with a psychologist and cut down her media appearances as much as possible in the summer .
= = = Double Olympic champion ( 2009 – 10 season ) = = =
Neuner competed at the Summer Biathlon World Championships for the first time in September 2009 when they were held in Oberhof . She only reluctantly agreed to interrupt training and participate in the summer event , which is contested on roller ski , however she went on to win gold in all three competitions ( sprint , pursuit and mixed relay ) . Neuner missed the first World Cup of the 2009 – 10 season due to a cold in December 2009 . She returned at the following races in Hochfilzen , but was still affected by her cold and finished outside the top 20 . Her first podiums of the winter came in Pokljuka , finishing third in the sprint and second in the pursuit race . Thereby she secured her Olympic qualification within the German team .
Shortly before the Oberhof sprint in January 2010 , Neuner injured her back during warm @-@ up and had to withdraw . She returned in Ruhpolding where she came in third in both the sprint and the mass start race . In her first relay of the season , she dealt a blow to the German team by incurring two penalty loops , with Germany finishing fourth eventually . With some top competitors missing in Antholz at the last World Cup before the 2010 Winter Olympics , Neuner won two events — the first individual race of her career as well as the sprint , giving her 16 career World Cup wins . She also came in second in the pursuit , which marked her seventh consecutive podium finish .
Neuner went into her first Winter Olympics in Vancouver with the declared aim of winning a gold medal . On 13 February 2010 , she participated in the opening sprint , which was contested at Whistler Olympic Park in rainy conditions . With one shooting error , Neuner claimed the silver medal , finishing 1 @.@ 5 seconds behind Slovakia 's Anastasiya Kuzmina . She uncharacteristically lost five seconds against the unheralded Slovak on the cross @-@ country course , which led to speculation of inferior ski preparation in the German media . Three days later , Neuner won gold in the subsequent pursuit race . Despite missing two targets in the standing position , she beat sprint winner Kuzmina by 12 @.@ 3 seconds . In her third Olympic event , she finished tenth in the individual . She had three shooting mistakes and said it had been difficult for her to immediately get her concentration back after winning her first gold medal . On 21 February 2010 , Neuner claimed her second gold of the Games in the mass start . After missing two targets , she had been trailing by as much as 29 seconds , but she pushed the pace and a clean final standing shoot allowed her to overtake Russia 's Olga Zaitseva on the last lap . After the race , Neuner made the announcement not to participate in the relay , citing mental exhaustion and her desire to give all of her team mates the chance to win a medal . Her withdrawal allowed her friend Martina Beck a start in her last Olympic Games . Neuner was Germany 's most successful athlete in Vancouver and was chosen to carry the German flag at the closing ceremony .
Following her Olympic success , Neuner continued her good form at the season 's remaining three World Cups , finishing all races in the top ten . She came in second in the Kontiolahti pursuit , and third in Oslo 's mass start race , which increased her World Cup lead after taking over the yellow bib in Vancouver . Neuner ended the season with her 19th World Cup win in Khanty @-@ Mansiysk 's mass start , which ensured her the 2009 – 10 Overall World Cup , making her the first German woman to win the Biathlon World Cup for a second time . She also won the pursuit and mass start discipline World Cups . In the last event of the winter , the Mixed Relay World Championship , she won gold , alongside Simone Hauswald , Simon Schempp and Arnd Peiffer , to claim her seventh world title .
= = = Record world champion ( 2010 – 11 season ) = = =
During the summer , Neuner admitted struggling for motivation for the upcoming season , having won every title in the sport at only 23 years old . However , she vowed to continue her career at least until the 2012 world championships in Ruhpolding . In December 2010 she suffered from a cold , missing the season 's first World Cup in Östersund for the second year in a row . She started the 2010 – 11 season in Hochfilzen , where she managed two seventh @-@ place finishes , and was part of the winning German relay team . At the third stop of the season in Pokljuka , she won the sprint race in spite of two shooting errors , claiming her 20th career victory .
Neuner continued the winter with mixed results in January 2011 . She reached the podium in the sprints of Oberhof and Ruhpolding , coming in second and third respectively . In the relay in Oberhof , Neuner was part of Germany 's team coming in sixth place , the team 's worst result since 2005 . She also had her worst personal result in 13 months , finishing in 16th place in the Ruhpolding individual race , which ended her streak of 24 consecutive top ten finishes ( including 15 podiums and 6 wins ) . At the World Cup in Antholz , Neuner again struggled with illness . She only participated in the concluding mass start , coming in 6th place .
At the World Cup stops in February in the United States , Neuner returned to good health and showed more consistency ; her worst result was a 6th @-@ place finish . In Presque Isle , Maine , she won the mixed relay as part of the German team . On week later in Fort Kent , Maine , Neuner finished all three races on the podium . She came in third in the sprint , second in the pursuit , and claimed her 21st World Cup win in the mass start — the last race before the world championships .
At the 2011 World Championships in Khanty @-@ Mansiysk , Neuner won three gold and two silver medals . She claimed silver , alongside Andrea Henkel , Arnd Peiffer and Michael Greis , in the opening mixed relay . On 5 March 2011 , Neuner won the sprint race courtesy of a clean shooting performance . She finished second in the pursuit and fifth in the individual subsequently . On 12 March 2011 , Neuner won her second title in the mass start despite of four shooing errors . The following day she also claimed gold in the women 's relay , together with Andrea Henkel , Miriam Gössner and Tina Bachmann . Running the last leg for Germany , Neuner started in fourth , 67 @.@ 5 seconds off the lead , but she pulled back the entire time and moved in front on the last lap . Her five medals made her the most successful female athlete in the history of Biathlon World Championships .
The season ended in disappointment for Neuner in Oslo . After claiming her 24th career win in the sprint , she had moved into second place in the Overall World Cup ranking . However , she again suffered
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from a cold and had to pull out of the penultimate race of the winter , the pursuit in which she would have started 31 seconds in front . This effectively ended her hopes of retaining the World Cup crown . She eventually finished fifth in the overall standings , having missed five of the season 's 26 races .
= = = Final World Cup winter ( 2011 – 12 season ) = = =
Before the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Neuner hinted the upcoming season might be her last . She began the winter in Östersund with the best season start of her career , beating Tora Berger by 0 @.@ 2 seconds in the sprint to claim her 25th World Cup win . She also came third in the individual and the pursuit , and took the yellow bib of the Overall World Cup leader . On 6 December 2011 , Neuner announced her retirement from biathlon by the end of the season on her homepage . She explained her early departure from the sport ( at age 25 ) with a lack of motivation and her desire for a normal life . Neuner nonetheless continued her good form in Hochfilzen , where she claimed her 26th World Cup win in the sprint .
After Christmas , Neuner won both individual races in Oberhof – her World Cup wins 27 and 28 . In the women ’ s relay , she incurred 4 penalties in the final shooting , which foiled a likely German victory . Neuner suffered one of the biggest mishaps of her career , when she fired on the wrong targets in the Nove Mesto pursuit , dropping from first to seventh place . She recovered quickly by winning the sprint race in Antholz one week later . In February , Neuner claimed a double sprint and pursuit victory in Oslo despite suffering from a cold , which forced her to withdraw from the mass start . At the last World Cup stop before the world championships in Kontiolahti , she reached her sixth sprint win of the season , and extended her World Cup lead over Darya Domracheva .
At the 2012 World Championships in Ruhpolding , Neuner won bronze in the opening mixed relay , alongside Andrea Henkel , Andreas Birnbacher and Arnd Peiffer . On 3 March 2012 , she claimed her 11th world title in the sprint race courtesy of her clean shooting . Neuner dropped to second place one day later in the pursuit , in which Domracheva overtook her at the final shooting bout . During the second week of the championships , Neuner often struggled with her shooting . She only reached 23rd place in the individual – her worst world championships result ever . With Tina Bachmann , Miriam Gössner and Andrea Henkel she won her second gold medal in Ruhpolding in the women 's relay on 10 March 2012 , despite incurring a penalty loop . In the concluding mass start , Neuner came in tenth place , with six shooting mistakes in total . Her 12th gold medal made her the second most successful biathlete of all time at world championships , behind male record holder Ole Einar Bjørndalen .
Having led the standings uninterruptedly since the second race of the winter , Neuner won her third Overall World Cup title at the season final in Russia , where she claimed her 34th and final World Cup win in the sprint . Neuner also won the 2011 – 12 Sprint World Cup thanks to an unprecedented eight out of ten sprint wins . With ten victories in total , her final World Cup season was the most successful in her career . She also became only the second woman after Magdalena Forsberg to win the overall title more than twice . On 18 March 2012 , Neuner ended her biathlon career with a sixth place in the Khanty @-@ Mansiysk mass start .
= = Skiing = =
Neuner was one of the fastest female cross @-@ country skiers in biathlon . During 66 of her 151 World Cup races ( 44 % ) , she has set the fastest course time ( race time without time spent at the shooting range or in the penalty loop ) . In addition , she has been among the top three fastest skiers in 77 % of her career races .
In her first World Cup races in the 2005 – 06 season , Neuner achieved average course times ; her best result was being fourth fastest in the pursuit race in Kontiolahti . During her first full season in 2006 – 07 , she finished among the top three fastest skiers in 19 of her 24 races and came in fastest in seven of them . Neuner won the 2007 – 08 Biathlon World Cup with dominating skiing performances . She set the fastest course time in 19 of her 25 races and was second or third fastest in the remaining six . At the beginning of the 2008 – 09 season , Neuner had a substantial drop in her skiing times due to a series of illnesses . However , she recovered and set the fastest course time in 14 of the remaining 18 races from January onwards . In the 2009 – 10 Olympic season , Neuner again started slowly in December , but came back finishing among the top three fastest skiers in 17 of her 21 races . She had her second best winter in 2010 – 11 when she set the fastest or second fastest skiing time in 90 % of her 21 races .
Neuner had been a fast cross @-@ country skier from an early age . When she was eight years old , she won the first cross @-@ country skiing competition she entered at her local ski club . At junior level , her lap times at the German Student 's Cup were comparable to older or male opponents . At the age of 15 , Neuner managed to set the same skiing times as her coeval male training partners . In preparation for the 2006 – 07 season , Neuner skied 5 @,@ 300 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 300 mi ) in training ; she increased the volume to 6 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 700 mi ) for the 2007 – 08 season . Because of her ski speed , she has often been able to compensate for one or sometimes two or three shooting errors ( a penalty loop is 150 metres ( 160 yd ) long and normally takes 21 to 26 seconds ) .
During three of her 32 World Cup wins ( 2007 World Championships pursuit , 2008 World Championships mass start , and 2009 Ruhpolding pursuit ) , Neuner skied three additional penalty loops compared to the second @-@ place finisher . In March 2008 , she came in second in the Khanty @-@ Mansiysk mass start race , despite completing five penalty loops . She also reached third place in the Oberhof pursuit in January 2007 with six missed targets . At Neuner 's first World Cup victory in the individual discipline in January 2010 , she compensated for a total time penalty of two minutes on the 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) cross @-@ country course ( incurred by two additional shooting errors ) .
= = = Skiing statistics = = =
* Key : Number of respective times achieved / number of all races entered , percentage . Results in IBU World Cup races , no relay events .
* * Statistics as of 18 March 2012 .
= = Shooting = =
Neuner averaged a career shooting accuracy of 78 % . Her career average in the prone position was 88 % , while her career average in the standing position was 67 % . Her shooting results in the prone position were similar to other top contenders . The standing shoot had long been her weak point and her hit percentage was well below average in the World Cup field , although it had improved considerably in her later seasons .
With a 78 % accuracy , Neuner had solid shooting results during her 2005 – 06 season debut . Her average dropped to 74 % in her first complete season in 2006 – 07 . Neuner won the 2007 – 08 Biathlon World Cup with a shooting accuracy of 73 % , which is the lowest result for an Overall World Cup winner ever and roughly ten per cent below the previous three winners ' averages : Andrea Henkel ( 84 % ) , Kati Wilhelm ( 87 % ) and Sandrine Bailly ( 81 % ) . She steadily increased her shooting percentages in the following two seasons with a 76 % average in 2008 – 09 , and her career best results of 82 % in the 2009 – 10 Olympic season . In the 2010 – 11 season , she set her career high in the standing position with a 75 % accuracy .
Neuner 's shooting performances have been a regular topic in the German media . At times she has been reluctant to discuss her shooting in interviews and has said the public 's fixation on it contributes to the problem . She has insisted her difficulties in the standing position are not due to technical weaknesses but psychological , and her training results are just as good as the results of her team mates . She explained in interviews that she had developed a fear of the standing shooting over time , knowing she had to justify herself after the race if she missed . In 2008 , Neuner trained with Bundeswehr shooting coach and former large calibre world champion , Rudi Krenn , and subsequently changed her stance slightly . Since 2009 , she has worked with a psychologist , primarily focusing on mental techniques to build her confidence on the shooting range . Her standing position average has improved from 60 % to 75 % from 2008 to 2011 . Neuner has been wearing ear plugs during some of the races in order to better concentrate while shooting . The individual race , which places a high emphasis on shooting , has traditionally been her worst discipline ( each shooting error results in a one @-@ minute time penalty , instead of a penalty loop ) .
Neuner has won 6 races ( all sprints ) with a perfect shooting record : Khanty @-@ Mansiysk sprint in March 2007 , 2011 World Championship sprint and 4 sprints in her final 2011 – 12 season . She also shot clean on two other occasions , the sprint in Kontiolahti in March 2006 , coming in fourth place , and the Östersund sprint in December 2008 , finishing third . Her worst shooting performance came in December 2008 , with a total of nine shooting errors at the World Cup pursuit in Hochfilzen . Neuner 's costliest shooting occurred during a mass start race in Antholz in January 2009 . After 15 clean shots , she was leading by 53 @.@ 6 seconds before the final shooting , in which she missed all five targets , eventually dropping to sixth place .
= = = Shooting statistics = = =
* Key : Hits / shots , percentage . Results in all IBU World Cup races including relay events .
* * Statistics as of 18 March 2012 .
= = Personal life = =
Neuner has lived in Wallgau , Bavaria , Germany , a small alpine village of 1 @,@ 400 people , from birth . In 2007 , she bought her grandmother 's house in Wallgau , where she now lives in her own flat . Neuner plays the harp and owns an enduro motorcycle . She has said she enjoys mountain biking , hiking and swimming during the off @-@ season .
Neuner had been involved in a nearly two @-@ year relationship with Austrian ski technician and former biathlete Franz Perwein , whom she had met during the 2006 Junior / Youth World Championships . Until the autumn of 2009 , she then lived in a relationship with DSV chief biathlon technician Björn Weisheit for 19 months .
In December 2009 , Neuner confirmed a romantic relationship with Josef Holzer , a school day friend from Wallgau . The couple married in March 2014 and have one daughter , Verena Anna ( born 30 May 2014 in Garmisch @-@ Partenkirchen ) .
= = In the media = =
Biathlon is the most popular winter sport in Germany . Each World Cup event is shown live on German television and the January World Cup races in Oberhof , Ruhpolding and Antholz are regularly seen by over five million viewers . Following her three world championship titles in 2007 , Neuner quickly became one of Germany 's most popular female sport stars , often nicknamed " Gold Lena " in the media . During her first two years in the spotlight she signed several endorsement deals and claimed numerous awards . Neuner 's popularity grew further with her success during the 2010 Winter Olympics . Her second gold medal win in the Olympic mass start was seen live by 9 @.@ 75 million television viewers ( a 31 @.@ 5 per cent market share ) , the most watched programme of the Games in Germany . Her withdrawal from the Olympic relay was one of the dominating stories of the Winter Olympics in Germany , leading to much media speculation whether pulling out had been entirely her decision . She later received the Fair Play medal of Germany 's Olympic Society for setting an example of " team spirit " .
Neuner won the Biathlon Award , chosen by the national coaches of the World Cup teams , for Female Athlete of the Year in both 2007 and 2008 , and she was awarded the Goldener Ski ( Golden Ski ) , the highest award of the German Ski Association in 2007 , 2008 and 2010 . The Forum Nordicum , a consortium of journalists form twelve countries , named her Biathlete of the Year in the 2007 – 08 and 2009 – 10 seasons , beating out her male counterparts Ole Einar Bjørndalen and Emil Hegle Svendsen respectively . Neuner was chosen as Germany 's 2007 Sportswoman of the Year by the country 's sports journalists . The following years , she came in third for the 2008 award and was voted in second place in 2010 . Along with all Olympic medal winners , she received the Silberne Lorbeerblatt ( Silver Laurel Leaf ) in 2010 , the highest state decoration for athletes in Germany . In 2011 , readers of Germany 's top selling newspaper Bild voted Neuner the seventh greatest German sportsperson of all time , and she was again named German Sportswoman of the Year . Nine months after her retirement , Neuner received Germany 's Sportswoman of the Year award for a third time .
Neuner 's interest in knitting has often been addressed by the German media and she maintains a knitting website , which includes detailed knitting instructions and a " knitting blog " . She has stated that she usually takes knitting equipment on her travels during the season and that knitting is a way for her to relax . In 2007 , Neuner declined an offer to appear nude in the German edition of Playboy . Outside of Germany , she is particularly popular in Russia , where she has a fan club and from where she has said to receive half of her fan mail . In 2010 , Neuner appeared in an advertising campaign for a lingerie line . She explained she tried to use it in a deliberate attempt to correct her media image , after becoming irritated with her public persona of " little sweet Lena " . She was an ambassador for the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup in Germany. and a member of the board of trustees for Munich 's bid to host the 2018 Winter Olympics .
= = Record = =
= = = Olympic Games = = =
Neuner has won two gold medals and one silver medal at the Winter Olympic Games . At her only appearance at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , Canada , she won gold in the pursuit and the mass start event . She also claimed silver in the opening sprint . After winning three medals , she decided not to participate in the concluding relay race .
= = = World championships = = =
Neuner is the most successful female biathlete in the history of Biathlon World Championships . She has won seventeen medals , twelve gold , four silver and one bronze . At her debut during the 2007 World Championships in Antholz , Italy , Neuner won three titles ( sprint , pursuit and relay ) . One year later at the 2008 World Championships in Östersund , Sweden , she again claimed three gold medals , winning the mass start , relay and mixed relay events . Neuner did not win a title at the 2009 World Championships in Pyeongchang , South Korea ; her best result was the silver medal in the relay event . She won her second mixed relay gold in Khanty @-@ Mansiysk , Russia , in 2010 . At the 2011 World Championships , she won three more titles ( sprint , mass start , relay ) and two silver medals ( pursuit and mixed relay ) . At her final championships in 2012 , Neuner won her world titles eleven ( sprint ) and twelve ( relay ) , as well as her fourth silver ( pursuit ) and her first bronze medal ( mixed relay ) .
= = = World Cup = = =
During her first World Cup season , Neuner only appeared in ten races , finishing 34th in the overall standings . In the 2006 – 07 season , she became a regular in the German team and ended the season in fourth place . Neuner won the Biathlon World Cup for the first time in 2007 – 08 ; she also won the sprint and mass start disciplines . She finished the 2008 – 09 season fourth , winning the individual discipline that year . In the 2009 – 10 season , Neuner won the overall World Cup for a second time ; by winning the pursuit and mass start scores as well , she has claimed each World Cup title at least once . In 2010 – 11 , she won the sprint discipline for a second time and finished fifth in the season ranking . In her final World Cup season in 2011 – 12 , Neuner won her third Overall World Cup title , as well as the sprint discipline .
* Key : Races — number of entered races / all races ; Points — won World Cup points ; Position — World Cup season ranking .
* Statistics as of 18 March 2012 . ' '
= = = = World Cup wins = = = =
Over the course of seven seasons , Neuner has reached 34 personal World Cup wins . In the history of the International Biathlon Union she is ranked second behind Magdalena Forsberg ( 42 ) , with Uschi Disl ( 30 ) third , for all @-@ time career victories . In addition , she has won nine relay races and three mixed relay events as part of the German World Cup team . Neuner has often started slowly at the beginning of a winter season and has claimed only three of her individual victories before Christmas . Consequently , 18 of her 47 wins came in the month of March . Geographically most of her wins occurred in Khanty @-@ Mansiysk , Russia ( 10 ) , followed by Antholz , Italy ( 6 ) and Ruhpolding , Germany ( 6 ) .
* Key : WCH — World Championships ; OG — Olympic Games . Statistics as of 18 March 2012 .
= = = Overall record = = =
During her seven season on the World Cup tour , Neuner had competed in a total of 175 races , winning 47 of them ( a 26 @.@ 86 win percentage ) . She has claimed at least one win in each discipline of biathlon and has scored World Cup points in all but three of her races . Neuner has reached a total of 82 World Cup podiums ( 63 in individual races and 19 in team events ) . In addition , she has achieved 137 top ten finishes — 78 @.@ 29 per cent of all the races she has entered .
* Results in all IBU World Cup races including relay events . Statistics as of 18 March 2012 .
= = = Junior / Youth World Championships = = =
Neuner has won seven gold and four silver medals at the Biathlon Junior / Youth World Championships . With the exception of the individual discipline , she has won a medal in every race she entered . In 2004 , at her first junior world championships in Haute Maurienne , France , Neuner won two titles ( sprint and relay ) . One year later , she claimed gold in the sprint race in Kontiolahti , Finland , and in 2006 , she again won two titles ( pursuit and relay ) in Presque Isle , Maine , United States . Neuner did not participate in the 2007 event . She returned to the junior world championships in 2008 when they were held in Ruhpolding , Germany , winning two more gold medals ( sprint and pursuit ) .
= = Achievements and honours = =
International titles
Winter Olympic Games – 2 gold medals2010 : Pursuit , Mass start
Overall Biathlon World Cup winner – 2007 – 08 , 2009 – 10 , 2011 – 2012
Individual World Cup winner – 2008 – 09
Sprint World Cup winner – 2007 – 08 , 2010 – 11 , 2011 – 2012
Pursuit World Cup winner – 2009 – 10
Mass start World Cup winner – 2007 – 08 , 2009 – 10
Biathlon World Championships – 12 gold medals2007 : Sprint , Pursuit , Relay
2008 : Mass start , Relay , Mixed relay
2010 : Mixed Relay
2011 : Sprint , Mass start , Relay
2012 : Sprint , Relay
Biathlon Junior / Youth World Championships – 7 gold medals
Awards
German Sportswoman of the Year – 2007 , 2011
Biathlon Award for Female Newcomer of the Year – 2007
Biathlon Award for Female Athlete of the Year – 2007 , 2008
Goldener Ski of the DSV – 2007 , 2008 , 2010
Biathlete of the Year of the Forum Nordicum – 2008 , 2010
Silbernes Lorbeerblatt – 2010
= HMS Prince George ( 1895 ) =
HMS Prince George was a Majestic @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship launched in 1895 . She was named after the future George V of the United Kingdom and was the fourth and final ship to bear that name . Commissioned in 1896 , she initially served with the Channel Fleet until 1904 . She was involved in a collision with her sister ship , Hannibal , and the resulting damage meant that much of the latter part of 1903 was spent being repaired . After a refit in 1904 , she was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet and then from 1907 , she was part of the Home Fleet . In 1912 , she was assigned to the 7th Battle Squadron .
When World War I broke out Prince George , together with the rest of the squadron , was attached to the Channel Fleet during the early stages of the war . In early 1915 , she was dispatched to the Mediterranean for service in the Dardanelles Campaign . She participated in bombardments of Turkish forts and supported the Allied operations at Gallipoli , including the evacuation from the peninsula late in 1915 . She spent the remainder of the war back in the United Kingdom , initially as an accommodation ship before being converted to a depot ship for destroyers in 1918 and stationed at Scapa Flow . For this latter role , she was renamed Victorious II before reverting to her original name in 1919 . Decommissioned in 1920 , she was sold for scrapping to a German company but sank off the Netherlands during transit to Germany .
= = Design = =
Prince George was laid down at the Portsmouth Dockyard on 10 September 1894 . She was launched less than a year later , on 22 August 1895 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . The ceremony was performed by HRH the Duchess of York ( later Queen Mary ) , in the presence of her husband Prince George , Duke of York ( later King George V ) , for whom the ship was named . She was commissioned into the Royal Navy on 26 November 1896 . The ship was 421 feet ( 128 m ) long overall and had a beam of 75 ft ( 23 m ) and a draft of 27 ft ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced up to 16 @,@ 060 t ( 15 @,@ 810 long tons ; 17 @,@ 700 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by eight coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . By 1907 – 1908 , she was re @-@ boilered with oil @-@ fired models . Her engines provided a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) at 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . The Majestics were considered good seaboats with an easy roll and good steamers , although they suffered from high fuel consumption . She had a crew of 672 officers and enlisted men .
Prince George was armed with four BL 12 @-@ inch Mk VIII guns in twin turrets , one forward and one aft . The turrets were placed on pear @-@ shaped barbettes ; six of her sisters had the same arrangement , but her sisters Caesar and Illustrious and all future British battleship classes had circular barbettes . Prince George also carried twelve QF 6 @-@ inch / 40 guns . They were mounted in casemates in two gun decks amidships . She also carried sixteen QF 12 @-@ pounder guns and twelve QF 2 @-@ pounder guns . She was also equipped with five 18 @-@ inch ( 450 @-@ mm ) torpedo tubes , four of which were submerged in the ship 's hull , with the last in a deck @-@ mounted launcher . Prince George and the other ships of her class had 9 inches ( 229 mm ) of Harvey armour , which allowed equal protection with less cost in weight compared to previous types of armour . This allowed Prince George and her sisters to have a deeper and lighter belt than previous battleships without any loss in protection . The barbettes for the main battery were protected with 14 in ( 360 mm ) of armour , and the conning tower had the same thickness of steel on the sides . The ship 's armoured deck was 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 in ( 64 to 114 mm ) thick .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Pre @-@ World War I = = =
HMS Prince George was commissioned at Portsmouth Dockyard on 26 November 1896 to serve with the Channel Fleet . Captain Arthur Barrow was appointed in command on 28 June 1899 . She was present at both the Fleet Review at Spithead for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria on 26 June 1897 and the Coronation Fleet Review for King Edward VII on 16 August 1902 . On 17 October 1903 , Prince George was badly damaged when her sister ship Hannibal rammed her in heavy seas at a speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) off Spain , punching a large hole below the waterline on Prince George 's starboard quarter . Prince George was in danger of sinking for several hours , but managed to make it to Ferrol , steering with her engines and with her sternwalk awash . After temporary repairs at Ferrol , she departed on 24 October 1903 for Portsmouth , where her repairs were completed .
Prince George ended her Channel Fleet service in July 1904 , and began a refit at Portsmouth . Upon its completion , she was commissioned into the reserve there on 3 January 1905 . On 14 February 1905 , she was commissioned for service with the Atlantic Fleet , which had been the Channel Fleet until a fleet reorganisation on 1 January 1905 . On 3 March 1905 she collided with the German armoured cruiser SMS Friedrich Carl at Gibraltar without serious damage . On 17 July 1905 , Prince George was transferred to the new Channel Fleet , ending this service on 4 March 1907 when she was paid off at Portsmouth .
Prince George was recommissioned on 5 March 1907 to serve as the flagship of the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Portsmouth Division of the new Home Fleet which had been organised in January 1907 . On 5 December 1907 she collided with the armoured cruiser Shannon at Portsmouth , sustaining significant damage to her deck plating and boat davits . She was relieved as flagship in February 1909 , and from March to December she underwent a refit at Portsmouth , during which she had radio installed . Prince George was reduced to a nucleus crew and placed in the commissioned reserve in December 1910 . She moved to Devonport in 1911 . In June 1912 , Prince George became part of the 7th Battle Squadron , 3rd Fleet .
= = = World War I = = =
Upon the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , Prince George returned to full commission on 8 August , and briefly was the squadron 's first flagship , until relieved in this role by the battleship Vengeance on 15 August . On 25 August , Prince George covered the passage of the Plymouth Marine Division to Ostend , Belgium , and in September she covered the movement of the British Expeditionary Force from England to France . Prince George 's Channel Fleet service ended in February 1915 when she transferred to the Dardanelles for service in the Dardanelles campaign as a " mine @-@ bumper " . She arrived at Tenedos on 1 March 1915 , which would be her base until February 1916 . She took part in attacks on Ottoman Turkish forts covering the Turkish Straits on 5 and 18 March . On 3 May , while firing on Turkish batteries , she took a 6 @-@ inch ( 152 @-@ mm ) hit below the waterline , and returned to Malta for repairs .
Prince George was back in action on 12 and 13 July , supporting French troops with gunfire support from off of Krithia and Achi Baba . On 18 and 19 December she covered the evacuation of Allied troops from Suvla Bay , and the evacuation from West Beach on 8 and 9 January 1916 ; she was hit by a torpedo off Cape Helles on 9 January , but it failed to explode and she suffered no damage . She was at Salonika in January and February . Prince George left the Mediterranean at the end of February
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for the Son of an invaluable parent and the assurance of the respect I have bear to his memory . "
This ambush and similar militia attacks resulted in British troops reducing the range of their scouting forays , as the danger of going further than about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from Trenton was significant . This was crucial when the Americans began massing boats along the Delaware River prior to Washington 's crossing of the Delaware that culminated with the Battle of Trenton on 26 December 1776 . Geary 's troops were stationed only 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the river and Malta Island , the staging area for the crossing .
= = Legacy = =
Hunterdon County traditions claim that Geary 's belongings were hidden to prevent their discovery by British troops . His coat is said to have been hidden under a pile of wheat on the floor of a garret , while his boots were hidden in an oven . It is also said that Geary 's red sash was unravelled and the thread was used for various ornamental purposes , his sword was melted to make teaspoons and his stiff leather hat was used by a farmer to dip oats from his feed bin for his horses .
Many local residents of Hunterdon County were unaware that Geary had been buried there , and accounts persisted that the British had recovered his body . In 1891 the Hunterdon County Historical Society exhumed a body from a site suspected to contain his body . Found in the grave were a skeleton and silver buttons labeled " Q. L. D. " , signifying the Queen 's Light Dragoons . His family placed a grave marker on the site in 1907 . The St. Nicholas Church in Great Bookham , Surrey , contains a bas @-@ relief depicting Cornet Francis Geary and the incident .
= Barbette ( performer ) =
Barbette ( December 19 , 1898 – August 5 , 1973 ) was an American female impersonator , high @-@ wire performer , and trapeze artist born in Texas on December 19 , 1899 . Barbette attained great popularity throughout the United States but his greatest fame came in Europe and especially Paris , in the 1920s and 1930s .
Barbette began performing as an aerialist at around the age of 14 as one @-@ half of a circus act called The Alfaretta Sisters . After a few years of circus work , Barbette went solo and adopted his exotic @-@ sounding pseudonym . He performed in full drag , revealing himself as male only at the end of his act .
Following a career @-@ ending illness or injury , Barbette returned to Texas but continued to work as a consultant for motion pictures as well as training and choreographing aerial acts for a number of circuses . After years of dealing with chronic pain , Barbette committed suicide on August 5 , 1973 . Both in life and following his death , Barbette served as an inspiration to a number of artists including Jean Cocteau and Man Ray .
= = Early life and career = =
Barbette ( birth name cited as Vander Clyde and Vander Clyde Broadway ) was born on December 19 , 1899 , ( although it is sometimes cited as 1904 ) in Texas . Most sources indicate he was born in Round Rock , although Barbette stated that his birthplace was Trickham . His Draft Registration Card , dated 7 September 1918 , states that his birthday was 19 December 1898 .
Some confusion surrounds the name of Barbette 's father . On a 1923 passport application , Barbette lists his father 's name as " Henry Broadway " and notes him as deceased . However , Barbette 's death certificate gives his father 's first name as " Jeff . " The death certificate lists his mother 's name as " Hattie Wilson ; " Barbette listed her name as " Mrs. E. S. Loving " on his passport application , as well as his 1918 Draft Registration form .
In the United States Census of 1900 , Barbette ( then given the birth date of 19 December 1897 ) and his mother , Hattie Broadway ( née Martin , 1879 @-@ 1949 ) , were living in Llano , Texas , in the household of his maternal great @-@ grandparents , Florence E. and William Paschall , a farmer . Hattie , then aged 21 , was listed as a widow on the census , while her son 's birthdate is given as December 1897 . Also living in the household was Hattie Broadway 's younger brother , Malcolm Wilson . Hattie Broadway married , as her second husband , in 1906 , Samuel E. Loving ( 1868 @-@ 1953 ) , who worked in a broom factory , and had five more children , sons Eugene Loving ( 1908 @-@ 1971 ) and Sam Paschall Loving ( 1917 @-@ 1996 ) , and daughters Hugo Loving ( 1910 @-@ 1912 ) , Bonsilene Loving ( born 1914 ) , and Mary Martin Loving ( 1915 @-@ 1997 ) ; after his mother 's second marriage , Barbette was known as " Vander Loving " .
Barbette 's mother took him to the circus at an early age in Austin and he was fascinated by the wire act . " The first time she took me to the circus in Austin , I knew I would be a performer , and from then on I 'd work in the fields during the cotton @-@ picking season to earn money in order to go to the circus as often as possible . " Barbette practiced for hours by walking along his mother 's steel clothes line . He graduated from high school at the age of 14 .
After high school , Barbette began his circus career as one @-@ half of the aerialist team The Alfaretta Sisters . One of the sisters had died unexpectedly and Barbette answered the surviving sister 's ad for a replacement , auditioning in San Antonio . Together the pair decided that it was more dramatic for a woman to perform the acrobatic stunts . " She told me that women 's clothes always make a wire act more impressive ... and she asked me if I 'd mind dressing as a girl . I didn 't ; and that 's how it began . " Following his time as an Alfaretta , Barbette next joined an act called Erford 's Whirling Sensation . This act included three people who hung from a spinning apparatus by their teeth . He then developed his solo act and moved to the vaudeville stage . He took on the name " Barbette " , believing that it had an exotic French sound and because it could conceivably be either a first or a last name . His solo debut was at the Harlem Opera House in 1919 . Barbette performed trapeze and wire stunts in full drag , maintaining the illusion of femininity until the end of his act , when he would pull off his wig and strike exaggerated masculine poses . For the next several years he toured the Keith Vaudeville Circuit , advertised as a " versatile specialty . "
= = The toast of Europe = =
Barbette made his European debut in 1923 , having been sent by the William Morris Agency first to England and then to Paris . He appeared in such venues as the Casino de Paris , the Moulin Rouge , the Empire , the Médrano Circus , the Alhambra Theater and the Folies Bergère .
He returned to America in 1924 to appear in The Passing Show of 1924 which ran for four months beginning in September . Also in this timeframe he became a featured attraction with Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus and toured London , Brussels and Berlin . It was during an engagement at the London Palladium that Barbette was found engaged in sexual activity with another man . His contract was cancelled and he was never able to obtain a work permit for England again .
Barbette was championed by avant garde artist Jean Cocteau . Cocteau wrote in 1923 to Belgian friend and critic Paul Collaer :
" Next week in Brussels , you 'll see a music @-@ hall act called ' Barbette ' that has been keeping me enthralled for a fortnight . The young American who does this wire and trapeze act is a great actor , an angel , and he has become the friend to all of us . Go and see him ... and tell everybody that he is no mere acrobat in women 's clothes , nor just a graceful daredevil , but one of the most beautiful things in the theatre . Stravinsky , Auric , poets , painters , and I myself have seen no comparable display of artistry on the stage since Nijinsky . "
To other friends he wrote " Your great loss for 1923 was Barbette – a terrific act at the Casino de Paris ... Ten unforgettable minutes . A theatrical masterpiece . An angel , a flower , a bird . "
In 1926 Cocteau wrote an influential essay on the nature and artifice of the theatre called " Le Numéro Barbette " that was published in Nouvelle Revue Française . In this essay , Cocteau celebrates Barbette as an exemplar of theatrical artifice . " Barbette , " writes Cocteau , " transforms effortlessly back and forth between man and woman . His female glamour and elegance Cocteau likens to a cloud of dust thrown into the eyes of the audience , blinding it to the masculinity of the movements he needs to perform his acrobatics . That blindness is so complete that at the end of his act , Barbette does not simply remove his wig but instead plays the part of a man . He rolls his shoulders , stretches his hands , swells his muscles ... And after the fifteenth or so curtain call , he gives a mischievous wink , shifts from foot to foot , mimes a bit of an apology , and does a shuffling little street urchin dance – all of it to erase the fabulous , dying @-@ swan impression left by the act . " Cocteau calls upon his fellow artists to incorporate deliberately this effect that he believes for Barbette is instinctive . Cocteau commissioned a series of photographs of Barbette by the Surrealist artist Man Ray , which captured not only aspects of Barbette 's performance but also his process of transformation into his female persona .
Cocteau cast Barbette in his experimental film Le Sang d 'un Poete ( The Blood of a Poet ) ( 1930 ) , Cocteau 's first film . Barbette appears in a scene in a theatre box with several extras , dressed in Chanel gowns , who burst into applause at the sight of a card game that ends in suicide . He replaced the Vicomtesse de Noailles , who along with her husband had originally shot the scene but were appalled upon seeing the finished film , as the card game / suicide had been shot separately . Speaking of his preparation for the scene , Barbette , who knew he was replacing the Vicomtesse , said ,
" I tried to imagine myself a descendant of the Marquis de Sade , of the Comtesse de Chevigné ... and a long line of rich bankers – all of which the Vicomtesse was . For a boy from Round Rock , Texas , that demanded a lot of concentration – at least as much as working on the wire . "
Cocteau fell in love with the Barbette persona but their affair was short @-@ lived . Others in Barbette 's European circle included Josephine Baker , Anton Dolin , Mistinguett and Sergei Diaghilev .
Barbette is credited with having returned to the United States in 1935 to star on Broadway in the Billy Rose circus musical Jumbo . However , some sources suggest that this may have been a Barbette impersonator .
= = End of performing career and later life = =
Barbette continued to perform until the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1930s . Most sources report the year as 1938 , while others as early as 1936 and as late as 1942 . The end of Barbette 's performing career is attributed to a number of causes including a fall , pneumonia , polio , or some combination of the three . All generally agree that whatever the cause , Barbette was left in extreme pain and in need of surgery and extensive rehabilitation to allow him to walk again . He became the artistic director and aerialist trainer for a number of circuses , including Ringling Bros. and the Shrine Circus.His work with Ringling Bros. has been described as " reinvent [ ing ] the aerial ballet " . The Bird Cage Girls , The Swing High Girls , The Whirl Girls and the Cloud Swing Girls were among the female aerialist troupes whose routines were Barbette 's specialty . Barbette served as a consultant on a number of films , including the circus sequences for Till the Clouds Roll By ( 1946 ) and The Big Circus ( 1959 ) , and was hired to coach Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis on gender illusion for the film Some Like It Hot ( 1959 ) . Cocteau biographer Francis Steegmuller wrote a profile of Barbette for The New Yorker in 1969 entitled " An Angel , A Flower , A Bird " . He created the circus sequences for the Orson Welles @-@ produced Broadway musical Around the World . Barbette created the aerial ballet for Disney on Parade and toured with it in Australia from 1969 through 1972 .
Barbette spent his last months in Texas , living in Round Rock and Austin with his sister , Mary Cahill , often in severe pain . He committed suicide by overdose on August 5 , 1973 . He was survived by his sister Mary and a half @-@ brother , Sam Loving . Barbette was cremated and his ashes were buried in Round Rock Cemetery .
= = Cultural legacy = =
In addition to Cocteau 's essay Le Numéro Barbette and his appearance in Le Sang d 'un Poete , Barbette also inspired the characterization of " Death " in Cocteau 's play Orphée . The book Barbette , collecting Cocteau 's essay , the New Yorker profile by Steegmuller , Man Ray 's photographs and other material , was published in 1989 . Alfred Hitchcock based a character in the 1930 film Murder ! on Barbette . Different Fleshes is a book @-@ length poem about Barbette written by Albert Goldbarth . It won the Voertman Poetry Award from the Texas Institute of Letters . In 1993 , performance artist John Kelly , under commission from the Brooklyn Academy of Music , based his piece Light Shall Lift Them on him . Barbette 's story is also told in the play , Barbette , written by Bill Lengfelder and David Goodwin and first presented in Dallas , Texas , in 2003 .
Barbette may have been the inspiration for the 1933 German film , Viktor und Viktoria , which features a plot about a woman pretending to be a female impersonator , whose gimmick of removing her wig at the end of her act is " inspired by [ Barbette 's ] signature gesture . " Viktor und Viktoria was remade in 1935 ( First a Girl ) , 1957 ( Viktor und Viktoria ) and 1982 ( Victor Victoria , which inspired a 1992 Broadway musical of the same name ) .
A French restaurant in Minneapolis is named Barbette after the aerialist .
= Sie werden euch in den Bann tun , BWV 183 =
Sie werden euch in den Bann tun ( They will put you under banishment ) , BWV 183 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Leipzig for Exaudi , the Sunday after Ascension , and first performed it on 13 May 1725 . The work includes some unusual woodwind scoring , two oboes da caccia and two oboes d 'amore .
= = History and words = =
Bach wrote the cantata in his second year in Leipzig for the Sunday Exaudi , the Sunday after Ascension . The prescribed readings for the feast day were from the First Epistle of Peter , " serve each other " ( 1 Peter 4 : 8 – 11 ) , and from the second Farewell discourse in the Gospel of John , the promise of the Paraclete , the " Spirit of Truth " , and the announcement of prosecution ( John 15 : 26 – 16 : 4 ) .
Some of the cantatas composed by Bach in his second year were chorale cantatas , a format he chose for services between the first Sunday after Trinity and Palm Sunday . For Easter he had returned to cantatas on more varied texts . Nine of the cantatas for the period between Easter and Pentecost are based on texts of Christiana Mariana von Ziegler , including this cantata . Bach later assigned it to his third annual cycle . The poetess begins the cantata with the same quotation from the gospel as an unknown poet one year earlier in Sie werden euch in den Bann tun , BWV 44 , the prediction of persecution of Christians . " They will put you under banishment , but the time will come , when , whoever kills you will think that he does God a service by it " ( John 16 : 2 ) . She continues stressing the lack of fear possible for a follower who relies on " Jesu Schutzarm " ( the protective arm of Jesus ) . In movements 3 and 4 she refers to the beginning of the gospel , the spirit who will assist . The closing chorale is the fifth stanza of Paul Gerhardt 's " Zeuch ein zu deinen Toren " .
Bach first performed the cantata on 13 May 1725 .
= = = Publication = = =
Bach ´ s music was not published until 1891 when it appeared as part of the first complete edition of the composer ´ s work , the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft @-@ Ausgabe . The editor of the volume in question was Alfred Dörffel .
Ziegler published the text in a collection of her work , along with the other ones set by Bach . These printed versions are slightly different from the texts used in the cantatas , and this is believed to be the result of the composer modifying the libretti with which he was presented . In the case of Sie werden euch in den Bann tun the differences between the printed version and that set by Bach are less than in the preceding cantatas such as Auf Christi Himmelfahrt allein , BWV 128 .
= = Structure and scoring = =
Bach structured the cantata in five movements , beginning with what John Eliot Gardiner describes as a " curtain raiser " , a line from the gospel set as a recitative . This is followed by a sequence aria – recitative – aria , and the cantata is concluded by a four @-@ part chorale . Bach scored the work for four vocal soloists ( soprano , alto , tenor and bass ) , a four @-@ part choir only in the closing chorale , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble in an unusual combination of instruments , two oboes d 'amore ( Oa ) , two oboes da caccia ( Oc ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , a violoncello piccolo ( Vp ) and basso continuo .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
In the first movement the words of Jesus are given to the bass , the voice type which by convention was the vox Christi ( voice of Christ ) . A year earlier ( in Sie werden euch in den Bann tun , BWV 44 ) , Bach rendered the announcement of Jesus in a two @-@ part movement , a duet for bass and tenor followed by an agitated chorus . In this cantata , he sets it as a recitative of only five measures . The instrumentation is novel , having long chords of the four oboes , two oboes da caccia and two oboes d 'amore , accompany the voice above a pedal point held by the continuo . This creates a " sepulchral " sound . The Bach scholar Christoph Wolff notes that this " opulent oboe scoring " with all four oboes playing together is used only in the two recitatives ( 1 and 3 ) .
The second movement , the first aria , is the longest of the work . Although the part for violoncello piccolo is written in the alto clef , it is an instrument with a tenor @-@ bass range . The " dark and shaded " timbre of the movement has been seen as representing the protection provided by Christ . Denying the fear of the threatening death , the violoncello piccolo plays continuous runs .
Movement 3 is again a recitativo accompagnato , even more complex than the first one ; the strings play long chords , whereas all the oboes repeat the same four @-@ note motif throughout the movement , sung by the alto on the words " Ich bin bereit " ( I am ready ) .
The second aria is accompanied by the strings and the two oboes da caccia in unison as obbligato instruments , thus both arias are dominated by instruments with a relatively low range ( oboes de caccia having a pitch below that of a normal oboe ) .
The cantata is closed by a four part chorale on the tune " Helft mir Gotts Güte preisen " .
= = Selected recordings = =
The selection is taken from the listing on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs are roughly marked as large by red background to one voice per part ( OVPP ) by green background , orchestras from large ( red ) to period instruments in historically informed performances ( green ) .
= USS Winslow ( DD @-@ 53 ) =
USS Winslow ( Destroyer No. 53 / DD @-@ 53 ) was an O 'Brien @-@ class destroyer built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the second US Navy vessel named in honor of John Ancrum Winslow , a US Navy officer notable for sinking the Confederate commerce raider CSS Alabama during the American Civil War .
Winslow was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in October 1913 and launched in February 1915 . The ship was a little more than 305 ft ( 93 m ) in length , just over 31 ft ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) abeam , and had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) . She was armed with four 4 in ( 100 mm ) guns and had eight 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes . Winslow was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29 kn ( 33 mph ; 54 km / h ) .
After her August 1915 commissioning , Winslow sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of seventeen destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Winslow was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . Winslow made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft .
Upon returning to the United States after the war , Winslow was placed in reduced commission in December 1919 . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . In November she dropped her name to free it for a new destroyer of the same name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 53 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1936 and sold for scrapping in June .
= = Design and construction = =
Winslow was authorized in March 1913 as the third of six ships of the O 'Brien class , which was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia which laid down her keel on 1 October 1913 . On 11 February 1915 , Winslow was launched by sponsor Miss Natalie E. Winslow , grandniece of the ship 's namesake , John Ancrum Winslow . The ship was the second ship named for Winslow , a US Navy officer notable for sinking the Confederate commerce raider CSS Alabama during the American Civil War . As built , the destroyer was 305 ft 3 in ( 93 @.@ 04 m ) in length , 31 ft 1 in ( 9 @.@ 47 m ) abeam , and drew 10 ft 4 @.@ 5 in ( 3 @.@ 162 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 171 long tons ( 1 @,@ 190 t ) when fully loaded .
Winslow had two Zoelly steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional pair triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each connected to one of the propeller shafts , for cruising purposes . Four oil @-@ burning White @-@ Forster boilers powered the engines , which could generate 17 @,@ 000 shp ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) , moving the ship at up to 29 knots ( 33 mph ; 54 km / h ) .
Winslow 's main battery consisted of four 4 in ( 100 mm ) / 50 caliber Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 lb ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 lb ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yd ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .
Winslow was also equipped with eight 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the O 'Brien @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Winslow or any of the other ships of the class .
= = Pre @-@ World War I = =
Winslow was commissioned into the United States Navy on 7 August 1915 under the command of Lieutenant Commander Neil E. Nichols . After trials off the upper east coast , Winslow joined the 6th Division , Atlantic Fleet Torpedo Flotilla . The destroyer participated in maneuvers in Cuban waters during the winter of 1915 and 1916 and , in the spring , began operations along the eastern seaboard . By October 1916 , she was serving in coastal waters near Newport , Rhode Island .
At 0530 on 8 October 1916 , wireless reports came in of a German submarine stopping ships near the Lightship Nantucket , off the eastern end of Long Island . After an SOS from the British steamer West Point was received at about 1230 , Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves ordered Winslow and other destroyers at Newport to attend to survivors . The American destroyers arrived on the scene about 1700 when the
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U @-@ boat , U @-@ 53 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose , was in the process of stopping the Holland @-@ America Line cargo ship Blommersdijk . Shortly after , U @-@ 53 stopped the British passenger ship Stephano . As Rose had done with three other ships U @-@ 53 had sunk earlier in the day , he gave passengers and crew aboard Blommersdijk and Stephano adequate time to abandon the ships before sinking the pair . In total , 226 survivors from U @-@ 53 's five victims were rescued by the destroyer flotilla .
At the end of October , the warship went into the New York Navy Yard and remained there through the end of the year . In January 1917 , she steamed south to Cuba , where she joined the rest of the Fleet to participate in annual winter maneuvers . Following the Fleet exercise , Winslow returned north to the Chesapeake .
= = World War I = =
When the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917 entering World War I , the destroyer was anchored in the York River near Yorktown , Virginia . She had been there guarding the river mouth since February when American relations with Germany began to deteriorate as a result of the latter country 's return to unrestricted submarine warfare . Soon after US Congress declared war , Winslow moved north to the New York Navy Yard to prepare for duty overseas . Less than a month later , she moved to Boston from where she got underway for Europe on 7 May with Cassin , Ericsson , Jacob Jones , Rowan , and Tucker . After a 10 @-@ day passage , Winslow reported for duty at Queenstown , Ireland , on the 17th . On the 21st , she began patrolling the approaches to the British Isles .
Winslow operated out of Queenstown for almost a year escorting convoys into and out of Queenstown and going to the assistance of ships attacked by U @-@ boats . Just after midnight on 11 June , she spied her first submarine and rushed to the attack . Her target submerged , and the destroyer dropped a series of depth charges . She failed , however , to find any evidence supporting the success of her attack and resumed her patrol .
On 30 July , Winslow picked up the master and 12 crewmen from SS Whitehall , torpedoed the day before by U @-@ 95 , and brought them safely into Queenstown . She sighted another U @-@ boat off Queenstown on 16 August , but heavy weather covered the submarine 's tracks when it submerged and Winslow made no attack .
Six weeks later , on 24 September , the warship rushed to the assistance of Henry Lippitt , an unarmed American schooner being shelled by U @-@ 60 . When the destroyer reached the 895 GRT sailing vessel , she was in flames , and the U @-@ boat had just submerged . Winslow dropped a depth charge barrage on what appeared to be the submarine 's moving wake , but broke off the attack to assist the schooner 's crew ; all were saved , but Henry Lippitt was sunk .
During the remainder of her assignment at Queenstown , Winslow attacked two more submarines , the first on 11 October and the second on 3 January 1918 . In both cases , she depth @-@ charged oil slicks which appeared to originate from damaged , submerged U @-@ boats . In neither case did she receive visible confirmation of a sinking ; however , during the 3 January attack , one of her depth charges threw a large mass of dark liquid high in the air . From this description , it appears that her depth charge brought up fuel oil from what was believed to be U @-@ 61 . Unfortunately for Winslow , lack of definite proof kept her from being credited with a sinking .
At the beginning of April 1918 , the destroyer was reassigned to the United States Naval Forces in France . Operating from Brest , she spent the remainder of the war escorting American troop transports into French ports . Although she engaged German submarines on at least seven different occasions , she did not score any confirmed successes . On 8 August , she came to the aid of Westward Ho , torpedoed in the Bay of Biscay earlier the same day by U @-@ 62 .
On 5 September , she attacked the German submarine U @-@ 82 , which had just torpedoed U.S. Navy transport Mount Vernon . Depth charges dropped by Winslow , Conner , Nicholson , and Wainwright failed to sink the U @-@ boat , but , combined with defensive efforts from Mount Vernon herself , helped prevent the submarine from launching a coup de grâce against the former German liner . Mount Vernon safely made it back to Brest with the loss of 37 crewmen out of the 1 @,@ 450 persons on board .
Winslow continued her patrols out of Brest through the end of hostilities on 11 November .
= = Inter @-@ war period = =
Following the signing of the Armistice on 11 November , which ended all fighting , Winslow remained in French waters . When President Woodrow Wilson arrived at Brest on George Washington on 13 December , the destroyer served as part of that transport 's escort into the harbor . 15 days later , the warship departed France to return to the United States , arriving at New York on 12 January 1919 .
After her return to the United States , Winslow resumed peacetime duty with the Atlantic Fleet . During May , she served as one of the rescue pickets stationed along the route across the Atlantic flown by three Navy NC @-@ type seaplanes in the first aerial crossing of the Atlantic . After that , the destroyer returned to normal operations along the east coast and annual winter maneuvers in Cuban waters until placed in reduced commission at Philadelphia on 10 December 1919 .
In July 1920 , she was assigned the hull code of DD @-@ 53 under the US Navy 's alphanumeric classification system . Winslow was decommissioned at Philadelphia on 5 June 1922 . On 1 July 1933 , she dropped the name Winslow to free it for a new destroyer of the same name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 53 . The ship was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 7 January 1936 , and , on 30 June , was sold for scrapping .
= Nimitz @-@ class aircraft carrier =
The Nimitz @-@ class supercarriers are a class of ten nuclear @-@ powered aircraft carriers in service with the United States Navy . The lead ship of the class is named for World War II United States Pacific Fleet commander Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz , the U.S. Navy 's last fleet admiral . With an overall length of 1 @,@ 092 ft ( 333 m ) and full @-@ load displacement of over 100 @,@ 000 long tons , they have been the largest warships built and in service , although they are being eclipsed by the upcoming Gerald R. Ford @-@ class aircraft carriers . Instead of the gas turbines or diesel @-@ electric systems used for propulsion on many modern warships , the carriers use two A4W pressurized water reactors which drive four propeller shafts and can produce a maximum speed of over 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) and maximum power of around 260 @,@ 000 shp ( 190 MW ) . As a result of the use of nuclear power , the ships are capable of operating for over 20 years without refueling and are predicted to have a service life of over 50 years . They are categorized as nuclear @-@ powered aircraft carriers and are numbered with consecutive hull numbers between CVN @-@ 68 and CVN @-@ 77 .
All ten carriers were constructed by Newport News Shipbuilding Company in Virginia . USS Nimitz , the lead ship of the class , was commissioned on 3 May 1975 , and USS George H.W. Bush , the tenth and last of the class , was commissioned on 10 January 2009 . Since the 1970s , Nimitz @-@ class carriers have participated in many conflicts and operations across the world , including Operation Eagle Claw in Iran , the Gulf War , and more recently in Iraq and Afghanistan .
The angled flight decks of the carriers use a CATOBAR arrangement to operate aircraft , with steam catapults and arrestor wires for launch and recovery . As well as speeding up flight deck operations , this allows for a much wider variety of aircraft than with the STOVL arrangement used on smaller carriers . An embarked carrier air wing consisting of up to around 90 aircraft is normally deployed on board . After the retirement of the F @-@ 14 Tomcat , the air wings ' strike fighters are primarily F / A @-@ 18E and F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets and F / A @-@ 18A + and F / A @-@ 18C Hornets . In addition to their aircraft , the vessels carry short @-@ range defensive weaponry for anti @-@ aircraft warfare and missile defense .
The unit cost is about $ 8 @.@ 5 billion in FY 12 dollars US $ 8 @.@ 86 billion ( 2016 ) inflation adjusted .
= = Description = =
The Nimitz @-@ class carriers have an overall length of 1 @,@ 092 ft ( 333 m ) and a full @-@ load displacement of about 100 @,@ 000 – 104 @,@ 000 long tons ( 102 @,@ 000 – 106 @,@ 000 t ) . They have a beam at the waterline of 135 ft ( 41 m ) , and the maximum width of their flight decks is 251 feet 10 inches ( 76 @.@ 76 m ) to 257 feet 3 inches ( 78 @.@ 41 m ) ( depending on the variant ) . The ships ' companies can number up to 3 @,@ 200 , not including an air wing of 2 @,@ 480 .
= = = Design = = =
The Nimitz @-@ class aircraft carriers were ordered to supplement the aircraft carriers of the Kitty Hawk class and Enterprise class , maintaining the strength and capability of the U.S. Navy after the older carriers were decommissioned . The ships were designed to be improvements on previous U.S. aircraft carriers , in particular the Enterprise and Forrestal @-@ class supercarriers , although the arrangement of the ships is relatively similar to that of the Kitty Hawk
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the King , investigates the sudden death of his predecessor . Jon Snow , Eddard 's bastard son , defends a new recruit who has just joined the rangers at " the Wall . " Exiled prince Viserys becomes increasingly frustrated as the Dothraki horde he needs to invade Westeros and win back his crown continues to linger at Vaes Dothrak . The episode ends with Eddard 's wife Catelyn arresting Tyrion Lannister on suspicion of attempting to murder her son Bran .
The title comes from the original book , spoken by Tyrion after he provides Bran Stark with a saddle design that will allow him to ride despite his paraplegia : " I have a tender spot in my heart for cripples and bastards and broken things . " While the episode is more exposition @-@ heavy than previous episodes , its viewership increased slightly over the third episode , and it was well received by critics . The scenes at the Wall were highlighted by multiple critics as particularly compelling and accessible .
= = Plot = =
= = = In King 's Landing = = =
Lord Eddard Stark begins quietly inquiring into the death of Jon Arryn , the previous Hand of the King , who had long served as the Kingdom 's chief administrative nobleman . Questioning Grand Maester Pycelle ( Julian Glover ) , who tended Jon Arryn in his final days , Stark learns that Arryn 's last words were " the seed is strong " and that he was reading a book titled The Lineages and Histories of the Great Houses of the Seven Kingdoms .
Helped by Petyr " Littlefinger " Baelish ( Aidan Gillen ) and his net of informers , Eddard follows up on two more clues regarding the last days of his predecessor . He questions a smith 's apprentice whom Jon Arryn had visited in his last days and , due to his resemblance to King Robert , Stark deduces that the boy is the king 's bastard . Eddard also plans to question Jon Arryn 's former squire , but the recently knighted young man is killed while jousting at the tournament held in Eddard 's honor . The knight responsible for his untimely end is Ser Gregor Clegane ( Conan Stevens ) , also known as " the Mountain " due to his towering size . He is a Lannister bannerman and is the older brother of " the Hound " Sandor Clegane . Baelish tells Sansa the secret of the Clegane brothers : as children , Gregor brutally burned his brother 's face , thus explaining the Hound 's scars .
= = = In Vaes Dothrak = = =
Khal Drogo 's khalasar arrives at the city of Vaes Dothrak . Viserys Targaryen ( Harry Lloyd ) impatiently waits for the army Drogo ( Jason Momoa ) agreed to lend him , the bride price offered for his sister Daenerys ( Emilia Clarke ) , to reconquer the Seven Kingdoms . When Viserys misinterprets Daenerys ' invitation to dinner as an order , he becomes angry and strikes her . For the first time , Daenerys fights back , hitting her astounded brother and promising that if he raises a hand against her again , his hands will be cut off . Later , the banished knight Jorah Mormont ( Iain Glen ) tells her that Viserys would not be a good leader for the invasion of Westeros and , despite what Viserys believes , the people of the Seven Kingdoms do not care who rules them as long as they are ruled well . Daenerys agrees that Viserys could not conquer the Seven Kingdoms even if Khal Drogo gave him an entire army .
= = = At the Wall = = =
The Night 's Watch receives Samwell Tarly ( John Bradley ) , a fat , fearful and clumsy recruit who rapidly becomes the focus of bullying by master @-@ at @-@ arms Ser Alliser Thorne ( Owen Teale ) . Sam later explains to Jon that his father forced him to " take the Black " and forsake his inheritance because he considered Sam unworthy , threatening to kill Sam and pass his death off as a hunting accident if he refused . Jon Snow ( Kit Harington ) defends Sam and convinces the rest of the recruits not to harm him , much to Thorne 's rage . Thorne defends his treatment as essential , since life north of the Wall is very harsh especially during winter , warning Jon and Sam to toughen up or they will have no chance of survival .
= = = In the North = = =
Tyrion ( Peter Dinklage ) stops at Winterfell as he is returning to King 's Landing after his visit to the Wall . He gets a cold welcome from Robb Stark ( Richard Madden ) , acting Lord of Winterfell in his father Eddard 's absence . Robb suspects the Lannisters are behind his younger brother Bran 's fall and the subsequent assassination attempt . Despite the cold reception , Tyrion shows the now crippled Bran an act of kindness by giving him blueprints for a saddle that will allow him to ride again despite his paraplegia . Before he leaves Winterfell , Tyrion has a talk with Theon Greyjoy ( Alfie Allen ) , a ward of House Stark , and mocks him regarding how the Greyjoys and their land , the Iron Islands , attempted a failed rebellion against King Robert , calling Theon a " hostage " to the Stark family .
= = = At the Inn at the Crossroads = = =
Further south , Tyrion and his small retinue stop to spend the night at the Inn at the Crossroads . There he recognizes Lady Catelyn Stark ( Michelle Fairley ) in disguise . With her identity revealed , she requests help from her father 's bannermen present at the inn to seize Tyrion to face trial for Bran 's attempted murder .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Cripples , Bastards , and Broken Things " is the first episode of the series that was not written by the show 's creators and executive producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss . The script was authored by writer Bryan Cogman , based on George R. R. Martin 's original work .
Cogman worked on the Game of Thrones 's pilot as a writing assistant and was contracted for the full series as script @-@ editor and the unofficial " keeper of the mythos " for the show , entrusted with the task of writing the series bible outlining character and background information , and making sure that the world @-@ building remained consistent . In this capacity , he was approached by Benioff and Weiss , who asked him to write a treatment for the fourth episode . Believing it was only an exercise that would be completely rewritten by another professional writer , he completed the script that ended up being episode four .
The chapters of the book covered in this episode are Bran IV ( less the first few pages that were included in the previous episode ) , Eddard V , Jon IV , Eddard VI , Catelyn V , Sansa II , Daenerys IV ( chapters 25 – 30 and 37 ) . Among the scenes created for the show , there are the conversations between Theon and Tyrion , Sansa and Septa Mordane , Doreah and Viserys , Jory Cassel and Jaime , Jon and Samwell and Eddard Stark and Cersei . The character of Alliser Thorne is given some more depth by justifying his harshness towards the new recruits , and a more subdued version of Bran 's dream is included .
During the bathtub scene in which Viserys recalls the old Targaryen dragons , he lists names taken from the books ( Balerion , Meraxes and Vhagar ) and others invented for the show . Among them a dragon called Vermithrax is mentioned , which is an homage to Vermithrax Pejorative from the 1981 film Dragonslayer . Author George R. R. Martin once ranked the film the fifth best fantasy movie of all time , and called Vermithrax " the best dragon ever put on film , " and the one with " the coolest dragon name as well . "
= = = Casting = = =
This episode introduces the character of Samwell Tarly , a new recruit of the Night 's Watch and a self @-@ described coward . John Bradley was cast in the part , the actor 's first professional appearance after graduating from the Manchester Metropolitan School of Theatre . The scene used in the auditions belonged to " Cripples , Bastards , and Broken Things , " with Sam explaining to Jon how his father forced him to take the black . According to author and executive producer George R. R. Martin , Bradley delivered " a heartbreaking performance . "
Australian actor Conan Stevens , whose official website lists his height as 214 cm ( 7 ' 1 / 4 " ) , first appears as the gigantic knight Gregor Clegane , known as " the Mountain . " Stevens had sought to join the production since HBO started developing Game of Thrones . Since the character of Gregor Clegane , the role he believed he was most fitted for , did not appear in the pilot , he auditioned for the role of Khal Drogo instead in the hopes of getting noticed by the casting team . Although that role went to Jason Momoa , Stevens was chosen for the part of Gregor .
Other recurring roles making their first appearance in the episode include Dominic Carter as commander of the City Watch Janos Slynt , Jerome Flynn as the mercenary ( " sellsword " ) Bronn , and Joe Dempsie as the smith 's apprentice Gendry . The character of Gendry was made older for the series than he appears in the books .
= = = Props = = =
The book of lineages Ned receives from Pycelle was prepared by Bryan Cogman , who in addition to writing episode four also served as the show 's " lore master " and authored the historical background content included in the first season 's DVD and Blu @-@ ray release . Cogman wrote two pages worth of text detailing the lineage of four noble houses . The text concerning house Umber was shown in " Cripples , Bastards , and Broken Things , " and the Baratheon text appears in episode six , " A Golden Crown . " Cogman also wrote text for the houses of Targaryen and Royce , but the corresponding scenes were removed from the final script for episode four . Cogman said that he drew on the novels and the fan @-@ created website Wiki of Ice and Fire for reference , and invented what could not be sourced , including even some Internet fan message board names as in @-@ jokes .
= = = Filming locations = = =
The episode was shot at Belfast 's studio The Paint Hall , including interior shots of King 's Landing , and on location throughout Northern Ireland : The scenes taking place at the grounds of Castle Black continued to be filmed at the large exterior set built on the abandoned quarry of Magheramorne , the grounds of the ruined Shane 's Castle were used as the location of the tournament , and the area known as the Sandy Brae , at the foot of the Mourne Mountains , was used for the entrance to Vaes Dothrak . Much of this episode was filmed early in the production ; an Eddard and Arya scene from this episode was filmed on the very first day of shooting .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Cripples , Bastards , and Broken Things " ' s first airing was seen by 2 @.@ 5 million viewers , a slight increase from the previous episode 's 2 @.@ 4 million . Including the repeat , the night 's viewers totalled 3 @.@ 1 million , which was also in line with the previous week 's ratings . In the UK , the viewership increased significantly , rising to 628 @,@ 000 viewers from 510 @,@ 000 the previous week .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Cripples , Bastards , and Broken Things " was received positively by critics . Todd VanDerWerff from the A.V. Club gave it an A- , and Maureen Ryan from AOL TV rated it with a 70 out of 100 .
VanDerWerff stated this was his favorite episode of the show so far , " an hour that simultaneously feels more propulsive and more relaxed than the last three . " He admitted that the better part of it was given to exposition , with many monologues by the characters to expose their motivations and background . In his opinion , though , it was done skillfully and efficiently . IGN 's Matt Fowler wrote that it was another great , exposition @-@ heavy episode and that the best and most natural scene happened between Viserys and Doreah in the bath .
Out of the different storylines , many critics singled out the scenes on the Wall as the best . Myles McNutt from Cultural Learnings wrote that " Jon Snow ’ s time at the Wall is maybe my favorite central location of those introduced early in the series , and it is in large part due to the work done in this episode , " and Maureen Ryan stated that " they 're exceptionally well acted and written . John Bradley is a great addition as Samwell Tarly , and I continue to be very impressed with Kit Harington 's quietly charismatic performance as Jon . " Besides the acting and the writing , both agreed that one of the reasons the Night 's Watch scenes worked for them is that it was easy to connect with the story of a group of raw recruits bonding under a hard @-@ nosed trainer who tries to prepare them to face great danger .
The closing scene was praised by HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall , highlighting Michelle Fairley 's acting as Catelyn gathers allies to arrest Tyrion .
= The Gathering Storm ( novel ) =
The Gathering Storm is the 12th book of the fantasy series The Wheel of Time . It was incomplete when its author , Robert Jordan , died on September 16 , 2007 , from cardiac amyloidosis . His widow Harriet McDougal and publisher Tom Doherty chose Brandon Sanderson to continue the book after Jordan 's death .
Jordan originally intended to finish the series in a single volume titled A Memory of Light , but when Sanderson began writing the book it became clear a split was required as it was believed a single volume would be too large to print . The expected final book was then split into three volumes : The Gathering Storm , Towers of Midnight , and A Memory of Light . The books would be published a year apart with the first volume , The Gathering Storm , published on October 27 , 2009 ; a week earlier than originally announced . Upon its release , it immediately rose to the No. 1 position on the The New York Times hardcover fiction Best Seller list , making it the fifth consecutive Wheel of Time book to achieve this feat .
The three books will together encompass what can be considered Jordan 's final vision of the series . In the foreword , Sanderson states that they can be thought of as " the three volumes of A Memory of Light or as the final three books of The Wheel of Time . Both are correct . " He also comments on the differing writing style , suggesting that it could be compared to different film directors directing the same script . The Gathering Storm consists of a prologue , 50 chapters , and an epilogue .
= = Plot summary = =
The series ' storyline has been leading up to the " Last Battle " ( Tarmon Gai 'don ) — a fight between the forces of Light and Shadow . According to prophecy in the series the primary protagonist Rand al 'Thor , as the Dragon Reborn , will " fight the [ battle ] " , and must be present for the forces of Light to have a chance at winning and stopping the being known as the Dark One , the primary antagonist , from escaping his prison .
The Gathering Storm follows many plot threads but focuses on two characters , Rand al 'Thor and Egwene al 'Vere . While it follows al 'Thor 's attempts to unite and rally the world 's forces for the Last Battle , it also addresses his struggle with his sanity , caused by the corruption of his mind from the use of the male half of the One Power . The unification of the White Tower , the headquarters of the female users of the One Power known as Aes Sedai , is addressed from al 'Vere 's perspective , as well as the exposure of the Black Ajah , a secretive and opposing faction within the story . While the stories of other main characters such as Perrin Aybara and Mat Cauthon are briefly touched upon , they have little bearing on the main plot line . Some main characters such as Elayne Trakand and Lan Mandragoran do not appear at all , but are referred to .
= = = Synopsis = = =
= = = = Rand al 'Thor = = = =
As Rand 's story begins , he is restoring order in the nation of Arad Doman while searching for Graendal , one of the Dark One 's favored servants known as the Forsaken . The Aes Sedai work with Rand to interrogate Semirhage , another Forsaken captured at the end of Knife of Dreams . After being freed by her allies , Semirhage is given a Domination Band , an item used to control male channelers , and locks it around Rand 's neck . She and Black Ajah sister Elza Penfell use it to make him torture and attempt to kill his lover , Min Farshaw . Unable to channel , he reaches out and inexplicably accesses the True Power , a different power normally only granted by the Dark One , using it to free himself and kill Semirhage and Elza . After this , he resolves to make himself harder and emotionless . He banishes his adviser Cadsuane Melaidhrin for not securing the Domination Band , promising to kill her if he sees her face again .
Rand meets with the Seanchan , a civilization that invaded the continent earlier in the series . Their leader Tuon rejects Rand 's offer of a truce after sensing a dark aura that emanated from Rand after he channeled the True Power . Following the meeting , Tuon declares herself Empress and prepares a surprise attack against the White Tower .
Graendal 's hiding place is traced to a remote palace . Confirming her presence , Rand uses the Choedan Kal , a powerful magical artifact , to eliminate the entire building with balefire , a magic that wipes the target from time . This horrifies Min and Nynaeve al 'Meara and they turn to Cadsuane for help . Giving up on saving Arad Doman from the Seanchan and starvation , Rand returns to the city of Tear .
Nynaeve , under the instruction of Cadsuane , locates Tam al 'Thor , Rand 's father , who meets with Rand in an attempt to break his emotional isolation . Rand becomes angry when he learns that Tam was sent by Cadsuane , nearly killing his father before fleeing in horror at what he had almost done . Rand Travels to the Seanchan @-@ held city of Ebou Dar , intending to destroy their entire army , but he becomes reluctant to act after seeing how peaceful the city is . Nearly mad with rage and grief , he Travels to the top of Dragonmount , the location where he killed himself in a past life . Angry at the futility of life bound to the Wheel , he uses the Choedan Kal to draw enough power to destroy the world . Lews Therin , a voice in Rand 's head from his past life , suggests that by being reborn one has the opportunity to do things right . Agreeing , Rand turns the power of the Choedan Kal against itself , destroying it . Rand is finally able to laugh again .
= = = = Egwene al 'Vere = = = =
The second main plot thread follows Egwene al 'Vere , leader of the rebel faction of Aes Sedai . After her capture by the White Tower in the previous book , Egwene works to undermine Elaida a 'Roihan 's rule and mend the strife it is causing in the White Tower . She is initially granted freedom of the tower as novice , but after publicly denouncing Elaida , Elaida names her a follower of the Dark One , and orders her imprisonment . When Elaida fails to prove her accusation , Egwene is released .
Egwene returns to her room to find Verin Mathwin , who announces that she is of the Black Ajah . Taking advantage of a loophole in the oath Verin had sworn that she could not betray them " until the hour of my death " , she fatally poisons herself , allowing her to use her last hour to reveal everything she has learned to Egwene . Verin explains that although she was forced to swear to them or face death , she used the position to research the Ajah . She gives Egwene a journal detailing the group 's structure and nearly every member before succumbing to the poison .
When the Seanchan attack the White Tower , its fractured state prevents an effective defense . Many Aes Sedai are captured or killed until Egwene , leading a group of novices , succeeds in driving them off . Siuan Sanche , Gawyn Trakand , and Gareth Bryne mount a rescue of Egwene . They find her so exhausted that she cannot protest when they extract her against her orders . After awakening in the camp , she argues that they may have ruined her chances to gain credit in the Tower for the defeat of the Seanchan .
Egwene begins to expose the Black Ajah among the rebels , requiring every sister to re @-@ swear her allegiances . Fifty sisters are exposed and executed , while twenty are able to escape . Taking advantage of the weakened White Tower defenses following the Seanchan raid , the rebels prepare an immediate attack . Just before the attack is mounted , the Tower Aes Sedai announce that Elaida was captured in the Seanchan raid , and that they would have Egwene as their leader , the Amyrlin Seat . The rebels return and they begin rebuilding the Tower .
= = Writing = =
= = = Robert Jordan , illness and death ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = =
Under the pen name Robert Jordan , James Oliver Rigney , Jr. began writing the intended final book , A Memory of Light , before the release of the previous book Knife of Dreams in 2005 . Scheduled for publication by Tor Books in 2009 , it was intended to conclude the series , which began in 1990 with The Eye of the World , originally intended as a series of four or five books . According to Forbes , Jordan had intended for it to be the final book " even if it reaches 2 @,@ 000 pages . " After Jordan fell fatally ill in December 2005 from a rare disease , cardiac amyloidosis , he still intended to finish at least A Memory of Light , and thus the main story arc , if the " worse comes to worst . " Later he made preparations in case he was not able to finish the book . " I 'm getting out notes , so if the worst actually happens , someone could finish A Memory of Light and have it end the way I want it to end . " Shortly before his death , Jordan made a performance of the final book in a two and a half hour session to his wife and cousin , Wilson W. Grooms , Jr . Grooms stated in a later blog post " he became the Gleeman and told the bones of it ALL to Harriet and me ! "
The book was not completed at the time of Jordan 's death on September 16 , 2007 . His widow Harriet McDougal and his publisher , Tor Books president Tom Doherty made the decision to have the book completed posthumously , with McDougal saying , " I am sad to see the series end . But I would be far more distressed to leave it unfinished , incomplete and dangling forever . "
On December 11 , 2007 , four months after Jordan 's death , it was announced that McDougal had chosen Brandon Sanderson to finish the final book in the series , although the decision itself had been made the preceding month . Sanderson had been chosen partly because McDougal had read and liked his novels , and partly because of a eulogy he had written for Jordan . McDougal later expanded on her reasons , saying , " I do think [ he ] has a natural feeling for the ethical and moral issues of life . "
= = = Brandon Sanderson , split and The Gathering Storm ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = =
Brandon Sanderson was devastated by the news of Jordan 's death ; he has been a fan of the series since he was 15 years old and he cites Jordan as an inspiration . He is known for the novel Elantris and the Mistborn series . He did not want to imitate Jordan 's style as he felt it would " turn into parody . "
In an interview with Sci Fi Wire , Sanderson stated it was a great honor to be given the chance to complete the series but conceded he was unable to fill Jordan 's shoes . Some parts of the book were nearly finished by Jordan , while others have only a couple of paragraphs to describe a twenty @-@ page scene , but he describes Jordan 's notes as " amazing . " He later elaborated that " the amount of material [ Jordan ] left behind is what makes this book possible . " Speaking to The Guardian , he stated that although some people wouldn 't like the book , and any failures would be blamed on him , " I say that I win because I get to be part of this . " Through February 2008 Sanderson reread the entire series , posting his impressions of each book on his blog . The reread lasted until March 2008 , at which point he " began to grasp the daunting nature of this book , " with so many plot lines that needed to be resolved .
When writing the book Sanderson was assisted by Maria Simons , Jordan 's assistant before his death and " right arm " , and Alan Romanczuk , the series continuity manager , together known as " Team Jordan " . Sanderson eventually dedicated the book to them , writing that " without [ them ] this book wouldn 't have been possible . "
Sanderson was originally working to a target of 200 @,@ 000 words , later 250 @,@ 000 words and by April 2008 up to 400 @,@ 000 words . By the end of October 2008 the 400 @,@ 000 estimate was still in effect . Sanderson later estimated the final length of A Memory of Light to be at least 750 @,@ 000 words . Information emerged on the Internet pertaining to the book , with a draft cover suggesting it was to be split into volumes . On March 30 , 2009 , Tor Books confirmed A Memory of Light was to be split into three volumes , the first of which , The Gathering Storm , would be released on November 3 , 2009 . This date was later changed to October 27 , 2009 , a week earlier than planned .
Although Jordan himself had promised only a single book , according to Sanderson neither Jordan 's widow nor Doherty believed he could achieve this . Sanderson claimed that he could not do the story and characters justice with a single volume , so a split was inevitable . The decision was made to split the final book into three separate volumes , rather than two , so that a reasonably sized and unfractured volume could be released at the promised November 2009 date . Sanderson has stated that had the book remained as a single volume , it would not have been able to be released before November 2011 , and likely would have been so large ( around 2 @,@ 000 pages ) that it would be unpublishable .
On the split , Sanderson stated that without it he would have had to " railroad the story from climax to climax " and would sacrifice aspects even of major characters , eventually deciding that " The Wheel of Time deserved better . "
The first volume was originally intended to be titled A Memory of Light : Gathering Clouds . The other volumes had working subtitles of Shifting Winds and Tarmon Gai 'don for the second and third installments respectively . At the point the title A Memory of Light was dropped because book stores were worried it would be confusing , Sanderson decided the subtitle Gathering Clouds was " too generic , too basic " to be used as a title on its own . McDougal decided upon The Gathering Storm based on suggestions from Doherty . Sanderson states he considers the name to be " one of the more bland Wheel of Time titles . "
= = = Release ( 2009 ) = = =
Tor published several samples of The Gathering Storm leading up to its release . The first and second chapters were released for free on September 4 and 23 . An e @-@ book of the prologue , " What the Storm Means " , was released for purchase on September 17 , 2009 . Before the release , the final titles of the last two books were also revealed to be Towers of Midnight and A Memory of Light for the 13th and 14th books respectively . Sanderson felt using the title A Memory of Light for the final book was " the best way to honor Mr. Jordan 's wishes . "
The Gathering Storm was released on October 27 , 2009 , with an initial print run of one million books . Sanderson supported the release with a 25 city book signing tour , with McDougal attending some events . The first event in the tour was a midnight release party in Provo , Utah with several hundred fans of the series attending . An unabridged audiobook was released , produced and read by Kate Reading and Michael Kramer , who have so far produced all the audiobooks for the series .
= = Reception = =
The Gathering Storm , like the previous four books in the series , entered the top of The New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover fiction for the week of November 6 , 2009 ; it ended Dan Brown 's The Lost Symbol 's seven @-@ week reign . It dropped to the fourth position after one week . The book sold well in the United Kingdom ; BookScan records 13 @,@ 017 sold copies in the first week of sale .
Upon the release of the book the reception was positive . It was agreed that , compared to other books in the series , the pace was faster . Many subplots were resolved , something Zack Handlen writing for the AV Club found satisfying , saying that the book had " a blessed willingness to tie up loose ends , " something he felt Jordan had been unwilling to do . In a positive review , Seth Bracken of Deseret News explained that the pace is jarring but it also " creates a sense of urgency . " Reviewers noted that Sanderson 's style comes through in the novel , Handlen felt Sanderson 's prose " lacks some of the descriptive punch " compared to Jordan 's . Michael Mason @-@ D 'Croz writing for the Lincoln Journal Star went on to say Sanderson 's " voice comes through in certain ways " , describing the book as the " ultimate fan fiction . "
In a review of the audio book , AudioFile magazine were positive , saying the narrators bring " intensity and passion " to the series . The audio book was also a finalist in AudioFile 's The Audies 2010 awards in the sci @-@ fi and fantasy category .
= = Themes = =
There are several themes based on current world events and issues such as torture . Co @-@ author Brandon Sanderson , who was chosen to complete the book partially because of his understanding of ethical and moral issues , has admitted in an interview with Wired that these were on his mind but he was not intentionally making a political allegory . Going on to say " fantasy is , at its very core , inherently representative . " He also described laughter as a theme for the book , with the main character himself being unable to laugh , " We ’ ve got the terrible laughter and the full , joyful laughter , and poor Rand 's silence in the middle . "
= Adore ( The Smashing Pumpkins album ) =
Adore is the fourth studio album by the American alternative rock band The Smashing Pumpkins , released in June 1998 by Virgin Records . After the multi @-@ platinum success of Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness and a subsequent yearlong world tour , follow @-@ up Adore was considered " one of the most anticipated albums of 1998 " by MTV . Recording the album proved to be a challenge as the band members struggled with lingering interpersonal problems and musical uncertainty in the wake of three increasingly successful rock albums and the departure of drummer Jimmy Chamberlin . Frontman Billy Corgan would later characterize Adore as " a band falling apart " .
The result was a much more subdued and electronica @-@ tinged sound that Greg Kot of Rolling Stone
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" Eye " . " Pug " was originally recorded as a " minor key blues death march " with drums by Matt Cameron , while the album version uses drum programming . The only song on the album to feature Cameron , " For Martha " , is a tribute to Corgan 's mother that was primarily recorded as one live take .
Apart from being the first album without Jimmy Chamberlin , Adore was the first album to not include writing contributions from James Iha , who was concurrently working on his solo album Let It Come Down . However , he did contribute the track " Summer " to the " Perfect " single .
= = Promotion and release = =
The lead @-@ up to Adore was marked by conflicting statements as to the album 's sound — Corgan initially said the band was heading in the direction of the heavy @-@ metal @-@ guitar @-@ and @-@ electronic music @-@ driven " The End is the Beginning is the End " in summer 1997 , while the band 's management reported the album would be all @-@ acoustic . In early 1998 , Corgan called the sound " arcane night music " , elaborating , " The people that say it 's acoustic will be wrong . The people that say it 's electronic will be wrong . The people that say it 's a Pumpkins record will be wrong . I will try to make something that is indescribable " .
Adore was released on June 1 , 1998 in most of the world , the same day the video for first single " Ava Adore " premiered . The album booklet and music video showed off the band 's new gothic look . The second single , " Perfect " , was also accompanied by a music video , which debuted on August 16 .
= = = An Evening with The Smashing Pumpkins = = =
After the marathon Infinite Sadness tour , the band embarked on a scaled @-@ back 36 @-@ date world tour entitled An Evening with The Smashing Pumpkins to support Adore . Abroad , the Pumpkins played at what had been called an " eclectic mix of interesting venues " , among them the rooftop of a FNAC record store in Paris , France , in the botanic gardens of Brussels , Belgium , at the Cannes Film Festival , and at an International Shipping Harbor in Sydney , Australia . In the United States , the Pumpkins donated 100 % of their ticket profits to local charities ( yet one stop on the tour , Minneapolis , was a free concert and underestimated the attendance of the show ) . In the end , the Pumpkins , with the help of their fans , raised over $ 2 @.@ 8 million in this manner .
The lineup was the most expansive yet , including former John Mellencamp and Melissa Etheridge drummer Kenny Aronoff , percussionists Dan Morris and Stephen Hodges , and David Bowie pianist Mike Garson . Violinist Lisa Germano was also set to appear , but did not ultimately appear in the touring line @-@ up . The set was mainly Adore material , with only a handful of reworked Mellon Collie songs and no songs from prior to 1995 , eliminating many of their radio hits and fan favorites , with the exception of some shows performed in South American countries like Brazil and Chile , where they played for the first time , so they included old hits like " Today " and " Disarm " .
In retrospect , Corgan rued the decision to hire the two percussionists to play alongside Aronoff , instead of having the drummer play along with loops from the album . " That drove Kenny up the wall because Kenny has perfect time and one guy played on top and the other behind . I remember Kenny saying , ' I feel like I 'm tripping on LSD ' because he kept hearing things that were not in time , and it drove him crazy , " said Corgan in the Adore reissue liner notes . Performing with Garson was also challenging because , according to Corgan , " he made a decision 40 years ago that he would live in the intuitive flow of what he was feeling , so he literally cannot play the same thing twice . So we 'd have gigs where he 'd have that same magic as on Aladdin Sane and the next night he 'd come and play the extreme opposite style - like honkytonk . I really respect Mike , but to play with him was always challenging ; precisely because he is such a supreme musician . "
= = Reception and aftermath = =
Critical reception to Adore was generally positive . Greg Kot of Rolling Stone magazine regarded Adore as " the most intimate album the Pumpkins have ever made and also the prettiest , a parade of swooning melodies and gentle , unfolding nocturnes . " Ryan Schreiber of Pitchfork Media described the album as " the Pumpkins ' best offering since Siamese Dream . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described Adore as " a hushed , elegiac album that sounds curiously out of time , " though he noted that the album " ultimately isn 't a brave step forward . " Adore was considered one of " an inspiring range of 25 classic alternative American albums " by The Guardian . The lyrics received particular praise from critics — Jim DeRogatis of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , who in 1993 had criticized Corgan 's lyrics as " too often sound [ ing ] like sophomoric poetry " , said Corgan " took a big leap forward as a lyricist " starting with Adore . Schreiber , who criticized Mellon Collie as " lyrical rock @-@ bottom " , called Adore 's lyrics " poetic " , particularly singling out " To Sheila " . Greg Kot emphasized the " oblique , private longings , and weighty , sometimes awkward conceits " in the lyrics , while David Browne of Entertainment Weekly called them " unsettled and unsettling . " The contributions of Wretzky and Iha also received praise , with Kot noting that " Iha 's quirky guitar accents and Wretzky 's unflashy resolve [ . . . ] give Adore a warmth and camaraderie no other Pumpkins album can match . "
Despite this , public reception to Adore was lukewarm . Adore entered the Billboard album charts at number two with 174 @,@ 000 units of the album sold , and was certified platinum by the RIAA five weeks later , but the album soon departed the charts , leaving Adore far short of the sales figures of its predecessors . Two additional promotional singles , " Crestfallen " and " To Sheila " , were released to radio stations but failed to gain traction and were never released as commercial singles . As of May 2005 , Adore has sold 1 @.@ 1 million units in the U.S. , and at least three times as many copies worldwide .
Corgan initially blamed fans for the failure , then himself , saying that he " made the mistake of telling people it was a techno record " and that if he " would have told everyone Adore was the Pumpkins ' acoustic album we would have never had the problems that we had . " " Even the album title was misunderstood . " , Billy Corgan wrote on the band 's website that the title Adore “ was a joke that no one ever got , ” explaining that Adore was meant as a play on “ A Door , ” meaning the album would offer a new entrance to the band ’ s career . By the end of 1998 , Corgan , who would later call the making of Adore " one of the most painful experiences of my life " , was already writing material for the band 's next album , and Jimmy Chamberlin was readmitted into the band .
" Adore was like an aging Hollywood superstar , " Corgan later told Q. " She 's 55 years old and she 's had three facelifts . She looks in the mirror one day and suddenly realises that she can 't sustain the energy anymore . That record was all about dreams dying . " In 1999 , Ned Raggett ranked the album at number 101 on his list of " The Top 136 Or So Albums Of The Nineties " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Billy Corgan .
= = = 2014 CD / DVD reissue = = =
As part of Virgin / Universal Music 's reissue campaign , a special edition of the album was released on September 23 , 2014 . The release consists of the original album remastered and 91 bonus tracks of previously unreleased material , demos and alternate versions of Adore @-@ era songs , and was released in five formats ; the physical box set containing all 107 tracks , the digital deluxe edition containing 74 of the bonus tracks , as well as single disc CD and double @-@ LP versions containing only the stereo remaster of the album . The digital version of the reissue will be released on October 3 , 2014 .
The actual Adore album was remastered by Bob Ludwig . The entire set includes session outtakes and a mono version of the album , with Corgan stating that the new mixes contain " elements from the original sessions that were stored digitally , but never used ; such as some of the work done by Bon Harris . "
The package also includes a DVD consisting of footage of the band 's show from August 4 , 1998 at the Fox Theater in Atlanta , Georgia .
= = Personnel = =
The Smashing Pumpkins
Billy Corgan – vocals , guitar , piano , keyboards , production , mixing , art direction and design
James Iha – guitar , vocals
D 'arcy Wretzky – bass guitar
Additional musicians
Matt Walker – drums on " To Sheila " , " Ava Adore " , " Daphne Descends " , " Tear " , " The Tale of Dusty and Pistol Pete " , " Annie @-@ Dog " , and " Behold ! The Night Mare "
Matt Cameron – drums on " For Martha "
Joey Waronker – drums on " Perfect " , additional drums on " Once Upon a Time " and " Pug "
Dennis Flemion – additional vocals in " To Sheila " and " Behold ! The Night Mare "
Jimmy Flemion – additional vocals in " To Sheila " and " Behold ! The Night Mare "
Bon Harris – additional programming on tracks 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 , and 13 ; additional vocals in " For Martha "
Brad Wood – additional production and engineering on tracks 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 13 , and 15 , additional vocals in " Behold ! The Night Mare " , organ in " Blank Page "
Technical personnel
Robbie Adams – engineering , mixing
Chris Brickley – recording assistant
Flood – additional production , mixing
Eric Greedy – mix assistant
Steve Johnson – recording assistant
Ron Lowe – recording assistant
Jay Nicholas – mix assistant
Frank Olinsky – art direction and design
Neil Perry – engineer , mixing
Matt Prock – recording assistant
Chris Shepard – engineer
Jamie Siegel – mix assistant
Bjorn Thorsrud – digital editing , engineering
Ed Tinley – recording assistant
Andy Van Dette – digital editing and compilation
Jeff Vereb – recording assistant
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Howard C. Willing – engineering , mix assistant
John Wydrycs – mix assistant
Yelena Yemchuk – photography , art direction and design
= = Charts = =
Album
Year @-@ End
Singles
= Cameroon =
Cameroon ( / ˌkæməˈruːn / ; French : Cameroun ) , officially the Republic of Cameroon ( French : République du Cameroun ) , is a country in West Africa . It is bordered by Nigeria to the west ; Chad to the northeast ; the Central African Republic to the east ; and Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , and the Republic of the Congo to the south . Cameroon 's coastline lies on the Bight of Bonny , part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean .
Cameroon is home to more than 1738 different linguistic groups . French and English are the official languages . The country is often referred to as " Africa in miniature " for its geological and cultural diversity . Natural features include beaches , deserts , mountains , rainforests , and savannas . The highest point at almost 4 @,@ 100 metres ( 13 @,@ 500 ft ) is Mount Cameroon in the Southwest Region of the country , and the largest cities in population @-@ terms are Douala on the Wouri river , its economical capital and main seaport , Yaoundé , its political capital , and Garoua . After independence , the newly united nation joined the Commonwealth of Nations , although the vast majority of its territories had previously been a German colony and , after World War I , a French mandate . The country is well known for its native styles of music , particularly makossa and bikutsi , and for its successful national football team .
Early inhabitants of the territory included the Sao civilisation around Lake Chad and the Baka hunter @-@ gatherers in the southeastern rainforest . Portuguese explorers reached the coast in the 15th century and named the area Rio dos Camarões ( Shrimp River ) , which became Cameroon in English . Fulani soldiers founded the Adamawa Emirate in the north in the 19th century , and various ethnic groups of the west and northwest established powerful chiefdoms and fondoms . Cameroon became a German colony in 1884 known as Kamerun .
After World War I , the territory was divided between France and the United Kingdom as League of Nations mandates . The Union des Populations du Cameroun ( UPC ) political party advocated independence , but was outlawed by France in the 1950s . It waged war on French and UPC militant forces until 1971 . In 1960 , the French @-@ administered part of Cameroon became independent as the Republic of Cameroun under President Ahmadou Ahidjo . The southern part of British Cameroons merged with it in 1961 to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon . The country was renamed the United Republic of Cameroon in 1972 and the Republic of Cameroon in 1984 .
Cameroon enjoys relatively high political and social stability . This has permitted the development of agriculture , roads , railways , and large petroleum and timber industries . Nevertheless , large numbers of Cameroonians live in poverty as subsistence farmers . Power lies firmly in the hands of the authoritarian president since 1982 , Paul Biya , and his Cameroon People 's Democratic Movement party . The English @-@ speaking territories of Cameroon have grown increasingly alienated from the government , and politicians from those regions have called for greater decentralization and even secession ( for example : the Southern Cameroons
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virus 's life @-@ cycle . There are drugs that prevent the virus from attaching to cells , others that are nucleoside analogues and some poison the virus 's enzymes that it needs to reproduce . The success of these drugs is proof of the importance of knowing how viruses reproduce .
= = Role in ecology = =
Viruses are the most abundant biological entity in aquatic environments — there are about one million of them in a teaspoon of seawater — and they are essential to the regulation of saltwater and freshwater ecosystems . Most of these viruses are bacteriophages , which are harmless to plants and animals . They infect and destroy the bacteria in aquatic microbial communities and this is the most important mechanism of recycling carbon in the marine environment . The organic molecules released from the bacterial cells by the viruses stimulate fresh bacterial and algal growth .
Microorganisms constitute more than 90 % of the biomass in the sea . It is estimated that viruses kill approximately 20 % of this biomass each day and that there are fifteen times as many viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea . Viruses are mainly responsible for the rapid destruction of harmful algal blooms , which often kill other marine life . The number of viruses in the oceans decreases further offshore and deeper into the water , where there are fewer host organisms .
Their effects are far @-@ reaching ; by increasing the amount of respiration in the oceans , viruses are indirectly responsible for reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by approximately 3 gigatonnes of carbon per year .
Marine mammals are also susceptible to viral infections . In 1988 and 2002 , thousands of harbour seals were killed in Europe by phocine distemper virus . Many other viruses , including caliciviruses , herpesviruses , adenoviruses and parvoviruses , circulate in marine mammal populations .
= Dunkery Hill =
Dunkery Beacon at the summit of Dunkery Hill is the highest point on Exmoor and in Somerset , England . It is also the highest point in southern England outside of Dartmoor .
The sandstone hill rises to 1 @,@ 705 feet ( 520 m ) and provides views over the surrounding moorland , the Bristol Channel and hills up to 86 miles ( 138 km ) away . The site has been visited by humans since the Bronze Age , and contains several burial mounds in the form of cairns and bowl barrows . Sweetworthy on the lower slopes is the site of two Iron Age hill forts or enclosures and a deserted medieval settlement . The hill is part of a Site of Special Scientific Interest and National nature reserve . It was in private ownership until the 20th century , when it was donated to the National Trust by Sir Thomas Acland , Colonel Wiggin and Allan Hughes ; a stone cairn was erected at the summit to commemorate the event .
= = Location = =
Dunkery is composed of Middle Devonian sedimentary rock , ( 393 @.@ 3 ± 2 @.@ 7 million years ago ) known as the Hangman Sandstone Formation . This supports acidic soils . The ridge along the top of the hill is 4 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) long .
At 1 @,@ 705 feet ( 520 m ) ordnance datum ( OD ) , the mean height above sea level , Dunkery Beacon is the highest natural point in Somerset , although the tip of the Mendip TV Mast is higher at 1 @,@ 915 feet ( 584 m ) OD . Dunkery is ranked 23rd in the UK in terms of dominance and is a Marilyn , meaning that it is a peak with 150 metres ( 490 ft ) or more of relative height . The nearest higher hill is Yes Tor , 37 miles ( 60 km ) away . John Fry , a character in R. D. Blackmore 's 1869 novel Lorna Doone , calls it the " haighest place of Hexmoor " .
Dunkery lies just four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from the Bristol Channel at Porlock . The shortest route of ascent goes from the car park at Dunkery Gate , and is just 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) long . There are extensive views from the summit , from where the Bristol and English Channel coasts , the Brecon Beacons including Pen Y Fan , Bodmin Moor , Dartmoor , the Severn Bridges and Cleeve Hill 86 miles ( 138 km ) away in Gloucestershire are visible .
= = History = =
Dunkery Hill was part of the " Royal Forest of Exmoor " , established by Henry II according to the late 13th @-@ century Hundred Rolls . There has been some debate about the origin of the name " Dunkery " and its predecessors " Duncrey " and " Dunnecray " . Eilert Ekwall suggests that it comes from the Welsh din meaning hillfort and creic or creag meaning rock .
There are several Bronze Age burial mounds at or near the summit . Two of the largest are Joaney How and Robin How , which have been damaged over many years , although plans have been made to restore and protect them . " How " comes from the Norse for burial mound . Joaney How on the northern slope , is more than 22 metres ( 72 ft ) in diameter . On the southeastern slopes are four more cairns , and there are a further two round cairns 390 metres ( 1 @,@ 280 ft ) and 420 metres ( 1 @,@ 380 ft ) southeast of Rex Stile Head . In addition to the cairns are barrows , which also date from the Bronze Age . One bowl barrow on the southeastern spur of the Chains is 12 @.@ 3 metres ( 40 ft ) in diameter . A circular funerary stone mound 850 metres ( 2 @,@ 790 ft ) north of Dunkery Bridge , which is a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) walk from the summit , dates from the Neolithic or Bronze Age . It is approximately 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 ft 11 in ) high and 14 metres ( 46 ft ) in diameter .
Sweetworthy , on Dunkery Hill 's north @-@ facing slope , is the site of two Iron Age hill forts or enclosures ; one has a single rampart and external ditch , enclosing 0 @.@ 25 hectares ( 0 @.@ 62 acres ) . The rampart is still visible , and the ditch on the east side is used as a trackway . There was a defended settlement above the main site . It is also the site of a deserted medieval settlement , which has been designated an ancient monument . It has been added to the Heritage at Risk register because of the vulnerability to plant growth .
In 1918 Sir Thomas Acland leased part of the land.along with a large part of the Holnicote Estate , for 500 years . Dunkery Hill was put up for sale in 1928 . Labour Party activist and Member of Parliament Margaret Bondfield asked in the House of Commons if the government was willing to have it designated an ancient monument , to preserve it for future generations . She received the reply that although the government was agreeable to having the hill listed there were no funds available for its purchase ; the beacon and surrounding mounds were subsequently designated an ancient monument . The beacon itself , and 960 acres ( 390 ha ) of surrounding land , was donated in 1932 by Colonel W.W. Wiggin . A further 945 acres ( 382 ha ) of nearby land was donated in 1934 by Mrs Hughes in memory of her husband Alan Hughes of Lynch Allerford , Minehead . The donations were commemorated in 1935 with an event when a plaque was attached to the summit memorial cairn . Further parts of the Holnicote Estate , which includes other land donated by the Acland family and others , was given in subsequent years .
= = Ecology = =
The site is part of the North Exmoor Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , part of the Dunkery & Horner Woods National Nature Reserve and part of the Exmoor Coastal Heaths Special Area of Conservation .
The hill is blanketed in heather , which gives it a deep purple colour during the summer . Ling and bell heather , gorse , sessile oak , ash , rowan , hazel , bracken , mosses , liverworts , lichens and ferns all grow on the hill or in surrounding woodland , as well as some unique whitebeam species . Exmoor ponies , red deer , pied flycatchers , wood warblers , lesser spotted woodpeckers , redstarts , dippers , snipe , skylarks and kestrels are some of the fauna to be found on or around the hill and in nearby Horner Woods , home to 14 of the 16 UK bat species and including barbastelle and Bechstein 's bats .
= Body of Lies ( film ) =
Body of Lies is a 2008 American action spy film directed and produced by Ridley Scott . Set in the Middle East , it follows the attempts of the CIA and Jordanian Intelligence to catch " al @-@ Saleem " , a terrorist . Frustrated by their target 's elusiveness , differences in their approaches strain relations between a CIA operative , his superior , and the head of Jordanian Intelligence .
William Monahan 's screenplay , based on the novel of the same name by David Ignatius , examines contemporary tension between Western and Arab societies and the comparative effectiveness of technological and human counter @-@ intelligence methods . The film was shot largely on location in the United States and Morocco , after authorities in Dubai refused permission to film there because
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of the script 's political themes . The film 's photography sought to emphasize the contrast between the gold and dust of the desert and Arab cities , and the blue and gray of bureaucracy and Washington . Accordingly , they used natural light wherever possible . Marc Streitenfeld arranged the musical score .
Scott 's direction and visual style were praised by critics , but they criticized his formulaic handling of the story and use of conventions from the spy genre , such as surveillance shots from high @-@ altitude spy planes . It stars Leonardo DiCaprio , Russell Crowe , and Mark Strong as the three principals were particularly mentioned , including DiCaprio 's involvement with his character , Crowe 's adopted accent and weight gain , and Strong 's urbane sophistication . The film was released in the United States on October 10 , 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Roger Ferris ( Leonardo DiCaprio ) is a CIA case officer in Iraq , tracking a terrorist called Al @-@ Saleem ( Alon Abutbul ) . He meets Nizar , a member of the terrorist organization who is prepared to offer information in return for asylum in America . Despite his boss , Ed Hoffman 's ( Russell Crowe ) objections , Ferris agrees to shelter Nizar . Nizar is used as a pawn to draw out the rest of his cell ; when he is captured , Ferris is forced to shoot him to prevent him from exposing Ferris ' identity . However , furious at Hoffman 's refusal to act on the information Nizar provided , Ferris and his associate Bassam ( Oscar Isaac ) go to search a safe house in Balad , Iraq , of which Nizar had told them . There , Ferris observes men burning records and attempts to bluff his way in , but is exposed . In the ensuing shootout and chase , Ferris and Bassam 's vehicle is hit by an RPG . Ferris and some salvaged discs are rescued by helicopter but Bassam is killed in the explosion .
Meanwhile , unknown terrorists plan to follow up off @-@ screen bus bombings in Sheffield with more attacks in Manchester , but blow themselves up when the police arrive at their house . Recovered from his injuries , Ferris is assigned to Jordan to continue searching for Al @-@ Saleem , where he meets with Hani Salaam ( Mark Strong ) , head of the Jordanian General Intelligence Directorate .
Hoffman finds an Al @-@ Saleem safe house in Jordan and orders Ferris to watch it . Simultaneously , Hoffman organizes another ' side operation ' via a local agency operative named Skip ( Vince Colosimo ) and that he is to conduct an operation without Ferris ' knowledge . Skip employs the use of an agency asset , Ziyad Abishi , who blows cover to a terrorist from the safe house . As he flees to inform his colleagues of their exposure , Ferris makes chase and kills him in such a place and manner that one might believe the death to be random . Salaam ( via ' back channels ' ) corroborates the acceptance of killing by those whom remain at the safe house ; and Ferris accuses Hoffman of running " side operations " which interfere and ( at least ) undermine operational integrity of primary operation and tells Hoffman to stop . While going to the hospital to receive rabies shots for bites suffered during the pursuit and elimination of the terrorist , Ferris meets a nurse named Aisha ( Golshifteh Farahani ) , and he begins developing romantic feelings for her . The bombers strike again in an Amsterdam flower market , and kill at least 75 people .
Having recognized one of the men living in the safe house as former small @-@ time criminal Mustaffa Karami ( Kais Nashef ) , Salaam takes Karami into the desert and coerces him into working for Jordanian intelligence , threatening to set him up as a collaborator if he does not co @-@ operate . Hoffman asks Salaam to use Karami , but he refuses , believing a greater return will come later . Unknown to Ferris and Salaam , Hoffman tells Ferris ' CIA subordinate ( Skip ) to follow Karami and kidnap him . Karami escapes and notifies the terrorists in the safe house that it is being watched , and they abandon it . Ferris 's partner is caught and Salaam accuses Ferris of having had knowledge of the move on Karami , and blames Ferris 's duplicity with him for the destruction of the safe house . He exiles Ferris from Jordan .
Ferris returns to Hoffman in Washington , and they devise a new plan to find Al @-@ Saleem . Suspecting he is motivated more by pride than ideology , they stage a fake terrorist attack and set up Omar Sadiki ( Ali Suliman ) , an innocent Jordanian architect , as its instigator , hoping Al @-@ Saleem will come out of hiding and attempt to contact him . Al @-@ Saleem sees TV news coverage of the attack and takes the bait .
Salaam invites Ferris back to Jordan and shares his suspicions that Omar Sadiki is a terrorist , though Ferris feigns ignorance . Ferris later tries to save Sadiki from being kidnapped by Al @-@ Saleem 's henchmen but fails and sees his partner nearly killed in the subsequent car crash . Under interrogation , Sadiki denies any knowledge of the attack though he is later found beaten and killed . Ferris goes back to his apartment and finds out that Aisha has been kidnapped . He desperately asks Salaam for help , admitting he fabricated Omar Sadiki 's terrorist cell and the attack . Salaam refuses to help because of Ferris earlier having lied to him .
Ferris offers himself in exchange to Aisha 's kidnappers , and is brought to the middle of the desert , with Hoffman watching everything via a surveillance drone unmanned aerial vehicle . Ferris is surrounded by a group of SUVs , which circle him to create an obscuring dust cloud before picking him up . The dust cloud blocks Hoffman 's view , so that he cannot determine which of the SUVs , now headed in different directions , is carrying Ferris . Ferris is taken across the border to Syria where he is to be interrogated by Al @-@ Saleem . When Ferris asks Al @-@ Saleem about Aisha , he is told that someone has lied to him and that he has been double @-@ crossed . Ferris tells Al @-@ Saleem that there is an infiltrator ( Karami ) in his organization who works for Ferris , and that , by association , Al @-@ Saleem works for Ferris . Al @-@ Saleem does not believe Ferris , beats him , turns on a video camera and orders his execution . Salaam and his agents arrive at the last moment , saving Ferris ' life . Al @-@ Saleem is shown arrested in his own SUV by Marwan Se @-@ Kia , Hani Salaam 's security officer .
Salaam visits Ferris in the hospital and reveals he had faked Aisha 's abduction , and orchestrated Ferris 's capture by Al @-@ Saleem using Karami as a go @-@ between . Having lost the will to fight in this particular ' war ' , Ferris goes off the grid and goes to see Aisha again .
= = Cast = =
Leonardo DiCaprio as Roger Ferris , a field officer working in CIA 's Near East Division and later CIA Station Chief of Amman , Jordan .
Russell Crowe as Ed Hoffman , chief of CIA 's Near East Division and Ferris ' boss .
Mark Strong as Hani Salaam , intelligence chief and director of the Jordanian General Intelligence Directorate .
Golshifteh Farahani as Aisha , a nurse in Amman and Ferris ' love interest .
Oscar Isaac as Bassam , CIA field operative in Iraq and Ferris ' associate .
Ali Suliman as Omar Sadiki , a Jordanian architect with very low @-@ profile contact with Al @-@ Qaeda and CIA 's mole to catch Al @-@ Saleem .
Alon Abutbul as Al @-@ Saleem , head of an independent terrorist group based in Jordan , aligned with Al @-@ Qaeda .
Vince Colosimo as Skip , CIA field operative in Jordan .
Simon McBurney as Garland , a computer geek employed by the CIA to instrument black ops .
Mehdi Nebbou as Nizar , former linguist , Al @-@ Qaeda operative and attempted defector .
Michael Gaston as Holiday , Ferris ' predecessor as CIA 's Jordan station chief .
Kais Nashif as Mustafa Karami , former petty criminal @-@ turned @-@ Al @-@ Qaeda operative under Al @-@ Saleem who later became Hani Salaam 's informer .
Jamil Khoury as Marwan Se @-@ Kia , GID operative and security officer of Hani Salaam .
Lubna Azabal as Cala , Aisha 's sister .
Ghali Benlafkih and Youssef Srondy as Rowley and Yousef , Aisha 's nephews .
Ali Khalil as Zayed Ibishi , CIA asset in Amman , operating in Hoffman 's secret side operation .
= = Themes = =
Ridley Scott has made a previous film about the conflict between the Western and Arab civilizations , Kingdom of Heaven ( 2005 ) , set during the Crusades . Body of Lies resumes this theme in the context of modern intelligence operations and terrorism . The film puts two contrasting characters on the same side . Ferris , the CIA man on the ground , is a dedicated Arabist fluent in the language ; he relies on trust , local knowledge and human intelligence . Hoffman , his superior , who is detached at home in Washington , D.C. , and at the CIA in Virginia , is more machiavellian : he authorizes deceit , double @-@ crossing , and violence by telephone and without scruple . The New Yorker interpreted him as " an American consumer of advanced technology and vast amounts of food " .
Early in the film , Hoffman explains to his superiors that the terrorists ' retreat to pre @-@ tech age communication methods renders useless the high specification tools the CIA uses , and increases the worth of Ferris 's human intelligence methods . They avoid mobile telephones and computers , preferring face @-@ to @-@ face communication and encoded written messages . By contrast , the Americans use sophisticated communication ( Hoffman and Ferris regularly speak on the phone ) and surveillance ( high altitude spy planes offer a different point of view throughout ) technology . David Denby of The New Yorker said that this was Scott 's suggestion that the CIA has the technology but not the human intelligence to properly fight terrorism in the Middle East . Despite Hoffman 's distance , the force and unintended consequences of his schemes are often borne by Ferris . The difference is underlined when Ferris , suffering weakened credibility , injured colleagues and personal risk , is reminded by Hoffman that " we are a results @-@ driven organization " .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In March 2006 , Warner Bros. hired screenwriter William Monahan to adapt the novel Penetration by David Ignatius into a feature film , which would be directed by Ridley Scott . In April 2007 , with the novel re @-@ titled Body of Lies and the film similarly re @-@ titled , actor Leonardo DiCaprio was cast in the lead role . DiCaprio chose to pursue the role because he considered it a throwback to political films in the 1970s such as The Parallax View ( 1974 ) and Three Days of the Condor ( 1975 ) . DiCaprio dyed his hair brown , and wore brown contacts for the role . After DiCaprio was cast , Russell Crowe was courted for a supporting role , to which he formally committed after Monahan 's script was revised by Steve Zaillian , who wrote Scott and Crowe 's American Gangster . Crowe gained 63 pounds to suit his role . The actor said as a result of the film 's exploration of the American government and foreign policy , " I don 't think it will be very popular , but that ’ s never been part of my project choice process . " Mark Strong , who plays Hani Salaam , the head of the Jordanian General Intelligence Directorate ( GID ) ascribed his casting to his performances in the 2005 films Syriana and Oliver Twist . The character Haani Salaam was modelled after the 2000 – 200
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take a safe path through the mountains . Before he reached the town of Polytsaravos , his army of 8 @,@ 000 Egyptians was delayed by Theodoros Stathakos and his family of thirteen men who refused to let the invaders past their tower . Bosinas tried to negotiate with Stathakos . Stathakos , feigning surrender , told Bosinas to come and take his family 's guns . As Bosinas came to retrieve the guns , the Stathakos family killed him . In retaliation , the Egyptians used their two cannons and blew up the tower .
The Egyptians then proceeded towards the town of Polytsaravos and reached it on August 28 . Awaiting them there were 2 @,@ 000 Maniots behind their fortifications . The Maniots had chosen Polytsaravos as their position of defence as it was on high ground and was surrounded by rocky slopes . This would have meant that the Egyptians could have been stopped before they arrived at the town . As part of their defence plan the villages sent all the women and children to the mountains before improving the fortifications . As the Egyptians arrived at the walls , the Maniots sallied out and caught the Egyptians by surprise . The Egyptians , suffering losses , withdrew from Mani and back into the Laconian plain . The Egyptians had lost 400 men during the battle and the Maniots only lost 9 . This was the last invasion launched against Mani .
= = Aftermath = =
Even though this campaign is overshadowed by other battles of the revolution , it was one of the most important . The Maniates stopped the Egyptians and Ibrahim Pasha who had not been defeated this decisively before . The women who defeated the Egyptians at Diros have been given the name of ' The Amazons of Diros ' . This was the last invasion of Mani as Ibrahim abandoned any ideas of conquering it . On the April 26 , 1827 the Turkish navy bombarded Oitylo with over 1 @,@ 700 cannonballs hitting the town .
In 1827 , the combined fleets of France , England and Russia defeated the combined Ottoman – Egyptian fleet in the Battle of Navarino . In 1828 , under the terms of the Treaty of Constantinople , Greece became an independent state which was recognized by the Ottomans in 1829 . When Ioannis Capodistrias was made president of Greece , he had Petros Mavromachalis imprisoned . The Mavromichalis ' reacted by assassinating Capodistrias in Nauplion as he went to church . The Maniots continued causing trouble and defeated two Bavarian armies King Otto sent against them before they were subdued only after some of the leaders were bribed . This ended the Maniots ' independence and they were forced to pay taxes .
= La Peau de chagrin =
La Peau de chagrin ( French pronunciation : [ la po də ʃaɡʁɛ ̃ ] , The Magic Skin or The Wild Ass 's Skin ) is an 1831 novel by French novelist and playwright Honoré de Balzac ( 1799 – 1850 ) . Set in early 19th @-@ century Paris , it tells the story of a young man who finds a magic piece of shagreen that fulfills his every desire . For each wish granted , however , the skin shrinks and consumes a portion of his physical energy . La Peau de chagrin belongs to the Études philosophiques group of Balzac 's sequence of novels , La Comédie humaine .
Before the book was completed , Balzac created excitement about it by publishing a series of articles and story fragments in several Parisian journals . Although he was five months late in delivering the manuscript , he succeeded in generating sufficient interest that the novel sold out instantly upon its publication . A second edition , which included a series of twelve other " philosophical tales " , was released one month later .
Although the novel uses fantastic elements , its main focus is a realistic portrayal of the excesses of bourgeois materialism . Balzac 's renowned attention to detail is used to describe a gambling house , an antique shop , a royal banquet , and other locales . He also includes details from his own life as a struggling writer , placing the main character in a home similar to the one he occupied at the start of his literary career . The central theme of La Peau de chagrin is the conflict between desire and longevity . The magic skin represents the owner 's life @-@ force , which is depleted through every expression of will , especially when it is employed for the acquisition of power . Ignoring a caution from the shopkeeper who offers him the skin , the protagonist greedily surrounds himself with wealth , only to find himself miserable and decrepit at the story 's end .
La Peau de chagrin firmly established Balzac as a writer of significance in France . His social circle widened significantly , and he was sought eagerly by publishers for future projects . The book served as the catalyst for a series of letters he exchanged with a Polish baroness named Ewelina Hańska , who later became his wife . It also inspired Giselher Klebe 's opera Die tödlichen Wünsche .
= = Background = =
In 1830 Honoré de Balzac had only begun to achieve recognition as a writer . Although his parents had persuaded him to make his profession the law , he announced in 1819 that he wanted to become an author . His mother was distraught , but she and his father agreed to give him a small income , on the condition that he dedicate himself to writing , and deliver to them half of his gross income from any published work . After moving into a tiny room near the Bibliothèque de l 'Arsenal in Paris , Balzac wrote for one year , without success . Frustrated , he moved back to his family in the suburb of Villeparisis and borrowed money from his parents to pursue his literary ambitions further . He spent the next several years writing simple potboiler novels , which he published under a variety of pseudonyms . He shared some of his income from these with his parents , but by 1828 he still owed them 50 @,@ 000 francs .
He published for the first time under his own name in 1829 . Les Chouans , a novel about royalist forces in Brittany , did not succeed commercially , but it made Balzac known in literary circles . He achieved a major success later the same year when he published La Physiologie du mariage , a treatise on the institution of marriage . Bolstered by its popularity , he added to his fame by publishing a variety of short stories and essays in the magazines Revue de Paris , La Caricature , and La Mode . He thus made connections in the publishing industry that later helped him to obtain reviews of his novels .
At the time , French literary appetites for fantastic stories had been whetted by the 1829 translation of German writer E. T. A. Hoffmann 's collection Fantastic Tales ; the gothic fiction of England 's Ann Radcliffe ; and French author Jules Janin 's 1829 novel L 'Âne Mort et la Femme Guillotinée ( The Dead Donkey and the Guillotined Woman ) . Although he planned a novel in the same tradition , Balzac disliked the term " fantastic " , referring to it once as " the vulgar program of a genre in its first flush of newness , to be sure , but already too much worn by the mere abuse of the word " .
The politics and culture of France , meanwhile , were in upheaval . After reigning for six controversial years , King Charles X was forced to abdicate during the July Revolution of 1830 . He was replaced by Louis @-@ Philippe , who named himself " King of the French " ( rather than the usual " King of France " ) in an attempt to distance himself from the Ancien Régime . The July Monarchy brought an entrenchment of bourgeois attitudes , in which Balzac saw disorganization and weak leadership .
= = Writing and publication = =
The title La Peau de chagrin first appeared in print on 9 December 1830 , as a passing mention in an article Balzac wrote for La Caricature under the pseudonym Alfred Coudreux . His scrapbook includes the following note , probably written at the same time : " L 'invention d 'une peau qui représente la vie . Conte oriental . " ( " The invention of a skin that represents life . Oriental story . " ) One week later , he published a story fragment called " Le Dernier Napoléon " in La Caricature , under the name " Henri B ... " . In it , a young man loses his last Napoleon coin at a Parisian gambling house , then continues to the Pont Royal to drown himself . During this early stage , Balzac did not think much of the project . He referred to it as " a piece of thorough nonsense in the literary sense , but in which [ the author ] has sought to introduce certain of the situations in this hard life through which men of genius have passed before achieving anything " . Before long , though , his opinion of the story improved .
By January 1831 Balzac had generated enough interest in his idea to secure a contract with publishers Charles Gosselin and Urbain Canel . They agreed on 750 copies of an octavo edition , with a fee of 1 @,@ 125 francs paid to the author upon receipt of the manuscript – by mid @-@ February . Balzac delivered the novel in July .
During the intervening months , however , he provided glimpses of his erratic progress . Two additional fragments appeared in May , part of a scheme to promote the book before its publication . " Une Débauche " , published in the Revue des deux mondes , describes an orgiastic feast that features constant bantering and discussion from its bourgeois participants . The other fragment , " Le Suicide d 'un poète " , was printed in the Revue de Paris ; it concerns the difficulties of a would @-@ be poet as he tries to compensate for his lack of funds . Although the three fragments were not connected into a coherent narrative , Balzac was excerpting characters and scenes from his novel @-@ in @-@ progress .
The novel 's delayed publication was a result of Balzac 's active social life . He spent many nights dining at the homes of friends , including novelist Eugène Sue and his mistress Olympe Pélissier , as well as the feminist writer George Sand and her lover Jules Sandeau . Balzac and Pélissier had a brief affair , and she became the first lover with whom he appeared in public . Eventually he removed himself from Paris by staying with friends in the suburbs , where he committed himself to finishing the work . In late spring he allowed Sand to read a nearly @-@ finished manuscript ; she enjoyed it and predicted it would do well .
Finally , in August 1831 , La Peau de chagrin : Conte philosophique was published in two volumes . It was a commercial success , and Balzac used his connections in the world of Parisian periodicals to have it reviewed widely . The book sold quickly , and by the end of the month another contract had been signed : Balzac would receive 4 @,@ 000 francs to publish 1 @,@ 200 additional copies . This second edition included a series of twelve other stories with fantastic elements , and was released under the title Romans et contes philosophiques ( Philosophical Novels and Stories ) . A third edition , rearranged to fill four volumes , appeared in March 1833 .
= = Synopsis = =
La Peau de chagrin consists of three sections : " Le Talisman " ( " The Talisman " ) , " La Femme sans cœur " ( " The Woman without a Heart " ) , and " L 'Agonie " ( " The Agony " ) . The first edition contained a Preface and a " Moralité " , which were excised from subsequent versions . A two @-@ page Epilogue appears at the end of the final section .
" Le Talisman " begins with the plot of " Le Dernier Napoléon " : A young man named Raphaël de Valentin wagers his last coin and loses , then proceeds to the river Seine to drown himself . On the way , however , he decides to enter an unusual shop and finds it filled with curiosities from around the world . The elderly shopkeeper leads him to a piece of shagreen hanging on the wall . It is inscribed with " Oriental " writing ; the old man calls it " Sanskrit " , but it is imprecise Arabic . The skin promises to fulfill any wish of its owner , shrinking slightly upon the fulfillment of each desire . The shopkeeper is willing to let Valentin take it without charge , but urges him not to accept the offer . Valentin waves away the shopkeeper 's warnings and takes the skin , wishing for a royal banquet , filled with wine , women , and friends . He is immediately met by acquaintances who invite him to such an event ; they spend hours eating , drinking , and talking .
Part two , " La Femme sans cœur " , is narrated as a flashback from Valentin 's point of view . He complains to his friend Émile about his early days as a scholar , living in poverty with an elderly landlord and her daughter Pauline , while trying fruitlessly to win the heart of a beautiful but aloof woman named Foedora . Along the way he is tutored by an older man named Eugène de Rastignac , who encourages him to immerse himself in the world of high society . Benefiting from the kindness of his landladies , Valentin maneuvers his way into Foedora 's circle of friends . Unable to win her affection , however , he becomes the miserable and destitute man found at the start of " Le Talisman " .
" L 'Agonie " begins several years after the feast of parts one and two . Valentin , having used the talisman to secure a large income , finds both the skin and his health dwindling . He tries to break the curse by getting rid of the skin , but fails . The situation causes him to panic , horrified that further desires will hasten the end of his life . He organizes his home to avoid the possibility of wishing for anything : his servant , Jonathan , arranges food , clothing , and visitors with precise regularity . Events beyond his control cause him to wish for various things , however , and the skin continues to recede . Desperate , the sickly Valentin tries to find some way of stretching the skin , and takes a trip to the spa town of Aix @-@ les @-@ Bains in the hope of recovering his vitality .
With the skin no larger than a periwinkle leaf , he is visited by Pauline in his room ; she expresses her love for him . When she learns the truth about the shagreen and her role in Raphaël 's demise , she is horrified . Raphaël cannot control his desire for her and she rushes into an adjoining room to escape him and so save his life . He pounds on the door and declares both his love and his desire to die in her arms . She , meanwhile , is trying to kill herself to free him from his desire . He breaks down the door , they consummate their love in a fiery moment of passion , and he dies .
= = Style = =
Although he preferred the term " philosophical " , Balzac 's novel is based upon a fantastic premise . The skin grants a world of possibility to Valentin , and he uses it to satisfy many desires . Pressured into a duel , for example , he explains how he need neither avoid his opponent 's gunshot nor aim his own weapon ; the outcome is inevitable . He fires without care , and kills the other man instantly . Elsewhere , the supernatural qualities of the skin are demonstrated when it resists the efforts of a chemist and a physicist to stretch it .
This inclusion of the fantastic , however , is mostly a framework by which the author discusses human nature and society . One critic suggests that " the story would be much the same without it " . Balzac had used supernatural elements in the potboiler novels he published under noms de plume , but their presence in Peau de chagrin signaled a turning point in his approach to the use of symbolism . Whereas he had used fantastic objects and events in earlier works , they were mostly simple plot points or uncomplicated devices for suspense . With La Peau de chagrin , on the other hand , the talisman represents Valentin 's soul ; at the same time , his demise is symbolic of a greater social decline . Balzac 's real foci in the 1831 novel are the power of human desire and the nature of society after the July Revolution . French writer and critic Félicien Marceau even suggests that the symbolism in the novel allows a purer analysis than the individual case studies of other Balzac novels ; by removing the analysis to an abstract level , it becomes less complicated by variations of individual personality . As an everyman , Valentin displays the essential characteristics of human nature , not a particular person 's approach to the dilemma offered by the skin .
In his Preface to the novel 's first edition , Balzac meditates on the usefulness of fantastic elements : " [ Writers ] invent the true , by analogy , or they see the object to be described , whether the object comes to them or they go toward the object ... Have men the power to bring the universe into their brain , or is their brain a talisman with which they abolish the laws of time and space ? " Critics agree that Balzac 's goal in La Peau de chagrin was the former .
= = = Realism = = =
The novel is widely cited as an important early example of the realism for which Balzac became famous . Descriptions of Paris are one example : the novel is filled with actual locations , including the Palais Royal and the Notre Dame Cathedral . The narration and characters allude repeatedly to art and culture , from Gioachino Rossini 's opera Tancredi to the statue of Venus de Milo .
The book 's third paragraph contains a long description of the process and purpose behind the ritual in gambling houses whereby " the law despoils you of your hat at the
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mellowest , most unhurried album by a distance , yet it 's no less compelling for that lighter touch " , and asserted that , " for the first time in his career , Bilal no longer sounds like an artist with entirely too much to prove ; he 's just a great singer , backed by great players he puts to good use on a set of sticky , deceptively inventive songs " . Steve Jones of USA Today gave the album four out of four stars and wrote that " it 's time that the mainstream paid way more attention " to Bilal .
In her review for NPR , Ann Powers said that A Love Surreal " cultivates the stratospheric vibe " of Coltrane 's A Love Supreme and that Bilal 's ambition is " grounded in fierce intelligence and a commitment to letting stories unfold all the way to their sometimes sorrowful , sometimes orgasmic end . " Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe called it " bracingly good " , " compelling music " that allows Bilal 's " falsetto to bring the intimate lyrics to life . " Jon Pareles , writing for The New York Times , said that his " full @-@ fledged " voice " needs no studio aid " and that the songs " tease and insinuate " with " meanderings [ that ] lead somewhere . " In a less enthusiastic review , Pitchfork Media 's Jayson Greene called it a " joy " to listen to Bilal " warp his voice into improbable shapes " , although he felt the album lacks any prominent melodies . Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars and felt that it lingers at the end with a series of slow jams and " atmospheric clutter " , even though its best songs " warrant the increased attention . "
= = Track listing = =
• ( co . ) Co @-@ producer
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Curse of the Colonel =
Curse of the Colonel ( カーネルサンダースの呪い , Kāneru Sandāsu no Noroi ) refers to an urban legend regarding a reputed curse placed on the Japanese Kansai @-@ based Hanshin Tigers baseball team by deceased KFC founder and mascot Colonel Harland Sanders .
The curse was said to be placed on the team because of the Colonel 's anger over treatment of one of his store @-@ front statues , which was thrown into the Dōtonbori River by celebrating Hanshin fans following their team 's victory in the 1985 Japan Championship Series . As is common with sports @-@ related curses , the Curse of the Colonel was used to explain the team 's subsequent 18 @-@ year losing streak . Some fans believed the team would never win another Japan Series until the statue had been recovered . They have appeared in the Japan Series three times since then , losing in 2003 , 2005 and 2014 .
Comparisons are often made between the Hanshin Tigers and the Boston Red Sox , who were said to be under the Curse of the Bambino until they won the World Series in 2004 and whose fans are also known for celebrating via destruction of property . The " Curse of the Colonel " has also been used as a bogeyman threat to those who would divulge the secret recipe of eleven herbs and spices that result in the unique taste of his chicken .
= = History = =
= = = 1985 Japan Series = = =
The Hanshin Tigers are located in Kansai , the second largest metropolitan area in Japan . They are considered the eternal underdogs of Nippon Professional Baseball , in opposition to the Yomiuri Giants of Tokyo , who are considered the kings of Japanese baseball . The devoted fans flock to the stadium no matter how badly the Tigers play in the league .
In 1985 , much to the nation 's surprise , the Hanshin Tigers faced the Seibu Lions and took their first and only victory in the Japan Series , largely due to the efforts of star slugger Randy Bass , an American playing for the team .
The fan base went wild , and a riotous celebration gathered at Ebisu Bridge in Dōtonbori , Osaka . There , an assemblage of supporters yelled the players ' names , and with every name , a fan resembling a member of the victorious team leaped from the bridge into the waiting canal . However , lacking someone to imitate MVP Randy Bass , the rabid crowd seized a plastic statue of Colonel Sanders ( like Bass , the Colonel had a beard and was not Japanese ) from a nearby KFC and tossed it off the bridge as an effigy .
According to the urban legend , this impulsive maneuver cost the team greatly , beginning the Curse of the Colonel , which states that the Tigers will not win the championship again until the statue is recovered . Subsequently , numerous attempts have been made to recover the statue , often as part of a variety TV show . Most of the statue was recovered in March 2009 .
= = = 18 @-@ year losing streak = = =
After their success in the 1985 series , the Hanshin Tigers began an 18 @-@ year losing streak placing last or next @-@ to @-@ last in the league . Brief rallies in 1992 and 1999 brought hope to fans , but they were soon followed with defeat .
During this time attempts were made to recover the statue , including sending divers down and dredging the river , but they all failed . Fans apologized to the store manager , but the statue remained in the canal and the Tigers " cursed " .
= = = 2002 World Cup = = =
Although the leap into Dōtonbori canal and the Curse of the Colonel is usually associated only with a Hanshin Tigers victory , in 2002 , when Japan beat Tunisia in the World Cup , some 500 fans jumped into the canal as a celebration , in spite of heavy police security .
In addition , a Colonel Sanders statue was taken from the storefront of a KFC in nearby Kōbe , and its hands were cut off supposedly in imitation of Sharia law .
= = = 2003 Central League = = =
In 2003 , the Tigers had an unexpectedly strong season . Their chief rivals , the Yomiuri Giants , lost their star player Hideki Matsui to the New York Yankees , while the Tigers saw the return of pitcher Hideki Irabu back to NPB after playing with the Texas Rangers . The Tigers won the Central League to qualify for the Japan Series , and many newspapers speculated that the Curse of the Colonel had finally been broken . The Tigers lost the Japan Series , this time to the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks , so the curse is presumably intact .
Fans were enthusiastic about winning the Central League , and repeated the celebratory leap into Dōtonbori Canal . However , instead of the individual leapers representing the players , over 5 @,@ 300 fans plunged into the canal .
Many KFC outlets in Kobe and Osaka moved their Colonel Sanders statues inside until the series was over to protect them from rabid Tigers fans . The newly replaced Colonel Sanders statue in the Dōtonbori KFC branch was bolted down to prevent a repeat of the incident .
= = = = Death in the canal = = = =
For 24 @-@ year @-@ old Hanshin Tigers fan Masaya Shitababa , the 2003 celebration was a tragedy . He drowned in the canal , with all reports being that he had been shoved in by the revelers . To prevent future incidents , the Osaka city council ordered the construction of a new Ebisubashi bridge beginning in 2004 , which will make it more difficult for fans to take the celebratory leap should the Curse of the Colonel be broken and the Tigers win again .
= = = Recovery of statue = = =
The Colonel was finally discovered in the Dōtonbori River on March 10 , 2009 . Divers who recovered the statue at first thought it was only a large barrel , and shortly after a human corpse , but Hanshin fans on the scene were quick to identify it as the upper body of the long @-@ lost Colonel . The right hand and lower body were found next day , but the statue is still missing its glasses and left hand . It is said that the only way the curse can be lifted is by returning his long @-@ lost glasses and left hand .
The statue was later recovered ( with replacement of new glasses and hand ) and returned to the KFC Japan . As the KFC branch that the statue originally belongs to no longer existed , the statue was now placed in the branch near Koshien Stadium .
= Max Payne 2 : The Fall of Max Payne =
Max Payne 2 : The Fall of Max Payne is a third @-@ person shooter video game developed by Remedy Entertainment and published by Rockstar Games . The game is a sequel to Max Payne and is followed by the game Max Payne 3 .
In Max Payne 2 , the player controls Max Payne , a DEA agent for the New York City Police Department ( NYPD ) . Reinstated after the events of the previous game , he reunites with Mona Sax , they set out to resolve a conspiracy of death and betrayal .
Video game critics gave Max Payne 2 highly positive reviews . Praise focused on its action and story , while criticism targeted its short length . Despite the positive reception , the game sold poorly , leading Rockstar Games ' parent company Take @-@ Two Interactive to cite Max Payne 2 's sales as a cause for the company 's reforecast finances of 2004 . Max Payne 2 received several industry awards , including Outstanding Art Direction at the Golden Satellite Awards 2004 , and Editors ' Choice Awards from GamePro , IGN , and GameSpy .
= = Gameplay = =
Max Payne 2 is a third @-@ person shooter , in which the player assumes the role of Max Payne , but also plays as Mona Sax in a few levels . Initially , the player 's weapon is a 9mm pistol . As they progress , players access other weapons including other handguns , shotguns , submachine guns , assault rifles , sniper rifles , and hand @-@ thrown weapons . To move the game along , the player is told what the next objective is through Max 's internal monologue , in which Max iterates what his next steps should be .
When first played , the game offers one difficulty level that is adjusted automatically if the game is too difficult for the player . For example , if the player 's character dies too many times , the enemies ' artificial intelligence is made less effective , while more health in the form of painkillers is made available . After completing the game once , other difficulty levels are unlocked . Two special game modes are also activated : New York Minute and Dead Man Walking . In New York Minute , the player is given a score based on the time taken to complete each level . The Dead Man Walking mode places Max in one of five scenarios , in which he must survive for as long as possible while fighting off endlessly respawning enemies .
Max Payne 2 allows the player to enable bullet time , a mode that slows time , while still allowing the player to aim in real @-@ time , to give the player more time to determine what they want to do . In this mode , the screen 's color changes to a sepia tone to act as a visual cue . When in use , the bullet time meter will decrease until it is either empty or the player disables bullet time mode . The meter will eventually increase when not in use , but can be replenished quickly by killing enemies . To simulate the bullet time effect , Max can also execute a shoot @-@ dodge maneuver . When the maneuver is performed , Max jumps in a direction specified by the player , and although Bullet Time is activated while Max is in mid @-@ air , this will not deplete the bullet time meter . The combat system has been improved for Max Payne 2 ; the player can now arm Max with a secondary weapon such as a grenade or Molotov cocktail , and when near an enemy , Max can perform a melee attack . AI players occasionally come to Max 's aid , although their death does not affect the gameplay or story .
= = Plot = =
Two years after the events of the first game , Max Payne has been reinstated as a detective in the NYPD . While investigating a series of murders by a group of hitmen known as the Cleaners , Max encounters Mona Sax , who was assumed dead at the end of the previous game . While following her lead , Mona is eventually arrested because of her crimes . She is taken in to the police station , despite Max 's protests . While at the station , Max overhears his new partner , Valerie Winterson , talking on the phone about Mona . Suddenly , the station is attacked by hitmen looking for Mona . Mona breaks out of her cell , and after fighting off the hitmen , Max and Mona begin hunting down the people responsible for the attack . Their search leads them to a construction site , where he and Mona defend themselves against the same hitmen . After their foes leave , Winterson arrives and holds Mona at gunpoint . Mona claims that Max 's partner is there to kill her , while Winterson claims that she is simply trying to arrest a fleeing fugitive . After several moments of consideration , Max fatally shoots Winterson , allowing Mona to escape . Before she dies , Winterson shoots Max , leading to his hospitalization .
After Max leaves the hospital , he finds Mona , and together , they begin to look for answers . When Max is kidnapped by his old associate , Vladimir Lem , head of the Russian mob , he learns that the Cleaners work for Lem , who used them to eliminate competition to his businesses . Max then learns that Lem is part of the secretive Inner Circle ; Senator Alfred Woden , the leader of the Inner Circle , had ensured that the charges against Max were dropped at the end of the last game . Lem plans to kill Woden and gain control of the Inner Circle . Max also learns that Mona is a hired gun for Woden , with orders to kill Lem and himself . Finally , Max discovers that Winterson was Lem 's mistress ; to avenge her death , Lem shoots Max and leaves him for dead in a burning building . Mona rescues Max , and together , they go to Woden 's mansion to save him from Lem .
At the mansion , Mona knocks Max to the ground in an attempt to follow her orders to kill him , but discovers that her feelings for him keep her from doing so . Lem then shoots Mona , after realizing that she will not kill Max . Woden then appears in a wheelchair , and lunges at Lem ; Woden is killed during the ensuing struggle . Max and Lem then fight while the mansion burns around them . Eventually , Lem is killed and Max returns to Mona 's side as the police arrive , and she dies in his arms .
The alternative ending is unlocked on the highest difficulty of the game . In it , Mona Sax survives . As to its canonical merit , Mona Sax ' survival is neither confirmed or debunked in the series ' third installment , or its attached graphic novels .
= = Development = =
Take @-@ Two Interactive issued a press release on December 5 , 2001 that announced its acquisition of the Max Payne franchise from Remedy Entertainment and Apogee Software for US $ 10 million in cash and 970 @,@ 000 shares of common stock , and its plans to release Max Payne 2 . On May 22 , 2002 , Take @-@ Two announced that they agreed to pay up to $ 8 million as incentive payments to Apogee Software and Remedy Entertainment to develop Max Payne 2 . On September 3 , 2003 , Take @-@ Two officially announced a release date of October 15 , 2003 for the game .
Originally modeled in Max Payne after the game 's writer Sam Lake , Max 's appearance was remodeled after professional actor Timothy Gibbs for Max Payne 2 ; James McCaffrey returned as the voice of Max . The game 's plot was written by Lake , who decided to write it as a film noir love story , as he felt that it suited Max 's persona the best . Lake hoped that the story would break new ground , noting , " At least it 's a step into the right direction . I 'd like nothing better than to see new and unexpected subject matters to find their way to games and stories told in games . " Lake remarked that basic , archetypal film noir elements found in many classics of the genre " can go a long way " when telling a story , and gave examples that included a hostile , crime @-@ ridden city ; a story that takes place late at night with heavy rain ; and a cynical , hard @-@ boiled detective down on his luck . Lake considered writing a sequel to Max Payne an " art of it 's [ sic ] own " . Since the setting and characters were already established , Lake decided that the primary goal of the sequel was " to keep what 's good and fix what was not so good " , and to take the story in surprising directions . The screenplay for the sequel ended up being three times longer than the one for Max Payne . Lake
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narrator singing that he will “ move to a different drum no matter what life brings " . The song does not directly mention God .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Move " received generally positive reviews . Allmusic reviewer Jared Johnson called the song " as relevant as anything MercyMe have ever done " . Roger Gelwicks of Jesus Freak Hideout described " Move " as " an upbeat rocker complete with an infectious handclap beat " . Andy Argyrakis of Today 's Christian Music described the song as " foot stomping " , and Kevin Davis of Christian Music Review commented that the song " has a fantastic rock @-@ dance arrangement like ' This Love ' by Maroon 5 " . Tris McCall of The Star @-@ Ledger was more negative in his review , commenting that the song " sounds so much like Maroon 5 that it ’ s almost embarrassing " , and that " in a music industry governed by sanity , the two songwriters [ Adam Levine of Maroon 5 and Bart Millard of MercyMe ] would sing shoulder to shoulder and reach a common audience " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Move " debuted at No. 41 on the Hot Christian Songs chart for the chart week of May 28 , 2011 , and advanced to No. 30 in its second chart week . " Move " advanced to No. 20 in its fourth chart week and to No. 9 in its tenth chart week . The song advanced to No. 5 in its twelfth chart week and spent two more weeks on the chart before advancing to No. 1 . " Move " spent a total of nine consecutive weeks atop the Christian Songs chart before dropping to No. 2 , supplanted by Casting Crowns ' " Courageous " . The song spent a total of three consecutive weeks at the No. 2 spot before falling to No. 3 . " Move " dropped to No. 6 in its twenty @-@ ninth chart week , and fell to No. 9 in its thirtieth and final week on the chart . In all , " Move " spent a total of thirty weeks on the chart , nine of them at No. 1 .
" Move " has also peaked at No. 1 on the Hot Christian AC chart , No. 1 on the Christian AC Indicator chart , No. 6 on the Christian CHR chart , and No. 20 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart , which is equivalent to No. 120 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= Thomas Cubitt ( British Army officer ) =
General Sir Thomas Astley Cubitt , KCB , CMG , DSO ( 9 April 1871 – 19 May 1939 ) was a British Army officer of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , who commanded a division in the First World War and in retirement served as Governor of Bermuda .
Cubitt was the youngest son of a family of rural gentry in Norfolk , who joined the Royal Artillery in 1891 . He requested colonial service , and spent five years in Africa , where he was involved in the creation of the West African Frontier Force and served in a number of campaigns in northern Nigeria . Shortly before the outbreak of the First World War , he was appointed as Deputy Commissioner in Somaliland , where he mounted a series of campaigns against the Dervish State .
He requested a transfer to the Western Front in 1916 , and commanded an infantry battalion and a brigade before being promoted to take command of 38th ( Welsh ) Division in early 1918 . He led the division until the Armistice , with marked success . Following the war , he held a series of peacetime commands in Germany , Egypt , and England , before being made Governor of Bermuda in 1931 . He held this position until 1936 , when he retired .
= = Family background = =
Born at Great Yarmouth on 9 April 1871 , Thomas was the third son of Major Frank Astley Cubitt and his wife Bertha , daughter of Captain Thomas Blakiston of the Royal Navy . The family resided at Thorpe Hall in Norwich , with an estate at Fritton , near Great Yarmouth . Major Cubitt came from a family of rural gentry , and had attended Rugby and Jesus College , Cambridge before entering the British Army in 1853 as an ensign in the 5th Regiment of Foot . He saw service in the Indian Mutiny before returning to England to act as adjutant to volunteer battalions of the Norfolk Regiment , and retired from the Army in 1889 . He later served as a Justice of the Peace and chair of the local district council .
Cubitt 's eldest brother , Bertram Blakiston ( b . 1862 ) , attended Balliol College , Oxford before entering the civil service ; he would later serve as the private secretary to the Conservative politicians Edward Stanhope , Secretary of State for War , in 1890 @-@ 91 , and St John Brodrick , Under @-@ Secretary of State for War , in 1896 @-@ 98 . He was knighted in 1920 . The middle brother , Julian Francis ( b . 1869 ) studied at Selwyn College , Cambridge , but does not appear to have had an active public career . Their one sister , Helen , married a German economist , Dr. Moritz Julius Bonn , in 1903 .
= = Early career = =
Thomas Cubitt attended Haileybury , as his brother Julian had done , but rather than attend university he studied at the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich , before being commissioned into the Royal Artillery in 1891 . After service in India , and a course at the Staff College , Camberley , he requested a transfer to a colonial posting . He was sent to West Africa in 1898 , and appointed as commander of the artillery in the Northern Nigeria Protectorate on its formation in 1900 , alongside a promotion to Captain . Whilst in Nigeria , he was closely involved in the formation of the Nigeria Regiment in the West African Frontier Force . He saw active duty in a number of expeditions between 1900 and 1903 , including as Staff officer to Colonel George Kemball in the January 1901 expedition to defeat the Emir of Kontagora , and culminating in the command of a battalion of mounted infantry during the Kano @-@ Sokoto campaign of 1903 . For his service in Africa , he was mentioned in despatches several times ( including 31 August 1901 ) , promoted to the brevet rank of Major on 21 March 1901 , and awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) .
He returned to regimental duties in the United Kingdom in 1905 , and from 1908 to 1911 he served as a Brigade Major in Ireland with 3rd Cavalry Brigade .
= = First World War = =
In July 1914 , Cubitt was appointed Deputy Commissioner and Officer Commanding for the Somaliland Protectorate ; after the disastrous Battle of Dul Madoba , the colonial administration was seeking to restore British control over the inland areas of the Protectorate . Cubitt planned and commanded a series of operations through the winter of 1914 @-@ 15 , destroying several Dervish forts . Shortly after he arrived in Somaliland , the First World War had broken out , and once the winter campaign was over he requested to be transferred to Europe ; the request was granted , but it took until early 1916 for him to be replaced and make his way home . For his services in Africa , he was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George and a Companion of the Bath , and promoted to brevet Colonel .
Cubitt turned down the opportunity of a staff posting on the Western Front to request a front @-@ line command , and briefly commanded the 8th ( Service ) Battalion of the Lincolnshire Regiment in early 1917 before assuming command of 57th Brigade in April . The brigade saw service at Messines and Ypres in 1917 , and in the Spring Offensive of early 1918 . He was then appointed to take command of 38th ( Welsh ) Division in late May or early June 1918 , after its previous commander , Charles Blackader , had fallen ill .
An officer in one of the 38th 's infantry battalions , who met Cubitt in early June , shortly after he took command , described him as " a very large and fierce @-@ looking major @-@ general , with two rows of ribbons , and a gleam in his eye " , who proceeded to interrogate a subaltern about the exact type and position of his unit 's trench latrines , apparently something of a pet topic . A " fire @-@ eater with a marvellous flow of language " , it was Cubitt 's manner of speech , more than anything else , which made an impact on his contemporaries ; a front @-@ line officer in 1918 described watching him , during the October offensive , clearing a traffic jam with merely " a magnificent gush of language " . A colleague from his early days in the Artillery described him as a " perpetual joy to the soldier 's world ... because of his picturesque language , which never gave offence because it was so absolutely natural and so aptly fitted the occasion " , but under some circumstances it proved less suitable . Following a failed raid in 1918 , he visited the offending battalion and harangued the officers collectively for some time , before demanding that they " damn well had to do the raid over again , and damn well see that [ they ] made a proper job of it , or , by God , damn well go on raiding until [ they ] damn well did . " To the officers on the receiving end , already tired and dissatisfied , this was seen as a " contemptible exhibition " for a senior officer to make .
Regardless of his personal style , Cubitt was credited by Douglas Haig with achieving the desired results . The 38th Division had mounted a successful but very costly attack in April 1918 ; under his command , it mounted two further major operations , at the Battle of Albert in August and Battle of Cambrai in October . Both were successful , with the division demonstrating flexibility , improvisation , and a highly effective tactical doctrine . The division 's performance at Cambrai was sufficiently good to rank it as one of the most effective British divisions during the Hundred Days Offensive .
= = Postwar career = =
Cubitt remained with the 38th Division until the end of the war , and in March 1919 was transferred to command 3rd Infantry Brigade in the British Army of the Rhine . Shortly afterwards , in August , he was posted to take over the demobilising 54th ( East Anglian ) Division in Egypt , remaining with them until October , when the final units sailed for England .
In 1920 , he was appointed to command the Presidency and Assam District in eastern India . The same year , he married Mary Grissell ( née Wood ) , the widow of an officer in the Norfolk Regiment . He returned to England in 1924 , remaining on half @-@ pay until he took command of the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division , a Territorial Army formation , in 1927 . In 1928 , he transferred to the command of the 2nd Division , a regular formation , and was promoted to Lieutenant @-@ General in 1930 . In 1931 , he was knighted and appointed Governor of Bermuda , holding the post for five years before retiring in 1936 . He was promoted to full General in 1935 , and from 1931 to his death held the ceremonial position of colonel commandant of the Royal Artillery .
Cubitt died on 19 May 1939 , leaving an estate of £ 19 @,@ 000 .
= The Boat Race 1927 =
The 79th Boat Race took place on 2 April 1927 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford 's crew was marginally heavier than their opponents , and saw five participants return with Boat Race experience , compared to Cambridge 's four . Umpired for the first time by former Oxford rower Charles Burnell , Cambridge won by three lengths in a time of 20 minutes 14 seconds . It was the first race in the history of the event to be broadcast live on BBC Radio . The victory took the overall record in the event to 40 – 38 in Oxford 's favour . The inaugural Women 's Boat Race was contested this year , with Oxford securing the victory .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1926 race by five lengths , with Oxford leading overall with 40 victories to Cambridge 's 37 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . This year also saw the inaugural running of the Women 's Boat Race , between female crews from the two universities .
Oxford were coached by H. R. Baker ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1908 and 1909 races ) , G. C. Bourne ( who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races ) , R. C. Bourne ( who had rowed four times between 1909 and 1912 ) and P. C. Mallam ( a Dark Blue from 1921 to 1924 inclusive ) . Cambridge were coached by William Dudley Ward ( who had rowed in 1897 , 1899 and 1900 races ) , Francis Escombe and David Alexander Wauchope ( who had rowed in the 1895 race ) . For the first year the umpire was Charles Burnell , who had rowed for Oxford in the 1895 , 1896 , 1897 and 1898 races .
It was the first time that the progress of the race was broadcast on BBC Radio from the umpire 's launch Magician . Poet J. C. Squire and Olympic gold medallist and former Oxford rower Guy Nickalls provided the commentary , with transmission equipment on the boat weighing in excess of 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) , and using a number of specially built reception points along the course . It was the second live outdoor commentary ever broadcast , the first being the England versus Scotland match of the 1927 Five Nations Championship .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 8 @.@ 625 lb ( 79 @.@ 9 kg ) , 2 @.@ 25 pounds ( 1 @.@ 0 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge 's boat contained four participants with Boat Race experience , including cox J. A. Brown who was steering the Light Blues for the fourth consecutive year . Oxford saw five members of the previous year 's crew return , including E. C. T. Edwards and James Douglas Wishart Thomson , both of whom were rowing for the third time in the event . Cambridge 's Australian number six J. B. Bell and his opposite number , American Howard T. Kingsbury of Yale University , were the only non @-@ British participants registered in the race .
According to author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater , neither crew could " be classed in a very high standard " , claiming Cambridge 's selection was poor and Oxford 's coaches indecisive . Ten days before the race , Oxford 's W. S. Llewellyn was struck down by German measles and was replaced by A. M. Hankin who was placed at stroke .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . In a strong wind and " big spring tide " , Burnell started the race at 1 : 30 p.m. After a level start , Oxford held a canvas @-@ length lead by the time the crews passed Craven Steps , but the Light Blues levelled the race using the advantage of the bend in the river at Craven Cottage . The crews passed the Mile Post level whereupon Oxford retook the lead , slightly out @-@ rating their opponents and passed below Hammersmith Bridge with a half @-@ length advantage . Nearly clear by The Doves pub , the Dark Blues ran into strong wind and rough water and Cambridge started to reduce their lead .
A lead of one @-@ third of a length at Chiswick Steps was soon overhauled by the Light Blues who were almost clear at Barnes Bridge . They rowed on to win " comfortably " by three lengths in a time of 20 minutes 14 seconds . It was Cambridge 's fourth consecutive victory and their eighth win in nine races , and took the overall record in the event to 40 – 38 in Oxford 's favour . Following the race , the tide was so high that spectators were forced to wade through water that was knee @-@ deep .
Oxford won the inaugural women 's race by 15 seconds despite not rowing together ; the crews were not permitted to compete side @-@ by @-@ side , that style of competition being considered " unladylike " .
= SMS Juan de Austria =
SMS Juan de Austria was the third member of the Kaiser Max class built for the Austrian Navy in the 1860s . Her keel was laid in October 1861 at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard ; she was launched in July 1862 , and was completed in 1863 . She carried her main battery — composed of sixteen 48 @-@ pounder guns and fifteen 24 @-@ pounders — in a traditional broadside arrangement , protected by an armored belt that was 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick .
Juan de Austria saw action at the Battle of Lissa in July 1866 . There she was heavily engaged in the center of the melee ; she traded broadsides with the Italian ironclad Re di Portogallo and was hit three times by the turret ship Affondatore , though she received little damage . After the war , Juan de Austria was modernized slightly in 1867 to correct her poor seakeeping and improve her armament , but she was nevertheless rapidly outpaced by naval developments in the 1860s and 1870s . Obsolescent by 1873 , Juan de Austria was officially " rebuilt " , though in actuality she was broken up for scrap , with only her armor plate , parts of her machinery , and other miscellaneous parts being reused in the new Don Juan d 'Austria .
= = Design = =
Juan de Austria was 70 @.@ 78 meters ( 232 ft 3 in ) long between perpendiculars ; she had a beam of 10 m ( 32 ft 10 in ) and an average draft of 6 @.@ 32 m ( 20 ft 9 in ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 588 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 531 long tons ; 3 @,@ 955 short tons ) . She had a crew of 386 . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller . The number and type of her coal @-@ fired boilers have not survived . Her engine produced a top speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) from 1 @,@ 900 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 400 kW ) . She could steam for about 1 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Juan de Austria was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of sixteen 48 @-@ pounder muzzle @-@ loading guns and fifteen 24 @-@ pounder 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . She also carried a single 12 @-@ pounder gun and a six @-@ pounder . The sides of ship 's hull were sheathed with wrought iron armor that was 110 mm ( 4 in ) thick and extended from bow to stern .
= = Service history = =
Juan de Austria was built by the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino ( STT ) shipyard . She was laid down in October 1861 , and her completed hull was launched on 26 July 1862 . Fitting @-@ out work was completed the following year and she was commissioned into the Austrian fleet . She proved to be very wet forward , owing to her open bow , and as a result , tended to handle poorly . In June 1866 , Italy declared war on Austria , as part of the Third Italian War of Independence , which was fought concurrently with the Austro @-@ Prussian War . Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on 27 June , in an attempt to draw out the Italians , but the Italian commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , refused to engage Tegetthoff .
= = = Battle of Lissa = = =
On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet , with twelve ironclads , out of Ancona , bound for the island of Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers . Persano then spent the next two days bombarding the Austrian defenses of the island and unsuccessfully attempting to force a landing . Tegetthoff received a series of telegrams between 17 and 19 July notifying him of the Italian attack , which he initially believed to be a feint to draw the Austrian fleet away from its main bases at Pola and Venice . By the morning of the 19th , however , he was convinced that Lissa was in fact the Italian objective , and so he requested permission to attack . As Tegetthoff 's fleet arrived off Lissa on the morning of 20 July , Persano 's fleet was arrayed for another landing attempt . The latter 's ships were divided into three groups , with only the first two able to concentrate in time to meet the Austrians . Tegetthoff had arranged his ironclad ships into a wedge @-@ shaped formation , with Juan de Austria on his right flank ; the wooden warships of the second and third divisions followed behind in the same formation .
While he was forming up his ships , Persano transferred from his flagship , Re d 'Italia , to the turret ship Affondatore . This created a gap in the Italian line , and Tegetthoff seized the opportunity to divide the Italian fleet and create a melee . He made a pass through the gap , but failed to ram any of the Italian ships , forcing him to turn around and make another attempt . Juan of Austria initially attempted to follow Tegetthoff 's flagship , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max , but quickly lost contact with her in the ensuing melee . Juan of Austria became surrounded by Italian vessels , prompting her sister Kaiser Max to come to her aid . Juan of Austria thereafter engaged Re di Portogallo for around half an hour before shifting targets back to Affondatore . The latter scored three hits on Juan of Austria 's unarmored bow , but they caused little damage . The first passed directly through the ship without exploding , the second struck the belt armor and failed to penetrate , and the third hit her quarter deck .
By this time , Re d 'Italia had been rammed and sunk and the coastal defense ship Palestro was burning badly , soon to be destroyed by a magazine explosion . Persano broke off the engagement , and though his ships still outnumbered the Austrians , he refused to counter @-@ attack with his badly demoralized forces . In addition , the fleet was low on coal and ammunition . The Italian fleet began to withdraw , followed by the Austrians ; Tegetthoff , having gotten the better of the action , kept his distance so as not to risk his success . As night began to fall , the opposing fleets disengaged completely , heading for Ancona and Pola , respectively .
= = = Later career = = =
After returning to Pola , Tegetthoff kept his fleet in the northern Adriatic , where it patrolled against a possible Italian attack . The Italian ships never came , and on 12 August , the two countries signed the Armistice of Cormons ; this ended the fighting and led to the Treaty of Vienna . Though Austria had defeated Italy at Lissa and on land at the Battle of Custoza , the Austrian army was decisively defeated by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz . As a result , Austria , which became Austria @-@ Hungary in the Ausgleich of 1867 , was forced to cede the city of Venice to Italy .
Juan de Austria was rebuilt in 1867 , particularly to correct her poor sea @-@ keeping . Her open bow was plated over and she was rearmed with twelve 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) muzzle @-@ loaders manufactured by Armstrong and two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 4 @-@ pounder guns . By 1873 , the ship was obsolescent and had a thoroughly @-@ rotted hull , so the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy decided to replace the ship . Parliamentary objection to granting funds for new ships forced the navy to resort to subterfuge to replace the ship . Reconstruction projects were routinely approved by the parliament , so the navy officially " rebuilt " Juan de Austria and her sister ships . In reality , only some parts of the engines , armor plate , and other miscellaneous parts were salvaged from the ships . Juan de Austria was dismantled at the STT shipyard beginning in December 1878 . The new ironclads were given the same names of the old vessels in an attempt to conceal the deception .
= Tropical Depression One ( 1988 ) =
Tropical Depression One was the wettest tropical cyclone in Cuba since Hurricane Flora of 1963 . The first tropical cyclone of the 1988 Atlantic hurricane season , the system developed on May 30 from an area of disturbed weather in the northwestern Caribbean Sea . The tropical depression headed northeastward , making landfall in La Habana Province , Cuba without intensifying . Crossing Cuba , the depression became very disorganized as it emerged into the Straits of Florida and degenerated into an open trough on June 2 . Although only a tropical depression , the system flooded central and western Cuba with over 40 inches ( 1000 mm ) of rain , causing 37 fatalities , damage to over 1 @,@ 000 houses , and the evacuation of about 65 @,@ 000 residents .
= = Meteorological history = =
On May 31 , Tropical Depression One developed in the western Caribbean Sea , a day before the start of the Atlantic hurricane season . The depression moved northeastward , passing just northwest of Isla de la Juventud before striking the Cuban mainland south of Havana . As it crossed the country , its strongest rainfall was east of the center , and the depression failed to intensify beyond winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . The National Hurricane Center never expected it to strengthen further , due to unfavorable wind shear . After a hurricane hunters flight could not detect a circulation , The depression degenerated into an open trough east of Florida on June 2 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
While crossing Cuba , the depression dropped heavy rainfall , affecting the provinces of Cienfuegos , Villa Clara , Sancti Spíritus , Camagüey , and Ciego de Ávila . The precipitation peaked at 40 @.@ 35 in ( 1 @,@ 025 mm ) in Cienfuegos Province , of which 34 @.@ 13 in ( 867 mm ) fell in one day . At the time , it was the second highest rainfall total in the country , only behind Hurricane Flora in 1963 , although Hurricane Dennis in 2005 later surpassed the depression . Rainfall reached 22 @.@ 76 in ( 578 mm ) in Cienfuegos and 21 @.@ 90 in ( 556 mm ) in Sancti Spíritus .
The heavy rainfall caused flooding in Camagüey that damaged about 5 @,@ 700 houses and destroyed 200 . The flooding also damaged 15 schools and hospitals , as well as several crop buildings . The floods left widespread areas without electricity or communications . Six bridges were destroyed in central and western Cuba , which , in addition to damaged roads and rail lines , severely disrupted the country 's transportation infrastructure . A total of 131 roads were unpassable due to the flooding , and 55 rail lines were damaged . The flood waters prompted officials to evacuate 65 @,@ 000 residents in low lying areas , including using helicopters and amphibious vehicles . A tornado was reported in the city of Camagüey , destroying five Soviet planes and several buildings . By the day after the depression dissipated , the Cuban government reported nine deaths , although the death toll was later finalized at 37 . The depression also killed thousands of livestock . Following the severe flooding , the Red Cross sent aid to the victims of Tropical Depression One in Cuba . The Red Cross had sent medical units , tents , blankets , and other necessary item to the victims by plane . Overall about 90 @,@ 000 people were affected .
With most of the rainfall occurring east of the center , the depression did not produce significant precipitation in Florida . Precipitation of around 1 in ( 25 mm ) spread across the Miami area , peaking at 3 @.@ 18 in ( 81 mm ) in Pompano Beach .
= Fallout Shelter =
Fallout Shelter is a free @-@ to @-@ play mobile simulation video game developed by Bethesda Game Studios , with assistance by Behaviour Interactive , and published by Bethesda Softworks . Part of the Fallout series , it was released worldwide for iOS devices in June 2015 , for Android devices in August 2015 , and for Microsoft Windows in July 2016 . The game tasks the player with building and managing their own Vault , a fallout shelter .
Upon release , Fallout Shelter received mostly positive reviews . Critics enjoyed the game 's extension of the Fallout universe , the core gameplay , and its visual style . Common criticisms included the game 's lack of depth , its use of unnecessary microtransactions , and its lack of an ending . The game grossed $ 5 @.@ 1 million in microtransaction sales in the first two weeks after its release .
= = Gameplay = =
In Fallout Shelter , players build and manage their own Vault as an overseer – the leader and coordinator of their vault . Players guide and direct the citizens of the Vault , and need to keep them happy through meeting their needs such as power , food , and water . They rescue dwellers from the wasteland and assign them to different resource @-@ generating buildings in the vault , using the SPECIAL statistics system from the other Fallout games . Each character 's SPECIAL profile affects their ability to generate different resources , and their statistics can be increased by training them in rooms devoted to each stat . The dwellers can level up over time , increasing their health , and can be given new items and weapons to help with various tasks . The number of dwellers can be increased by waiting for new dwellers from the wasteland to arrive , or by pairing a male and a female dweller in living quarters to produce babies .
Balancing resources such as food , water , and power is an important aspect of the game . Many different rooms can be built in the vault , providing different items or stat bonuses . Players are not required to spend money in order to accelerate long timers or processes , instead having the option to instantly complete tasks at the risk of catastrophic failures – such as fires or " radroach " infestations . Players are sometimes rewarded with lunchboxes that contain rewards , such as items or resources , which can
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actions were illegal ; the British government nevertheless determined to present the Ottomans with a fait accompli . On 3 August , the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire informed the government that Britain had seized the ships .
Reşadiye and Sultan Osman @-@ ı Evvel were then pressed into British service . Reşadiye was completed that month and commissioned as HMS Erin , with Sultan Osman @-@ ı Evvel entering service as HMS Agincourt . In September , Erin joined the 2nd Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet , where she served for the duration of the conflict . She took part in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May & 1 June 1916 . There , she was the fourth ship in the British line of battle , along with her three surviving King George V @-@ class half @-@ sisters . She did not fire her main battery during the battle , the only British capital ship not to do so during the engagement ; her secondary battery fired only six shells .
In 1917 , fire control directors were installed , and she received flying off platforms atop her forward superfiring and amidships turrets . After the end of the war , Erin was assigned to the Nore Reserve and served as its flagship . Her postwar career was cut short by the Washington Naval Treaty , signed in February 1922 , which mandated significant draw downs in naval strength for the signatories . The Royal Navy had originally intended to keep Erin as a training ship under the terms of the treaty , but a change of plans led to HMS Thunderer taking her place as the training ship , which meant that Erin had to be scrapped . The ship was sold for scrap in December 1922 , and subsequently broken up by the ship breaking firm Cox and Daniels , which finished scrapping Reşadiye in 1923 .
= Skåneland =
Skåneland ( Swedish ) or Skånelandene ( Danish ) is a region on the southern Scandinavian peninsula . It includes the Swedish provinces of Blekinge , Halland and Scania . The Danish island of Bornholm is sometimes also included . Skåneland has no official recognition or function and the term is not in common usage . Equivalent terms in English and Latin are " the Scanian provinces " and " Terrae Scaniae " respectively .
The provinces making up Skåneland were part Denmark from at least the 9th century , sometimes referred to as the " Eastern Provinces " ; since a 12th @-@ century civil war , Denmark has been a kingdom with a single king . The provinces were part of the territory ceded to Sweden in 1658 under the Treaty of Roskilde , but after an uprising on Bornholm , that island was returned to Denmark in 1660 , under the Treaty of Copenhagen . The last ( and thereby current ) peace treaty between Sweden and Denmark , of which Skåneland is a main issue , was signed on 3 July 1720 in Stockholm .
= = Etymology = =
The name Skåneland is first recorded in print in the year 1719 It is unclear what area is meant . Later ( 1751 ) Carl Linnaeus uses it , meaning the province of Scania . The modern use of the denomination as a short form for De skånska landskapen ( " The Scanian provinces " ) , for the combined area of the provinces of Blekinge , Halland and Scania , was launched by the Swedish historian and Scandinavist Martin Weibull in Samlingar till Skånes historia ( six volumes ) 1868 @-@ 73 in order to illuminate the common Danish history of Scania , Blekinge , and Halland .
The term is mostly used in historical contexts and not in daily speech . In Danish , Skånelandene is used more often . The terms have no political implications as the region is not a geopolitical entity but a cultural region , without officially established political borders . In some circumstances , the term Skåneland , as opposed to the terms Skånelandskapen and Skånelandene , can also be used as a figure of speech for the province Scania .
Weibull used the term as a combined term for the four provinces where the Scanian Law had its jurisdiction , as well as the area of the archdiocese of Lund until the Reformation in 1536 , later the Danish Lutheran diocese of Lund . This form of Skåneland was then used in the regional historical periodical Historisk tidskrift för Skåneland , beginning in 1901 , published by Martin 's son , Lauritz Weibull .
= = Administration = =
An earlier administrative and political function of the area was to serve as a core area for one of the three provincial things that together elected the king of Denmark . The first Danish administrative sub @-@ divisioning occurred as part of the centralization process , when the area became divided into administrative units called hundreds ( herreder in Danish ) . The hundreds were possibly based on older , already existing units , but the establishment of the new form of hundreds was prompted by an increase in royal power during the High Middle Ages . These differed from the provincial thing areas in that they were not local communities joined under a governing assembly but top @-@ down regional divisions established to ensure royal authority . These medieval Danish hundreds were used to implement military obligations and to expedite the collection of renders due to the king in the provinces . They were first established in Jutland , where they replaced previous administrative units called syssel . According to some scholars , they were introduced in Skåneland possibly as early as the 11th century .
In the 13th century , a new fiscal system was introduced and the hundreds were gradually included into larger administrative units called len , with a castle serving as the administrative center . This new administrative development was a result of the increased power of the aristocracy . In each len , a noble man was put in charge , with the title lensmand .
Each of the four provinces of Skåneland had representation in the Scanian Thing , which , along with the other two Things of the Danish state ( Jutland and Zealand ) , elected the Danish king .
The four Scanian provinces were joined under the jurisdiction of the Scanian Law , dated 1200 – 1216 , the oldest Nordic provincial law . In the chapter " Constitutional history " in Danish Medieval History , New Currents , the three provincial Things are described as being the legal authority that instituted changes suggested by the elected king . The suggestions for changes submitted by the king had to be approved by the three Things before being passed into law in the Danish state .
= = = Status today = = =
Skåneland is strictly a historic and cultural region . The name has long appeared as a term used in historical contexts in a variety of sources . The southern part of Sweden , including Skåneland , is considered to be included in Götaland , one of three historic " lands of Sweden " . The " land " Götaland bears the same name used for the historic province Götaland ( a province referred to as " Gothia " on the 17th @-@ century maps ) ; the inclusion of Skåneland is described as " historically inaccurate " by the Swedish Nationalencyklopedin .
As in other cultural regions , regionalism in Scania sometimes has a base in regional nationalism and sometimes in a more general opposition against centralized state nationalism or expansionist nationalism . As noted about regionalism in Norway , Scandinavian regionalism is not necessarily separatist .
= = = Modern usage = = =
There are a number of minor organisations promoting the use of the term , mainly active online , e.g. Föreningen Skånelands Framtid or Skåneländsk Samling , Skåneland Football Federation and Stiftelsen Skåneländska Flaggans Dag .
The private foundation Stiftelsen Skånsk Framtid ( " foundation for a Scanian future " ) . was a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization ( UNPO ) 1993 @-@ 2011 , representing Skåneland under the name of Scania .
= = History = =
= = = Population and settlements = = =
The earliest Danish historians , writing in the 12th and 13th century , believed that the Danish Kingdom had existed since king Dan , in a distant past . Eighth century sources mention the existence of Denmark as a kingdom . According to 9th century Frankish sources , by the early 9th century many of the chieftains in the south of Scandinavia acknowledged Danish kings as their overlords , though kingdom ( s ) were very loose confederations of lords until the last couple medieval centuries saw some increased centralization . The west and south coast of modern Sweden was so effectively part of the Danish realm that the said area ( and not the today Denmark ) was known as " Denmark " ( literally the frontier of the Daner ) . Svend Estridsen ( King of Denmark 1047 – ca . 1074 ) , who may have been from Scania himself , is often referred to as the king who along with his dynasty established Scania as an integral , and sometimes the more important , part of Denmark .
= = = From 1397 to 1658 = = =
When the Kalmar Union was formed in 1397 , the union was administered from Copenhagen . By 1471 Sweden rebelled under Sture family leadership . In 1503 , when Sten Sture the Elder died , eastern Sweden ’ s independence from Denmark had been established .
In 1600 Denmark controlled virtually all land bordering on Skagerrak , Kattegat , and the Sound . The current Swedish provinces of Skåne , Blekinge and Halland were Danish and the province of Båhuslen was Norwegian . Skåneland became the site of harsh fighting , especially in the 16th , 17th and 18th century , as Denmark and Sweden confronted each other for control of the Baltic .
Sweden intervened in the Danish civil war known as the Count 's Feud ( 1534 – 1536 ) , launching a highly destructive invasion of Skåneland as the ally of later king Christian III , who upon his coronation introduced Protestantism to the provinces . Subsequently , in the period between the breakup of the Kalmar Union and 1814 , Denmark and Sweden fought in Skåneland in 11 separate wars and other border provinces : the Northern Seven Years ' War ( 1563 – 70 ) , Kalmar War ( 1611 – 1613 ) , Torstenson War ( 1644 – 1645 ) , Second Northern War ( 1657 – 1658 and 1659 – 1660 ) , Scanian War ( 1674 – 1678 ) , Great Northern War ( 1700 and 1709 – 1720 ) , Theater War ( 1788 ) , and the Napoleonic Wars ( 1808 – 1809 and 1814 ) .
During the Northern Seven Years ' War , attacks were launched on Sweden from Danish Halland in 1563 , and Swedish counterattacks were launched against Danish provinces of Halland and Skåne in 1565 and 1569 . In 1570 peace was finally agreed when the Swedish king withdrew the claims to Danish Skåne , Halland , Blekinge and Gotland , while the Danes withdrew their claims to Sweden as a whole .
During the Torstenson War , a theater of the Thirty Years ' War , extensive combat took place in the Danish provinces of Skåne , Halland , and Blekinge . By the Second Treaty of Brömsebro ( 1645 ) Denmark ceded the Norwegian provinces of Jämtland and Härjedalen and agreed Sweden was to occupy the Danish province of Halland for 30 years as a guarantee of the treaty provisions .
During the Second Northern War ( 1655 – 1658 ) , Danish attempts to recover control of Halland ended in a serious defeat administered by Sweden . As a result , in the Treaty of Roskilde ( 1658 ) , which was largely confirmed by the Treaty of Copenhagen ( 1660 ) , Denmark ceded the provinces of Skåne , Blekinge and Halland ( i.e. , Skåneland ) .
Vilhelm Moberg , in his history of the Swedish people , provides a thoughtful discussion of the atrocities which were committed by both sides in the struggle over the border provinces , and identified them as the source of propaganda to inflame the peoples ' passions to continue the struggle . These lopsided representations were incorporated into history text books on the respective sides . As an example , Moberg compares the history texts he grew up with in Sweden which represented the Swedish soldier as ever pure and honorable to a letter written by Gustavus Adolphus celebrating the 24 Scanian parishes he had helped level by fire , with the troops encouraged to rape and murder the population at will , behavior that may well have been mirrored equally on the Danish side . Skåneland was a rather unpleasant place to dwell for an extended period .
= = = Assimilation with Sweden = = =
Following the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658 – but in direct contradiction of its terms – the Swedish government in 1683 demanded that the leading social groups of Skåneland accept Swedish customs and laws . Swedish became the only language permitted in Church liturgy and in schools , religious literature in Danish was banned , and all appointed politicians and priests were required to be Swedish . However the last Danish bishop , Peder Winstrup remained in charge of the Diocese of Lund until his death in 1679 . To promote further Swedish assimilation , the University of Lund was inaugurated in 1666 ; the inhabitants of Scania were not allowed to enroll in Copenhagen University until the 19th century .
The population initially opposed the Swedish reforms , as can be ascertained from church records and court transcripts . The Swedes did encounter civil revolts in many areas , including the Göinge district , in dense forest regions of northern Scania . The Swedish authorities resorted to extreme measures against the 17th @-@ century rebels who were described as snapphanar , a term used for raiding enemy soldiers or bandits .. The punishments included the use of impalement breaking on the wheel , as well as the nailing of bodies to church doors . In that way , it could take four to five days before the victim died .
The transformation of age @-@ old customs , commerce and administration to the Swedish model could not be effected quickly or easily . In the first fifty years of the transition , the treatment of the population was quite harsh . Denmark made several attempts to recapture the territories , the last in 1710 , but ultimately conceded the territories as lost .
Before 1658 , one of the provinces of Skåneland , Scania proper , had consisted of four counties : the counties of Malmøhus , Landskrone , Helsingborg and Christianstad . When Skåneland was annexed by Sweden , one of the counties of Scania , Kristianstad County , was merged with Blekinge to form one of a total of three Blekinge counties .
= = = Bornholm rebellion = = =
In 1658 , shortly after the Swedish general Printzenskiöld was sent to Bornholm to start the assimilation process , the population of Bornholm rebelled . Led by Jens Kofoed and Poul Anker , the rebellion formed in the town of Hasle , north of the largest city , Rønne . Before the rebel army reached the Swedish headquarters in Rønne , Printzenskiold was shot by Willum Clausen in the street of Sølvgade , in central Rønne . The Swedish fled the island as a result of the confusion and fear amongst the conscripts ; Jens Kofoed installed an intermediate rule and sent a message to King Frederick III of Denmark that Bornholm had liberated itself , and wished to return to Danish rule . This was confirmed in the 1660 peace settlement between Denmark and Sweden .
= = = Klågerup riots in 1811 = = =
The last Swedish assault on the civilian population occurred as late as 15 . June 1811 , when Swedish military killed " around 30 " and wounded " around 60 " peasants in Klågerup . The Swedish army units also arrested 395 people of which 2 became beheaded at " Stortorget " ( a square ) in Malmö at 4 . November 1811
= = = Swedish administration = = =
Sweden appointed a Governor General , who in addition to having the highest authority of the government , also was the highest military officer . The first to hold the post of Governor General was Gustaf Otto Stenbock , between 1658 to 1664 . His residence was in the largest city , Malmö .
The office of Governor General was abandoned in 1669 , deemed unnecessary . However , when the Scanian War erupted in 1675 , the office was reinstated , and Fabian von Fersen held the office between 1675 to 1677 , when he died in the defence of Malmö .
He was replaced by Rutger von Ascheberg , in 1680 , who held it to his death in 1693 . It was during Ascheberg 's time in office that the stricter policy of Swedification was initiated , as a reaction to the threats of war and possible Danish repossession .
Following the death of Ascheberg , the Governor Generalship was dismantled into a separate county governor for each of the Swedish provinces Blekinge , Halland and Scania . However , a Governor Generalship was reinstated in the province of Scania during the Napoleonic War , when Johan Christopher Toll became the last Governor @-@ General in the region , a post he held 1801 – 09 .
= = = Recent history = = =
The complete history of Skåneland was not taught for a long time in schools in Skåneland , especially during periods with the immediate threat of revolt . Instead a Swedish @-@ centric history was taught , and the Scanian history before 1658 , for instance concerning the list of monarchs , was disregarded as a component of Danish history . In reaction , a movement began in the late 19th century to revive awareness of the history and culture of Skåneland . The renewed focus resulted in the publication of several books about Scanian history .
= Live Intrusion =
Live Intrusion is a home video by Slayer which was released in 1995 through American Recordings and filmed at the Mesa Amphitheater in Mesa , Arizona on March 12 , 1995 . The video features a cover of the Venom song " Witching Hour " performed by Slayer with assistance from Chris Kontos and Robb Flynn of Machine Head . It was reissued on DVD on August 17 , 2010 . Live Intrusion received positive reception from the few critics that reviewed the video .
= = Conception = =
Live Intrusion was filmed at the Mesa Amphitheatre in Mesa , Arizona , on March 12 , 1995 while promoting Divine Intervention on tour . The Machine Head members Chris Kontos and Robb Flynn gave assistance to the band while performing " Witching Hour " , originally recorded by Venom in 1981 . The video was released as a VHS ( Video High Standard ) through American Recordings on October 31 , 1995 . The video features live footage of Slayer and exclusive unseen footage of Slayer on and off the road . The beginning of the video features a portrait of some of Slayer fans , including a picture from the mid @-@ 1990s , about a fan , who had " Slayer " carved onto their forearm . It was directed and produced by Phil Tuckett , with the audio recorded by Sylvia Massy . On August 17 , 2010 , Live Intrusion was remastered and released as a DVD ( Digital Video Disc ) . It was created using the original VHS master and edited the footage with newer technology . The DVD was sold at retail and online for ( USD ) $ 13 @.@ 98 . The DVD was also released in the Slayer Live DVD 3 @-@ Pak , also released on August 17 , 2010 . It was sold for ( USD ) $ 29 @.@ 98 .
= = Critical reception = =
Chris Beaumont of Blogcritics recommended the DVD to consumers , giving it three and a half out of five stars . He noted that the audio quality was " pretty strong , " and allows listeners to clearly hear every chord , note , and word that the band outputs , while the crowd noise proves that it is a live video , but is not so loud that it distracts viewers . Beamount also said that the video 's quality " lacks a lot of the polish that more recent recordings have , " but he later said that he would rather see it in low quality rather than high quality . Chad Bowar of About.com also gave the DVD three and a half out of five stars . He noted that the video is in decent quality , but , due to poor lighting and shaky camera work , he considered the DVD to be " marginal . "
= = Track listing = =
" Raining Blood " ( Hanneman , King ) — 4 : 23
" Killing Fields " ( Araya , King ) — 3 : 56
" War Ensemble " ( Araya , Hanneman ) — 4 : 51
" At Dawn They Sleep " ( Araya , Hanneman , King ) — 5 : 03
" Divine Intervention " ( Araya , Bostaph , Hanneman , King ) — 5 : 33
" Dittohead " ( King ) — 2 : 50
" Captor of Sin " ( Hanneman , King ) — 3 : 21
" 213 " ( Araya , Hanneman ) — 4 : 51
" South of Heaven " ( Araya , Hanneman ) — 4 : 58
" Sex . Murder . Art . " ( Araya , King ) — 1 : 50
" Mandatory Suicide " ( Araya , Hanneman , King ) — 4 : 03
" Angel of Death " ( Hanneman ) — 4 : 50
" Hell Awaits " ( Hanneman , King ) — 4 : 53
" Witching Hour " ( Venom cover ) — 2 : 54
" Chemical Warfare " ( Hanneman , King ) — 5 : 17
Source : Setlist.fm
= = Personnel = =
Source : both Allmusic and the video 's notes .
= I Could Fall in Love =
" I Could Fall in Love " is a song recorded by American Tejano singer Selena for her fifth studio album , Dreaming of You ( 1995 ) , released posthumously by EMI Latin on June 26 , 1995 . " I Could Fall in Love " and " Tú Sólo Tú " were the album 's lead promotional recordings , showcasing her musical transition from Spanish- to English @-@ language songs . The lyrics explore feelings of heartbreak and despair and express the singer 's fear of rejection by a man she finds herself falling in love with . Composed by Keith Thomas , " I Could Fall in Love " is a pop ballad with R & B , soul and soft rock influences .
Critics praised Selena 's emotive enunciation and compared it to work by Celine Dion , Brandy Norwood and TLC . It received the Tejano Music Award for the Tejano Crossover Song of the Year , and the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized it at the ASCAP Pop Music Awards as one of the most performed songs of 1995 . Because of the recording 's composition structure and the singer 's vocalization , OC Weekly , BuzzFeed , Neon Tommy , and Latina magazine , believed " I Could Fall in Love " was one of the best songs recorded by Selena in her musical career .
The track was not released as a commercial single in the United States , where it was feared that it might sell more copies than the album itself . " I Could Fall in Love " peaked at number eight on the US Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart , and at number one on the Canadian RPM Adult Contemporary and US Billboard Latin Pop Airplay charts . It reached the top ten on the singles charts of Canada and New Zealand . It became the most played song in Kansas City , Miami , and Boston and the second most played in Los Angeles .
The accompanying music video , directed by Hector Galan , featured a montage of pictures and videos of live performances of Selena , which had been collected by her family . It , too , was released posthumously , and it received a Music Video of the Year nomination at the 1996 Tejano Music Awards . " I Could Fall in Love " became one of Selena 's most famous and recognizable recordings , and in the 1990s it became a popular wedding song . Cover versions include recordings by Adrienne Bailon , Jennifer Lopez , Gloria Estefan , Lisa Leuschner , Solange Knowles and Ali @-@ Ollie Woodson .
= = Background and release = =
Before Selena signed a recording contract in 1989 with EMI Latin , she had hinted that she wanted to start recording in English . She was asked to make three demonstration recordings for Charles Koppelman , chairman of EMI Records . After reviewing them , Koppelman declined a crossover attempt , believing that Selena should first strengthen her fan base . Later , after releasing five Spanish @-@ language albums that all achieved unprecedented milestones in the Latin music industry , Koppelman considered that Selena had reached her peak in the Spanish market , and he began preparations for a crossover album .
Selena and her record @-@ producer brother A.B. Quintanilla III arrived in Nashville , Tennessee , intending to collaborate with producer @-@ songwriter Keith Thomas . Thomas had prepared the instrumental parts for " I Could Fall in Love " but had not had time to complete the vocal parts , so he sang it for them . Selena and A.B. immediately liked it , and A.B. said that he wanted Selena to include it in her album . She recorded it in December 1994 at The Bennett House in Franklin , Tennessee , and Bill Whittington mixed it with assistance from Mike Corbett and Todd Moore . Although Selena had to return later when Thomas was able to provide additional vocals , Selena 's husband Chris Perez , who had overseen the recording sessions , said that the recording was completed on March 25 , 1995 .
On March 31 , 1995 Selena was murdered in Corpus Christi , Texas , by her friend and former employee Yolanda Saldívar . Thomas later announced that he had been working on another track for Selena to record , telling Biography that the track remained unfinished . " I Could Fall in Love " was released as the lead promotional recording for the 1995 album Dreaming of You on June 26 , 1995 , at the same time as " Tú Sólo Tú " , to demonstrate Selena 's transition from Spanish- to English @-@ language recordings . " I Could Fall in Love " debuted on US radios on June 15 , 1995 to contemporary hit radios , Top 40 , and rhythmic contemporary airplay , while " Tú Sólo Tú " targeted Latin music radios such as Tejano , Latin pop , and regional Mexican airplay . An editor from the Arizona Daily Star believed " I Could Fall in Love " was targeted more towards adult contemporary radios than R & B and top 40 radio formats that were successful for Gloria Estefan .
" I Could Fall in Love " was released as a maxi single on June 26 , 1995 in Australia and Mexico and on 10 August 1995 in Germany . A maxi single featuring " Dreaming of You " and " Sukiyaki " was released in Japan . " Tú Sólo Tú " was released primarily to Spanish @-@ speaking countries . Fred Bronson of Billboard commented that if EMI Latin had released " I Could Fall in Love " as a single and it had debuted in the top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100 chart , then it would have been the first posthumous debut single to do so since " Pledging My Love " by Johnny Ace in 1955 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" I Could Fall in Love " is a mid @-@ tempo pop ballad and R & B song with soul and soft rock influences . Mario Tarradell , an editorial writer for The Dallas Morning News , called the song a " mundane ballad " . It is set in common time and employs an electronic piano , drum machine , a violin , and a flute in the background . The instrumentation includes bass drum , keyboard , flamenco guitar , Spanish guitar , and synthesizers . " I Could Fall in Love " is written in the key of E major , to be played in a moderate groove at 78 half notes per minute . The vocal range of the melody extends from the note F ♯ 3 to A4 . Sandy Masuo of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch wrote , " These songs [ " I Could Fall in Love " , " I 'm Getting Used to You " and " Captive Heart " ] were to be her armaments in the crossover war and , sure enough , they 're catchy , state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art pop / R & B – but , despite the sublime melody of " I Could Fall in Love " , strikingly anonymous . " An editor from the Contra Costa Times called the song a " jazzy ballad " . Donny Brusca 's book BPM List 2006 : Main Edition classified it as " light @-@ adult contemporary " . Andrew Griffin of The Town Talk called it a " Tex @-@ Mex ( Texas @-@ Mexico ) pop " song .
" I Could Fall in Love " is similar to " Dreaming of You " in its lyrics . Many media outlets , including the Milwaukee Journal and Billboard magazine , called them " confessional ballads " , with an emotionally vulnerable narrator who wants true love but finds it unattainable . Tarradell believed " I Could Fall in Love " was an indirect response to Selena 's father and manager Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . , who forced her and Perez to end their relationship just because Perez was a rocker . Tarradell asserted that the words " I know it 's not right but I guess I should try to do what I should do " were directed at Abraham and reflected Selena 's realization of her independence . Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express @-@ News believed that Selena 's 1992 song " Missing My Baby " shared similarities with " I Could Fall in Love " in expressing uncontrollable " adrenalin @-@ fueled love " . Burr later wrote that the difference in " I Could Fall in Love " is that the lyrics are recorded with " powerful agony " which forces the narrator to " fall into a phase of deep loneliness " because her lover may or may not reciprocate her feelings .
The first verse of " I Could Fall in Love " implores the object of the singer 's desire to walk away , because her emotions are too overpowering and she feels love of unprecedented intensity . She fears that by allowing him to stay attached , she may " lose control " . Selena believes that her infatuation can lead to romantic love . She then sings " I could fall in love ( in love ) with you " before wondering how she would feel if she were to touch him for the first time . The fear of being rejected and unloved leads her to keep her feelings to herself , and she begins to believe that her love is " not right " . She continues , " and I guess I should try / to do what I should do / but I could fall in love / fall in love with you " . During the midpoint break , Selena sings in Spanish that she is always dreaming about him , imagining that he loves her . She sings the chorus twice before the song comes to an end without her ever having come to terms with her loved one .
= = Critical reception = =
" I Could Fall in Love " received a generally positive response from music critics , who commented on its similarities to songs recorded by other artists . Ed Morales of Vibe magazine felt that , because of its syncopated drums , " I Could Fall in Love " had a " Jon Secada @-@ like feel " , and it reminded Tarradell of songs recorded by American singer Brandy Norwood and by the trio TLC . An editor from the Star @-@ News thought the song had " a whiff of " Celine Dion . James Hunter , also from Vibe , praised Selena 's astute interpretation , calling it a " masterpiece " and commenting that Selena 's death made the track more difficult to listen to . Larry Flick of Billboard described " I Could Fall in Love " as an " optimistic love song " that left " melancholy thoughts of what might have been " in the mind of the listener . John Lannert , also from Billboard , conceived " I Could Fall in Love " as a " sensuous narrative " recording and a " seductive romantic confessional " . Tarradell , writing in The Beaver County Times , called it a " crossover staple " .
Mary Talbot of the New York Daily News , praised Selena 's " soft , velvety voice " . A San Jose Mercury News reporter wrote that " I Could Fall in Love " and " Dreaming of You " helped Selena to become " the new Gloria Estefan " . Richard Torres of Newsday considered both these songs to be romantic anthems . Enrique Fernandez of the Sun Sentinel described " I Could Fall in Love " as " beautiful " , while an editor from The Sacramento Bee called the song a " Latin @-@ influenced R & B lite " . Because of its " overly simplistic and repetitive lyrics " , Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express @-@ News assessed " I Could Fall in Love " as the " weakest track " of Dreaming of You .
Elizabeth Rodriguez Kessler and Anne Perrin wrote in their 2007 book Chican @ s in the Conversations that " I Could Fall in Love " was a " clean pop offering " . Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle commented in 2008 that it had " made the Tejano goddess a posthumous crossover star " . On 31 March 2010 , Teresa Jusino of Popmatters expressed the view that English @-@ speaking music
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fans no longer remember Selena 's name , saying that on playing " Dreaming of You " or " I Could Fall in Love " , many would say " I remember that song ! " or " I love that one ! " . Randi Bergman of Fashion magazine , called the number an " epic ballad " .
= = Recognition and accolades = =
" I Could Fall in Love " was nominated for " Song of the Year " at the 1996 Tejano Music Awards , and won the Tejano Crossover Songs of the Year . The American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized it as one of the most performed songs of 1995 at the 4th ASCAP Pop Music Awards . Marco Torres of OC Weekly , called the song " so sweet , so loving , so absolutely , amazingly , and astonishingly adorable ! " and placed it at number seven on his " Top 10 Selena songs of All time " list . Brian Galindo of BuzzFeed believed the " melancholy ballad is another great example of Selena 's ability bring an emotional vulnerability to her songs . " and placed " I Could Fall in Love " at number five on his list of " The 15 Greatest Selena Songs of All Time " . Latina magazine placed " I Could Fall in Love " at number three on their " Remembering Selena : Her Top Ten Songs " list . Ashley Velez of Neon Tommy commented that " Selena lends her vulnerability to this slow ballad " and that it " displays Selena 's talented vocals and helped introduce the singer to the American mainstream . " Velez then ranked the recording number two on her list of the " Top 5 Selena Songs " .
= = Chart performance = =
Davitt Sigerson , the president and CEO of EMI records , feared that " I Could Fall in Love " might sell more copies than the album itself , so he did not issue the single as a commercial release . Therefore , it was not eligible for the Billboard Hot 100 chart . " I Could Fall in Love " debuted at number four on the Hot Latin Tracks chart on 1 July 1995 and peaked at number two the following week , becoming the highest @-@ ever English @-@ language song on that chart . " Tú Sólo Tú " and " I Could Fall in Love " occupied the first and second positions respectively on Hot Latin Tracks for five consecutive weeks . Selena thus became the first artist to place both a Spanish- and an English @-@ language song in the top ten of the Hot Latin Tracks chart . " I Could Fall in Love " became the fifth best @-@ charting song from that chart in 1995 and remained the highest @-@ charting English @-@ language song for two years , until Celine Dion 's 1998 single " My Heart Will Go On " surpassed it when it peaked at number one .
On the Regional Mexican Songs chart , the track reached number five for two consecutive weeks from 1 July 1995 , and it peaked at number one on the Latin Pop Airplay chart of 19 August 1995 for one week . Entering at number 13 on the Latin Tropical / Salsa Airplay chart of 15 July 1995 , the song peaked at number four there five weeks later , on 26 August 1995 . " I Could Fall in Love " debuted at number 46 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart issue dated 8 July 1995 and peaked eight weeks later at number 8 on 2 September 1995 . By entering the Adult Contemporary Tracks chart at number 37 on 29 July 1995 , the recording received a " Hot Shot Debut " as the highest debut of the week . It ran at number 14 for three consecutive weeks starting on 21 October 1995 .
" I Could Fall in Love " peaked at number 17 on the Adult Top 40 chart and number three on the Hot 100 Recurrent Airplay chart on 23 December 1995 . The performance entered the Hot Adult Contemporary Recurrent chart on 27 January 1996 at number six and achieved the same on the Rhythmic Top 40 . Number 15 was its highest position on the Mainstream Top 40 chart . In New Zealand , " I Could Fall in Love " debuted at number 36 on the New Zealand Top 40 chart on 10 October 1995 and peaked at number ten in the week ending 19 November 1995 , its fifth week on the chart . In Canada , " I Could Fall in Love " debuted at number 55 on the RPM Adult Contemporary chart of 24 July 1995 . By 6 November 1995 it was number one . On 21 August 1995 it entered at number 94 on the RPM Top Singles chart , and in October , after eleven weeks , it reached number ten for two consecutive weeks .
= = Music video = =
Directed by Hector Galan , the song 's accompanying music video featured a montage of pictures and videos of live performances by Selena that had been collected by her family . It was released posthumously and received a Music Video of the Year nomination at the 1996 Tejano Music Awards . This promotional video reached number 11 on the Billboard Video Monitor VH1 Top Music Videos list , number 6 on The BOX Video List , number 10 on the MOR Music list , and number 3 on the California Music Channel ( CMC ) list of most popular music videos .
= = Cultural impact = =
" I Could Fall in Love " dominated the Top 40 radio stations , a fact that was well received by critics . The song was given heavy rotation in the southern United States , becoming the most played song in Kansas City , Miami , and Boston and the second most played in Los Angeles . In Tucson , Arizona , it was played every 2 ½ hours , and in San Antonio every hour . The song was played 25 times its first day of availability on US radios on the Harrington , Texas radio station KBTQ . It helped increase Selena 's catalogue sales and simultaneously boosted media attention . The song 's release sparked a two @-@ day " on @-@ air blitz " on radios in South Texas . In Riverside , California , program directors reported that " I Could Fall in Love " was one of the three hits they were playing most often on their radio stations . A San Antonio disc jockey told The Victoria Advocate about the overwhelming response received from the English @-@ speaking audience , who were constantly calling her radio station asking for " I Could Fall in Love " .
" Dreaming of You " and " I Could Fall in Love " were EMI Records ' top selling digital downloads from 1 April 2004 to 31 March 2005 . " I Could Fall in Love " became one of Selena 's most widely recognized recordings . It rapidly became popular as a wedding song , causing it to become one of Selena 's most famous songs . Her English @-@ speaking audience increased substantially as a result of its widespread popularity . Amanda Edwards of Voxxi.com called it " one of the most popular Latin love songs of all time " , adding that , " from her sweet voice to the genuine sentiment of the song ( with a hint of sexiness if you 're listening carefully ) , we 're sold on this track being a solid standby any time of year but especially for someone hoping for romance on Valentine 's Day " . A ten @-@ second instrumental of the recording was featured on the 4 February 1998 episode of Dexter 's Laboratory .
= = = Covers = = =
A number of singers have adapted the song in a variety of genres . Puerto Rican @-@ American singer and actress Jennifer Lopez lip @-@ synced the track for her portrayal of the title role in the 1997 biographical film Selena , which was praised by critics . Reviewing the film 's opening , a Wichita Eagle writer described the song as " hauntingly lovely " and said that it expressed the feelings of Selena 's fans . Lopez included " I Could Fall in Love " in the set list for her Lets Get Loud Tour in 2001 at the Roberto Clemente Coliseum in San Juan , Puerto Rico , and on 11 February 2003 she included the song in her live video album Jennifer Lopez : Let 's Get Loud . Cuban singer Gloria Estefan performed a cover version during the Selena ¡ VIVE ! concert in 2005 ; Tarradell commented in The Dallas Morning News that it had been a " lovely rendition " . Puerto Rican singer Ana recorded the song for her album Amor Latino . The Korean singer Im Tae Kyung performed a slower pop ballad version that incorporates a guitar as its musical foundation . A reggae @-@ inspired version of the song appeared on Fiona 's Best of Sweet Love .
Season three American Idol contestant Lisa Leuschner included the song in her album Reality . In Kumbia Kings ' third compilation album Duetos ( 2005 ) , Selena 's brother A.B. Quintanilla III recorded " I Could Fall in Love " as a Spanglish duet with Selena . For the album Familia RMM Recordando a Selena , recorded by various artists in 1996 , Los Jovenes Del Barrio performed a cover of the song . Season 10 American Idol contestant Karen Rodriguez performed " I Could Fall in Love " during the " top 13 " episode , receiving unfavorable reviews from critics who considered the song too powerful for her . However , The Washington Post contributor Derrik Lang called Rodriguez ' cover a " breathy redemption " . American Idol alumna Katie Stevens wrote to The Hollywood Reporter , claiming that the judges on the show had judged Rodriguez too harshly and calling Rodriguez the " new Selena " . Rodriguez recorded a studio version of " I Could Fall in Love " in 2011 for her debut album , which was produced by Jim Jonsin .
Solange Knowles included the song in the set list for her 2013 world tour , which has received praise from music critics . Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle wrote that Knowles had " put a lovely , downtempo twist on ' I Could Fall in Love ' " . Michael O 'Connell of the Hollywood Reporter called Knowles ' rendition a " fangirl cover " . Writing in the San Francisco Weekly , Erin Browner considered Knowles ' cover the " highlight of the night " when she performed it at the start of her US tour . Browner commented that the " combination of sexy Solange and Selena 's epic love song was almost too much for the audience to handle " and that " people immediately whipped out their phones to record ( yep , it 's already on YouTube ) and / or just plain cried the lyrics along with her " . On 29 March 2015 , Filipino singers Angeline Quinto , Yeng Constantino , and Juris Fernandez performed " I Could Fall in Love " for the variety show ASAP . American singer Adrienne Bailon performed " I Could Fall in Love " after a six @-@ year departure from the music business , during the March 31 , 2015 episode of The Real ; a talk show she currently hosts .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Dreaming of You album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release and radio history = =
= = Books = =
Cox , Bill ; Franz , Janie ( 2001 ) . The Ultimate Wedding Reception Book . Bill Cox. p . 120 . ISBN 0 @-@ 9715082 @-@ 0 @-@ 8
Brusca , Donny ( 2006 ) . Bpm List 2006 : Main Edition . Lulu. p . 700 . ISBN 1 @-@ 84728 @-@ 860 @-@ X
Espinosa , Gastón ; García , Mario T. ( 2008 ) . Mexican American religions : spirituality , activism , and culture . Duke University Press. p . 443 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8223 @-@ 4119 @-@ 0
Kessler , Elizabeth Rodriguez ; Perrin , Anne ( 2007 ) . Chican @ s in the Conversations . Pearson Longman. p . 242 . ISBN 0 @-@ 321 @-@ 39417 @-@ 8
Stuessy , Joe ; Lipscomb , Scott David ( 2009 ) . Rock and roll : its history and stylistic development ( 6th ed . ) . Pearson Prentice Hall. p . 412 . ISBN 0 @-@ 13 @-@ 601068 @-@ 7
Whitburn , Joel ( 2010 ) . The Billboard book of top 40 hits ( 9th ed . ) . Billboard Books. p . 900 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8230 @-@ 8554 @-@ 6
= LG Mobile World Cup =
The LG Mobile World Cup was an international competition held on January 14 , 2010 by LG Electronics in which participants competed using their texting speed and accuracy . It was held at Gotham Hall in New York City . Thirteen teams representing their countries competed for a total of $ 130 @,@ 000 USD in prize money .
= = Format = =
Teams consist of two members . One member competes using a QWERTY keyboard , while the other member uses a numeric keypad . Thirteen countries participated in the 2010 competition : Argentina , Australia , Brazil , Canada , Indonesia , Mexico , New Zealand , Portugal , Russia , South Africa , South Korea , Spain , and the United States .
Previously , LG hosted texting competitions in individual countries such as the United States and South Korea . The United States had competitions for 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 . South Korea had competitions in 2008 and 2009 . However , 2010 was the first year when countries competed against each other .
= = = Qualification = = =
Teams earned the right to participate in regional qualifiers . Over six million people registered to compete in the tournament . Each team participated in five separate events : " break the wall " , " monster popping " , " moving pillar " , " running relay " , and " racing replay " . The basic premise was to copy a scrolling piece of text as quickly as possible . No errors were allowed in transcription . All of the text messages were in the native language of the participants , but had the same number of characters in order to ensure fairness . Additionally , all participants had to use the LG enV3 , LG BL20 or LG GW520
= = Results = =
Ha Mok @-@ min , aged 16 , and her partner , 17 @-@ year @-@ old Bae Yeong @-@ ho , won first prize in the competition . Mok @-@ min won the national championship , and was able to text at an average of 7 @.@ 25 characters per second . She signed up for the competition when she noticed a kiosk in the mall , and saw the opportunity to win free movie tickets . Yeong @-@ ho , a high school dropout , signed up in order to obtain money to buy a new car . The second @-@ place finishers were Kate Moore and Morgan Dynda from the United States . The third place team was from Argentina .
The prizes were set at US $ 100 @,@ 000 per pair for first place , $ 20 @,@ 000 per pair for second place and $ 10 @,@ 000 per pair for third place .
= = Records = =
A side competition was offered to see who could beat the Guinness Book of World Records record for fastest text message sent . This record was broken by Pedro Matias from Portugal . He typed a 264 @-@ character text message in 1 : 59 . The records for fastest keystrokes per minute on a numeric keyboard was set by Indonesia at 306 , while the most keystrokes per minute record on a QWERTY keyboard was set by South Korea at 357 .
= Vanessa Rousso =
Vanessa Ashley Rousso ( born February 5 , 1983 ) is an American professional poker player . Born in White Plains , New York , Rousso holds dual citizenship with the United States and France . Rousso was a member of Team PokerStars from 2006 to 2015 , with the online name Lady Maverick . She is a spokesperson for GoDaddy.com. She has earned money as a professional poker player since 2005 , and has become one of the game 's sex symbols .
As of 2015 , Rousso has finished in the money in numerous live poker events and accumulated over $ 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 in career earnings . She has placed in the money seventeen times at the World Series of Poker . In 2007 , she won over $ 700 @,@ 000 with a second @-@ place finish in the main event of the World Championship of Online Poker . She ranks among the top five women in poker history in terms of all @-@ time money winnings .
Rousso has been a pro @-@ gambling campaigner and activist . She has appeared on several reality television shows including Big Brother where she finished third .
= = Background = =
Her parents are Marc Rousso and Cynthia Bradley of Hobe Sound , Florida . Rousso began talking and reading at early ages says her mother , Cynthia Ferrara . Born in New York , she moved with her family to France at the age of three . She lived in Paris , in her father 's homeland until she was 10 , when she moved briefly to Upstate New York . After her parents divorced in 1992 , her mother moved Vanessa to Florida to be near her maternal grandparents . Rousso attended Wellington Landings Middle School . The oldest of three athletic girls , Rousso was active on the high school swimming , lacrosse and debating teams . She also played softball and basketball for fun . In debating , Rousso excelled in national debating tournaments in policy debating . Her mother is a guidance counselor at Jupiter Community High School . In 2001 , Rousso graduated as valedictorian of her high school in Wellington , Florida . She maintained a 4 @.@ 0 GPA at Wellington High School while participating in the National Honor Society , and French Honor Society . She founded the Environmental Club and served as its president . She was also active as a violinist , varsity swimmer , and volunteer for Mothers Against Drunk Drivers . Rousso has two younger sisters : Tiffany , a high school teacher and contestant on the eighteenth season of Big Brother and Leticia , who was a pre @-@ med student at University of Florida as of 2009 .
In college , she was on the Dean 's list . After studying some game theory , she became proficient with the Rubik 's Cube and then chess . However , because she considers both to be fairly objective static games , she began to prefer poker , which incorporated human psychology that allows for inferior hands to win . She graduated early from Duke University after two and a half years with a major in economics and a minor in political science in December 2003 . Her collegiate duration of two and a half years was the shortest time to graduate in the history of Duke . Rousso began law school in 2004 and was the inaugural recipient of the Chaplin Scholarship from the University of Miami . During Law School at the University of Miami School of Law , she served on the editorial board of the University of Miami Law Review .
A poker player since the age of five , Rousso began serious poker tournament play during her summer break from law school . Rousso was in the top 5 % of her law school class , but she did not finish law school . Now , excluding online winnings , she ranks among the top five women in poker history in terms of all @-@ time money winnings . She currently resides part @-@ time in
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is often shown naked or just wearing a skirt made of human arms and a garland of human heads . She is also accompanied by serpents and a jackal while standing on the calm and prostrate Shiva , usually right foot forward to symbolize the more popular Dakshinamarga or right @-@ handed path , as opposed to the more infamous and transgressive Vamamarga or left @-@ handed path .
In the ten @-@ armed form of Mahakali she is depicted as shining like a blue stone . She has ten faces , ten feet , and three eyes for each head . She has ornaments decked on all her limbs . There is no association with Shiva .
The Kalika Purana describes Kali as possessing a soothing dark complexion , as perfectly beautiful , riding a lion , four @-@ armed , holding a sword and blue lotuses , her hair unrestrained , body firm and youthful .
In spite of her seemingly terrible form , Kali Ma is often considered the kindest and most loving of all the Hindu goddesses , as she is regarded by her devotees as the Mother of the whole Universe . And because of her terrible form , she is also often seen as a great protector . When the Bengali saint Ramakrishna once asked a devotee why one would prefer to worship Mother over him , this devotee rhetorically replied , " Maharaj , when they are in trouble your devotees come running to you . But , where do you run when you are in trouble ? "
= = = Popular form = = =
Classic depictions of Kali share several features , as follows :
Kali 's most common four armed iconographic image shows each hand carrying variously a sword , a trishul ( trident ) , a severed head , and a bowl or skull @-@ cup ( kapala ) catching the blood of the severed head .
Two of these hands ( usually the left ) are holding a sword and a severed head . The sword signifies divine knowledge and the human head signifies human ego which must be slain by divine knowledge in order to attain moksha . The other two hands ( usually the right ) are in the abhaya ( fearlessness ) and varada ( blessing ) mudras , which means her initiated devotees ( or anyone worshipping her with a true heart ) will be saved as she will guide them here and in the hereafter .
She has a garland consisting of human heads , variously enumerated at 108 ( an auspicious number in Hinduism and the number of countable beads on a japa mala or rosary for repetition of mantras ) or 51 , which represents Varnamala or the Garland of letters of the Sanskrit alphabet , Devanagari . Hindus believe Sanskrit is a language of dynamism , and each of these letters represents a form of energy , or a form of Kali . Therefore , she is generally seen as the mother of language , and all mantras .
She is often depicted naked which symbolizes her being beyond the covering of Maya since she is pure ( nirguna ) being @-@ consciousness @-@ bliss and far above prakriti . She is shown as very dark as she is brahman in its supreme unmanifest state . She has no permanent qualities — she will continue to exist even when the universe ends . It is therefore believed that the concepts of color , light , good , bad do not apply to her
= = = Mahakali = = =
Mahakali ( Sanskrit : Mahākālī , Devanagari : महाकाली ) , literally translated as Great Kali , is sometimes considered as a greater form of Kali , identified with the Ultimate reality of Brahman . It can also be used as an honorific of the Goddess Kali , signifying her greatness by the prefix " Mahā- " . Mahakali , in Sanskrit , is etymologically the feminized variant of Mahakala or Great Time ( which is interpreted also as Death ) , an epithet of the God Shiva in Hinduism . Mahakali is the presiding Goddess of the first episode of the Devi Mahatmya . Here she is depicted as Devi in her universal form as Shakti . Here Devi serves as the agent who allows the cosmic order to be restored .
Kali is depicted in the Mahakali form as having ten heads , ten arms , and ten legs . Each of her ten hands is carrying a various implement which vary in different accounts , but each of these represent the power of one of the Devas or Hindu Gods and are often the identifying weapon or ritual item of a given Deva . The implication is that Mahakali subsumes and is responsible for the powers that these deities possess and this is in line with the interpretation that Mahakali is identical with Brahman . While not displaying ten heads , an " ekamukhi " or one headed image may be displayed with ten arms , signifying the same concept : the powers of the various Gods come only through Her grace .
= = = Daksinakali = = =
Daksinakali is the most popular form of Kali in Bengal . There are various versions for the origin of the name Dakshinakali . One is the story of Yama , lord of death , who lives in the south ( daksina ) . When Yama heard Kali 's name , he fled in terror , and so those who worship Kali are said to be able to overcome death itself . Dakshina also refers to the gift given to a priest before performing a ritual or to one 's guru . Such gifts are traditionally given with the right hand . Daksinakali 's two right hands are traditionally depicted in gestures of blessing and giving of boons .
Daksinakali is typically shown with her right foot on Shiva 's chest — while depictions showing Kali with her left foot on Shiva 's chest depict the even more fearsome Vamakali . The pose shows the conclusion of an episode in which Kali was rampaging out of control after destroying many demons . Shiva , fearing that Kali would not stop until she destroyed the world , could only think of one way to pacify her . He lay down on the battlefield so that she would have to step on him . Seeing her consort under her foot , Kali realized that she had gone too far , and calmed down . In some interpretations of the story , Shiva was attempting to receive Kali 's grace by receiving her foot on his chest . One meaning of daksina is south or south @-@ facing , the direction associated with Yama , lord of death — and also with cremation grounds .
The growing popularity of worship of a more benign form of Kali , as Daksinakali , is often attributed to Krsnananda Agamavagisa . He was a noted Bengali leader of the 18th century , author of a Tantra encyclopedia called Tantrasara . Kali appeared to him in a dream and told him to popularize her in a particular form that would appear to him the following day . The next morning he observed a young woman making cow dung patties . While placing a patty on a wall , she stood in the alidha pose , with her right foot forward . When she sees Krsnananda watching her , she is embarrassed and puts her tongue between her teeth . Krsnananada took his previous worship of Kali out of the cremation grounds and into a more domestic setting .
= = = Smashan Kali = = =
If the Kali steps out with the left foot and holds the sword in her right hand , she is the terrible form of Mother , the Smashan Kali of the cremation ground.She is worshiped by tantrics , the followers of Tantra , who believe that one 's spiritual discipline practised in a smashan ( cremation ground ) brings success quickly .
= = = Maternal Kali = = =
At the time of Samundra Manthan ( churning of the ocean ) , a poison emerged with the potential to destroy the world . At the request of all the gods , Lord Shiva drank it to save the world . Since he is beyond death he did not die , but was in severe pain due to the effect of the poison . He then became a child so that Kali could feed him with her milk which soothed the effect of the poison .
= = Symbolism = =
There are many different interpretations of the symbolic meanings of Kali 's depiction , depending on a Tantric or devotional approach , and on whether one views her image symbolically , allegorically , or mystically .
= = = Physical form = = =
There are many varied depictions of the different forms of Kali . The most common shows her with four arms and hands , showing aspects of creation and destruction . The two right hands are often held out in blessing , one in a mudra saying " fear not " ( abhayamudra ) , the other conferring boons . Her left hands hold a severed head and blood @-@ covered sword . The sword severs the bondage of ignorance and ego , represented by the severed head . One interpretation of Kali 's tongue is that the red tongue symbolizes the rajasic nature being conquered by the white ( symbolizing sattvic ) nature of the teeth . Her blackness represents that she is nirguna , beyond all qualities of nature , and transcendent . Other interpretations for her tongue include blood lust , and the sticking out of her tongue in embarrassment that she has gone too far in stepping on Shiva 's chest .
Kali is often shown standing with her right foot on Shiva 's chest . This represents an episode where Kali was out of control on the battlefield , such that she was about to destroy the entire universe . Shiva pacified her by laying down under her foot , both to receive her blessing , but also to pacify and calm her . Shiva is sometimes shown with a blissful smile on his face . She is typically shown with a garland of severed heads , often numbering fifty . This can symbolize the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet and therefore as the primordial sound of Aum from which all creation proceeds . The severed arms which make up her skirt represent her devotee 's karma that she has taken on .
= = = Mother Nature = = =
The name Kali means Kala or force of time . When there were neither the creation , nor the sun , the moon , the planets , and the earth , there was only darkness and everything was created from the darkness . The Dark appearance of kali represents the darkness from which everything was born . Her complexion is deep blue , like the sky and ocean water as blue . As she is also the goddess of Preservation Kali is worshiped as mother to preserve the nature . Kali is standing calm on Shiva , her appearance represents the preservation of mother nature . Her free , long and black hair represents nature 's freedom from civilization . Under the third eye of kali , the signs of both sun , moon and fire are visible which represent the driving forces of nature.Kali is not always thought of as a Dark Goddess . Despite Kali 's origins in battle , She evolved to a full @-@ fledged symbol of Mother Nature in Her creative , nurturing and devouring aspects . She is referred to as a great and loving primordial Mother Goddess in the Hindu tantric tradition . In this aspect , as Mother Goddess , She is referred to as Kali Ma , meaning Kali Mother , and millions of Hindus revere Her as such .
= = Worship = =
= = = Mantra = = =
Kali could be considered a general concept , like Durga , and is mostly worshiped in the Kali Kula sect of worship . The closest way of direct worship is Maha Kali or Bhadrakali ( Bhadra in Sanskrit means ' gentle ' ) . Kali is worshiped as one of the 10 Mahavidya forms of Adi Parashakti . One mantra for worship is :
Sanskrit : सर ् वमङ ् गलमाङ ् गल ् ये शिवे सर ् वार ् थसाधिके । शरण ् ये त ् र ् यम ् बके गौरि नारायणि नमोऽस ् तु ते ॥
ॐ जयंती मंगल काली भद ् रकाली कपालिनी । दुर ् गा शिवा क ् षमा धात ् री स ् वाहा स ् वधा नमोऽस ् तु ते ॥
( Sarvamaṅgalamāṅgalyē śivē sarvārthasādhikē . śaraṇyē tryambakē gauri nārāyaṇi namō 'stu tē .
Oṃ jayantī mangala kālī bhadrakālī kapālinī . durgā ksamā śivā dhātrī svāhā svadhā namō 'stu tē . )
= = = Tantra = = =
Goddesses play an important role in the study and practice of Tantra Yoga , and are affirmed to be as central to discerning the nature of reality as are the male deities . Although Parvati is often said to be the recipient and student of Shiva 's wisdom in the form of Tantras , it is Kali who seems to dominate much of the Tantric iconography , texts , and rituals . In many sources Kāli is praised as the highest reality or greatest of all deities . The Nirvana @-@ tantra says the gods Brahma , Vishnu , and Shiva all arise from her like bubbles in the sea , ceaselessly arising and passing away , leaving their original source unchanged . The Niruttara @-@ tantra and the Picchila @-@ tantra declare all of Kāli 's mantras to be the greatest and the Yogini @-@ tantra , Kamakhya @-@ tantra and the Niruttara @-@ tantra all proclaim Kāli vidyas ( manifestations of Mahadevi , or " divinity itself " ) . They declare her to be an essence of her own form ( svarupa ) of the Mahadevi .
In the Mahanirvana @-@ tantra , Kāli is one of the epithets for the primordial sakti , and in one passage Shiva praises her :
At the dissolution of things , it is Kāla [ Time ] Who will devour all , and by reason of this He is called Mahākāla [ an epithet of Lord Shiva ] , and since Thou devourest Mahākāla Himself , it is Thou who art the Supreme Primordial Kālika . Because Thou devourest Kāla , Thou art Kāli , the original form of all things , and because Thou art the Origin of and devourest all things Thou art called the Adya [ the Primordial One ] . Re @-@ assuming after Dissolution Thine own form , dark and formless , Thou alone remainest as One ineffable and inconceivable . Though having a form , yet art Thou formless ; though Thyself without beginning , multiform by the power of Maya , Thou art the Beginning of all , Creatrix , Protectress , and Destructress that Thou art .
The figure of Kāli conveys death , destruction , and the consuming aspects of reality . As such , she is also a " forbidden thing " , or even death itself . In the Pancatattva ritual , the sadhaka boldly seeks to confront Kali , and thereby assimilates and transforms her into a vehicle of salvation . This is clear in the work of the Karpuradi @-@ stotra , a short praise of Kāli describing the Pancatattva ritual unto her , performed on cremation grounds . ( Samahana @-@ sadhana )
He , O Mahākāli who in the cremation @-@ ground , naked , and with dishevelled hair , intently meditates upon Thee and recites Thy mantra , and with each recitation makes offering to Thee of a thousand Akanda flowers with seed , becomes without any effort a Lord of the earth . Oh Kāli , whoever on Tuesday at midnight , having uttered Thy mantra , makes offering even but once with devotion to Thee of a hair of his Shakti [ his energy / female companion ] in the cremation @-@ ground , becomes a great poet , a Lord of the earth , and ever goes mounted upon an elephant .
The Karpuradi @-@ stotra , dated to approximately 10th century ACE , clearly indicates that Kāli is more than a terrible , vicious , slayer of demons who serves Durga or Shiva . Here , she is identified as the supreme mother of the universe , associated with the five elements . In union with Lord Shiva , she creates and destroys worlds . Her appearance also takes a different turn , befitting her role as ruler of the world and object of meditation . In contrast to her terrible aspects , she takes on hints of a more benign dimension . She is described as young and beautiful , has a gentle smile , and makes gestures with her two right hands to dispel any fear and offer boons . The more positive features exposed offer the distillation of divine wrath into a goddess of salvation , who rids the sadhaka of fear . Here , Kali appears as a symbol of triumph over death .
= = = Bengali tradition = = =
Kali is also a central figure in late medieval Bengali devotional literature , with such devotees as Ramprasad Sen ( 1718 – 75 ) . With the exception of being associated with Parvati as Shiva 's consort , Kāli is rarely pictured in Hindu legends and iconography as a motherly figure until Bengali devotions beginning in the early eighteenth century . Even in Bengāli tradition her appearance and habits change little , if at all .
The Tantric approach to Kāli is to display courage by confronting her on cremation grounds in the dead of night , despite her terrible appearance . In contrast , the Bengali devotee appropriates Kāli 's teachings adopting the attitude of a child , coming to love her unreservedly . In both cases , the goal of the devotee is to become reconciled with death and to learn acceptance of the way that things are . These themes are well addressed in Rāmprasād 's work . Rāmprasād comments in many of his other songs that Kāli is indifferent to his wellbeing , causes him to suffer , brings his worldly desires to nothing and his worldly goods to ruin . He also states that she does not behave like a mother should and that she ignores his pleas :
To be a child of Kāli , Rāmprasād asserts , is to be denied of earthly delights and pleasures . Kāli is said to refrain from giving that which is expected . To the devotee , it is perhaps her very refusal to do so that enables her devotees to reflect on dimensions of themselves and of reality that go beyond the material world .
A significant portion of Bengali devotional music features Kāli as its central theme and is known as Shyama Sangeet ( " Music of the Night " ) . Mostly sung by male vocalists , today even women have taken to this form of music . One of the finest singers of Shyāma Sāngeet is Pannalal Bhattacharya .
Kāli is especially venerated in the festival of Kali Puja in eastern India — celebrated when the new moon day of Ashwin month coincides with the festival of Diwali . The practice of animal sacrifice is common during Kali Puja in Bengal , Orissa , and Assam , though it is rare outside of those areas . The Hindu temples where this takes place involves the ritual slaying of goats , chickens and sometimes male Water buffalos . Throughout India , the practice is becoming less common . The rituals in eastern India temples where animals are killed are generally led by Brahmin priests . A number of Tantric Puranas specify the ritual for how the animal should be killed . A Brahmin priest will recite a mantra in the ear of animal to be sacrificed , in order to free the animal from the cycle of life and death . Groups such as People for Animals continue to protest animal sacrifice based on court rulings forbidding the practice in some locations .
In a unique form of Kāli worship , Shantipur worships Kāli in the form of a hand painted image of the deity known as Poteshwari ( meaning the deity drawn on a piece of cloth ) .
= = = Worship in the Western world = = =
An academic study of western Kali enthusiasts noted that , " as shown in the histories of all cross @-@ cultural religious transplants , Kali devotionalism in the West must take on its own indigenous forms if it is to adapt to its new environment . " Rachel Fell McDermott , Professor of Asian and Middle Eastern Cultures at Columbia University and author of several books on Kali , has noted the evolving views in the West regarding Kali and her worship . In 1998 she pointed out that :
A variety of writers and thinkers have found Kali an exciting figure for reflection and exploration , notably feminists and participants in New Age spirituality who are attracted to goddess worship . [ For them ] , Kali is a symbol of wholeness and healing , associated especially with repressed female power and sexuality . [ However , such interpretations often exhibit ] confusion and misrepresentation , stemming from a lack of knowledge of Hindu history among these authors , [ who only rarely ] draw upon materials written by scholars of the Hindu religious tradition . . . It is hard to import the worship of a goddess from another culture : religious associations and connotations have to be learned , imagined or intuited when the deep symbolic meanings embedded in the native culture are not available .
By 2003 McDermott amended her previous view by writing that :
" ... cross @-@ cultural borrowing is appropriate and a natural by @-@ product of religious globalization — although such borrowing ought to be done responsibly and self @-@ consciously . If some Kali enthusiasts , therefore , careen ahead , reveling in a goddess of power and sex , many others , particularly since the early 1990s , have decided to reconsider their theological trajectories . These , whether of South Asian descent or not , are endeavoring to rein in what they perceive as excesses of feminist and New Age interpretations of the Goddess by choosing to be informed by , moved by , an Indian view of her character . "
= 1979 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1979 Atlantic hurricane season was the first season to include both male and female names . The season officially began on June 1 , and lasted until November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . It was slightly below average , with nine systems reaching tropical storm intensity . The first system , an unnumbered tropical depression , developed north of Puerto Rico on June 9 . Two days later , Tropical Depression One formed and produced severe flooding in Jamaica , with 40 deaths and about $ 27 million ( 1979 USD ) in damage . Tropical Storm Ana caused minimal impact in the Lesser Antilles . Hurricane Bob spawned tornadoes and produced minor wind damage along the Gulf Coast of the United States , primarily in Louisiana , while the remnants caused flooding , especially in Indiana . Tropical Storm Claudette caused extensive flooding , due to torrential rainfall . There were two deaths and damaged totaled $ 750 million .
The most intense tropical cyclone of the season was Hurricane David . It moved across the Lesser Antilles in late August , with the worst hit islands being Dominica and Martinique . The storm then strengthened further and struck Dominican Republic as a Category 5 hurricane . David was the strongest and deadliest tropical cyclone to make landfall in that country since 1930 . In Dominican Republic alone , the system caused approximately 1 @,@ 000 death and $ 1 billion in damage . Later , David brought wind damage , tornadoes , and flooding to portions of the East Coast of the United States . Overall , the storm resulted in 2 @,@ 068 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 54 billion in damage . Hurricane Frederic brought destruction to the Gulf Coast of the United States , especially in Alabama and Mississippi . With $ 2 @.@ 3 billion in damage , Frederic was the costliest hurricane in the history of the United States , until Hurricane Hugo in 1989 .
Tropical Storm Elena brought flooding to the Greater Houston area , with five deaths and about $ 10 million in damage . However , little impact was reported elsewhere . Hurricane Henri remained offshore in the Gulf of Mexico and disrupted efforts to stop the Ixtoc I oil spill . Henri also caused flooding in portions of Mexico . In mid and late @-@ September , a tropical depression caused flooding in the Southern United States , especially Texas . Four deaths were reported , two in Texas and two in Kentucky . Toward the end of October , a brief subtropical storm struck Newfoundland , but left little impact . Other than Tropical Depression One and the tropical depression that brought flooding to the Southern United States in mid and late @-@ September , none of the other depressions caused significant effects of land . Collectively , the tropical cyclones of the season resulted in $ 4 @.@ 63 billion in damage and at least 2 @,@ 136 deaths . Pacific Storm Blanca originated in the basin .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 1979 . Although 27 tropical cyclones developed , only nine of them reach tropical storm intensity , which is slightly below the 1950 @-@ 2000 average of 9 @.@ 6 named storms per season . Of the nine tropical storms , five of them strengthened into a hurricane , which is also slightly below average . Two of the five hurricane became major hurricanes , which is Category 3 or greater on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Three tropical storms , one subtropical storm , and three hurricanes made landfall during the season and caused at least 2 @,@ 136 fatalities and $ 4 @.@ 63 billion . Despite its intensity , Tropical Depression One also resulted in damage and deaths due to severe flooding in Jamaica . The last storm of the season , an unnumbered tropical depression , dissipated on November 15 , about 15 days before the official end of hurricane season on November 30 .
Tropical cyclogenesis began in June , with three tropical depressions , one of which strengthened into Tropical Storm Ana . A total of four systems formed in the month of July , including Hurricane Bob and Tropical Storm Claudette . Activity briefly halted after Tropical Depression Six dissipated on August 6 and lasted until Hurricane David developed on August 25 . There were four other tropical cyclones that month , including Hurricane Frederic and Tropical Storm Elena . In September , six systems developed , with the named storms of the month being hurricane Gloria and Henri . October was slightly less active , with four tropical cyclones , one of which was an unnamed subtropical storm . Two additional tropical depressions developed in November , the second of which dissipated on November 15 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 93 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical storms are not included in the ACE value , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
A tropical wave in the western Caribbean Sea situated south of Grand Cayman developed into a tropical depression on June 11 . Tracking generally northward , the depression passed west of Jamaica . On June 12 , the depression peaked with maximum sustained winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) system , having never reached tropical storm status . The following day , it made landfall in Cuba . Early on June 14 , the depression emerged into the western Atlantic Ocean and then moved parallel to the east coast of Florida for a few days . The depression made another landfall in South Carolina on June 16 and dissipated hours later .
The slow movement of the depression to the west of Jamaica resulted in torrential rainfall , peaking at 32 in ( 810 mm ) in Friendship , a city in Westmoreland Parish . Throughout western Jamaica , about 1 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed or severely damaged , while up to 40 @,@ 000 people were rendered homeless . The city of New Market was submerged for at least six months . Crops , electricity , telephones , buildings , and railways also suffered damage during the disaster . There were 40 deaths and approximately $ 27 million in damage . The depression also brought heavy precipitation to the Bahamas and Cuba . Along the East Coast of the United States , light rainfall , strong winds , and rough seas were observed . In South Carolina , a person went missing and was later presumed to have drowned after their boat was torn loose from its mooring .
= = = Tropical Storm Ana = = =
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa and entered the Atlantic on June 14 . It headed westward and after satellite imagery indicated a closed circulation , the wave was classified as a tropical depression on June 19 , while located several hundred miles east @-@ southeast of the Windward Islands . The system was the first tropical cyclone to develop east of the Lesser Antilles in June since the 1933 Trinidad hurricane ; more recently , a tropical depression in 2000 and another in 2003 formed further east in that month . Initially , the depression tracked west @-@ northwestward , before curving northwestward by late on June 20 .
A United States Air Force reconnaissance aircraft noted that the depression was strengthening and by early on June 22 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Ana . Thereafter , the storm began tracking almost due westward toward the Lesser Antilles . Ana peaked with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , before wind shear began detaching deep convection from the center , resulting in weakening . Early on June 23 , the storm struck St. Lucia and then fell to tropical depression intensity upon entering the Caribbean Sea . Ana continued weakening and degenerated back into a tropical wave on
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popular during the Advent season ; writing in December 1993 , the music critic Alex Ross refers to that month 's 21 performances in New York alone as " numbing repetition " . Against the general trend towards authenticity , the work has been staged in opera houses , both in London ( 2009 ) and in Paris ( 2011 ) . The Mozart score is revived from time to time , and in Anglophone countries " singalong " performances with many hundreds of performers are popular . Although performances striving for authenticity are now usual , it is generally agreed that there can never be a definitive version of Messiah ; the surviving manuscripts contain radically different settings of many numbers , and vocal and instrumental ornamentation of the written notes is a matter of personal judgment , even for the most historically informed performers . The Handel scholar Winton Dean has written :
[ T ] here is still plenty for scholars to fight over , and more than ever for conductors to decide for themselves . Indeed if they are not prepared to grapple with the problems presented by the score they ought not to conduct it . This applies not only to the choice of versions , but to every aspect of baroque practice , and of course there are often no final answers .
= = Music = =
= = = Organisation and numbering of movements = = =
The numbering of the movements shown here is in accordance with the Novello vocal score ( 1959 ) , edited by Watkins Shaw , which adapts the numbering earlier devised by Ebenezer Prout . Other editions count the movements slightly differently ; the Bärenreiter edition of 1965 , for example , does not number all the recitatives and runs from 1 to 47 . The division into parts and scenes is based on the 1743 word @-@ book prepared for the first London performance . The scene headings are given as Burrows summarised the scene headings by Jennens .
= Alexander White ( Virginia ) =
Alexander White ( 1738 – September 19 , 1804 ) was a distinguished early American lawyer and politician in the present @-@ day U.S. states of Virginia and West Virginia .
White served as an elected member of the House of Burgesses , representing Hampshire County , and as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates , representing Berkeley and Frederick counties . During the American Revolutionary War , he facilitated the release of Quaker and Hessian civilian prisoners held by patriots . In 1788 , White participated in the Virginia Ratifying Convention , in which Virginia ratified the United States Constitution . He later served as the inaugural member to represent Virginia 's 1st congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 1789 to 1793 . White was appointed by United States President George Washington to serve as a commissioner on a board responsible for the planning and construction of Washington , D.C. ; White served on the board from 1795 to 1802 .
White was the son of Virginia pioneer settler and physician Dr. Robert White ( 1688 – 1752 ) ; thus , he was a member of the prominent White political family of Virginia and West Virginia . He was the uncle of Virginia judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) , the uncle of United States House Representative Francis White ( 1761 – 1826 ) , and the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Virginia Governor James Wood ( 1741 – 1813 ) .
= = Early life and education = =
Alexander White was born in 1738 to Dr. Robert White ( 1688 – 1752 ) and his wife , Margaret Hoge , at " White Hall " , near present @-@ day Hayfield in Orange County ( later part of Frederick County , following its creation that same year ) . Through his father , White was of Scottish descent and was raised in the Presbyterian faith . White 's father , Dr. Robert White , had served as a surgeon in the Royal Navy of the Kingdom of Great Britain . Dr. White relocated to present @-@ day Frederick County between 1732 and 1735 as a " pioneer settler " , where he was one of two practicing physicians .
White was sent by his father to Scotland to receive his education , where he studied jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh . White continued his law studies in London , England , where he was admitted to the Inner Temple on January 15 , 1762 , and matriculated at Gray 's Inn on January 22 , 1763 . White completed his law studies during the French and Indian War .
= = Political career = =
White returned to Virginia in 1765 , where he began practicing law and became a prominent lawyer in the Shenandoah Valley region . White served as deputy King 's attorney for Frederick County in 1772 . He engaged in a " distinguished career " as a lawyer with a " national reputation " .
= = = House of Burgesses = = =
White was elected as a member of the House of Burgesses in Williamsburg from 1772 to 1773 , representing Hampshire County . White served with Patrick Henry ; Henry reportedly never cast his vote without first consulting with White . White was an eloquent public speaker , and due to his Scottish Presbyterian background , he was strongly opposed to the colonial government 's preferential support of the Church of England in Virginia . Because of this stance , White presented a resolution before the House of Burgesses regarding the separation of church and state . According to historians Hu Maxwell and Howard Llewellyn Swisher , White is the first man in what is now the United States to present a resolution to a legislature regarding the freedom of religion .
During his tenure in the House of Burgesses , White served alongside James Mercer , who was also representing Hampshire County . Following his term , White was succeeded by Joseph Neville . Upon the convening of the first court of Berkeley County on May 19 , 1772 , White served as the King 's attorney for the county . White served one term in the House of Burgesses ; he was then appointed the deputy King 's attorney for the Colony of Virginia in 1773 .
= = = American Revolutionary War = = =
While White did not engage in military service during the American Revolutionary War , he remained active in the practice of law in Winchester throughout the war 's duration . According to tradition , White facilitated the release of Quaker and Hessian civilian prisoners held by American Revolutionary patriots in a building in the southern part of Winchester . The Quakers and Hessians were imprisoned under the suspicion of their perceived support of British forces . The prisoners asked White to assist them with their release , and they paid him 100 Virginia pounds . Following the British retreat from the Philadelphia campaign , White traveled to Philadelphia to negotiate with the " executive authority " concerning the prisoners ' release to Pennsylvania , where public sentiment demanded their return . White successfully secured their release upon the condition that they affirm that " they would henceforth live by their creed and be at peace with all men . "
= = = Virginia House of Delegates = = =
From 1782 to 1786 , White was elected annually and served in the Virginia House of Delegates , representing Frederick County , a multi @-@ member electoral district , and began his first term one month after the Virginia General Assembly began its first legislative session . He served another term in the Virginia House of Delegates in 1788 .
In 1788 , White participated in the Virginia Ratifying Convention , in which Virginia ratified the United States Constitution . White is believed to have used the pseudonym " An Independent Freeholder " to author a series of essays written in support of the Constitution 's ratification . The essays were published in the January 18 and January 25 , 1788 , issues of the Winchester Virginia Gazette newspaper . White served two additional terms in the Virginia House of Delegates from 1799 to 1801 , representing Berkeley County , where he owned a significant amount of land .
= = = United States House of Representatives = = =
White served two terms as the inaugural member to represent Virginia 's 1st congressional district in the United States House of Representatives during the 1st United States Congress and the 2nd United States Congress ( March 4 , 1789 – March 3 , 1793 ) . White was the first person residing in West Virginia to occupy a seat in the United States Congress . During his tenure , White 's congressional district spanned from Harpers Ferry to the Ohio River . As he was previously known in the House of Burgesses , White was reportedly one of the more eloquently spoken members in the first Congress and was known for his " remarkable punctuality " .
White voted in favor of the Residence Act , the United States federal law that settled the question of locating the capital of the United States along the Potomac River in Maryland and Virginia . Three days after the Residence Act became law , the United States House of Representatives agreed upon the Funding Act as part of the Compromise of 1790 , to address the issue of funding domestic debt . On August 9 , 1790 , the Funding Act became law . White voted in support of the Funding Act ; however , according to Thomas Jefferson , White 's vote was the result of an argument that occurred at a dinner hosted by Jefferson , after which White and Richard Bland Lee changed their votes in favor of the Funding Act . Jefferson stated that White reluctantly supported the bill " with a revulsion of stomach almost convulsive " . The votes of both White and Lee carried the Funding Act measure , making the enactment of the Residence Act possible .
White was re @-@ elected to his seat in 1791 after defeating his opponents , William Darke and General James Wood . According to GovTrack , from May 1789 to March 1793 , White missed 26 of 211 recorded votes ( or 12 @.@ 3 % ) . White 's voting participation was higher than the median of 14 @.@ 6 % among the lifetime records of representatives serving in March 1793 . Following the adjournment of the 2nd United States Congress , and the completion of his term in
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enguin =
The macaroni penguin ( Eudyptes chrysolophus ) is a species of penguin found from the Subantarctic to the Antarctic Peninsula . One of six species of crested penguin , it is very closely related to the royal penguin , and some authorities consider the two to be a single species . It bears a distinctive yellow crest , and the face and upperparts are black and sharply delineated from the white underparts . Adults weigh on average 5 @.@ 5 kg ( 12 lb ) and are 70 cm ( 28 in ) in length . The male and female are similar in appearance , although the male is slightly larger and stronger with a relatively larger bill . Like all penguins , it is flightless , with a streamlined body and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine lifestyle . They also have red eyes .
Its diet consists of a variety of crustaceans , mainly krill , as well as small fish and cephalopods ; the species consumes more marine life annually than any other species of seabird . These birds moult once a year , spending about three to four weeks ashore , before returning to the sea . Numbering up to 100 @,@ 000 individuals , the breeding colonies of the macaroni penguin are among the largest and densest of all penguin species . After spending the summer breeding , penguins disperse into the oceans for six months ; a 2009 study found that macaroni penguins from Kerguelen travelled over 10 @,@ 000 km ( 6 @,@ 200 mi ) in the central Indian Ocean . With about 18 million individuals , the macaroni penguin is the most numerous penguin species . However , widespread declines in populations have been recorded since the mid @-@ 1970s . Their conservation status is being reclassified as vulnerable .
= = Taxonomy = =
The macaroni penguin was described from the Falkland Islands in 1837 by German naturalist Johann Friedrich von Brandt . It is one of six or so species in the genus Eudyptes , collectively known as crested penguins . The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek words eu " good " , and dyptes " diver " . The specific epithet chrysolophus is derived from the Greek words chryse " golden " , and lophos " crest " .
The common name was recorded from the early 19th century in the Falkland Islands . English sailors apparently named the species for its conspicuous yellow crest ; Maccaronism was a term for a particular style in 18th @-@ century England marked by flamboyant or excessive ornamentation . A person who adopted this fashion was labelled a " maccaroni " or " macaroni " , as in the song " Yankee Doodle " .
Molecular clock evidence using DNA suggests the macaroni penguin split from its closest relative , the royal penguin ( Eudyptes schlegeli ) , around 1 @.@ 5 million years ago . Although the two have generally been considered separate species , the close similarities of their DNA sequences has led some , such as the Australian ornithologists Les Christidis and Walter Boles , to treat the royal as a subspecies of the macaroni . The two species are very similar in appearance , although the royal penguin has a white face instead of the usually black face of the macaroni . Interbreeding with the Indo @-@ Pacific subspecies of the southern rockhopper penguin ( E. chrysocome filholi ) has been reported at Heard and Marion Islands , with three hybrids recorded there by a 1987 – 88 Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition .
= = Description = =
The macaroni penguin is a large , crested penguin , similar in appearance to other members of the genus Eudyptes . An adult bird has an average length of around 70 cm ( 28 in ) ; the weight varies markedly depending on time of year and sex . Males average from 3 @.@ 3 kg ( 7 lb ) after incubating , or 3 @.@ 7 kg ( 8 lb ) after moult to 6 @.@ 4 kg ( 14 lb ) before moult , while females average 3 @.@ 2 kg ( 7 lb ) after to 5 @.@ 7 kg ( 13 lb ) before moult . Among standard measurements , the thick bill ( from the gape ) measures 7 to 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) , the culmen being around a centimetre less . The wing , from the shoulder to the tip , is around 20 @.@ 4 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) and the tail is 9 – 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long . The head , chin , throat , and upper parts are black and sharply demarcated against the white under parts . The black plumage has a bluish sheen when new and brownish when old . The most striking feature is the yellow crest that arises from a patch on the centre of the forehead , and extends horizontally backwards to the nape . The flippers are blue @-@ black on the upper surface with a white trailing edge , and mainly white underneath with a black tip and leading edge . The large , bulbous bill is orange @-@ brown . The iris is red and a patch of pinkish bare skin is found from the base of the bill to the eye . The legs and feet are pink . The male and female are similar in appearance , although males tend to be slightly larger . Males also bear relatively larger bills , which average around 6 @.@ 1 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) compared to 5 @.@ 4 cm ( 2 @.@ 1 in ) in females ; this feature has been used to tell the sexes apart .
Immature birds are distinguished by their smaller size , smaller , duller @-@ brown bill , dark grey chin and throat , and absent or underdeveloped head plumes , often just a scattering of yellow feathers . The crest is fully developed in birds aged three to four years , a year or two before breeding age .
Macaroni penguins moult once a year , a process in which they replace all of their old feathers . They spend around two weeks accumulating fat before moulting because they do not feed during the moult , as they cannot enter the water to forage for food without feathers . The process typically takes three to four weeks , which they spend sitting ashore . Once finished , they go back to sea and return to their colonies to mate in the spring . Overall survival rates are poorly known ; the successful return of breeding adults at South Georgia Island varied between 49 % and 78 % over three years , and around 10 % of those that did return did not breed the following year .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
A 1993 review estimated that the macaroni was the most abundant species of penguin , with a minimum of 11 @,@ 841 @,@ 600 pairs worldwide . Macaroni penguins range from the Subantarctic to the Antarctic Peninsula ; at least 216 breeding colonies at 50 sites have been recorded . In South America , macaroni penguins are found in southern Chile , the Falkland Islands , South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands , and South Orkney Islands . They also occupy much of Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula , including the northern South Shetland Islands , Bouvet Island , the Prince Edward and Marion islands , the Crozet Islands , the Kerguelen Islands , and the Heard and McDonald Islands . While foraging for food , groups will range north to the islands off Australia , New Zealand , southern Brazil , Tristan da Cunha , and South Africa .
= = = Conservation = = =
Although the population of macaroni penguins is estimated at around 18 million mature individuals , a substantial decline has been recorded in several locations . This includes a 50 % reduction in the South Georgia population between the mid @-@ 1970s to mid @-@ 1990s , and the disappearance of the species from Isla Recalada in Southern Chile . This decline of the overall population in the last 30 years has resulted in the classification of the species as globally Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Long @-@ term monitoring programs are underway at a number of breeding colonies , and many of the islands that support breeding populations of this penguin are protected reserves . The Heard Islands and McDonald Islands are World Heritage Sites for the macaroni penguin . The macaroni penguin may be being impacted by commercial fishing and marine pollution . A 2008 study suggests the abilities of female penguins to reproduce may be negatively affected by climate- and fishing @-@ induced reductions in krill density .
= = Life history = =
Like most other penguin species , the macaroni penguin is a social animal in its nesting and its foraging behaviour ; its breeding colonies are among the largest and most densely populated . Scientist Charles Andre Bost found that macaroni penguins nesting at Kerguelen dispersed eastwards over an area exceeding 3 × 106 km2 . Fitted with geolocation sensors , the 12 penguins studied travelled over 10 @,@ 000 km ( 6 @,@ 200 mi ) during the six- to seven @-@ month study period and spent their time largely within a zone 47 – 49 ° S and 70 – 110 ° E in the central Indian Ocean , not coming ashore once . This area , known as the Polar Frontal Zone , was notable for the absence of krill .
Living in colonies results in a high level of social interaction between birds , which has led to a large repertoire of visual , as well as vocal , displays . These behaviours peak early in the breeding period , and colonies particularly quieten when the male macaroni penguins are at sea . Agonistic displays are those which are intended to confront or drive off or , alternatively , appease and avoid conflict with other individuals . Macaroni penguins , particularly those on adjacent nests , may engage in ' bill @-@ jousting ' ; birds lock bills and wrestle , each trying to unseat the other , as well as batter with flippers and peck or strike its opponent 's nape . Submissive displays include the ' slender walk ' , where birds move through the colony with feathers flattened , flippers moved to the front of the body , and head and neck hunched , and general hunching of head and neck when incubating or standing at the nest .
= = = Diet = = =
The diet of the macaroni penguin consists of a variety of crustaceans , squid and fish , although the proportions that each makes up vary with locality and season . Krill , particularly Antarctic krill ( Euphausia superba ) , account for over 90 % of food during breeding season . Cephalopods and small fish such as the marbled rockcod ( Notothenia rossii ) , painted notie ( Lepidonotothen larseni ) , Champsocephalus gunneri , the lanternfish species Krefftichthys anderssoni , Protomyctophum tenisoni and P. normani become more important during chick @-@ rearing . Like several other penguin species , the macaroni penguin sometimes deliberately swallows small ( 10 – to 30 @-@ mm @-@ diameter ) stones ; this behaviour has been speculated to aid in providing ballast for deep @-@ sea diving , or to help grind food , especially the exoskeletons of crustaceans which are a significant part of its diet .
Foraging for food is generally conducted on a daily basis , from dawn to dusk when they have chicks to feed . Overnight trips are sometimes made , especially as the chicks grow older ; a 2008 study that used surgically implanted data loggers to track the movement of the birds showed the foraging trips become longer once the chick @-@ rearing period is over . Birds venture out for 10 – 20 days during incubation and before the moult . Macaroni penguins are known to be the largest single consumer of marine resources among all of the seabirds , with an estimated take of 9 @.@ 2 million tonnes of krill a year . Outside the breeding season , macaroni penguins tend to dive deeper , longer , and more efficiently during their winter migration than during the summer breeding season . Year round , foraging dives usually occur during daylight hours , but winter dives are more constrained by daylight due to the shorter days .
Foraging distance from colonies has been measured at around 50 km ( 31 mi ) at South Georgia , offshore over the continental shelf , and anywhere from 59 to 303 kilometres ( 37 to 188 mi ) at Marion Island . Macaroni penguins normally forage at depths of 15 to 70 m ( 49 to 230 ft ) , but have been recorded diving down to 100 m ( 330 ft ) on occasions . Some night foraging does occur , but these dives are much shallower , ranging from only 3 to 6 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 19 @.@ 7 ft ) in depth . Dives rarely exceed two minutes in duration . All dives are V @-@ shaped , and no time is spent at the sea bottom ; about half the time on a foraging trip is spent diving . Birds have been calculated as catching from 4 to 16 krill or 40 to 50 amphipods per dive .
= = = Predators = = =
The macaroni penguin 's predators consist of birds and aquatic mammals . The leopard seal ( Hydrurga leptonyx ) , Antarctic fur seal ( Arctocephalus gazella )
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aimed at through @-@ traffic , the other intended solely for tourists :
The 11 @.@ 6 km ( 7 @.@ 2 mi ) long Tunnel du Mont Blanc connects Chamonix and Courmayeur and permits cars and lorries to quickly reach the opposite valley . It took twenty years to complete and opened to vehicle traffic in 1965 . The tunnel is known for an incident in March 1999 , when a lorry caught alight inside ; the resulting fire lasted 53 hours and killed 39 people . The tunnel was renovated in the aftermath , re @-@ opening three years later . By 2008 , some 1 @,@ 600 trucks and 3 @,@ 200 cars were using the tunnel every day ( totalling 1 @.@ 8 million vehicles per year ) – a little less than before the 1999 fire .
The Vallée Blanche Cable Car is normally used by visitors travelling from one or other of the tourist centres of Chamonix or Courmayeur and gives views over the glaciated regions of the massif . It crosses the massif in a roughly north – south direction and connects the Aiguille du Midi with the Point Helbronner , each of which can themselves be reached by téléphérique from Chamonix and Courmayeur , respectively .
Elsewhere in the massif , the Montenvers Railway connects Chamonix to Montenvers near the foot of the Mer de Glace , whilst the Téléphérique du Lognan connects Argentière with Aiguille des Grands Montets , where Les Grand Montets is an important winter skiing area in the region . At 3 @,@ 300 m ( 10 @,@ 827 ft ) , the summit station also provides relatively easy access for climbers to the northeastern peaks of the range , including short introductory rock scrambles and a simple ice @-@ face route on the NW face of the Petite Aiguille Verte .
The Mont Blanc Tramway takes tourists and hikers from Saint @-@ Gervais to the Nid d 'Aigle , near the Glacier de Bionnassay . It also provides mountaineers with ready access to the first stage of the Goûter Route for an attempt on the most popular route to the summit of Mont Blanc .
From Les Houches , one of two cable cars links to Bellevue plateau ( 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 906 ft ) ) , giving access to walking paths , mountain bike trails and winter ski @-@ runs as well as to a halt on the Mont Blanc Tramway , A second links the town to the adjacent Prarion plateau ( 1 @,@ 900 m ( 6 @,@ 234 ft ) ) .
Heli @-@ skiing gives ready access to many remote or off @-@ piste ski routes in the Mont Blanc massif . Because heli @-@ skiing is banned across France for environmental reasons , companies offering this service only operate on the Swiss and Italian sides of the range .
= = = Mountain huts = = =
Since the very early days of alpine mountaineering a number of high @-@ altitude mountain refuges have been positioned strategically across the massif to give climbers easier access to the high summits by permitting an overnight stay . The majority are owned by national mountaineering clubs , and many are wardened during the summer months , although the smaller bivouac huts are unmanned and have very basic facilities .
Those on the most popular routes , such as the Goûter Hut , now require all climbers to pre @-@ book . Some tiny huts , such as the remote Eccles Hut , can also be extremely crowded during good mountaineering weather , and some climbers prefer to bivouac outside .
= = Environmental protection = =
Weather records show that since the 1960s there has been a trend of less snow at lower altitudes , whilst since the 1990s average mountain temperatures have increased more than at lower levels . Temperatures in Chamonix have risen by 1 @.@ 5 ° C over the last 75 years , and fresh snow build @-@ up has halved there in the last 40 years , and there has been an increase in the melting and retreat of the massif 's glaciers . The Mer de Glace has retreated 2 @,@ 300 m ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) in length since 1820 and , at Montenvers , has reduced in thickness by 150 m ( 490 ft ) . In the last 20 years the glacier has been retreating at a rate of around 30 m ( 98 ft ) every year . Since 1994 it has lost 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) in length and 70 m ( 230 ft ) in depth .
To help counter these effects , in 2012 the various Chamonix @-@ Mont Blanc authorities introduced a climate and energy action plan , committing the region to a 22 % reduction in its greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 . The plan included proposals to improve air quality by banning those lorries from using the Mont Blanc Tunnel which were deemed to be the most polluting and which , at times , had reduced air quality to levels more usually associated with the streets of Paris .
Concerns over the state of the environment around the most popular parts of the Mont Blanc massif , and the need for visitors to better respect it , were reflected in a statement in 2014 by Jean @-@ Marc Peillex , the mayor of Saint @-@ Gervais , who said :
Mont Blanc is a heap of garbage ... a mountain covered with the crap , urine and detritus of the last 50 years . The problems are covered up by a nice , white blanket of snow . But I want to confront people with the reality and to reach those people who abuse the mountain .
Following the construction of the new Goûter Hut used by most climbers ascending Mont Blanc , the authorities now strictly enforce a ' no wild @-@ camping ' ban above the level of Tête Rousses Hut . Each high altitude hut faces its own individual challenges , often relating to water and energy supply or waste management , and the provision of services to visitors can sometimes conflict with environmental protection . A range of individual solutions for a selection of huts within the massif and elsewhere in the Alps was identified by a project run by Espace Mont Blanc between 2007 and 2013 .
= = = Espace Mont Blanc = = =
In 1991 , the environment ministers for France , Italy and Switzerland came together to agree the formation of Espace Mont Blanc – a partnership of national authorities and local communities to plan for the future development and protection of the Mont Blanc region . In 1998 , the group was charged with creating a sustainable development scheme for the region ( finally launched in 2005 ) , whilst in 2003 it adopted a plan for safeguarding sensitive environments and landscapes . In 2007 , it produced its position statement regarding the classification of Mont Blanc as a UNESCO World Heritage Site , and in 2009 a Transboundary Integrated Plan ( PIT ) was announced , with the implementation of six regional projects running until 2013 . In 2014 , the group launched " Strategy for the Future " , which is intended to be a strategic tool for ensuring that public policies are consistent across the different territories around the Mont Blanc massif .
= = = Protected statuses = = =
In 1951 the French portion of the Mont Blanc massif was classified as a Site classé ( or ' listed site ' ) and this was extended in 1976 to cover 253 @.@ 54 km2 ( 97 @.@ 89 sq mi ) . By 1989 there had been calls for the creation of an International Park for Mont Blanc . In June 2000 France did add the Mont Blanc Massif to UNESCO 's Tentative List , which is a first step to formal nomination for World Heritage Site status . This was followed in January 2008 by a cross @-@ border submission from Italy , which included France and Switzerland . However , as of 2016 , it had neither a national park designation nor UNESCO World Heritage Site status . As a result of long delays , many environmental groups from France , Italy and Switzerland have worked together under the umbrella organisation , proMONT BLANC , to jointly raise concerns and to put pressure on national governments and the European Union to support and make quicker progress with World Heritage classification . In 2012 the organisation published a detailed assessment and supportive rationale into the state of the Mont Blanc application to be a World Heritage Site . ProMont Blanc also undertakes reviews of a suite of 24 environmental , 24 economic and 10 social indicators across 15 towns around the massif ( seven French , five Italian and three Swiss ) , and monitors and reports on the effectiveness of measures intended to deliver sustainable development across the region .
All the French parts of the Mont Blanc massif , plus the neighbouring Aiguille Rouges range , have been listed as a Zone naturelle d 'intérêt écologique , faunistique et floristique ( ZNIEFF ) . This does not give regulatory protection , but is a recognition of the outstanding biodiversity of the area , and of its landscape , geomorphological , geological , historical and scientific importance . The 2011 schedule documents list over 150 species of animals and plants for which the massif is important . In Italy , the whole Val Ferret watershed was designated a Special Protection Area ( Italian : Zone di Protezione Speciale ) in 2003 , and this 90 @.@ 8 km2 ( 35 @.@ 1 sq mi ) area now forms part of the European Union 's Natura 2000 network of protected sites .
Despite these individual designations , the Mont Blanc massif as a whole is still regarded by conservationists as representing an important missing link in the wider network of protected areas of the western Alps .
= Penda of Mercia =
Penda ( died 15 November 655 ) was a 7th @-@ century King of Mercia , the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom in what is today the English Midlands . A pagan at a time when Christianity was taking hold in many of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms , Penda took over the Severn Valley in 628 following the Battle of Cirencester before participating in the defeat of the powerful Northumbrian king Edwin at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in 633 .
Nine years later , he defeated and killed Edwin 's eventual successor , Oswald , at the Battle of Maserfield ; from this point he was probably the most powerful of the Anglo @-@ Saxon rulers of the time , laying the foundations for the Mercian supremacy over the Anglo @-@ Saxon Heptarchy . He repeatedly defeated the East Angles and drove Cenwalh the king of Wessex into exile for three years . He continued to wage war against the Bernicians of Northumbria . Thirteen years after Maserfield , he suffered a crushing defeat by Oswald 's successor and brother Oswiu , and was killed at the Battle of the Winwaed in the course of a final campaign against the Bernicians .
= = Etymology = =
The etymology of the name Penda is unknown . Penda of Mercia is the only monarch with this name , but a number of Mercian commoners with the same name are on record .
Suggestions for etymologies of the name are essentially divided between a Celtic and a Germanic origin . The names of members of a Northumbrian [ spiritual ] brotherhood are recorded in the ninth century Liber vitae Dunelmensis , the name Penda occurs in this list and is categorised as a British ( Welsh ) name . John T. Koch noted that , " Penda and a number of other royal names from early Anglian Mercia have more obvious Brythonic than German explanations , though they do not correspond to known Welsh names . " These royal names include those of Penda 's father Pybba , and of his son Peada . It has been suggested that the firm alliance between Penda and various British princes might be the result of a " racial cause . "
Continental Germanic comparanda for the name include a feminine Penta ( 9th century ) and a toponym Penti @-@ lingen , suggesting an underlying personal name Pendi .
= = Descent , beginning of reign , and battle with the West Saxons = =
Penda was a son of Pybba of Mercia and said to be an Icling , with a lineage purportedly extending back to Wōden . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle gives his descent as follows :
Penda was Pybba 's offspring , Pybba was Cryda 's offspring , Cryda Cynewald 's offspring , Cynewald Cnebba 's offspring , Cnebba Icel 's offspring , Icel Eomer 's offspring , Eomer Angeltheow 's offspring , Angeltheow Offa 's offspring , Offa Wermund 's offspring , Wermund Wihtlæg 's offspring , Wihtlæg Woden 's offspring .
The Historia Brittonum says that Pybba had 12 sons , including Penda , but that Penda and Eowa of Mercia were those best known to its author . ( Many of these 12 sons of Pybba may in fact merely represent later attempts to claim descent from him . ) Besides Eowa , the pedigrees also give Penda a brother named Coenwalh from whom two later kings were said to descend , although this may instead represent his brother @-@ in @-@ law Cenwalh of Wessex .
The time at which Penda became king is uncertain , as are the circumstances . Another Mercian king , Cearl , is mentioned by Bede as ruling at the same time as the Northumbrian king Æthelfrith , in the early part of the 7th century . Whether Penda immediately succeeded Cearl is unknown , and it is also unclear whether they were related , and if so how closely ; Henry of Huntingdon , writing in the 12th century , claimed that Cearl was a kinsman of Pybba . It is also possible that Cearl and Penda were dynastic rivals .
According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Penda became king in 626 , ruled for 30 years , and was 50 years old at the time of his accession . That he ruled for 30 years should not be taken as an exact figure , since the same source says he died in 655 , which would not correspond to the year given for the beginning of his reign unless he died in the thirtieth year of his reign . Furthermore , that Penda was truly 50 years old at the beginning of his reign is generally doubted by historians , mainly because of the ages of his children . The idea that Penda , at about 80 years of age , would have left behind children who were still young ( his son Wulfhere was still just a youth three years after Penda 's death , according to Bede ) has been widely considered implausible . The possibility has been suggested that the Chronicle actually meant to say that Penda was 50 years old at the time of his death , and therefore about 20 in 626 .
Bede , in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , says of Penda that he was " a most warlike man of the royal race of the Mercians " and that , following Edwin of Northumbria 's defeat in 633 ( see below ) , he ruled the Mercians for 22 years with varying fortune . The noted 20th @-@ century historian Frank Stenton was of the opinion that the language used by Bede " leaves no doubt that ... Penda , though descended from the royal family of the Mercians , only became their king after Edwin 's defeat " . The Historia Brittonum accords Penda a reign of only ten years , perhaps dating it from the time of the Battle of Maserfield ( see below ) around 642 , although according to the generally accepted chronology this would still be more than ten years . Given the apparent problems with the dates given by the Chronicle and the Historia , Bede 's account of the length of Penda 's reign is generally considered the most plausible by historians . Nicholas Brooks noted that , since these three accounts of the length of Penda 's reign come from three different sources , and none of them are Mercian ( they are West Saxon , Northumbrian , and Welsh ) , they may merely reflect the times at which their respective peoples first had military involvement with Penda .
The question of whether or not Penda was already king during the late 620s assumes greater significance in light of the Chronicle 's record of a battle between Penda and the West Saxons under their kings Cynegils and Cwichelm taking place at Cirencester in 628 . If he was not yet king , then his involvement in this conflict might indicate that he was fighting as an independent warlord during this period — as Stenton put it , " a landless noble of the Mercian royal house fighting for his own hand . " On the other hand , he might have been one of multiple rulers among the Mercians at the time , ruling only a part of their territory . The Chronicle says that after the battle , Penda and the West Saxons " came to an agreement . "
It has been speculated that this agreement marked a victory for Penda , ceding to him Cirencester and the areas along the lower River Severn . These lands to the southwest of Mercia had apparently been taken by the West Saxons from the Britons in 577 , and the territory eventually became part of the subkingdom of the Hwicce . Given Penda 's role in the area at this time and his apparent success there , it has been argued that the subkingdom of the Hwicce was established by him ; evidence to support this is lacking , although the subkingdom is known to have existed later in the century .
= = Alliance with Cadwallon and the Battle of Hatfield Chase = =
In the late 620s or early 630s , Cadwallon ap Cadfan , the British ( Welsh ) king of Gwynedd , became involved in a war with Edwin of Northumbria , the most powerful king in Britain at the time . Cadwallon apparently was initially unsuccessful , but he joined with Penda , who is thought to have been the lesser partner in their alliance , to defeat the Northumbrians in October 633 at the Battle of Hatfield Chase . Penda was probably not yet king of the Mercians , but he is thought to have become king soon afterwards , based on Bede 's characterisation of his position . Edwin was killed in the battle , and one of his sons , Eadfrith , fell into Penda 's hands .
One manuscript of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle says that , following the victory at Hatfield Chase , Cadwallon and Penda went on to ravage " the whole land " of the Northumbrians . Certainly Cadwallon continued the war , but the extent of Penda 's further participation is uncertain . Bede says that the pagans who had slain Edwin — presumably a reference to the Mercians under Penda , although conceivably it could be a derisive misnomer meant to refer to the Christian British — burned a church and town at Campodonum , although the time at which this occurred is uncertain . Penda might have withdrawn from the war at some point before the defeat and death of Cadwallon at the Battle of Heavenfield , about a year after Hatfield Chase , since he was not present at this battle . Furthermore , Bede makes no mention of Penda 's presence in the preceding siege and battle in which Osric of Deira was defeated and killed . Penda 's successful participation in the battle of Hatfield Chase would have elevated his status among the Mercians and so enabled him to become king , and he might have withdrawn from the war before Heavenfield to secure or consolidate his position in Mercia . Referring to Penda 's successes against the West Saxons and the Northumbrians , D. P. Kirby writes of Penda 's emergence in these years as " a Mercian leader whose military exploits far transcended those of his obscure predecessors . "
= = During the reign of Oswald = =
Oswald of Bernicia became king of Northumbria after his victory over Cadwallon at Heavenfield . Penda 's status and activities during the years of Oswald 's reign are obscure , and various interpretations of Penda 's position during this period have been suggested . It has been presumed that Penda acknowledged Oswald 's authority in some sense after Heavenfield , although Penda was probably an obstacle to Northumbrian supremacy south of the Humber . It has been suggested that Penda 's strength during Oswald 's reign could be exaggerated by the historical awareness of his later successes . Kirby says that , while Oswald was as powerful as Edwin had been , " he faced a more entrenched challenge in midland and eastern England from Penda " .
At some point during Oswald 's reign , Penda had Edwin 's son Eadfrith killed , " contrary to his oath " . The possibility that his killing was the result of pressure from Oswald — Eadfrith being a dynastic rival of Oswald — has been suggested . Since the potential existed for Eadfrith to be put to use in Mercia 's favour in Northumbrian power struggles while he was alive , it would not have been to Penda 's advantage to have him killed . On the other hand , Penda might have killed Eadfrith for his own reasons . It has been suggested that Penda was concerned that Eadfrith could be a threat to him because Eadfrith might seek vengeance for the deaths of his father and brother ; it is also possible that Mercian dynastic rivalry played a part in the killing , since Eadfrith was a grandson of Penda 's predecessor Cearl .
It was probably at some point during Oswald 's reign that Penda fought with the East Angles and defeated them , killing their king Egric and the former king Sigebert , who had been brought out of retirement in a monastery against his will in the belief that his presence would motivate the soldiers . The time at which the battle occurred is uncertain ; it may have been as early as 635 , but there is also evidence to suggest it could not have been before 640 or 641 . Presuming that this battle took place before the Battle of Maserfield , it may have been that such an expression of Penda 's ambition and emerging power made Oswald feel that Penda had to be defeated for Northumbrian dominance of southern England to be secured or consolidated .
Penda 's brother Eowa was also said by the Historia Brittonum and the Annales Cambriae to have been a king of the Mercians at the time of Maserfield . The question of what sort of relationship of power existed between the brothers before the battle is a matter of speculation . Eowa may have simply been a sub @-@ king under Penda and it is also possible that Penda and Eowa ruled jointly during the 630s and early 640s : joint kingships were not uncommon among Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms of the period . They may have ruled the southern and northern Mercians respectively . That Penda ruled the southern part is a possibility suggested by his early involvement in the area of the Hwicce , to the south of Mercia , as well as by the fact that , after Penda 's death , his son Peada was allowed to rule southern Mercia while the northern part was placed under direct Northumbrian control .
Another possibility was suggested by Brooks : Penda might have lost power at some point after Heavenfield , and Eowa may have actually been ruling the Mercians for at least some of the period as a subject ally or puppet of Oswald . Brooks cited Bede 's statement implying that Penda 's fortunes were mixed during his 22 years in power and noted the possibility that Penda 's fortunes were low at this time . Thus it may be that Penda was not consistently the dominant figure in Mercia during the years between Hatfield and Maserfield .
= = Maserfield = =
On 5 August 642 , Penda defeated the Northumbrians at the Battle of Maserfield , which was fought near the lands of the Welsh , and Oswald was killed . Surviving Welsh poetry suggests that Penda fought in alliance with the men of Powys — apparently he was consistently allied with some of the Welsh — perhaps including Cynddylan ap Cyndrwyn , of whom it was said that " when the son of Pyb desired , how ready he was " , presumably meaning that he was an ally of Penda , the son of Pybba . If the traditional identification of the battle 's location with Oswestry is correct , then this would indicate that it was Oswald who had taken the offensive against Penda . It has been suggested that he was acting against " a threat posed to his domination of Mercia by a hostile alliance of Penda and Powys . " According to Reginald of Durham 's 12th century Life of Saint Oswald , Penda fled into Wales before the battle , at which point Oswald felt secure and sent his
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had refused access to key witnesses .
= = Background = =
On 7 April 1991 , Iraq accepted United Nations ( UN ) cease @-@ fire conditions and resolutions , thereby officially ending the Gulf War . This same day , a large multinational , multiple @-@ agency humanitarian effort under the authority of UN Security Council Resolution No. 688 began to aid the approximately 500 @,@ 000 Kurdish refugees who had fled from Iraqi military forces into the hills of northern Iraq . On 18 April 1991 , John Shalikashvili took command of the U.S.-led operation to ensure security for UN relief operations and the Kurdish refugees , called Operation Provide Comfort ( OPC ) .
OPC took place in an area of northern Iraq above the 36th parallel . This area , approximately 160 by 70 kilometres ( 99 by 43 mi ) in size , was designated a " no @-@ fly " security zone by UN coalition forces , enforced by a combined task force ( CTF ) of daily armed aircraft patrols from participating nations , including the United Kingdom , France , Turkey , and the United States . The United States Army was tasked with assisting civilian relief agencies to build communities and facilities for the Kurds in Northern Iraq . Over the next three years , 27 @,@ 000 fixed @-@ wing and 1 @,@ 400 helicopter coalition flights took place in the zone to support humanitarian operations without interference from Iraqi aircraft or other military units .
In April 1994 OPC was co @-@ commanded by USAF Brigadier General Jeffrey Pilkington . The OPC combined air forces were commanded by Colonel Curtis H. Emery , USAF . Colonel Douglas J. Richardson , USAF , was the director of operations for the combined air forces .
= = Incident = =
On 14 April 1994 , at 07 : 36 local time , a USAF E @-@ 3 AWACS aircraft from the 963d Airborne Air Control Squadron ( based at Tinker Air Force Base , Oklahoma ) departed Incirlik Air Base ( AB ) , Turkey in support of OPC . The AWACS , with its 19 @-@ member crew under the mission crew command of Major Lawrence Tracy , was to provide airborne threat warning and air control for all OPC aircraft during its time aloft . The AWACS crew reported on station at its assigned surveillance orbit altitude of 32 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 750 m ) located inside Turkey just north of the northern border of Iraq at 08 : 45 . The weather that day was fair and clear over northern Iraq .
At 08 : 22 , two U.S. Army UH @-@ 60 Black Hawk helicopters from the 6th Battalion , 159th Aviation Regiment ( based in Giebelstadt , Germany ) , called Eagle Flight , departed Diyarbakır , near Pirinçlik Air Base , Turkey headed for the OPC military coordination center ( MCC ) located 150 miles ( 240 km ) away in Zakhu , Iraq . Both helicopters were fitted with external , 230 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 870 L ) fuel tanks on sponsons mounted beside each side door with each tank emblazoned with large American flags . In addition to the flags on the fuel tanks , each helicopter was marked with American flags on each side door , on the nose , and on the belly . The lead Black Hawk was piloted by U.S. Army Captain Patrick McKenna , commander of the Eagle Flight detachment of six helicopters .
At 09 : 21 , the Black Hawks reported their entry into the no @-@ fly zone by radio on the en route frequency to the AWACS en route controller , Lieutenant Joseph Halcli , and then landed six minutes later at the MCC . Halcli and his superior officer , Captain Jim Wang , the AWACS 's senior director , added " friendly helicopter " tags to their radar scopes , noted that both helicopters were displaying identification friend or foe ( IFF ) Mode I and Mode II signals , and then suspended the radar symbols after the Black Hawks disappeared from their scopes upon landing at the MCC at 09 : 24 . Although the helicopters were squawking ( signalling ) the wrong IFF Mode I code for the no @-@ fly zone ( called the Tactical Area of Responsibility or TAOR ) , neither Wang nor Halcli informed the Black Hawk pilots of that ( both helicopters , however , were squawking the correct Mode II codes ) . Wang and Halcli also neglected to direct the Black Hawks to begin using the TAOR radio frequency instead of the en route frequency .
At the MCC , the Black Hawks picked up 16 members of the UN Provide Comfort coalition leadership team including four Kurdish civilians , one Chaldean @-@ Catholic civilian , three Turkish , two British , and one French military officers , plus five U.S. civilian and military officials . At 09 : 54 , the helicopters departed the MCC for Erbil , Iraq , a distance of 120 miles ( 190 km ) . The Black Hawks reported their departure , flight route , and destinations by radio which was acknowledged by Halcli . Halcli then re @-@ initiated the friendly helicopter track on his scope . Two of the Black Hawk passengers were Colonel Jerry Thompson , U.S. Army , commander of the MCC , and his replacement , Colonel Richard Mulhern , U.S. Army . At Arbil and later at Salah ad Din , Iraq , Thompson planned to introduce Mulhern to two prominent Kurdish leaders , Masoud Barzani and Jalal Talabani , as well as to UN representatives . Halcli placed tags on his radar screen to show the two Black Hawks ' track and notified Wang of the helicopters ' movement . In addition to Halcli 's screen , the friendly helicopter symbols were visible on the radar screens of Wang , Tracy , and USAF Major Doug Martin . Martin was the " Duke " or " ACE " airborne command element on the AWACS , meaning that he was a rated aircrew member assigned to the crew to ensure that all engagement ( combat ) mandates were adhered to and executed as written in OPC policies .
En route to Arbil , at 10 : 12 , the Black Hawks entered mountainous terrain and their radar returns disappeared from the AWACS 's scopes . Captain Dierdre Bell , an air surveillance officer on the AWACS , noticed that the Black Hawks ' radar and IFF returns had disappeared and sent an electronic " attention arrow " to Wang 's scope . Wang took no action and the large blinking green arrow automatically disappeared from his screen after one minute .
Meanwhile , at 09 : 35 , two USAF F @-@ 15C fighter aircraft from the 53d Fighter Squadron , piloted by Captain Eric Wickson and Lieutenant Colonel Randy W. May , departed Incirlik AB . Their mission was to perform an initial fighter sweep of the TAOR to clear the area of any hostile aircraft prior to the entry of coalition forces . The air tasking order ( ATO ) that was supposed to list all scheduled coalition aircraft missions for that day and which the two pilots reviewed before takeoff , mentioned that U.S. Army Black Hawk helicopters would be operating in the TAOR that day but did not list takeoff times , routes , or flight durations for them . At 10 : 15 , Wickson radioed Martin on the AWACS and asked if he had any information to pass to them to which Martin replied in the negative .
At 10 : 20 , Wickson , the F @-@ 15C flight lead , reported entering northern Iraq to the AWACS controller responsible for air traffic inside the TAOR , USAF Lieutenant Ricky Wilson . The TAOR frequency that the F @-@ 15s were using was different from the en @-@ route frequency being used by the two Black Hawks . Wilson , however , was monitoring both frequencies and being able to see both Black Hawks on his radar scope before they disappeared at 10 : 12 . Wilson and the other AWACS crew members , many of whom were monitoring the F @-@ 15s ' radio frequency , did not inform the F @-@ 15s that Black Hawks were currently operating in the TAOR . At 10 : 21 , Wilson , believing that the Black Hawks had landed again , asked Wang if he could drop the friendly helicopter symbols from the AWACS 's scopes and Wang approved the request . An AWACS crew instructor , Captain Mark Cathy , who was on the mission to assist the AWACS crew and supervise Wilson on this , his first mission into the TAOR , had retired to the back of the airplane at 10 : 00 to take a nap .
At 10 : 22 , Wickson , flying at 27 @,@ 000 feet ( 8 @,@ 230 m ) , reported a radar contact on a low @-@ flying , slow @-@ moving aircraft 40 miles ( 64 km ) southeast of his current position . Wilson acknowledged Wickson 's report with a " clear there " response , meaning that he had no radar contacts in that area . Unknown to the two F @-@ 15 pilots , the unidentified aircraft were the two U.S. Army Black Hawks . Contrary to standard procedure , neither Tracy nor Wang spoke up at this point to request that the AWACS crew members attempt to identify the F @-@ 15s ' radar contacts .
Both F @-@ 15 pilots then electronically interrogated the radar target with their on @-@ board IFF systems across two different modes ( Mode I and Mode IV ) . Their IFF systems responded negatively to the attempt to identify the contact on Mode I. The Mode IV momentarily gave a positive response , but thereafter responded negatively and the F @-@ 15s moved to intercept the unidentified aircraft . Intermittent IFF Mode I and Mode II returns from the Black Hawks now began to show on Wilson 's and other AWACS crew members ' scopes and friendly helicopter symbols reappeared on Wang 's scope . After closing to 20 miles ( 32 km ) of the radar contacts , at 10 : 25 the F @-@ 15s again reported the contact to the AWACS and Wilson this time responded that he now had a radar contact at that reported location . Although the Black Hawk intermittent radar and now steady IFF returns on the AWACS scopes were in the same location as the unidentified contacts being tracked by the F @-@ 15s , none of the AWACS controllers advised Wickson or May that the contacts they were tracking might be friendly helicopters .
The two F @-@ 15s now initiated a visual identification ( VID ) pass of the contact . The VID pass entailed violating one of OPC 's rules of engagement , which prohibited fighter aircraft from operating below 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 050 m ) above the ground . At this time the two Black Hawks had entered a deep valley and were cruising at a speed of 130 knots ( 150 mph ; 240 km / h ) about 200 feet ( 60 m ) above the ground . Wickson 's VID pass was conducted at a speed of about 450 knots ( 520 mph ; 830 km / h ) , 500 feet ( 150 m ) above and 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) to the left of the helicopters . At 10 : 28 Wickson reported " Tally 2 Hinds " and then passed the two Black Hawks . " Hind " is the NATO designation for the Mil Mi @-@ 24 helicopter , a helicopter that the Iraqi and Syrian militaries operated and was usually configured with armament on small , side @-@ mounted wings . Wilson responded with " Copy , Hinds " and asked Wang , " Sir , are you listening to this ? " Wang responded , " Affirmative " but offered no further guidance or comments .
May then conducted his own VID pass about 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 500 m ) above the helicopters and reported , " Tally 2 . " May later stated to a USAF accident investigation board that his " Tally 2 " call meant that he saw two helicopters but did not mean that he was confirming Wickson 's identification of them as Hinds . Neither F @-@ 15 pilot had been informed that U.S. Army Black Hawks participating in OPC often carried auxiliary fuel tanks mounted on wings nor had either been instructed in the paint scheme that Iraqi Hind helicopters used , light brown and desert tan , which was different from the dark green color used by the Black Hawks . Wickson later stated that , " I had no doubt when I looked at him that he was a Hind . . . . The Black Hawk did not even cross my mind . "
Following their VID passes , Wickson and May circled back behind the helicopters approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) . Because aircraft from various nations sometimes operated unannounced in the northern Iraq area , the OPC rules of engagement required the F @-@ 15 pilots to attempt to verify the nationality of the helicopters . Instead , at 10 : 28 , Wickson notified the AWACS that he and May were " engaged " and instructed May to " arm hot . " At 10 : 30 , Wickson fired an AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM missile at the trail helicopter from a range of about 4 nautical miles ( 10 km ) . The missile hit and destroyed the trailing helicopter seven seconds later ( 36 ° 46 ′ N 44 ° 05 ′ E ) . In response , the lead Black Hawk , piloted by McKenna , immediately turned left and dived for lower altitude in an apparent attempt to evade the unexpected attack . About 20 seconds later , May fired an AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder missile at the lead helicopter from a range of about 1 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km ) , hitting and shooting it down also about 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 2 km ) northeast of the trail helicopter ( 36 ° 55 ′ N 43 ° 30 ′ E ) . All 26 people on board the two Black Hawks were killed . After flying over the wreckage of the two helicopters lying burning on the ground , May radioed Wickson , " Stick a fork in them , they 're done . "
= = Air Force accident investigation = =
By 13 : 15 local time , Kurdish civilians notified the MCC that they had witnessed the two Black Hawks being shot down 40 miles ( 64 km ) north of Arbil and that there were no survivors . The news was quickly picked up by the media and broadcast by CNN .
Within hours , U.S. President Bill Clinton was briefed on the shootdown and called the heads of government of the United Kingdom and France , John Major and François Mitterrand , to express regret and sympathy for the deaths of their citizens in the incident . Clinton then appeared a few hours later in a televised news conference in which he stated that he had directed the U.S. Department of Defense ( DoD ) to lead an inquiry into the accident . Clinton further stated , " We will get the facts , and we will make them available to the American people and to the people of Britain , France , and Turkey , our partners in Operation Provide Comfort . "
General Robert C. Oaks , USAF , Commander of United States Air Forces in Europe , immediately appointed an Air Force Regulation ( AFR ) 110 @-@ 14 accident investigation board composed of a board president , 11 board members from the USAF and U.S. Army , three associate members from France , Turkey , and the United Kingdom , four legal advisers , and 13 technical advisers . The board president was Major General James G. Andrus , USAF . An AFR 110 @-@ 14 investigation 's findings are publicly released and the testimony of witnesses in the investigation can be used against them in military disciplinary proceedings . For this reason , after serious mishaps the USAF usually also conducts a separate safety investigation , in which the results are not publicly released and witness testimony is immune from prosecution . In this case , however , for unknown reasons the USAF decided not to conduct a safety investigation .
After interviewing 137 witnesses and conducting numerous tests , the 27 @-@ volume , 3 @,@ 630 @-@ page AFR 110 @-@ 14 investigation report was publicly released on 13 July 1994 , although some report 's details had been leaked to the media by unknown defense officials two weeks earlier . The board made seven general findings about what they believed caused the shootdown to occur :
1 . Wickson misidentified the Black Hawk helicopters and May failed to notify Wickson that he had been unable to confirm the identity of the helicopters .
2 . The IFF transponders on the F @-@ 15s and / or the Black Hawks did not operate correctly for unknown reasons .
3 . Misunderstandings existed throughout the OPC forces as to how coalition air operations procedures and responsibilities applied to MCC helicopter operations .
4 . The AWACS crew commander , Lawrence Tracy , was not currently qualified in accordance with USAF regulations and he and the other AWACS crewmembers committed mistakes .
5 . OPC personnel in general were not properly trained in the rules of engagement for the northern Iraq no fly zone .
6 . The Black Hawks were not equipped with more modern radios which would have allowed them to communicate with the F @-@ 15s .
7 . The shootdown " was caused by a chain of events which began with the breakdown of clear guidance from the Provide Comfort Combined Task Force to its component organizations . "
The board report stated that , " There is no indication that the AWACS Senior Director ( Wang ) , the Mission Crew Commander ( Tracy ) and / or the DUKE ( Martin ) made any radio calls throughout the intercept , or that they issued any guidance to either the AWACS crew or the F @-@ 15 pilots . " Although the OPC ROE did task the AWACS with controlling and monitoring helicopter operations in the TAOR , the board found that the AWACS crew believed that they had no responsibility for controlling U.S. Army Black Hawks or ensuring that other coalition aircraft were aware of Black Hawks operating in the TAOR . When questioned by board investigators as to who was responsible for tracking the helicopters , Tracy said , " I cannot tell you that . I honestly don 't know . " When Wang was asked the same question by the investigators , he replied , " No one is responsible . " When the investigators asked Martin what action he took when the F @-@ 15s called a visual identification on two Hind helicopters , Martin stated , " I did nothing . "
The board found that combined OPC forces , led by Pilkington , Emery , Richardson , and other USAF officers , had failed to integrate helicopters into aircraft operations in the TAOR . An Eagle Flight officer later testified that he had been told by the CTF 's chief of staff , a USAF officer , that the army Black Hawk unit was not considered to be part of OPC . Thus , the CTF staff , under the direction of Colonel James Rusty O 'Brien , USAF , had not tried to coordinate the U.S. Army Black Hawk missions into the daily ATOs . In fact , neither O 'Brien nor his predecessors had established any type of procedure for communicating information on Black Hawk missions to the Combined Forces Air Component ( CFAC ) . The MCC commander , Colonel Thompson , had personally called O 'Brien on the night of 13 April to tell him about the next day 's Black Hawk mission into northern Iraq , a mission that had been specifically and personally approved by Pilkington earlier that day . O 'Brien or his staff apparently did not attempt to communicate specific information on this mission to the AWACS or F @-@ 15 fighter units at Incirlik , the CFAC , the ground @-@ based mission director , or to the " Duke " on board the AWACS .
For reasons that USAF officers were unable to explain , two versions of each day 's ATO were published , one for the USAF units at Incirlik , and another for the Eagle Flight unit at Pirinclik . The ATO version sent to Eagle Flight , for unknown reasons , gave a wrong IFF Mode I code for the TAOR . Although army Black Hawks had been operating for almost two years in the TAOR while squawking a wrong code and observed doing so by numerous AWACS crews , no one ever told them that they were using a wrong code . On the day of the shootdown , the F @-@ 15s had interrogated the Black Hawks on two different IFF Modes ( Mode I and Mode IV ) . The first responded negatively because the Black Hawks were squawking the wrong code . The second mode responded negatively for technical reasons that the investigation was unable to conclusively determine .
The board did not investigate whether any USAF institutional factors , such as a lack of crew resource management training for the involved aircrews , might have been a factor . Also , the board did not attempt to determine if Wickson and May had violated any of the existing OPC rules of engagement as defined by the ATO or other written instructions .
The United States Secretary of Defense , William Perry , later summarized the " errors , omissions , and failures " contributing to the accident as , " The F @-@ 15 pilots misidentified the Black Hawks , the AWACS crew failed to intervene , Eagle Flight and their operations were not integrated into the Task Force , and the IFF systems failed . " General Shalikashvili , now serving as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , added that , " There were a shocking number of instances where people failed to do their job properly . "
= = = Actions taken = = =
On 8 September 1994 the DoD announced the actions it would take in response to the investigation 's findings . May was charged with 26 counts of negligent homicide by military legal authorities . Martin , Tracy , Wang , Halcli , and Wilson were charged with dereliction of duty . All of those charged faced an Article 32 hearing in which it would be decided if they should be tried by court @-@ martial or the matter disposed of otherwise . Martin , Tracy , Wang , Halcli , and Wilson faced a joint Article 32 hearing while May 's hearing was separate . Wickson was not charged . Although not explicitly stated by USAF leaders , it appears that Wickson was not charged but May was because Wickson had testified that he was sure of his identification of the two Black Hawks as hostile Hinds , while May had stated that he was not sure of Wickson 's identification but had allowed the engagement to proceed anyway .
Martin and Halcli waived their rights to the Article 32 hearing , meaning that their cases could move immediately to court @-@ martial or administrative action . Wickson was given immunity by USAF Lieutenant General Eugene Santarelli , commander of the 17th Air Force , to testify at the hearings . The AWACS crew members ' hearing , which began on 19 October 1994 at Tinker Air Force Base , Oklahoma was an open hearing and presided over by Colonel William Colwell , USAF , under the legal jurisdiction of Lieutenant General Stephen Croker , USAF , commander of the 8th Air Force . May 's hearing , beginning on 7 November 1994 at Sembach Air Base , Germany was a closed hearing and presided over by Colonel Edward M. Starr , USAF , under the legal jurisdiction of Santarelli . Pilkington , Emery , Richardson , and O 'Brien declined requests to testify at either hearing .
On 17 November 1994 the USAF announced that Colwell had recommended to Croker that Wang face court @-@ martial and that Halcli receive nonjudicial administrative action on the dereliction of duty charges . Colwell recommended that the formal dereliction of duty charges be dropped against the other AWACS crew members , but that they could still face nonjudicial action . Croker accepted Colwell 's recommendation and ordered Wang to face court @-@ martial and dismissed the criminal charges against the other AWACS crew members except Halcli , who was offered Article 15 action .
At his hearing , May changed his testimony from what he gave to the accident investigation board , stating that he had positively identified the two helicopters as Iraqi Hinds . Brigadier General John R. Dallager , an F @-@ 15 pilot and Wickson 's and May 's wing commander ( 52nd Fighter Wing ) and regimental court @-@ martial 303 inquiry officer , stated that he found May 's errors in the shootdown " reasonable . " Starr recommended that the charges against May be dropped , stating that he found May 's testimony to be believable . On 27 December 1994 the USAF announced that Santarelli , an F @-@ 15 pilot , had dismissed the charges against May and had decided not to pursue criminal disciplinary actions against any other OPC personnel under his legal jurisdiction , including Wickson , Pilkington , Emery , Richardson , and O 'Brien . In January 1995 a USAF flying board returned Wickson and May , who had been grounded since the incident , to flying status . Subsequently , Wickson was transferred to Randolph Air Force Base , Texas , to undergo instructor pilot training with a follow @-@ on assignment to Columbus Air Force Base , Mississippi .
The USAF later announced the administrative actions taken against the other personnel involved in the shootdown . Pilkington , Emery , and Richardson received letters of admonishment . Martin , May , O 'Brien , Tracy , Wickson , and Wilson received letters of reprimand . Halcli accepted an Article 15 action which resulted in his receiving a letter of reprimand . The personnel involved were allowed to petition for the removal of the letters from their records at a future time . The reprimands were placed in " unfavorable information files " for each individual and were normally removed after two years . General George Joulwan , U.S. Army , Supreme Allied Commander , Europe , removed Pilkington as commander of OPC but the USAF retained him as commander of the 86th Airlift Wing at Ramstein Air Base , Germany . O 'Brien and Emery were transferred to staff positions at the Pentagon . Richardson was transferred to a staff position at Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe . Emery had been promoted to brigadier general on 15 July 1994 and his promotion was allowed to stand .
= = = Wang 's court @-@ martial = = =
Wang 's court @-@ martial took place , beginning on 2 June 1995 , at Tinker Air Force Base . Wang was tried on three counts of dereliction of duty . Most of the personnel involved in the incident , except May , were called to testify , including the AWACS crew members , Wickson , and Pilkington . Most of the 40 witnesses testified with a grant of immunity .
During the trial , evidence was presented that Wang often had trouble staying awake during AWACS missions . In fact , the problem was considered serious enough that the military had referred Wang to medical authorities to be checked for narcolepsy . Wang had also previously failed two check rides .
Pilkington , an F @-@ 16 pilot , testified that as commander of OPC he had sent numerous aircrew members , the majority of them F @-@ 15 pilots , back to their home bases for violating OPC rules or procedures or for displaying a lack of good judgment . In response to questions on the F @-@ 15 pilot 's actions resulting in the shootdown , Pilkington stated , " I don 't understand and I will probably never understand Wickson 's mindset . " When asked if Wickson and May violated OPC rules of engagement in the incident , Pilkington responded , " Yes . " AWACS crew members added in their testimonies that once Wickson and May visually identified the helicopters as hostile , all responsibility for the shootdown passed to the F @-@ 15 pilots .
Frank Spinner , Wang 's civilian attorney , argued that USAF Chief of Staff General Merrill McPeak , a career fighter pilot , had made clear that he did not want Wickson and May punished for their actions in the shootdown . Cited as evidence for this was a Los Angeles Times report , published also in the European Stars and Stripes newspaper on 18 June 1994 that stated that McPeak " strongly opposed " court @-@ martial action for Wickson or May . Pilkington stated that he had heard rumors that McPeak had said something to that effect , but could not confirm if they were true or not .
On 20 June 1995 the USAF announced a " nullification " verdict by Wang 's 10 @-@ member court @-@ martial jury , effectively acquitting Wang of the charges . Nullification is not a finding of innocence , but instead it is a refusal to convict on the stated charges . After the verdict , Wang stated , " I want to say the fight is nowhere near over for me . I want a congressional hearing or investigation into why I was the only person charged . " Major General Nolan Sklute , the USAF 's top legal officer , stated , " An incident like this does not necessarily mean that the conduct of all those involved rises to the level of criminal culpability . I 'm satisfied with the handling of the case . " Secretary of the Air Force Sheila Widnall added , " The Black Hawk helicopters were downed as a result of a tragic series of errors and unfortunate events involving numerous people . The mishap was not the result of any one individual 's actions ; the conduct of numerous officers and the system itself contributed . "
= = Additional investigations and actions = =
On 17 July 1995 , U.S. Senator William Roth , chairman of the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations , authorized a Senate investigation into the incident , primarily in response to complaints from family members of the shootdown victims that it appeared that the U.S. military was not holding anyone seriously accountable for the shootdown . Also in response to complaints about the DoD 's response to the incident , the U.S. House of Representatives ' Armed Services Subcommittee on Military Personnel scheduled a hearing on the incident for 3 August 1995 to examine the accident investigation and the judicial actions that followed . In addition , on 24 July the DoD ordered the USAF to reexamine the disciplinary and administrative actions for the personnel involved in the shootdown and for the Joint Chiefs of Staff to review the corrective actions taken against those involved and determine whether further action was necessary . Widnall requested that the new USAF chief of staff , Ronald R. Fogleman begin his own review of accountability for the incident .
The House Committee on National Security hearing on 3 August was presided over by Congressman Bob Dornan and lasted one day . At the hearing , Pilkington and Andrus explained how the USAF accident investigation was conducted and emphasized that Wickson and May violated the OPC rules of engagement by conducting a VID pass of the Black Hawks that was inadequate to determine the helicopter 's national origin . Andrus stated , " Sir , as a pilot , I would have made another pass . You would never fire until you know what you are shooting at . " Retired USAF colonel and pilot Jerry Cox expressed concern to the Committee with the F @-@ 15 pilots for not taking responsibility for their actions .
On 10 August 1995 Fogleman spoke at a press conference at the Pentagon in which he announced the conclusions reached by his review into the accountability of USAF personnel involved in the shootdown incident . He stated that his investigation found that not all the performance evaluations for the individuals involved in the shootdown reflected the fact that they had received administrative action related to the incident . Fogleman stated ,
" The fact that the conduct of some individuals did not give rise to criminal prosecution or conviction should not end the inquiry into the appropriateness of their actions . Air Force standards require that people display the extraordinary discipline , judgment , and training that their duties require and that the American people expect . "
Fogleman then announced that he had directed that Wickson , May , Wang , Halcli , and Wilson be disqualified from aviation service duties for at least three years . Also , Fogleman wrote and placed " letters of evaluation " in the permanent personnel files of Wickson , May , Wang , Halcli , Wilson , Pilkington , and Emery that stated that each had failed " to meet Air Force standards in job knowledge , judgment and leadership " . In addition , a military decoration awarded to O 'Brien for his service during OPC was rescinded . A videotape in which Fogleman described his actions related to the incident and his views on standards and accountability was distributed throughout the USAF and all USAF officers , senior non @-@ commissioned officers , and Senior Executive Service civilians were ordered to view it . Fogleman further stated that he had found that the military justice system had " worked as it was designed to work " .
= = = Senate investigation = = =
Beginning in September 1995 and continuing for more than one year , Roth 's Senate inquiry into the shootdown , led by Eric Thorson , investigated the incident . Thorson later stated his belief that the USAF accident investigation report and subsequent proceedings had been manipulated in order to avoid holding Wickson and May accountable for their actions . Thorson also stated that he believed that Starr had submitted an inaccurate and misleading report on May 's Article 32 hearing to the USAF commanding officers , including Dallager and Santarelli . With regard to the AWACS personnel , Thorson added that , " We know some of the AWACS crew were incompetent beyond belief , and there is more than adequate evidence to conclude that several crewmembers were grossly negligent . "
In August 1996 , Roth 's investigation board asked the DoD to produce the last four witnesses it wished to interview : Santarelli , Starr , Dallager , and Colonel C. G. Mangin . Mangin was Santarelli 's legal adviser during the Wickson and May inquiry . The DoD refused the request to provide access to the four officers . A short time later , John White , U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense , wrote a letter to Roth in which he asked that those four officers not be deposed .
After further refusals from the USAF and DoD to provide the four officers for interview , Roth 's committee gave the DoD and USAF until 14 : 30 on 31 October 1996 to provide the officers . The deadline passed without the officers appearing before the board . The next day the board sent senate subpoenas directly to the USAF headquarters office at the Pentagon , which refused to accept them . After learning that the senate was now planning to individually serve the four subpoenas directly to the four officers , the associate chief of the Air Force litigation division accepted the subpoenas .
On 13 November 1996 the day the first subpoenaed USAF officer was scheduled to appear , the DoD delivered a letter to Roth , signed by its general counsel , Judith Miller , stating that the DoD believed the subpoenas were invalid because they were issued " after the adjournment of sine die of the 104th Congress " and was therefore not going to honor the subpoenas by providing the four officers for interview . Roth replied to the DoD that only the Senate 's legal counsel could determine the validity of congressional subpoenas because of the " separation of powers " principle in the U.S. Constitution and thus , the subpoenas were valid . The DoD , on 20 November in another letter signed by Miller again refused to produce the witnesses . Roth , whose committee chairmanship was scheduled to end the next month , was told by the U.S. Department of Justice that the U.S. Attorney General , Janet Reno , would not support him if he chose to take the dispute with the DoD to court . Also , many of Roth 's senate colleagues , including John McCain , were asking him to " back off " . Thus , Roth decided to drop the matter and continue preparing the report without the testimony of Santarelli , Dallager , Starr , and Mangin . For the first time in U.S. history , the DoD had refused to comply with a U.S. Senate subpoena .
In January 1997 U.S. Senator Fred Thompson became chairman of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations and terminated the Black Hawk investigation . The senate investigation report was never publicly released . Asked in 2001 about the DoD 's refusal to honor the Senate subpoenas , Thorson responded , " Basically they told the United States Senate to go to hell . "
= = = GAO investigation = = =
In September 1995 the House National Security Subcommittee on Military Personnel , chaired by Bob Dornan , requested that the Government Accountability Office ( GAO ) conduct its own investigation into the shootdown incident . Specifically , the GAO was asked to determine if the USAF accident investigation board had met its objectives , if the subsequent military justice investigations had followed established guidelines , and if the DoD and / or USAF had improperly or unlawfully influenced these investigations .
The GAO released its investigation report on 12 November 1997 . The investigation determined that the USAF accident investigation was properly convened and met its assigned objectives . The GAO report , however , found that the USAF investigation had failed to note that Wickson and May neglected to report their contact with unidentified aircraft to the Duke ( Martin ) aboard
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= = = 2012 : Enlighten made a part of the Canberra Festival = = =
In its second year , Enlighten was made a part of the Canberra Festival . The merging of the festivals was met with criticism from the Canberra branch of the Liberal Party of Australia , with Canberra Liberal Brendan Smyth describing the Labor Government 's attempt to create a new festival as " embarrassing " . The Enlighten entertainment lineup featured in the 2012 event was scaled back significantly from the 2011 event to instead feature local Canberra artists including Owen Campbell . Of the nearly 100 artists contracted to perform in the 2012 festival , 53 per cent were local artists , paid 11 @.@ 5 per cent of the Enlighten programming budget that year . In 2012 Questacon and the National Portrait Gallery became canvasses for projection for the first time — they had not been lit in the 2011 Enlighten festival .
= = = 2013 – 14 : the spiegeltent joins Enlighten = = =
In 2013 , along with the large @-@ scale building illuminations featured in the previous two events , Enlighten hosted a spiegeltent for the first time . The tent put on dozens of shows featuring comics , acrobats and musicians . The festival also included Canberra 's first Dîner en Blanc , a pop @-@ up picnic in which all guests dress in white and bring their own food , table , table @-@ setting and chair . More than 700 people attended the picnic , the third Dîner en Blanc to be held in Australia . Dîner en Blanc was repeated in 2014 , with over 800 people attending , but the dinner was not included as part of Enlighten 2015 . Film screenings and after hours tours were also offered , and American soul singer Charles Bradley performed as part of the 2014 festival .
= = = 2015 – 16 : Enlighten debuts the Night Noodle Markets in Canberra = = =
In November 2014 , the ACT Government announced the Night Noodle Markets would be coming to Canberra during the Enlighten Festival in 2015 . The Night Noodle Markets feature Asian @-@ themed street @-@ food vendors . ACT Tourism Minister Andrew Barr told media that Canberra 's Night Noodle Markets were expected to host up to 25 hawker style food stalls , and that the ACT Government had committed $ 200 @,@ 000 to bring the 2015 noodle markets to the city . Around 156 @,@ 000 peoples visited the inaugural Enlighten Night Noodle Markets — of whom 24 @,@ 000 visited on the opening night , far exceeding expectations .
In 2016 , alongside the Night Noodle Markets , Enlighten featured an installation by Amanda Parer of five illuminated white rabbits standing at 7 metres ( 23 ft ) . Parer described the rabbits as metaphors for the mismanagement of the environment . Free concerts held over the consecutive weekends featured indie rock Australian band Augie March and American alternative country musical group Calexico .
= = Projections = =
For its first six years , the large @-@ scale projections for Enlighten were coordinated by Electric Canvas . Electric Canvas 's managing director Peter Milne has also worked on the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games and the 2006 Melbourne Commonwealth Games .
= = Budget , attendance and visitor expenditure = =
Since its inception , Enlighten has become increasingly popular , attracting 115 @,@ 000 visitors in 2013 and 131 @,@ 500 in 2014 . Attendance rose again in 2015 , to 287 @,@ 874 visitors .
= = Energy usage = =
In 2012 , projections for Enlighten were predominantly powered using diesel generators and consumed 2423 litres of diesel , resulting in an estimated 7 @.@ 0 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas emissions .
= Ginetta Sagan =
Ginetta Sagan ( June 1 , 1925 – August 25 , 2000 ) was an Italian @-@ born American human rights activist best known for her work with Amnesty International on behalf of prisoners of conscience .
Born in Milan , Italy , Sagan lost her parents in her teenage years to the Black Brigades of Benito Mussolini . Like her parents , she was active in the Italian resistance movement , gathering intelligence and supplying Jews in hiding . She was captured and tortured in 1945 , but escaped on the eve of her execution with the help of Nazi defectors .
After studying in Paris , she attended graduate school in child development in the US and married Leonard Sagan , a physician . The couple then resettled in Atherton , California , where Sagan founded the first chapter of Amnesty International in the western US . She later toured the region , helping to establish more than 75 chapters , and organized events to raise money for political prisoners .
In 1984 , Sagan was elected the honorary chair of Amnesty International USA . US President Bill Clinton awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1996 , and Italy later awarded her the rank of Grand Ufficiale Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana ( Grand Official Order of Merit of the Italian Republic ) . Amnesty International founded an annual Ginetta Sagan Award for activists in her honor .
= = Childhood and World War II = =
Ginetta Sagan was born Ginetta Moroni in Milan , Italy , to a Catholic father and a Jewish mother . Both of her parents were doctors . Facing rising antisemitism in Europe , her parents arranged false papers identifying her as Christian to hide her Jewish roots .
When World War II began , both of her parents became active in the Italian resistance movement opposing fascist rule , only to be arrested in 1943 by Mussolini 's Black Brigades . Her father was later shot in a staged " attempted escape " , and her mother sent to Auschwitz , where she died .
Ginetta , then seventeen years old , was already active in the resistance movement , delivering food coupons and clothing to Jews who were in hiding . Following her parents ' disappearance , she became a courier for resistance forces in Northern Italy , as well as helping to print and distribute antigovernment pamphlets . On one occasion , she dressed as a cleaning lady to steal letterhead from government offices so that it could be used to forge letters of safe passage to Switzerland . Due to her energy and small size ( she never grew to more than five feet tall ) , she received the nickname Topolino ( " Little Mouse " ) .
In late February 1945 , Sagan was betrayed by an informer in the movement and , like her parents , arrested by the Black Brigades . During her 45 days of imprisonment , she was beaten , raped , and tortured , leading up to a scheduled April 23 execution . At one point , a jailer tossed her a loaf of bread that contained a matchbox with the word corragio ( " courage " ) written inside , a moment which would motivate much of her later work on behalf of prisoners . On the day of her scheduled execution , she was being beaten by guards in a villa in Sondrio , Italy , when a pair of German officers forced her Italian captors to release her into their custody . She later recalled watching the stars from the window of their car and thinking , " I will never see another dawn . " However , the Germans revealed themselves to be Nazi defectors collaborating with her resistance comrades , and they delivered Sagan safely to a Catholic hospital . Sagan annually celebrated the date of April 23 for the rest of her life .
= = Post @-@ war life = =
After Sagan recuperated , she lived in Paris for a time with her godfather , attending the Sorbonne . In 1951 , she emigrated to the US to study at the University of Illinois at Chicago , majoring in child development . While there , she met Leonard Sagan , then a young medical student . The couple were married the following year , and would remain together until Leonard 's death in 1997 . Following their marriage , the pair moved to Washington , D.C. for Leonard 's work . Sagan also worked part @-@ time teaching cooking classes to the wives of US Congressmen .
The couple later lived in Boston and Japan before settling in Atherton , California in 1968 . Sagan lived there until her death from cancer on August 25 , 2000 . Ginetta is survived by her three sons- Duncan , Loring , and Stuart .
= = Involvement with Amnesty International = =
Though Amnesty International ( AI ) had a growing reputation in the UK , at this time , the organization was still in largely unknown in the US . Only eighteen chapters of AI USA had been formed by 1968 , all of them in the eastern US , totaling less than a thousand members . Sagan had been involved in the organization in Washington , D.C. , and when she arrived in Atherton , she founded the US 's 19th chapter , holding its meetings in her living room . The chapter later grew into AI USA 's first West Coast regional office .
In 1971 , Sagan organized a concert with singer Joan Baez , one of her Atherton neighbors , in order to raise money for Greek political prisoners ; the concert drew more than 10 @,@ 000 people . In her memoirs , Baez described Sagan during the period as having " the gifts of an active mind , a love of life and beauty , an unquashable spirit , and a faith in people very much like that of Anne Frank . " In the three years that followed , Sagan traveled throughout the American West , founding 75 more AI chapters . By 1978 , AI USA 's membership had increased to 70 @,@ 000 , more than 100 times that of a decade before . An AI spokesman later attributed Sagan with doing more than anyone to establish Amnesty International in the US , adding that " I think she has probably organized more people than anyone else in the human rights movement globally " . She also founded the organization 's first newsletter , Matchbox , in 1973 .
Sagan became a figure of controversy from the right and later from the left in the 1970s when she and Baez shifted their focus from protesting abuses by American forces in the Vietnam War to protesting the abuses of North Vietnamese reeducation camps following the war . A colleague remembers fellow anti @-@ war activists being " furious " that Sagan would criticize the new Vietnamese communist regime in the same terms she had criticized the US Armed Forces , and Sagan later recalled accusations that she was a fascist or undercover CIA operative . Over the next decade , she also advocated on behalf of prisoners in Chile , the USSR , Poland , and Greece . She served on the AI USA National Board of Directors from 1983 @-@ 87 . In 1994 , she was elected the organization 's Honorary Chair of the Board .
In addition to her work with Amnesty International , Sagan founded the Aurora Foundation , which investigates and publicizes incidents of human rights abuses .
= = Awards = =
In 1987 , Sagan won a Jefferson Award for Public Service in the category of " Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged " .
In 1996 , US President Bill Clinton awarded Sagan the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the highest civilian honor of the US . In the citation , he stated that " Ginetta Sagan 's name is synonymous with the fight for human rights around the world . She represents to all the triumph of the human spirit over tyranny . " The same year , she was awarded the Grand Ufficiale Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana , Italy 's highest honor .
= = Ginetta Sagan Fund = =
Amnesty International created the Ginetta Sagan Fund in 1994 in Sagan 's honor . The fund grants a $ 10 @,@ 000 annual award to a woman or women " who are working to protect the liberty and lives of women and children in areas where human rights violations are widespread " .
Previous winners of the award include the following :
2014 : Magda Alli and Suzan Fayad , Egypt
2012 : Jenni Williams , Zimbabwe
2010 : Rebecca Masika Katsuva , Democratic Republic of Congo
2009 : Yolanda Becerra Vega , Colombia
2008 : Betty Makoni , Zimbabwe
2007 : Lydia Cacho Ribeiro , Mexico
2006 : Ljiljana Raičević , Serbia and Montenegro
2005 : Hawa Aden Mohamed , Somalia
2004 : Nebahat Akkoc , Turkey
2003 : Sonia Pierre , Dominican Republic
2002 : Jeannine Mukanirwa , Democratic Republic of Congo
2000 : Helen Akongo , Uganda ; Giulia Tamayo Leon , Peru ; Hina Jilani , Pakistan
1999 : Sima Wali , Afghanistan
1999 : Adriana Portillo @-@ Bartow , El Salvador
1998 : Beatrice Mukansinga , Rwanda
1997 : Mangala Sharma , Bhutan
= Mythology of Carnivàle =
Carnivàle is an American television series set in the United States during the Great Depression . The series traces the disparate storylines of a young carnival worker named Ben Hawkins and Brother Justin Crowe , a preacher in California . The overarching story is built around a good and evil theme , which serves as a human @-@ scaled metaphor within a complex structure of myth and allegory . Samson , the carnival 's dwarf manager , sets up the show 's mythology with a prologue in the pilot episode , talking of " a creature of light and a creature of darkness " being born " to each generation " preparing for a final battle .
Most mythological elements in Carnivàle relate to so @-@ called Avatars ( or Creatures of Light and Darkness ) , fictional human @-@ like beings with supernatural powers who embody good and evil . In its first season Carnivàle does not reveal its characters as Avatars beyond insinuation , and makes the nature of suggested Avatars a central question . By the second season it is established that Ben is a Creature of Light and Brother Justin a Creature of Darkness . Other than through the characters , the show 's good @-@ and @-@ evil theme manifests in the series ' contemporary religion , the Christian military order Knights Templar , tarot divination , and in historical events like the Dustbowl and humankind 's first nuclear test . Show creator Daniel Knauf did not respond to questions about the mythology but did provide hints about the mythological structure to online fandom both during and after the two @-@ season run of Carnivàle . Nevertheless , many of the intended clues remained unnoticed by viewers . Knauf left fans a production summary of Carnivàle 's first season two years after cancellation . This so @-@ called Pitch Document , originally written to give HBO and Knauf 's co @-@ writers an overview of the intended storyline , backed up and expanded upon the assumed mythological rules .
= = Avatars = =
The term Avatar ( also spelled Avatara ) originates in Hindu mythology , where it most commonly refers to the incarnation ( bodily manifestation ) of a higher being or the Supreme Being on Earth . Carnivàle 's story never clearly establishes the meaning of this term , yet HBO and the writers used the term interchangeably with the Creatures of Light and Darkness of the series ' opening monologue . The series portrays Avatars as human @-@ like beings with supernatural powers who embody good and evil , and whose constant and age @-@ long struggle serves to explain the Dark Ages and Ages of Enlightenment in humanity 's history in the real world . Carnivàle represents this Avataric duality as Light and Dark in several instances . The surnames of the main characters , Ben Hawkins and Justin Crowe , suggest a symbolic link to hawks and crows , the winged Creatures of Light and Dark . The last two Tarot cards seen in the Carnivàle 's opening title sequence are " The Sun " and " The Moon " , standing for God and the Devil . By the same token , the show 's title card and the logo of the carnival depict a sun placed opposite a moon . Show creator Daniel Knauf designed this logo .
= = = Characteristics = = =
The characters Ben Hawkins and Brother Justin Crowe are revealed to be Avatars through the usage of their supernatural powers ; however , viewers did not find it immediately apparent whether a suspected Avatar served as good or evil . The series gave clues , such as depicting the Creatures of Darkness with coal @-@ black eyes ( according to Daniel Knauf , Creatures of Light have an invisible aura ) . An Avatar 's nature is determined by the type and application of his powers . As the Pitch Document states , Avatars draw their talents and powers from the same pool . These abilities may vary in type and strength , and include but are not limited to the manipulation and transfer of life force , spiritual healings , telekinesis and telepathy , and granting small measures of powers to a mortal . Although the series showed the powers of Ben and Brother Justin , reviewers were still unsure about the main characters ' Avataric nature by the end of the first season . When Ben 's good nature and Justin 's dark heritage became clearer in Season 2 , reviewers began to describe Carnivàle 's underlying message as " essentially the opposite of spiritual belief : fatalism " . Daniel Knauf disputed any theory of determinism , and repeatedly pointed to the characters ' free will to overcome their destiny . Free choice allows the story to portray Avatars as deliberately not making use of their powers or as acting contrary to their nature ; an Avatar would however still have to put consistent effort into not lapsing back into his defined moral behavior .
The Pitch Document described Avatars as sharing the ability to envision the past , present and future , both literally and symbolically . Accessing this plane of pure truth is given as an Avatar 's birthright and can be improved through study and practice . Avatars can manipulate and transmit the resulting visions through dreams to others . As far as established , only Creatures of Darkness suffer physical weakness or pain when their opposite makes use of his powers . Avatars can sense the existence of their
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by the Sith . The player 's character , a former Jedi Knight exiled from the Jedi Order , is referred to as " The Exile " or " Jedi Exile " . Throughout the game , the Exile restores their connection to the Force while , with the help of non @-@ playable companions , sets out to stop the Sith . The player makes choices that turn the Exile to either the light side or the dark side of the Force , and travels to six planets to either help or hinder the Republic 's efforts to bring peace and stability to the galaxy .
New playable locations in Knights of the Old Republic II include war @-@ ravaged Telos , a Telos bunker and the orbiting Citadel Station , the port Iziz , Onderon and its jungle moon Dxun , Nar Shaddaa and Goto 's orbiting yacht , Peragus , the starships Harbinger and Ravager . Malachor V , Korriban and Dantooine from the original game are revisited , which are both now with ravaged buildings and intensified problems . The Ebon Hawk , the main character 's ship in the first game , is also the player 's transportation in Knights of the Old Republic II .
= = = Characters = = =
The Exile 's back story reveals that the character served under Revan during the Mandalorian Wars and ordered the activation of a devastating weapon at the climactic battle over Malachor V. The deaths that ensued created such a substantial " wound " in the Force that the character was forced to sever all connections to the Force , and the Jedi Council ordered the character exiled from the Jedi Order . As the game progresses , the Jedi Exile rebuilds a connection to the Force and creates unusually strong Force Bonds with other characters and places , while unknowingly sapping Force powers .
Among the characters who join the Jedi Exile are Kreia , who can act as the Exile 's mentor ; pilot and former Sith assassin Atton Rand ; technician and Mandalorian War veteran Bao @-@ Dur and his droid remote ; the criminal droid G0 @-@ T0 ; and the Sith apprentice Visas Marr . T3 @-@ M4 and Canderous Ordo ( now identified as " Mandalore " ) , both featured in the first game , also join the Exile 's team . Other characters join the Exile 's party under certain conditions . HK @-@ 47 , who appears in the first game , joins the quest if the Exile collects and uses the parts necessary to reactivate it . A Wookiee known as Hanharr , a bounty hunter , joins if the Exile is aligned with the dark side of the Force ; Hanharr 's competitor , Mira , joins if the Exile is light @-@ aligned or neutral . If the player 's character is male , Brianna the Handmaiden can join the player 's quest , while Mical the Disciple joins a female Exile .
The game features three main antagonists : Darth Traya , a mysterious assailant who remains in the dark through most of the game ; Darth Sion , an undead Sith Lord with a murderous hatred for Jedi ; and Darth Nihilus , a Sith Lord whose physical being was destroyed due to his immense affinity to the Force .
= = = Plot = = =
While hiding on the Harbinger , a Republic cruiser , the Exile is sedated by HK @-@ 50 , an assassin droid , to be delivered to a crime syndicate called the Exchange , who have put out a bounty on live Jedi . They are rescued by Kreia , with whom they form a Force Bond , and the droid T3 @-@ M4 on the Ebon Hawk , and flee the Harbinger as it is hijacked by a squad of Sith assassins . However , their ship is damaged by the Harbinger 's gunfire during escape , and they eventually arrive at the Peragus mining facility . Teaming up with smuggler Atton Rand , the group escapes to the planet Telos IV . While hiding out on Telos , they encounter Atris , a surviving member of the Jedi Council who sentenced the protagonist to exile ten years prior . After settling a dispute regarding the Exile 's past sentence , Atris forms an uneasy alliance with them , instructing them to seek out other surviving Jedi to combat the Sith . The Exile then travels to four worlds to find reclusive Jedi Masters and either begs their aid or kills them in revenge over their treatment , depending on player choice . As the Exile continues their journey , they meet several individuals that join them in their quest .
After finding all the Masters , the Exile travels back to Dantooine and learns that the countless deaths at Malachor V resulted in the Exile unconsciously giving up their connection to the Force , which then became the teachings of the new Sith . As the Masters feared that these teachings could result in the actual death of the Force , they prepare to strip the Exile of their Force connection permanently , but Kreia reveals herself to be the former leader of the Sith and murders them all in retribution . Tracking Kreia to Telos , the Exile fights and defeats a corrupted Atris , from whom they learn that Kreia plans to destroy the Force by strengthening a massive wound that the Exile had caused ten years ago during the Mandalorian Wars ; when the Exile ordered the activation of the superweapon that ended the battle , thousands of simultaneous deaths ensued and subsequently caused a wound in the Force . Before following her to Malachor V , where Kreia had since rejoined the Sith as Darth Traya , the Exile stops a Sith invasion of Telos , defeating one of Traya 's former apprentices , the Sith Lord Darth Nihilus . On Malachor V , the Exile is separated from their companions and fights their way through the hordes of monsters that inhabit the planet 's surface , then through the inhabitants of a large Sith Academy that survived the cataclysm . On the final floor of the academy , the Exile kills the Sith Lord Darth Sion and confronts Darth Traya in the planet 's core .
The Exile defeats Traya who , before dying , delivers a prophetic vision of the future pertaining to the player 's companions and the worlds that were visited over the course of the story . Depending on the Exile 's alignment , they either order the destruction of Malachor V , escaping before it is destroyed , and travel into the Unknown Regions in search of Revan ( light side ) or remain on Malachor V as the new Dark Lord of the Sith ( dark side ) .
= = Development = =
Knights of the Old Republic II was developed by Obsidian Entertainment and published by LucasArts . It is the sequel to BioWare 's Knights of the Old Republic . The game uses the same Odyssey Engine from the original Knights of the Old Republic . BioWare offered Obsidian the Knights of the Old Republic license due to them being familiar with Obsidian 's past work and their good relationship with them . The PC version of the game was developed along with the Xbox version , but due to the Xbox version being released two months prior to the PC version , the latter received multiple bug fixes .
Development of the game started in October 2003 . The overview of the game 's story was originally drafted before the first Knights of the Old Republic was released , after which it saw many revisions and also some major redrafts . To help him write Knights of the Old Republic II , Chris Avellone , the game 's lead designer , tried to read as much about the Star Wars universe as possible , including books , guides , modules , and graphic novels , and the Obsidian team also relied on the first Knights of the Old Republic and the original Star Wars films for inspiration . Avellone said that Obsidian recognized one of the things that made Knights of the Old Republic great was the story and the companions , and that they tried to expand upon this by adding more depth to them .
When Obsidian were preparing to present Knights of the Old Republic II at E3 2004 , they tried to fit as much information as they could , saying that it would need to be a duration of 30 minutes as it was the only E3 event it would be showcased at ; however , due to the limited time frame , they would have to cut it down to a five- to ten @-@ minute presentation . During this time , none of the levels Obsidian designed were ready to be shown , so they picked three levels , and put them through a schedule to finish them on time . The demo was finished a few days before the event , and the game was presented in May 2004 . The first trailer for Knights of the Old Republic II was later unveiled in July 2004 .
Knights of the Old Republic II uses the same d20 System as the first Knights of the Old Republic with some changes , and the level cap has also been removed . Obsidian put much work into the game 's graphics , including the appearances of non @-@ player characters , and they also increased the sizes of areas . Knights of the Old Republic II 's lead artist was Aaron Meyers ; he decided which people would join the art team after looking through " tons of applications , resumes , and demo reels " , and he said that he was pleased with the amount of people who wanted to work for Obsidian . Meyers also complained about the short deadline the development team had to deal with . Obsidian 's COO , Chris Parker , said that the schedule set for the development team was " extremely aggressive " , and that the team felt a lot of pressure because they were " making a sequel to the game of the year for 2003 " .
For the music , the development team felt that symphony orchestra would work best for Knights of the Old Republic II . The musical score was composed by Mark Griskey , who developed music and themes for characters and places , including the Jedi 's theme , Darth Sion 's theme and Darth Malak 's theme ( which both have many similarities with the Emperor 's theme from The Return of the Jedi ) . He also created a theme for the main character , which is heard occasionally when he or she experiences internal conflict . The 70 @-@ minute score was recorded by the Sinfonia Orchestra in Seattle . The opening crawl utilizes the version of John Williams ' main Star Wars theme that was re @-@ recorded for the prequel trilogy .
When looking back at Knights of the Old Republic II in a 2013 interview , Avellone said that LucasArts forced Obsidian to finish the game in a 14 to 16 months time frame that ended up in the game being in an " unfinished " state . However , Avellone said that Obsidian was at fault for this due to not cutting out enough things ; he noted that all minigames should have been removed , and also said that there were too many in @-@ engine cutscenes . Obsidian 's co @-@ founder , Feargus Urquhart , said that the game was originally going to be released in 2005 , but it was later moved up to December 2004 after E3 ; according to him , Obsidian had to choose between " get [ ting ] in trouble or get [ ting ] it done " .
Knights of the Old Republic II went gold on November 23 , 2004 ; it was later released on the Xbox on December 6 , 2004 , and the PC version was released on February 8 , 2005 . The game was later re @-@ released in August 2012 on the digital distribution platform , Steam , and in January 2015 on GOG.com. On July 21 , 2015 , OS X and Linux versions were released along with new support for Steam Workshop and other Steamworks features , controller input , and modern widescreen resolutions up to 5K .
Along with several official patches , a fan @-@ released unofficial patch by a modding community fixed around 500 remaining bugs , along with restoring most of the content that was cut from the game . There were also methods found by the community for improving compatibility on modern PC operating systems .
= = Reception = =
Knights of the Old Republic II was met with positive reception upon its release ; on Metacritic , it has an aggregate score of 85 / 100 and 86 / 100 on the PC and Xbox versions respectively , indicating " generally favorable reviews " according to the site . IGN said that there is a bulk of pressure involved with developing the sequel to a game from a different developer which won several " Game of the Year " awards , and that Obsidian delivered . The review also said that it won 't disappoint fans of the original game and that it is mostly similar to it in terms of the model . GamePro praised both the first and second Knights of the Old Republic and said that the second game continues the series ' tradition of not fixing what is not broken . GameSpot echoed this statement , also saying that both the good things and the shortcomings from the first game are present in Knights of the Old Republic II .
GameSpy compared the game to The Empire Strikes Back from the original Star Wars film trilogy in that it is the best of the series in terms of story , and also said that the game has the best story in a video game since Planescape : Torment . 1UP.com wrote that Obsidian surpassed the original Knights of the Old Republic in terms of the writing , saying that the plot is more consistent , the dialogue is edgier and the moral choices are more significant . Eurogamer said that compared to the original game , Knights of the Old Republic II 's plot is " far more grey " . The review also said that planets are " better developed and paced " . GameZone wrote that the game is a " Must Buy " for people who like well @-@ written characters and story .
The combat was generally well @-@ received , with some reviewers noting that it is mostly unchanged from the original Knights of the Old Republic . GameSpot compared the combat from the first Knights of the Old Republic to the second , saying that it isn 't well @-@ balanced in both ; however , the reviewer wrote that it helps the combat remain spontaneous . GameZone said that the combat is not changed from the first Knights of the Old Republic to the second , but that this is a good thing since the combat in the original was enjoyable . IGN praised the game 's AI , saying that it is easy to control the main character alone without controlling the party members . GameSpy 's reviewer , on the other hand , said that he encountered problems with the combat AI that were not present in the original Knights of the Old Republic .
GameSpot criticized Knights of the Old Republic II 's graphics , calling them " lackluster " . GameSpy 's reviewer felt that the game 's graphics were disappointing , calling them " a little dated " and " half @-@ baked " . The reviewer further criticized the graphics for looking the same as they were in the first game of the series , saying that they could only be considered " good " during the release of that game . GameZone said that the game looks exactly the same as the original Knights of the Old Republic , and that it doesn 't compare to the majority of mainstream games released at the time . GameSpy called the music in the game " excellent " ; however , the reviewer noted that some of it is re @-@ used from the first game of the series . The GameSpy reviewer also said that while the majority of the voice @-@ acting is good , there are " a few more examples of bad voice @-@ acting " than in the first Knights of the Old Republic . GameZone said that the " top @-@ notch " voice acting complements the game 's very well @-@ written dialogue , and also praised the game 's sound effects .
The game was criticized for its glitches ; several players reported having problems with pathfinding bugs . 1UP.com 's reviewer condemned Knights of the Old Republic II for having the same bugs and technical issues as in the first game , saying that his party " still had a tendency to warp and skip around the map at times " , and he also criticized the pathfinding in the game . GameSpy said that the game 's bugs are " hard to forgive " , and that these issues didn 't occur in the first Knights of the Old Republic . In a different article , GameSpy said that the game is incomplete , and attributed this to its rushed deadline .
GameSpy called Kreia the best video game character of 2005 , saying that she was " easily the most intriguing , complicated , enigmatic , well @-@ designed and nuanced character in a video game this year " . In 2010 , the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die .
= Group Representation Constituency =
A Group Representation Constituency ( GRC ) is a type of electoral division or constituency in Singapore in which teams of candidates , instead of individual candidates , compete to be elected into Parliament as the Members of Parliament ( MPs ) for the constituency . The Government stated that the GRC scheme was primarily implemented to enshrine minority representation in Parliament : at least one of the MPs in a GRC must be a member of the Malay , Indian or another minority community of Singapore . In addition , it was economical for town councils , which manage public housing estates , to handle larger constituencies .
The GRC scheme came into effect on 1 June 1988 . Prior to that date , all constituencies were Single Member Constituencies ( SMCs ) . Now , the Parliamentary Elections Act ( Cap . 218 , 2008 Rev. Ed . ) ( " PEA " ) states that there must be at least eight SMCs , and the number of MPs to be returned by all GRCs cannot be less than a quarter of the total number of MPs . Within those parameters the total number of SMCs and GRCs in Singapore and their boundaries are not fixed but are decided by the Cabinet , taking into consideration the recommendations of the Electoral Boundaries Review Committee .
According to the Constitution and the PEA , there must be between three and six MPs in a GRC . The precise number of MPs in each GRC is declared by the President at the Cabinet 's direction prior to a general election . For the purposes of the 2015 general election , there were 13 SMCs and 16 GRCs , and each GRC had between four and six MPs .
Critics disagree with the government 's justifications for introducing the GRC scheme , noting that the proportion of minority MPs per GRC has decreased with the advent of five @-@ member and six @-@ member GRCs . By having teams of candidates standing for election for GRCs helmed by senior politicians , the ruling People 's Action Party has also used GRCs as a means for bringing first @-@ time candidates into Parliament . Moreover , the GRC scheme is also said to disadvantage opposition parties because it is more difficult for them to find enough candidates to contest GRCs . Furthermore , it is said that the GRC scheme means that electors have unequal voting power , weakens the relationship between electors and MPs , and entrenches racialism in Singapore politics .
= = Introduction of the scheme = =
There are two types of electoral division or constituency in Singapore : the Single Member Constituency ( SMC ) and the Group Representation Constituency ( GRC ) . In a GRC , a number of candidates comes together to stand for elections to Parliament as a group . Each voter of a GRC casts a ballot for a team of candidates , and not for individual candidates . The GRC scheme was brought into existence on 1 June 1988 by the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( Amendment ) Act 1988 and the Parliamentary Elections ( Amendment ) Act 1988 .
The original stated purpose of GRCs was to guarantee a minimum representation of minorities in Parliament and ensure that there would always be a multiracial Parliament instead of one made up of a single race . Speaking in Parliament during the debate on whether GRCs should be introduced , First Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Defence Goh Chok Tong said he had first discussed the necessity of ensuring the multiracial nature of Parliament with Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew in July 1982 . Then , Lee had expressed concern about the voting patterns of younger Singaporeans , who appeared to be apathetic to the need of having a racially balanced slate of candidates . He was also worried about more Singaporeans voting along racial lines , which would lead to a lack of minority representation in Parliament .
He had also proposed to twin constituencies and have Members of Parliament ( MPs ) contest as a pair , one of whom had to be from a minority community . However , Malay MPs were upset that this implied they were not electable on their own merits . Feeling that the twinning of constituencies would lead to Malay MPs losing confidence and self @-@ respect , the Government dropped the proposal .
Therefore , the Government felt that the best way to ensure minority representation in Parliament was to introduce the GRC scheme . In addition , it took the view that such a scheme would complement the introduction of town councils to manage public housing estates , as it would be economical for a town council to manage a group of three constituencies . Subsequently , in 1991 , the Government said that GRCs also minimized the need to redraw the boundaries of constituencies which had grown too big for the MPs serving them , and , in 1996 , GRCs were said to provide Community Development Councils with the critical mass of residents that they needed to be effective .
Three proposals for minority representation in Parliament had been considered by a 1966 Constitutional Commission chaired by the Chief Justice Wee Chong Jin . The first was to have a committee of representatives of minorities that would elect three persons from amongst its members to represent minorities in Parliament . However , this was rejected as the Commission felt that it would be an inappropriate and retrogressive move in that unelected members should not be allowed to dilute the elected chamber . The second proposal , which was to have proportional representation , was also rejected on the grounds that it would intensify party politics along racial lines and eventually " perpetuate and accentuate racial differences " . This would then make it increasingly difficult , if not impossible , to achieve a single homogeneous community out of the many races that form the population of the Republic . The third proposal was to have an upper house in Parliament composed of members elected or nominated to represent the racial , linguistic and religious minorities in Singapore . However , this was rejected as being backward @-@ looking since politicians should attain a seat in Parliament through taking part in elections .
= = Operation = =
= = = Number and boundaries of electoral divisions = = =
Apart from the requirement that there must be at least eight SMCs , the total number of SMCs and GRCs in Singapore and their boundaries are not fixed . The number of electoral divisions and their names and boundaries are specified by the Prime Minister from time to time by notification in the Government Gazette .
Since 1954 , a year ahead of the 1955 general election , an Electoral Boundaries Review Committee ( EBRC ) has been appointed to advise the executive on the number and geographical division of electoral divisions . Even though neither the Constitution nor any law requires this to be done , the Prime Minister has continued to do so from Singapore 's independence in 1965 . This is generally done just before a general election to review the boundaries of electoral divisions and recommend changes . In recent decades , the Committee has been chaired by the Cabinet Secretary and has had four other members who are senior public servants . In the EBRC appointed before the general election of 2006 , these were the head of the Elections Department , the Chief Executive Officer of the Singapore Land Authority , the Deputy CEO of the Housing and Development Board and the Acting Chief Statistician . Since the Committee is only convened shortly before general elections , the preparatory work for boundary delimitation is done by its secretariat the Elections Department , which is a division of the Prime Minister 's Office .
The EBRC 's terms of reference are issued by the Prime Minister , and are not embodied in legislation . In giving recommendations for boundary changes over the years , the Committee has considered various factors , including using hill ridges , rivers and roads as boundaries rather than arbitrarily drawn lines ; and the need for electoral divisions to have approximately equal numbers of voters so that electors ' votes carry the same weight regardless of where they cast their ballots . In 1963 , the EBRC adopted a rule allowing the numbers of voters in divisions to differ by no more than 20 % . The permitted deviation was increased to 30 % in 1980 . It is up to the Cabinet to decide whether or not to accept the Committee 's recommendations .
= = = Requirements of GRCs = = =
All the candidates in a GRC must either be members of the same political party or independent candidates standing as a group , and at least one of the candidates must be a person belonging to the Malay , Indian or some other minority community . A person is regarded as belonging to the Malay community if , regardless of whether or not he or she is of the Malay race , considers himself or herself to be a member of the community and is generally accepted as such by the community . Similarly , a person will belong to the Indian community or some other minority community if he or she considers himself or herself a member and the community accepts him or her as such . The minority status of candidates is determined by two committees appointed by the President , the Malay Community Committee and the Indian and Other Minority Communities Committee . Decisions of these committees are final and conclusive , and may not be appealed against or called into question in any court .
The President , at the Cabinet 's direction , declares the electoral divisions that are to be GRCs ; the number of candidates ( three to six ) to stand for Parliament in each GRC ; and whether the minority candidates in each GRC are to be from the Malay , Indian , or other minority communities . The number of GRCs in which at least one MP must be from the Malay community must be three @-@ fifths of the total number of GRCs , and the number of MPs to be returned by all GRCs cannot be less than a quarter of the total number of MPs to be returned at a general election . For the 2011 general election , there were 12 SMCs and 15 GRCs .
An electoral division which is a GRC returns the number of MPs designated for the constituency by the President to serve in Parliament . A group of individuals standing together in a GRC is voted for as a team , and not as individual candidates . In other words , a successful voter 's single vote in an SMC sends to Parliament one MP , and a GRC sends a group of MPs depending on how many have been designated for that GRC . All elected MPs are selected on a simple plurality voting ( " first past the post " ) basis .
A by @-@ election need not be held to fill a vacancy in any GRC triggered by the death or resignation of an MP or some other reason . A by @-@ election is required only if all the MPs in a GRC vacate their Parliamentary seats . Assuming that such a situation does arise , the Prime Minister would be obliged to call a by @-@ election within a reasonable time , unless he intends to call a general election in the near future .
= = = Modifications = = =
In 1988 , 39 SMCs were grouped into 13 three @-@ member GRCs , making up 39 out of a total of 81 elected seats in Parliament . The Constitution and the Parliamentary Elections Act were changed in 1991 and again in 1996 to increase the maximum number of MPs in each GRC from three to four , and then to six . In the 2001 general election , three- and four @-@ member GRCs were replaced by five- and six @-@ member GRCs . There were nine five @-@ member GRCs and five six @-@ member GRCs , making up 75 out of the 84 elected seats in Parliament . This arrangement remained unchanged at the 2006 elections .
On 27 May 2009 , the Government announced that it would refine the size and number of GRCs . This could be achieved without amending either the Constitution or the Parliamentary Elections Act . Instead , when the next EBRC was appointed , its terms of reference would instruct the Committee to plan for fewer six @-@ member GRCs than at present , and to reduce the average size of each GRC . The average size of GRCs at that time was 5 @.@ 4 MPs because there were only five @-@ member and six @-@ member GRCs . The new average , however , would not exceed five MPs .
In addition , to ensure that the number of SMCs kept pace with the increase in voters and hence the number of MPs , the EBRC 's terms of reference would state that there should be at least 12 SMCs . The rationale given for these changes was that the GRC scheme would work better and the link between voters and their MPs would be strengthened . In the 2011 general election , SMCs returned to Parliament 12 MPs and 15 GRCs a total of 75 MPs .
= = Assessment = =
= = = Advantages = = =
As Article 39A of the Constitution states , the GRC scheme ent
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contains exactly the same special features as its anthology set ( both DVD and Blu @-@ ray ) counterparts . There are two differences : This version includes a 50 @-@ page booklet guide to the film , and a slight variation in packaging from normal Blu @-@ ray cases ( i.e. a Warner Bros. digibook ) . They both include a digital copy of the film .
The film was also included in The Tim Burton Collection DVD / Blu @-@ ray set in 2012 , alongside its sequel , Batman Returns , and several other Burton films .
= Walter Oesau =
Walter " Gulle " Oesau ( 28 June 1913 – 11 May 1944 ) was a German World War II fighter ace who served in the Luftwaffe from 1934 until his death in 1944 . He rose to command Jagdgeschwader 1 , which was named in his honor after his death .
He served with the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War , with 3 Staffel of Jagdgruppe 88 ( 3 . / J 88 ) , claiming 8 aircraft during the campaign , becoming one of only 28 people to earn the award of the Spanish Cross in Gold and Diamonds .
At the start of World War II , Oesau was given command of 2 Staffel , Jagdgeschwader 20 . The group was moved to the Eastern Front at the start of the Invasion of Poland , moving back to the Western Front later as the redesignated III Gruppe , Jagdgeschwader 51 ( III . / JG 51 ) . After his first victory of World War II in the Battle of France , Oesau operated on both the Western and Eastern Fronts , where he was wounded and received the Silver Wound Badge .
He returned to operations as Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 1 ( JG 1 ) . He was killed in action on 11 May 1944 aged 30 . JG 1 was given the suffix " Oesau " in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Walter " Gulle " Oesau was born to a bank director in Farnewinkel near Meldorf , Germany on 28 June 1913 . He joined the German Army ( Heer ) in October 1933 and served in the Second Artillery Regiment as an enlisted soldier . After being transferred to a Luftwaffe transport unit , he undertook flying training in 1934 as a cadet ( Fahnenjunker ) at the Luftwaffe Academy ( Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule ) in Hanover . Upon completion of his training he was assigned to Jagdgeschwader 132 , as a Leutnant . The unit was re – designated as Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " in May 1939 .
= = Combat career = =
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
Oesau started his operational career with the Condor Legion , along with future contemporary aces such as Werner Mölders and Adolf Galland . He was one of the first to join 3 . Jagdgruppe 88 in Spain in April 1938 . The Staffel , commanded by Werner Mölders , took part in the Spanish Civil War where Oesau claimed eight victories , flying 130 combat missions . For this he received the Spanish Cross ( Spanienkreuz ) in Gold with Diamonds . He was also wounded in this conflict which earned him the Spanish Wound Badge . He also received the Medalla de la Campaña and the Medalla Militar .
= = = Western Front 1939 – 40 = = =
On 1 March 1939 Oesau joined the Headquarters Flight ( Stabsschwarm ) of I. / JG 2 . By 15 July 1939 Oesau was promoted to Oberleutnant and given command of 2 . / JG 20 . On 15 July 1939 , I. / JG 20 was activated in Döberitz initially consisting of two Staffeln drawn from JG 2 . Prior to the invasion of Poland I. / JG 20 was transferred to Strausbergon 26 August 1939 . From there , the group was transferred to Sprottau ( modern Szprotawa ) anticipating an attack from the Polish Air Force . A week later the group moved to Brandenburg . On 21 February 1940 , the unit was relocated to Bönninghardt under the control of JG 51 . It continued to operate in this fashion until the end of the Battle of France . On 4 July it was re – designated III . / JG 51 . Oesau served as Staffelkapitän of 7 . / JG 51 .
= = = = Battle of France = = = =
Oesau got his first World War II victory during the Battle of France on 13 May 1940 , when he claimed a French Curtiss P @-@ 36 Hawk over Halsteren in the Netherlands , earning him the Iron Cross 1st class ( Eisernes Kreuz 1 . Klasse ) . On 31 May , he claimed three Spitfires during a patrol North West of Dunkirk and next day he claimed a Bristol Blenheim . On 13 June 1940 , he shot down the last French aircraft kill claimed by JG 51 , a French Amiot bomber . By the end of hostilities in France on 25 June , his World War II tally stood at 5 ( 13 including Spanish kills ) .
Following the Battle of France , the Luftwaffe started its attacks on Channel convoys as a prelude to the Battle of Britain . The primary task of JG 51 during this time was to provide fighter escort to these bomber missions . The commander of JG 51 , Oberst Theo Osterkamp established a policy of unrestricted combat air patrol ( freie Jagd ) of fighter Staffeln providing loose protection rather than close escort to the bombers , actively seeking out Royal Air Force fighters . On 7 July 1940 Oesau claimed one Spitfire .
= = = = Battle of Britain = = = =
On 10 July 1940 , the first major clashes of the Battle of Britain occurred in a phase known as the Kanalkampf . 20 Bf 109s of III . / JG 51 led by Hauptmann Hannes Trautloft and 30 Bf 110 C of I. / Zerstörergeschwader 26 escorted 20 Dornier Do 17 bombers of II . / Kampfgeschwader 2 attacking a large convoy off Folkestone . Oberleutnant Oesau was leading 7 . / JG 51 .
Trautloft noticed three of a flight of six intercepting Hurricanes of No. 32 squadron higher than the escorts , attempting to intercept the bombers . Soon they were joined by four squadrons of British fighters : No. 56 Squadron , No. 111 Squadron , No. 64 Squadron and No. 74 Squadron . Oesau was able to claim three Spitfires . Two 7 . / JG 51 aircraft crash landed in France . British losses show that no Spitfire was lost or destroyed in the ensuing battle . Only one No. 32 Hurricane , piloted by Pilot Officer Higgs , was destroyed in a collision with one of the Do 17s and only one other Hurricane was damaged . It is possible Oesau was responsible for damaging Higgs ' Hurricane , causing him to lose control . Two Spitfires landed with light damage while a third was also slightly damaged and force @-@ landed at RAF Manston . Over claiming of enemy losses was rife on both sides during the battle .
On 19 July , III . / JG 51 were confronted by Defiants of No. 141 Squadron south of Folkestone . As the German pilots were now aware of Defiant 's lack of front armament , they soon gained the advantage in combat and claimed 11 Defiants shot down in 8 minutes . Oesau was credited with one Defiant , taking his score to 19 . He was the first one of JG 51 to reach double digits in World War II . RAF losses record six Defiants destroyed and two damaged .
On 18 August 1940 , III . / JG 51 escorted Dorniers attacking Hornchurch airfield . Intercepted by Hurricanes over Kent , Oesau claimed one Hurricane shot down as his 20th victory , earning him the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) two days later , the first pilot of JG 51 to be thus honored . On 23 August 1940 , Trautloft took over as Geschwaderkommodore of JG 54 , and Walter Oesau replaced him as Gruppenkommandeur of III . / JG 51 . By October 1940 , Oesau had a total score of 48 ( including 26 Spitfires ) .
On 10 November 1940 Oesau succeeded Wilhelm Balthasar as Gruppenkommandeur of III . / JG 3 . With 39 victories he was currently the 4th highest scoring Ace behind Helmut Wick , Werner Mölders and Adolf Galland . On 5 February 1941 he shot down a Hurricane over Desvres , France , his 40th victory . He was awarded the Oak Leaves ( mit Eichenlaub ) to his Knight 's Cross next day . It also earned him second entry in the Wehrmachtbericht . In early 1941 , JG 3 returned to Germany to replace their Bf 109 ' Emils ' with the new ' F ' variant ( Friedrich ) . However , Oesau disliked the Bf 109F and kept flying his ' Emils ' for some time . JG 3 returned to France in May 1941 and Oesau added two more kills on 16 May and 28 May bringing his total to 51 .
= = = Operation Barbarossa = = =
Oesau 's III . / JG 3 was then involved in Operation Barbarossa the invasion of Russia , launched on 22 June 1941 . Oesau shot down his first Soviet aircraft on 24 June 1941 , and by 30 June 1941 had reached his 60th victory , downing a Tupolev SB bomber . Next day he downed three more SB bombers near Lvov ( modern Lviv , Ukraine ) . This earned him his 3rd entry in the Wehrmachtbericht . On 10 July 1941 , Oesau claimed 5 more aircraft and two more kills by 11 July 1941 . On 12 July 1941 , he shot down 7 Soviet aircraft in one sortie . In the five weeks since moving to the Eastern Front , Oesau was credited with 44 Soviet aircraft downed . He became the third pilot to reach 80 victories , the 80th kill an Ilyushin DB @-@ 3 bomber . He was awarded the Swords to his Knight 's Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) on same day . He was the third person to earn the Swords . He was again then wounded , receiving heavy splinter injuries in face and knee . A fortnight later he was transferred to the Western Front to take over JG 2 .
= = = Defence of the Reich 1941 – 44 = = =
He succeeded Balthasar for the second time as JG 2 commander , who had died in combat with Spitfires over northern France when he pulled the tail off his Bf 109F in a dive . The Bf 109F @-@ 2 proved an excellent match to the Spitfire V , but Oesau disliked its reduced armament compared to the ' Emil ' , and continued to fly an E @-@ 4 model in preference to the Bf 109F , until lack of spares forced him to switch to the newer variant . Upon his appointment on 4 July 1941 , he addressed JG 2 with following words .
In the spirit of Manfred von Richthofen , and following the example set by my predecessors , Major Wick and Hauptmann Balthasar , constant readiness and devotion to duty will enable us to achieve yet further successes .
JG 2 was tasked with defending targets in occupied France against the RAF fighter offensive.For the next two years Oesau led JG 2 through the war of attrition waged by the RAF . On 10 August 1941 Oesau claimed a Spitfire for his first kill with JG 2 . Over the next two days , he claimed four more Spitfires . By the end of September 1941 , Oesau had claimed two more Spitfires .
JG 2 participated in the Luftwaffe air cover of the Channel Dash . Two B @-@ 17 C Flying fortresses of No. 90 Squadron attacked the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau . In one of the highest altitude interceptions of World War II , the bombers were attacked by I. / JG 2 , resulting in the destruction of one . This aircraft put JG 2 's score past the 800 mark , matching the score of their Great War namesake . Kills No. 88 to 92 were all Spitfires claimed between Calais and Dungeness on 12 August 1941 . Oesau claimed his 100th kill on 26 October 1941 , the third pilot to do so . This earned him 4th entry in the Wehrmachtbericht .
He was then grounded from flying on operations , as his experience and leadership qualities were regarded as too valuable to risk further in front line combat . He did fly on occasional sorties , the most famous involving the shooting down of a Lancaster bomber of No. 44 Squadron RAF piloted by Warrant Officer G. T. Rhodes in April 1942 , during a rare RAF daylight raid on targets in Augsberg . It was his 101st kill . In August 1942 , the Geschwaderstab of JG 2 exchanged their Bf 109 F aircraft for the FW 190 A – 2s .
From late 1942 onwards JG 2 was in the front line against the increasingly numerous United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) day bomber formations of B @-@ 17s and B @-@ 24s .
Oesau added four more to his tally by mid @-@ 1943 . Shortly before his 30th birthday , Oesau was elevated to a series of Luftwaffe staff and administration positions . On 1 July 1943 he was posted as Fighter Leader Brittany ( Jagdfliegerführer Bretagne ) , before being appointed as Geschwaderkommodore of JG 1 on 12 November 1943 , following the death of JG 1 's Hans Philipp in October 1943 . The ban on Oesau 's combat flying was lifted . While commanding JG 1 , Oesau became an expert ( Experten ) at shooting down 4 engine bombers , with 14 bomber kills claimed . He was awarded the Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge in gold and diamonds on 17 October 1943 . He was awarded the German Cross in Gold on 10 January 1944 .
For Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Luftwaffe Hermann Göring it was an ongoing concern that inadequate numbers of fighters were able to continually engage the bomber streams , at the very time that the USAAF 's 8th Air Force 's new commander , Maj. Gen. Jimmy Doolittle had instituted a new fighter strategy against the Luftwaffe . Hence on 23 February 1944 — near the midpoint of the USAAF 's Big Week bomber offensive against the Luftwaffe , also being carried out by the 15th Air Force flying out of Italian bases — Generalmajor Joseph Schmid Commander of I. Jagdkorps established a new rule for the fighters returning to base . They were to arrive at the nearest designated fighter airfield for resupply instead of returning to their own base . They were to be commanded by the senior pilot landing on that airfield , irrespective of their unit . This was meant to turn around the fighters in time to intercept returning bombers .
On next day , B @-@ 24s of 2nd Bomb division of the Eighth Air Force bombed Gotha . JG 1 ( under Oesau ) , JG 11 and JG 3 was sent to intercept . Due to high winds , the bombers were ahead of the escorts unprotected . Two groups of JG 1 met them before Gotha and 9 B @-@ 24s were claimed as a result . Since B @-@ 17s of 1st Bomb division also bombed Schweinfurt , other fighter units also arrived to intercept , eventually involving almost all the Western day fighter units of the Luftwaffe . This caused for confusion in pilots landing on airfields other than their own . This tested the directive of Schmid . Oesau led one of two such improvised formations successfully , with the other led by Hauptmann Borris of I. / JG 26 Oesau added 4 fighters to his score between January and March 1944 , and his tally stood at 117 . On 8 May 1944 he claimed a Thunderbolt shot down over Hanover ; his last kill .
= = Death = =
While being the Geschwaderkommodore ( = equivalent of a RAF Group Captain or USAF Wing Commander ) of JG 1 Oesau frequently received his share of Hermann Göring 's deep anger and frustration over the failure to beat off the Allied bomber offensive . Göring questioned the commitment of Geschwaderkommodores who were not flying regularly and thus not really " leading " their respective units . In this context it should be stated that in order not to risk one of the Luftwaffe expert 's life [ German fighter aces were called Experten ] , there was an automatic ban on Oesau for further combat flying since his 100th kill . Perhaps the ban was lifted temporarily or bypassed when he was appointed Geschwaderkommodore of JG 1 . On the other hand , Oesau might simply have ignored the ban and continued to lead missions .
Oesau added several victories over American heavy bombers in the first five months of 1944 . On 11 May 1944 one thousand U.S. heavy bombers from Eighth Air Force attacked railway targets in Eastern France and North East Belgium . They were escorted by even more numbers of P @-@ 38 and P @-@ 51 fighters . Oesau was in bed with influenza . Upon hearing the news , Göring phoned Oesau 's staff :
Göring – " Is the Kommodore flying ? " Staff – " No , he is in bed with fever . " Göring – " Yes , yes , I know that kind ! " , Göring said scornfully , Göring – " He has also turned tired and coward ! "
Angered by this comment , Oesau took off in a Bf 109 G @-@ 6 / AS " Green 13 " ( Wing Number 20601 ) from Paderborn despite a high fever . Leading three aircraft of the Geschwaderstab , the schwarm broke formation over the Ardennes as it approached the bombers . In the dogfight Oesau 's wingman reported damage to his machine and he was ordered to break off . Left alone , Oesau faced P @-@ 38s and possibly P @-@ 51s as well . According to Major Hartmann Grasser , Gruppenkommandeur of III . / JG 1 , who was on the same mission , there were five P @-@ 38s facing Oesau .
What followed is unclear as there are several versions . Oesau was chased by 1st Lt. James Leslie Doyle , 1st Lt. Wilbur L. Jarvis III and 1st Lt. James C. Austin , of the 428th Fighter Squadron ( 474th FG , 9th AF ) . All three were experienced pilots and chased Oesau from 28 @,@ 000 feet to tree @-@ top level . In the ensuing 20 minute dogfight , Oesau defended skillfully , though his aircraft was damaged by gunfire . While attempting an emergency landing , his Gustav received a final burst of fire in the cockpit area and crashed into the ground 6 miles south west of St. Vith . His body was thrown clear of the aircraft some yards away .
According to the " Eighth Air Force Mission Folder for 11 May 1944 , Mission 351 " , Lt. Doyle engaged in a turning dogfight with a pair of Bf 109s , scoring hits on the leader . Doyle had then broken off combat without claiming a kill , unaware that his victim , Oesau , had been killed by a 20 mm shell . Doyle 's kill had been the first kill of the 474th Fighter Group in its first combat with the Luftwaffe .
There is some dispute regarding who exactly shot down his fighter . Some sources claim that he was shot during the dogfight and while the aircraft was falling to the ground , he was shot at again a few feet above ground , possibly by the Mustangs of 354th FG . Lt Wilbur Jarvis , No. 2 in the flight led by Doyle received a Damaged credit ( not a kill ) for Oesau 's aircraft . Doyle noted bullet damage in the cockpit area and his gun camera footage showed that it was Oesau 's Green 13 . German records indicated that his death was caused by an explosive shell in the cockpit , his body having several bullet wounds . Later an image from the Gun camera was published ( without caption ) that purportedly showed Oesau 's aircraft from the right side .
Oesau was aged 30 at the time of his death . He had a total of 127 kills gained over 300 missions . 27 were Spitfires , 14 four @-@ engined bombers , 44 were scored on the Eastern Front and 9 in the Spanish Civil War . In recognition of his record , JG 1 received the title Oesau in honor of its fallen Geschwaderkommodore . Only Werner Mölders had a similar honor with JG 51 Mölders . Walter Oesau is buried in Meldorf , close to his birthplace and the town museum ( Dithmarscher Landesmuseum ) has documented his last journey in pictures .
= = Aftermath and historical importance = =
During his career , Oesau was mentioned five times in the Wehrmachtbericht . These were the daily propaganda reports by Oberkommando der Wehrmacht and even one mention is considered to be high military honor . The last one on 15 May 1944 was after his death .
Johannes Steinhoff , the high @-@ ranking Luftwaffe ace ( 176 Kills ) who went on to become the Chief of Staff for Allied Air Forces in Central Europe , once said : " Walter Gulle Oesau was the toughest fighter pilot in the Luftwaffe " .
In 1940 , frustrated with the perceived lack of success against RAF Fighter Command , Göring was keen on infusing the fighter force leadership with younger blood . He perceived a lack of aggressiveness in the Jagdgeschwader leadership . The likes of Theo Osterkamp were the first victim of this policy , handing over JG 51 to Werner Mölders . Oesau was considered to be one such rising star . However , being a star and staying in Göring 's favor required keeping up the kill rate and promotions were invariably linked to scores . According to Dr. Kurt Tank , the Focke – Wulf designer , although many of the younger generation were good flyers , they were unable to cope with problems of overall planning and broader strategic aspects . However , Oesau was one of the outstanding leaders ever produced by Luftwaffe fighter wings with the likes of Werner Mölders and Adolf Galland .
The decision to continually retain or return gifted experts ( Experten ) to front line battle proved extremely costly , resulting in the death in combat of many of the earlier experts and aces . This , coupled with the acute shortage of well trained pilots and the fact that by 1943 they were facing a better equipped and well @-@ trained enemy , meant the life expectancy of even the most gifted was tragically short . Author John Weal says that , although other Geschwaderkommodore would end up dying in combat , nothing would showcase the changing fortunes of Luftwaffe fighter forces than the death of Walter Oesau .
= = Personality and personal life = =
German historian Hans Otto Böhm commented on Oesau as " One of my best professors " . There is little information available on the personal side of Walter Oesau . He had good sense of humor and liked to spend time with his friends . He was a simple man , who did not display any flamboyant personal emblems on his aircraft . His aircraft while commanding JG 2 did not have any special markings except for the unit 's normal yellow under – cowling . While Oesau commanded , JG 2 , like many others , dropped the special symbols for Stab ( headquarters flight ) units in favor of numerals . This helped make the leader 's aircraft anonymous . Unlike other aces , Oesau reportedly never had markings on his rudder representing his personal tally , although this is contradicted by some photos displaying what may be his aircraft rudder painted with score of downed aircraft . The authenticity of the photograph is questioned by some as there are also Ju 87 photos supposedly signed by Oesau ( he never flew a Stuka bomber ) .
= = = Date of Rank = = =
= = Awards = =
Spanish Medalla de la Campaña
Spanish Medalla Militar
Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 15 May 1940 )
1st Class ( 20 May 1940 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold for fighter pilots with pennant " 300 "
Wound Badge ( 1939 ) in Black
German Cross in Gold on 17 October 1943 as Oberstleutnant and Jagdfliegerführer 4
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Sword
Knight 's Cross on 20 August 1940 as Hauptmann and Staffelkapitän of the 7 . / JG 51
9th Oak Leaves on 6 February 1941 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / JG 3
3rd Swords on 15 July 1941 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / JG 3
= Golden Ambrosian Republic =
The Golden Ambrosian Republic ( Italian : Aurea Repubblica Ambrosiana ; 1447 – 1450 ) was a short @-@ lived government founded in Milan by members of the University of Pavia with popular support . With the aid of Francesco Sforza they held out against the forces of Venice , but after a betrayal Sforza defected and captured Milan to become Duke himself , abolishing the Republic .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation = = =
When Filippo Maria Visconti , Visconti Duke of Milan , died on 13 August 1447 , the city was thrown into confusion by the unexpectedness of the Duke 's expiration and the quick way in which the claimants to the title acted . Filippo Maria had no heir through male bloodlines , but the day before his death had written a will dedicating the Duchy to Alfonso V of Aragon . Among the other claimants were Charles , Duke of Orléans , nephew of Filippo Maria through his mother Valentina Visconti , Filippo 's cousins Albert and Sigismund of the House of Habsburg , great @-@ grandsons of Bernabò Visconti , and Frederick III , Holy Roman Emperor , who declared that the Duchy reverted to the Holy Roman Empire on the extinction of male heirs . But the two most prominent candidates supported by the Milanese population were Alfonso of Aragon and Francesco Sforza , the Duke 's son @-@ in @-@ law by marriage to his illegitimate daughter , Bianca Maria Visconti . The Bracceschi , supporters of the King of Aragon , seized the Castello on the night of the 13th , almost before Filippo Maria died , forcing the captains to swear allegiance to Alfonso .
Despite the general support for either Alfonso or Sforza , other influential citizens believed that the old republic could be restored . Learned bodies , such as the College of Jurisprudence in Pavia , painted the days of the old republic as a golden age . The merchants , seeing the prosperity of Republican Venice , were behind this idea . On the morning of the 14th , Republicans stirred the populace to rise against the Bracceschi , led by Antonio Trivulzio , Giorgio Lampugnano , Innocenzo Cotta , and Teodoro Bossi , members of the College of Jurisprudence . A Republic was declared behind the Palace of the Commune , and the captains abandoned their oaths to Alfonso in favor of the Republic . The Bracceschi were driven from Milan , and the new republic was called the Golden Ambrosian Republic , named for St. Ambrose , the 4th century bishop of Milan , who was taken on as the Republic 's patron . They took the old constitution and revised it that same day as suited their needs , electing twenty @-@ four Capitani e difensori della libertà , or " Captains and Defenders of Liberty , " to frame laws , elected regularly and later reduced to twelve .
= = = Early existence = = =
The idea of a radical renovation of liberties in the cities did not suit the powers of North Italy , who had been in league against the Visconti territorial gains in a decades @-@ long series of wars interrupted by truces , most recently the Peace of Cremona of 20 November 1441 . Venice was already at war with Milan , and the Republic was struck a sore blow as previously Milanese cities including Pavia , Lodi , and Piacenza defected or declared their independence . Besides the loss of support and defensive locations , the drop in revenue also caused a brief financial crisis resolved by the imposition of new taxes . Venice , now occupying Lodi and Piacenza , refused to listen to Milan 's pleas for peace . Milan turned to Francesco Sforza , the greatest military leader of his day , offering him the position of Captain @-@ General and the city of Brescia . Although he wished - and indeed , planned - to succeed his father @-@ in @-@ law as Duke , he decided to accept the position and promised rewards . A draft was declared in Milan on 13 September .
Sforza quickly captured independent Pavia when his mother @-@ in @-@ law persuaded the city 's ruling condotierro to relinquish it to him , and the Republic grudgingly allowed him to keep it with the title of Count , fearing that the Pavians and their large arsenal might instead offer themselves to Venice if they refused . Sforza promised the Pavians no new taxes , respect for the old laws , payment for his hired officials , and to repair the city bridges and walls . He kept these promises faithfully and so won over the people of Pavia , establishing his rulership . Pavia was previously almost a second capital to Milan , and gave Sforza his own seat of power . The city was also in a strategic location on the Po River , situated where it could block the Venetians from coming to the relief of the beleaguered Piacenza via water . Returning to this siege and finding the city not likely to crumble by starvation , he resolved to storm it . Employing cannons in an almost unheard @-@ of manner , he opened up a breach in the walls and sacked the city . The news of this sack was greeted by three days ' rejoicing in Milan . Meanwhile , Milanese Captain Bartolomeo Colleoni captured Tortona which had previously proclaimed Sforza as its lord , stealing it from the now dangerously powerful Sforza . This caused further and even greater rejoicing , for the Milanese feared Sforza .
In January 1448 , the terms of the previous Captains and Defenders ended , and in the following election the Guelphs rose to political prominence . Being especially adverse to Sforza , they entered peace negotiations with Venice , which , also threatened by Sforza 's growing power , was willing to come to terms , albeit dictated by herself . Two of the Ghibellines who helped to found the Republic , namely Lampugnano and Bossi , stirred the populace against the Guelphs in a massive demonstration before the Court of Arengo . The Council of Nine Hundred was forced to abandon its plans for peace , and Sforza was given the go @-@ ahead for his next campaign to seize the Adda River . Sforza 's plans were voted down by the Republic in favor of more traditional tactics , namely besieging Lodi directly . While this happened , the Venetian fleet under Andrea Quirini assaulted the bridge of Cremona . However , Sforza 's wife Bianca was there , and led the defense until her husband relieved the city . The Venetian fleet withdrew and entrenched while it waited for the arrival of the Venetian army . Sforza trapped the fleet behind its defenses and , with his unorthodox use of artillery , utterly destroyed or captured every one of the seventy ships . This victory was celebrated in Milan , but the leaders of the Republic still feared Sforza , and sent him off to occupy him with the Ghiarad 'adda while Lodi and Caravaggio were besieged , hoping that their fall would end the war .
But ultimately the forces were brought together at Caravaggio , and both Sforza 's Milanese and the Venetian army under Micheletto Attendolo gathered there . The siege remained unbroken throughout July and until 15 September , when Attendolo launched a surprise @-@ attack on Sforza , so rapid that he did not even have time to buckle on his armor . What might have been a rout Sforza turned into a great victory as he set the example
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Samson , Michael J. Anderson gets the best dialogue , dropping terrifically incomprehensible lines . " DVD Talk lauded Amy Madigan ( Iris ) , Tim DeKay ( Jonesy ) , and Clea DuVall ( Sofie ) as " fantastic choices " with particularly convincing 1930s looks . They highlighted Carnivàle 's status as an ensemble show , with " the performances of all the supporting characters [ being ] essential to the show 's success . Particularly inspired is the voice of Linda Hunt as the decidedly creepy ' Management ' and John Savage as Henry Scudder . " A DVDTown review further praised the supporting performances of Patrick Bauchau ( Lodz ) and Michael J. Anderson ( Samson ) , pointing out that " in fact , every single character on the show , no matter how small , quirky or sinister they are , produce noteworthy performances all round . It is through the efforts of this outstanding cast that makes the entire premise of the show and the period setting so realistic and believable that the audience can 't help but get immersed in it . "
Several supporting actors received award recognition for their performances in Carnivàle . Adrienne Barbeau ( Ruthie ) was nominated for a 2003 Golden Satellite Award in the category " Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series , Drama " , and won a 2004 WIN Award in the category " Best Actress in a Dramatic Series " . Amy Madigan ( Iris ) was nominated for a 2003 Golden Satellite Award in the category " Best Performance by an Actress in a Series , Drama " . Erin Sanders ( young Iris ) was nominated for a 2004 Young Artist Award in the category " Best Performance in a TV Series – Recurring Young Actress " .
= = Season 2 finale and character fates = =
While HBO entertainment president Carolyn Strauss felt Carnivàle had come to a natural end with its second season and gave this as the network 's explanation for not renewing Carnivàle , it was reported HBO president Chris Albrecht had originally wanted to conclude the second season of Carnivàle with a satisfying and close @-@ ended confrontation between Brother Justin and Ben . Albrecht allegedly preferred a definite demise of Brother Justin to a cliffhanger , but show creator Daniel Knauf stated Albrecht might have been misquoted . According to Knauf , Albrecht had wished in preproduction discussions to conclude season 2 with a fight between Brother Justin and Ben , which had always been Knauf 's intention . HBO had then approved the open ending by greenlighting the final scene in the writing phase , budgeting the filming including the final shot , and owning the rights of the final cut of all episodes . There was never a plan to cancel Carnivàle prematurely , and HBO had only decided the cancellation shortly before their announcement . However , Clancy Brown ( Brother Justin ) remembers the original last shot of the series as Iris watching the corn die , not of Ben in Management 's trailer .
Following the cancellation , the writers did not immediately answer fan questions about the characters ' future , arguing the story ideas should not be revealed just for instant fan gratification and should wait to be told until the opportunity arises . They later provided clues in DVD special features and at conventions , in forums and in online chats . Tim DeKay mentioned that the third season would have opened five years after the events of the second season finale . Daniel Knauf said Jonesy would have recovered from his gunshot wound , having been saved by Iris . Producer Howard Klein however pointed out that Jonesy " wasn 't shot in a specific place – he [ just ] collapsed " , and Knauf added " Sofie 's intent in shooting Jonesy was to stop him from taking her back to the carnival " , not to kill him . Season 3 would have opened with Jonesy pitching in a Major League Baseball game and still being married to Libby , as well as having a son with her .
Writer and co @-@ executive producer William Schmidt described Sofie 's last seen action as " raising her father at the end , bringing him back to life . " This was " to indicate that she was truly evil " , although " she is the Omega so there 's good in her too . " The third season " would have been pretty much centered on Sofie and the internal struggle of her good versus evil . " The nature of the Omega would have taken two seasons to unfold .
Both Ben and Brother Justin would have been alive in the third season . Daniel Knauf would have written Brother Justin as a man " with an inoperable chunk of shrapnel near his heart " , which the anointed blade had caused in the final season 2 episode . Brother Justin would have been " severely weakened and prone to exhaustion , serving as a hollow figurehead in his burgeoning ministry . Sofie and Iris would be vying for the power behind the throne , with Sofie by far the more dangerous of the two , although Iris is a force to be reckoned with . " Knauf had the intention of marrying Brother Justin to Sofie at some point in the future , and the third season would have shown a three @-@ year @-@ old boy amidst Sofie and the Crowes . Knauf left the question about the child 's parents open . Ben 's future would face other hardships . According to Knauf , Ben 's wounds of the season 2 finale would require repeated suturing , causing him to lose his Vitae Divina and draining him of strength . Ben would be a different man than he was before , with a personality closer to Management , and while he and Sofie would be bound together by love , their ultimate fates remain uncertain .
= Jack Wall ( composer ) =
Jack Wall ( born 1964 in Phoenixville , Pennsylvania ) is an American video game music composer . He has worked on video game music for over 20 games including the Myst franchise , Splinter Cell , Jade Empire , Mass Effect , and Call of Duty . Wall earned a degree in civil engineering from Drexel University in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , and , after a brief stint working in civil engineering , transitioned into music production . He worked with musicians such as John Cale , David Byrne , and Patti Smith , and , after performing increasingly complex production and sound engineering tasks , moved into music composition in 1995 .
Wall immediately began working in the video game industry , composing the soundtrack to Vigilance . Primarily composing in an orchestral style , by 2001 he composed the soundtrack to Myst III : Exile , which was the title he says put him on the map as a video game composer . In 2002 , Wall became one of around 20 co @-@ founders of the Game Audio Network Guild ( G.A.N.G. ) as well as senior director . In 2005 , Wall , along with G.A.N.G. founder and fellow composer Tommy Tallarico , produced the Video Games Live concert series , having served as the conductor for the international concert tour . His latest released soundtrack is that of 2012 Black Ops 2 . His soundtracks for Myst III : Exile , Myst IV : Revelation , Rise of the Kasai , Jade Empire , Mass Effect , and Mass Effect 2 were nominated for and won multiple awards .
= = Early life = =
Jack Wall , born in Phoenixville , Pennsylvania , earned a degree in civil engineering from Drexel University in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , and began a career " planning out sub @-@ divisions and shopping malls " . At the same time he was in a rock band , as he was also interested in music . After recording a demo tape with the band , he was inspired to change career paths and quit his job to work in the music industry . He initially worked as a bartender and later started working in recording studios in Philadelphia and later Boston and New York City , where he worked for Skyline Studios . In 1991 Wall left Skyline , and until 1994 worked as an independent music producer and sound engineer in New York City , working with musicians such as John Cale , David Byrne , and Patti Smith , as well as local bands . Over those three years , Wall consistently worked with Cale , eventually handling arrangement and orchestration of Cale 's compositions as well as producing and working as a sound engineer . While working with Cale on the soundtrack to a movie , House of America , he watched as Cale composed thirty minutes of music in almost real time , and was inspired to begin composing music .
= = Career = =
By late 1995 , Jack Wall was living in Los Angeles and was married to singer Cindy Shapiro , who he had met in 1994 . She knew Ron Martinez , who was starting a video game company , PostLinear Entertainment , and he asked Wall to work for it as a composer . He composed the soundtracks for several games for PostLinear ; the first released was Vigilance in 1997 . His daughter Gracie was also born early in 1997 . After leaving the company , he composed the soundtrack to 2001 's Myst III : Exile , which was his first orchestral score and the work that he said put him on the map as a video game composer . It was also interesting to him , as it was a sequel to the first video game he had ever played , Myst . Myst III was nominated for the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences " Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition " award , which it lost to the Tropico soundtrack .
In 2002 , Wall became one of around 20 co @-@ founders of the Game Audio Network Guild ( G.A.N.G. ) as well as senior director . The group works to promote the appreciation of video game music , as well as serve as a professional resource for video game music composers and musicians . It was developed and headed by Tommy Tallarico . As of 2010 , Wall serves as vice chairman , after stepping down from heading the board of directors in 2007 . He continued to compose soundtracks for games such as The Mark of Kri and Unreal II : The Awakening . His work on Myst IV : Revelation in 2004 earned him his first three awards , those of " Best Live Performance Recording " , " Best Original Vocal Song : Choral " , and " Music of the Year " from the G.A.N.G. awards .
Wall , along with Tommy Tallarico , has produced the Video Games Live concert series , which began on July 6 , 2005 . The two had been planning the concert series , which presents orchestrated versions of music from dozens of games , for three years . The concerts consist of segments of video game music performed by a live orchestra with video footage and synchronized lighting and effects , as well as several interactive segments with the audience , conducted by Wall . Video Games Live was intended to take the idea of a symphonic video game music concert , which was popular in Japan , and combine it with a rock concert to make it appealing to western fans . The series is international and ongoing , with more than 70 shows planned for 2009 . Although Wall composed the soundtracks to three games released in 2005 including the award @-@ winning score to Jade Empire , his works released since then have been 2007 's Mass Effect and 2010 's Mass Effect 2 . Mass Effect 's score earned Wall several awards and nominations , as did Mass Effect 2 .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Although many of his works are orchestral , Jack Wall has worked in a wide variety of styles , including " heavy metal meets orchestral " and " tribal percussion " . For Jade Empire , he focused on using Chinese instruments and Taiko drums . When writing a video game score , Wall prefers a collaborative approach with the game designers to creating the music , as he feels that the " tug back and forth of ideas " makes the music stronger . He notes , however , that he has to be flexible , and willing to create his own vision for the music . As part of this , he prefers to be able to see illustrations and game design documents before beginning , as they provide insight into the feel of the game so that his music can mesh in with it . He also believes that a good video game music composer needs to have a lot of technical sound production skill to be successful . Wall has said that the Myst and Mass Effect soundtracks are his favorites that he has created . Wall stated that he was primarily interested in scoring games that are " interesting " , and that his main concern was creating something original . Although he has worked with live orchestras and synthetic orchestras , Wall recommends that game developers use a live one , despite the expense , as he feels they add a much more dynamic sound to the music and allow the composer more freedom than synthesizer samples . He also wrote the book Legendary Bim Bang , the man who invented music . A picture book for ages 1 to 7
= = Works = =
= = Awards = =
= Pig @-@ faced women =
Legendary stories of pig @-@ faced women originated roughly simultaneously in Holland , England and France in the late 1630s . The stories told of a wealthy woman whose body was of normal human appearance , but whose face was that of a pig .
In the earliest forms of the story , the woman 's pig @-@ like appearance was the result of witchcraft . Following her wedding day , the pig @-@ faced woman 's new husband was granted the choice of having her appear beautiful to him but pig @-@ like to others , or pig @-@ like to him and beautiful to others . When her husband told her that the choice was hers , the enchantment was broken and her pig @-@ like appearance vanished . These stories became particularly popular in England , and later in Ireland .
The magical elements gradually vanished from the story , and the existence of pig @-@ faced women began to be treated as fact . The story became particularly widespread in Dublin in the early 19th century , where it became widely believed that reclusive 18th @-@ century philanthropist Griselda Steevens had kept herself hidden from view because she had the face of a pig . In late 1814 and early 1815 , rumour swept London that a pig @-@ faced woman was living in Marylebone . Her existence was widely reported as fact , and numerous alleged portraits of her were published . With belief in pig @-@ faced women commonplace , unscrupulous showmen exhibited living " pig @-@ faced women " at fairs . These were not genuine women , but shaven bears dressed in women 's clothing .
Belief in pig @-@ faced women declined , and the last significant work to treat their existence as genuine was published in 1924 . Today , the legend is almost forgotten .
= = Standard elements = =
While stories of pig @-@ faced women vary in detail , they have the same basic form . A pregnant noblewoman would be approached by a beggar accompanied by her children , and would dismiss the beggar , and in so doing would in some way compare the beggar 's children to pigs . The beggar would curse the pregnant noblewoman , and come the birth of the child it would be a girl , healthy and perfectly formed in every respect other than having the face of a pig .
The child would grow up healthy , but with some of the behaviours of a pig . She would eat from a silver trough , and speak only in grunts or with a grunting sound to her speech . The only child of her parents , she would stand to inherit a large fortune , but her parents would be concerned about what would become of her after their death . They would thus make arrangements either to find a man willing to marry her , or to use their fortune to endow a hospital on condition that the hospital take care of her for the remainder of her life .
Although originating roughly simultaneously in Holland , England , and France , it was only in England , and later in Ireland , that the legend became well known and widely believed . In 1861 Charles Dickens remarked on the longevity of the belief in pig @-@ faced women in England , commenting that " In every age , I suppose , there has been a pig @-@ faced lady " .
= = Origins = =
While earlier stories of humans with the appearance of animals are common , prior to the 17th century there are no recorded European stories of humans with the faces of pigs . ( An 1829 paper in the Quarterly Journal of Science , Literature , and the Arts claims that the legend was circulating in Paris in 1595 but offers no detail or corroborating evidence . ) The earliest versions of the story of the pig @-@ faced woman appear to have originated roughly simultaneously in England , Holland and France , and to have become prevalent in England in late 1639 . A 1904 paper in Volkskunde magazine by Dutch historian and antiquarian nl : Gerrit Jacob Boekenoogen traces the earliest forms of the legend as appearing in 1638 or 1639 .
The earliest surviving version of the legend is a Dutch print about an Amsterdam woman named Jacamijntjen Jacobs . In 1621 Jacobs , while pregnant , was approached one day by a female beggar accompanied by three children , who pleaded that her children were starving . Jacobs told the beggar " Take away your filthy pigs , I will not give you anything " . The woman replied " Are these my children pigs ? May God then give you such pigs as I have here ! " Jacobs ' daughter was born with the head and face of a pig , and at the time of publication in 1638 – 39 the daughter , by then in her teens , supposedly ate from a trough and spoke in a grunting voice .
Bondeson ( 2006 ) speculates that the pig @-@ faced woman myth originated as a fusion of two earlier stories . The mediaeval Dutch legend of Margaret of Henneberg tells of a wealthy noblewoman who turned away a beggar with twins , and was herself punished by giving birth to 365 children . In a similar French folk tale , the noblewoman in question described the beggar 's children as " piglets " , and gave birth to a litter of nine piglets .
The other significant theory about the origin of the legend , proposed by Robert Chambers in 1864 , is that a genuine child was born in the early 17th century with facial deformities resembling a pig 's face and a speech impediment causing her to grunt . The science of teratology ( the study of birth defects and physiological abnormalities ) was then in its infancy , and the theory of maternal impression ( that the thoughts of a pregnant woman could influence the future appearance of her children ) was widely accepted . It is possible that the birth of a genuinely deformed child led to the story of the beggar as a possible explanation for her appearance , with other elements of the story being later additions or distortions by publishers . Chambers speculates that the original child may have had a similar appearance to Julia Pastrana , a woman with hypertrichosis and distorted ( although not pig @-@ like ) facial features , who was widely exhibited in Europe and North America until her death in 1860 , and then , embalmed , until the 1970s . However , while a 1952 stillbirth with a face resembling a pig is documented , there has never been a reliably documented case of a human with deformities of this kind surviving outside the womb , while all versions of the pig @-@ faced woman legend describe her as a healthy adult .
= = = Tannakin Skinker = = =
The first recorded reference in England to the legend of the pig @-@ faced woman is the fable of Tannakin Skinker , a 17th @-@ century variation on the traditional loathly lady story , in particular on The Wife of Bath 's Tale and The Marriage of Sir Gawain . The Skinker story is generally considered the basis for later English stories of pig @-@ faced women . Between 4 and 11 December 1639 , five ballads about Skinker were published in London , all of which are now lost . ( A 1640 ballad , A Monstrous Shape : or , A Shapelesse Monster , a Description of a female creature born in Holland compleat in every part , save only a head like a swine , who hath travelled in many parts and is now to be seen in London , shees loving , courteous and effeminate and nere as yet could find a loving mate , is preserved in Samuel Pepys 's extensive collection of ballads . ) The earliest surviving record of the Tannakin Skinker story is that given in A Certaine Relation of the Hog @-@ faced Gentlewoman called Mistris Tannakin Skinker , a 1640 chapbook .
= = = = A Certaine Relation of the Hog @-@ faced Gentlewoman called Mistris Tannakin Skinker = = = =
A Certaine Relation claims that Tannakin Skinker was born to Joachim and Parnel Skinker in 1618 in " Wirkham , a neuter towne betweene the Emperour and the Hollander , scituate on the river Rhyne " . Joachim Skinker is described as " a man of good revenue , but of a great estate in money and cattle . " During Parnel 's pregnancy , an elderly woman had begged her for money . Parnel was busy and refused to pay , and the old woman had left , " muttering to her selfe the Divells pater noster , and was heard to say ' As the Mother is Hoggish , so Swinish shall be the Child shee goeth withall ' " . At Tannakin 's birth her body and limbs were correctly proportioned , but her face had a pig 's snout , " not only a stain and blemish , but a deformed uglinesse , making all the rest loathsome , contemptible and odious to all that lookt upon her in her infancie . " The midwife who had delivered the baby was sworn to secrecy , and the Skinkers raised her in a private room . She ate from a silver trough , " to which she stooped and ate , just like a Swine doth in his swilling tub " .
Tannakin 's deformity was soon discovered , and many locals came to hear her pig @-@ like speech or to watch her feed from the trough . The old woman was located , tried and convicted for witchcraft , but even at the stake refused or was unable to reverse the enchantment .
When Tannakin was between 16 and 17 years old , her father consulted Vandermast , " a famous Artist , who was both a Mathematician , and an Astrologian [ ... ] a man who was suspected to have been well versed in blacke and hidden Arts " , as to how the curse might be undone . Vandermast concluded that as long as Tannakin remained a virgin she would retain her pig 's face , but were she married , and not to " a Clowne , Bore or Pesant " , she might be cured .
The Skinker family announced that any gentleman who " would take her to his bed after loyall Matrimony " would receive a dowry of £ 40 @,@ 000 . The dowry , a huge sum for the time , prompted a large number of would @-@ be husbands . A Scottish captain arrived , having spent the greater part of a month 's pay on a new suit , and was taken by Tannakin 's figure and deportment . On lifting the veil to view her face , however , " hee would stay no other conference , but ran away without further answer , saying ; they must pardon him , for hee could indure no Porke . " An English sow @-@ man ( pig farmer ) assured the family that his familiarity with pigs meant he would accept Tannakin 's appearance , but after meeting her he left the building , saying that " so long as I have known Rumford , I never saw such a Hogsnout " .
Several further would @-@ be suitors visited the Skinkers , but all were repulsed by Tannakin 's face and she remained unmarried . Despairing of finding a suitable husband in Wirkham , the Skinker family moved to London , and took up residence in either Blackfriars or Covent Garden . ( The anonymous author of A Certaine Relation says that the family did not wish to divulge their address , to discourage curiosity @-@ seekers from gathering . ) Many who met her were taken by her elegant dress and excellent demeanour .
Eventually , the Skinkers found a man in London willing to marry Tannakin . On the day of the wedding , and despite all efforts to improve her appearance , her face was as pig @-@ like as ever . With the wedding service concluded , the newly @-@ wed couple retired to the bedroom . When they lay in bed together for the first time , Tannakin reached for her husband 's arm , saying that she would release him from his vows provided that he would look at her in the face . He turned to look at her , and saw " a sweet young Lady of incomparable beauty and feature , the like to whom to his imagination he never had in his whole life time beheld " . He reached to kiss her , but she refused , saying :
Sir , I am indeed no other than I now seeme unto you ; and of these two things I give you free choice , whether I shall appeare to you thus as you now see me , young , faire , and lovely in your bed , and all the daytime , and abroad , of my former deformity : or thus beautifull in the day , to the sight of your friends , but in your armes every night of my former Age and Uglinesse : of these two things I give you free choice of , which till you have resolv 'd me , there can be no other familiarity betwixt in : therefore without pause give me a speedy answer .
Torn between the choice of a wife who would appear beautiful to him but hideous to all his friends , or hideous to him but beautiful to all his friends , he could not reach a decision but instead said to her " into you owne hands and choyse I give the full power and soveraignty to make election of which you best please . " On hearing this , Tannakin turned to him and said :
Now Sir , you have given me that which all women most desire , my Will , and Soveraignty ; and know I , was by a wicked and sorcerous step @-@ dame inchanted , never to returne to my pristine shape , till I was first married , and after had received such power from my Husband · And now from henceforth I shall be the same to you night and day , of that youth and lively @-@ hood which you now see mee ; till Time and Age breed new alteration , even to the last period of my life .
= = = = Public reaction = = = =
The fable of Tannakin Skinker was popular in England , and the idea of the pig @-@ faced woman soon entered popular culture , to the extent that by 1654 , it was recorded that one of the signs at Bartholomew Fair was " the Signe of the Hoggs @-@ fac 'd Gentlewoman " . By the 1670s , The Long @-@ Nos 'd Lass was a popular song , relating in detail how a tailor and a miller courted a woman whose " visage was perfectly just like a Sow " in the hope of securing her dowry ( given as £ 17 @,@ 000 , not the £ 40 @,@ 000 of A Certaine Relation ) . On seeing her face each turned and fled . The Long @-@ Nos 'd Lass does not contain the magical elements of A Certaine Relation , nor end in the wedding and the transformation of the pig @-@ faced woman , the traditional ending of stories in the genre . Instead , the pig @-@ faced woman remains unmarried , and the ballad ends :
Both Tinkers and Tanners and Glovers also
Came to her , the Money encouraged them so
Nay , thousands came to her then every day ,
Each striving to carry this Beauty away
But when
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a purely monotonic incoming wave is completely reflected normal to a solid vertical wall , the standing wave height is twice the height of the incoming waves at a distance of one half wavelength from the wall . In this case , the circular orbits of the water particles in the deep @-@ water wave are converted to purely linear motion , with vertical velocities at the antinodes , and horizontal velocities at the nodes . The standing waves alternately rise and fall in a mirror image pattern , as kinetic energy is converted to potential energy , and vice versa . In his 1907 text , Naval Architecture , Cecil Peabody described this phenomenon :
At any instant the profile of the water surface is like that of a trochoidal wave , but the profile instead of appearing to run to the right or left , will grow from a horizontal surface , attain a maximum development , and then flatten out till the surface is again horizontal ; immediately another wave profile will form with its crests where the hollows formerly were , will grow and flatten out , etc . If attention is concentrated on a certain crest , it will be seen to grow to its greatest height , die away , and be succeeded in the same place by a hollow , and the interval of time between the successive formations of crests at a given place will be the same as the time of one of the component waves .
= = Related phenomena = =
True clapotis is very rare , because the depth of the water or the precipitousness of the shore are unlikely to completely satisfy the idealized requirements . In the more realistic case of partial clapotis , where some of the incoming wave energy is dissipated at the shore , the incident wave is less than 100 % reflected , and only a partial standing wave is formed where the water particle motions are elliptical . This may also occur at sea between two different wave trains of near equal wavelength moving in opposite directions , but with unequal amplitudes . In partial clapotis the wave envelope contains some vertical motion at the nodes .
When a wave train strikes a wall at an oblique angle , the reflected wave train departs at the supplementary angle causing a cross @-@ hatched wave interference pattern known as the clapotis gaufré ( " waffled clapotis " ) . In this situation , the individual crests formed at the intersection of the incident and reflected wave train crests move parallel to the structure . This wave motion , when combined with the resultant vortices , can erode material from the seabed and transport it along the wall , undermining the structure until it fails .
Clapotic waves on the sea surface also radiate infrasonic microbaroms into the atmosphere , and seismic signals called microseisms coupled through the ocean floor to the solid Earth .
= John Cunningham ( RAF officer ) =
John " Cat 's Eyes " Cunningham CBE , DSO & Two Bars , DFC & Bar , AE ( 27 July 1917 – 21 July 2002 ) was a Royal Air Force ( RAF ) night fighter ace during the Second World War and a test pilot . During the war he was nicknamed " Cat 's Eyes " by the British Press to explain his successes and to avoid communicating the existence of airborne radar to the enemy .
John Cunningham was born in Croydon in 1917 in the midst of the First World War . He was keen on entering the aviation industry as a teenager . Temporarily abiding his father 's wishes to avoid the military , he approached the de Havilland company and was accepted as an engineering candidate . Concurrently , he joined the Royal Auxiliary Air Force and became a member of No. 604 ( County of Middlesex ) Squadron . Cunningham began his training in August 1935 and flew solo in March 1936 . He received his wings in the summer of 1937 . Cunningham gradually became an established test pilot , gaining a considerable amount of flying time on different types of aircraft .
In August 1939 Cunningham rejoined his squadron , now equipped with a version of the Bristol Blenheim . His operator was Jimmy Rawnsley , who would serve as his gunner and radio operator for most of the war and contribute to all but three of Cunningham 's victories . On 26 July 1940 the squadron was re @-@ designated a specialised night fighter unit and was amongst the first to receive airborne interception radar ( AI ) . Cunningham was promoted to squadron leader in September 1940 . In the autumn , as the Battle of Britain subsided and The Blitz began , the squadron re @-@ equipped with the rugged and heavily armed Bristol Beaufighter .
On the night of the 19 November 1940 , Cunningham claimed his first victory . By the time the Blitz had ended in June 1941 , he had destroyed 13 enemy aircraft and claimed three as probable victories and two damaged . After a prolonged rest period , he was promoted to wing commander in 1942 . He was also appointed to command No. 85 Squadron RAF , by which time his tally had reached 16 enemy aircraft destroyed . In 1943 and early 1944 he added a further four victories , one probable and one damaged . Cunningham 's combat career ended with 20 aerial victories , three probable and six damaged . He spent the remainder of the conflict in various staff officer positions . By the end of the war in Europe in May 1945 had attained the rank of group captain .
After the war Cunningham re @-@ joined de Havilland and continued his test pilot career . He flew the world 's first jet airliner , the de Havilland Comet , in 1949 . He then flew commercial jets for a time in the early 1960s and continued flying in the industry until the late 1970s . He also worked for British Aerospace as executive director , retiring in 1980 . In recognition of his wartime exploits and his contribution to civil aviation he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire . In his retirement Cunningham was nearly financially ruined when Lloyd 's of London ran into financial difficulty in 1988 . He was forced to live frugally until the end of his life . He died six days shy of his 85th birthday .
= = Early life = =
John Cunningham was born in Croydon in south London on 27 July 1917 , in the midst of the First World War . His father , Arthur Gillespie Cunningham , worked for the Dunlop Rubber Company at Fort Dunlop based in Birmingham . He rose to the position of company secretary . In 1910 he married Evelyn Mary Spencer . Her family owned an engineering company in Coventry which supplied the fabric and textiles company Courtaulds with heavy machinery . In the 1920s , her grandfather was Lord Mayor of Coventry . The family located to Croydon where John was born , along with two elder sisters Mary and Janet and a younger brother , William . John attended Bowden House School , a preparatory school at Seaford , East Sussex until he was 9 . He was subsequently a pupil at Whitgift School , a public school in Croydon . In 1926 , on a school holiday , he took a flight in an Avro 504 . His experiences encouraged him to enter the officers training corps at the school . A personal tragedy occurred in 1930 when his father died . Still , Cunningham did well at school , particularly in the mathematics field . He was keen on entering the aviation industry as a teenager .
= = = de Havilland apprenticeship = = =
At 18 , he joined the de Havilland Aircraft company in 1935 as an apprentice . Cunningham began his engineering career with some menial projects before being invited to assist with the building of the de Havilland T.K.2 and de Havilland Moth Minor . Concurrently , he joined the Royal Auxiliary Air Force and became a member of No. 604 ( County of Middlesex ) Squadron after a recommendation by a friend of the family . Cunningham began his training at Hatfield Aerodrome in August 1935 and flew solo on 15 March 1936 , receiving his commission as a pilot officer on 7 May 1936 .
He received his wings in the summer of 1936 . He met Jimmy Rawnsley at this time , a 32 @-@ year @-@ old electrical engineer who would later severe as aerial gunner and radar operator on all but three of John 's successful air battles . Cunningham subsequently became a junior test pilot with de Havilland , working with light aircraft alongside Geoffrey de Havilland , the company founder 's son and chief test pilot . The company was short of test pilots and Cunningham caught the eye of de Havilland as his flight experience grew . It was reflected by his promotion to flying officer on 5 December 1937 . At this time John began to care more for test @-@ flying than manufacture and design . He became one of four of de Havilland 's top test pilots .
Cunningham continued with his career . In March 1938 he was called to readiness with 604 Squadron during the Munich crisis . At this time the squadron was flying the Hawker Demon . He was displeased when they converted to the Bristol Blenheim . The machines were fitted with a tray of four 303 Browning machine guns to give forward @-@ facing firepower . As a long @-@ range fighter it was of dubious value . The German Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Messerschmitt Bf 110 could , and would , expose the frailties of the aircraft which was originally intended as a bomber . However , Cunningham was told by the Air Ministry that it would be sufficient in the night fighter role , which is where they intended to use this variant . On 20 April 1938 , John returned to de Havilland test @-@ flying de Havilland Moth Minors .
On 11 April 1939 he narrowly escaped with his life alongside Geoffrey de Havilland ; both men parachuting to safety . They had taken a Moth Minor into the air to test its response to spins . The prototypes had an anti @-@ spin parachute but preceding tests had been carried out without the need to resort to the safety measure . Geoffrey put the aircraft into a left @-@ hand spin which was recovered . Climbing back to 8 @,@ 000 feet the aircraft was put into it a right @-@ hand spin . The engine cut out , the nose reared @-@ up and the aircraft stalled and entered a flat spin . Geoffrey asked John through the Gosport tube to try to escape their perilous situation after the controls proved non @-@ responsive to de Havilland 's efforts . Both decided to parachute out . Upon doing so the Moth declined its nose and recovered from the spin . The engine ignition had been left on and the wind @-@ milling propeller started the engine . The aircraft began circling the descending airmen at dangerously close range . Fortunately it descended at a faster rate and was destroyed when it hit the ground . Cunningham casually took pictures of the wreckage and his parachute which exemplified his cool nature .
In response to the Nazi – Soviet pact on 23 August 1939 , the RAF mobilised . Cunningham had been test @-@ flying the airliner de Havilland Dragon . Only 16 were complete before the declaration of war in September . The growing tension in Europe made war more likely . John was forced to commit himself either to de Havilland or the RAF at this juncture . The RAF had trained him and he felt he could be of far more use in the RAF than test @-@ flying aircraft .
= = Second World War = =
In August 1939 Cunningham rejoined his squadron which had been equipped with a version of the Bristol Blenheim . John was not enthusiastic about flying the Blenheim . The turret had been eliminated to reduce weight and increase speed , but the flying suits and cockpit were not heated , which caused discomfort to the crews over the winter period . The radios were too short @-@ range which caused communication problems . The Blenheim 's cockpit windshield was multi @-@ faceted and difficult to clean . It was also liable to reflect light ; which made cooperation with searchlights hazardous . The unit also had unspecified problems with blind @-@ flying instruments . The squadron incurred some losses owing to the inexperience of crews flying patrols over the North Sea from RAF North Weald in Essex , a number of them a result of the difficulties with the aircraft . In January 1940 604 moved to RAF Northolt and flew Blenheim 's adorned in the Finnish Air Force Swastika to Finland via Sweden to assist the country after the Soviet invasion .
Cunningham was promoted to flight lieutenant on 12 March 1940 . In April 1940 the squadron flew as escort for a De Havilland Flamingo carrying Winston Churchill , First Lord of the Admiralty , to Paris to attend a meeting after the German invasion of Denmark and Norway . Most of the unit 's time during the Phoney War was consumed engaging in intensive training over the Wash which included co @-@ operation with searchlights and mine @-@ laying operations . It did not last for long . On 15 May 1940 , 604 relocated to RAF Manston . From the airfield Cunningham flew sorties over the English Channel and patrols over Dunkirk as the Battle for France intensified . Cunningham made no recorded contact with the enemy and France capitulated on 25 June 1940 .
= = = Night squadron = = =
On 26 July 1940 the squadron was re @-@ designated a specialised night fighter unit . The squadron was amongst the first to receive airborne interception radar ( AI ) . 604 was sent a number of AI Mk . IV radar sets . Jimmy Rawnsley , Cunningham 's friend and crew @-@ mate , saw this as an opportunity to join a program which promised a bright future . Rawnsley retrained as a radar operator and would re @-@ join Cunningham in January 1941 . In the intervening period the squadron was frequently frustrated by the limitations of the Blenheim . Even with the " magic boxes " , they were too slow to catch any of the German bombers if the enemy was given the slightest advantage . Cunningham flew with 604 on the night of the 18 / 19 June when the Luftwaffe flew its first major operation in the Greater London area . No victories were claimed in the summer 1940 .
Cunningham was promoted to acting squadron leader in September 1940 , commanding B Flight . Within the month the unit received the heavily armed and powerful Bristol Beaufighter . After the commanding officer , Cunningham was the second man to fly it . The Beaufighter went through a teething stage in relation to its gun sight . The sight projected a ring of light with a spot at the centre onto a small sheet of glass directly in front of the pilots head . The spot in the centre provided the aiming point , and the ring , of variable diameter , helped him to judge the rage and amount of deflection needed to attack a target . The light 's brilliance was adjustable by rheostat , but the control was ineffective . Rotating it a fraction could produce maximum brilliance or cause the spot to flicker out .
Air Marshal Sholto Douglas formed the " Night Fighting Committee " and met regularly at Bentley Priory to discuss operational problems . As an experienced aviator , Cunningham was invited to attend . Henry Tizard invited Cunningham to air his views at the meeting . Tizard referred him to the Royal Aircraft Establishment to meet Arnold Alexander Hall , a gun sight expert . With his engineering expertise and Cunningham 's assessment of the issue , Hall ironed out the inadequacies in the design . Hall later became Cunningham 's managing director at Hawker Siddeley twenty years later . Cunningham also worked with ground control of interception ( GCI ) carrying out various exercises . He made the acquaintance of Philip Joubert de la Ferté , ( Chief of the Air Staff ) , who dropped in on 604 as well as Douglas — the two men were always keen to hear the experiences of the crew .
The AI sets added to Beaufighters were the first to be mass @-@ produced . The operating frequency was 190 to 195 MHz with a wavelength of 1 @.@ 5 metres . The equipment consisted of a receiver , transmitter , control panel , modulator , indicator unit and a system of fixed dipole aerials . On the nose the aerial was a double arrowhead shape with a pair of azimuth aerials protruding above and below the leading edge of each wing between the cannon and the wingtip . A pair of elevation aerials were located above and below the wing surfaces near the RAF roundel on the starboard side . The indicator display consisted of two cathode ray tubes . They displayed elevation and azimuth bearing . The set had a range @-@ limitation of four miles ( circa 20 @,@ 000 feet ) . The minimum range of detection was usually around 400 feet . At closer ranges the target merged with the transmission pulse and was obscured . At altitudes below 1 @,@ 000 feet , the returns from ground objects would swamp the tubes . Operators like Rawnsley were left to do a fair amount of guesswork . No scales or calibration markings were put on early sets . The position and heading of the enemy in the azimuth plane , its height , and its range had to be guessed . At least the GCI could bring the Beaufighter well within range of the target , usually a mile or so behind the bomber .
The Cunningham – Rawnsley team used the AI specifically to position themselves directly astern and underneath the enemy . Although the German bombers carried a dorsal gunner , it was difficult to locate an enemy against the black colour of the landscape . Usually the blackness of the country would swallow up the outline of an approaching night fighter . As they approached , the slipstream of the enemy could prove hazardous ; bucking the Beaufighter and throwing the pilot off his aim . Approaching from slightly below allowed the attacking pilot to avoid the slipstream . The tactics allowed for Cunningham to close the range and fire first , which was usually sufficient to end the engagement quickly and successfully . Bob Braham , a rival night fighter ace , also used this tactic .
= = = " Cat 's Eyes " = = =
Throughout the summer , Cunningham and 604 had to sit idle and frustrated as the Battle of Britain raged . By the autumn , the battle subsided . Having failed to gain air superiority the Luftwaffe now resolved to bomb British ports and industries . The change in German strategy began The Blitz phase of the aerial campaign . On the night of the 19 / 20 November 1940 the Luftwaffe raided Birmingham . The Germans hoped to follow up their attacks on the West Midlands after a highly effective raid against Coventry on 14 November 1940 . Pathfinders from Kampfgruppe 100 ( Battle Group 100 ) led 369 aircraft from Kampfgeschwader 26 ( KG 26 — Bomber Wing 26 ) , Kampfgeschwader 54 ( KG 54 ) , Kampfgeschwader 55 ( KG 55 ) to the city .
Cunningham took off this night from RAF Middle Wallop in Hampshire to patrol north of London . When the direction of the raid was known he was ordered to proceed to the East Midlands . GCI vectored Cunningham and his temporary radar operator John Phillipson — a former ground radar operator — onto an enemy aircraft , but the crew were forced much further westward . Search lights attracted their attention and Phillipson was able to make a contact and guide him . Soon visual confirmation was made . A tell @-@ tale sign of an aircraft was a blank patch of sky surrounded by a cluster of stars . Keeping in the enemy 's blind spot , he flew below it and adjusted his speed to match the German pilot . After closing the range as much as he dared , he fired with all four cannons and the Junkers Ju 88 exploded upon hitting the ground near Wittering , Cambridgeshire at 00 : 35 . Cunningham 's victim , 3 . / KG 54 Ju 88 flown by Unteroffizier Kaspar Sondermeister , was not claimed as destroyed . However , after interrogation of the two German survivors who affirmed the circumstances , Cunningham was granted the victory .
Cunningham had to wait a month for his next victory on 23 December 1940 . Kampfgeschwader 1 ( KG 1 ) sent 100 bombers led by Kampfgruppe 100 to attack Manchester . GCI vectored Cunningham onto the enemy aircraft . It was not yet dark and Cunningham identified the machine as a Heinkel He 111 . Flying at 15 @,@ 000 feet , he saw the Heinkel above the Beaufighter at 16 @,@ 500 feet . Cunningham engaged the enemy 50 miles south of West Lulworth . The enemy climbed to 19 @,@ 000 feet . Following , Cunningham opened fire at 200 @-@ 300 yards . The He 111 was engulfed in fire . The bomber was high enough for the crew to jettison the bombs and incendiaries and glide to France where it crash @-@ landed at Cherbourg . Two of Feldwebel Georg Deininger 's crew were wounded . The 3 . / KGr 100 machine was written off . The crew were unaware they had been a victim of a night @-@ fighter . They supposed they had been shot down by a flak ship .
On 2 January 1941 Cunningham nearly added a third . The Germans attacked Cardiff in the city 's heaviest raid of the war . Cunningham engaged an He 111 with an even spread of three aerial masts along its rear fuselage — indicative of a pathfinder . He expended all the Beaufighter 's ammunition against it from the working cannons — one cannon jammed . It dived into clouds at 10 @,@ 000 feet at an angle of 50 degrees . A 2 . / KGr 100 machine returned to France with a wounded gunner and Cunningham received credit for a probable victory . On 12 January he claimed a damaged He 111 — his first with operator Jimmy Rawnsley . Cunningham was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) on 28 January 1941 for his achievements , including 25 night sorties .
On 9 February , upon the invitation of Charles Portal , Chief of the Air Staff and Sholto Douglas , Cunningham arrived at the Air Ministry . He was ordered to report to Geoffrey de Havilland at Hatfield , though neither of the senior officers would say why . When Cunningham met Geoffrey de Havilland he was summoned to a hangar . It was the first time Cunningham had laid eyes on the de Havilland Mosquito . Cunningham flew W4050 — the prototype — on 9 February 1941 . He was greatly impressed by the " lightness of the controls and generally pleasant handling characteristics " ; Cunningham concluded that when the type was fitted with AI equipment , it would be a perfect replacement for the Bristol Beaufighter .
Cunningham claimed a third victory on 15 February 1941 . The Luftwaffe carried out air attacks on Liverpool and Humberside . Over Newton Abbot , Devon , he engaged a He 111 from Kampfgeschwader 27 ( KG 27 ) . It crashed outside Totnes . The bomber , 1G + FR , belonging to 7 . / KG 27 was completely destroyed . Leutnant Eberhard Beckmann and his crew were killed . The fifth victory eluded Cunningham for some time . On 12 March he was twice vectored onto enemy aircraft by Rawnsley . He could only claim a Ju 88 and He 111 damaged . On the night of the 3 April 1941 he accounted for his fourth enemy aircraft . Although claimed as a He 111 , the identity of the aircraft was likely the Ju 88A @-@ 5 , Werknummer ( " factory number " ) 4224 , code V4 + AR of 7 . / KG 1 on a mission to raid Avonmouth . Leutnant Ernst Menge and his crew ; Wilhelm Hahn , Robert König , and Wilhelm Schreiber posted missing in action . On the night of the 7 April he became a fighter ace . A He 111 of 9
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34 ) and The Old Mill ( 1937 ) served as experimentation grounds for new techniques such as the animation of realistic human figures , special effects animation , the use of the multiplane camera , an invention which split animation artwork layers into several planes , allowing the camera to appear to move dimensionally through an animated scene .
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs cost Disney a then @-@ expensive sum of $ 1 @.@ 4 million to complete ( including $ 100 @,@ 000 on story development alone ) , and was an unprecedented success when released in February 1938 by RKO Radio Pictures , which had assumed distribution of Disney product from United Artists in 1937 . Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was briefly the highest grossing film of all time before the success of Gone with the Wind two years later , grossing over $ 8 million on its initial release , the equivalent of $ 134 @,@ 487 @,@ 000 in 1999 dollars .
During the production of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , work had continued on the Mickey Mouse and Silly Symphonies series of shorts . Mickey Mouse switched to Technicolor in 1935 , by which time the series had added several major supporting characters , among them Mickey 's dog Pluto and their friends Donald Duck and Goofy . Donald , Goofy , and Pluto would all be appearing in series of their own by 1940 , and the Donald Duck cartoons eclipsed the Mickey Mouse series in popularity . The Silly Symphonies , which garnered seven Academy Awards , ended in 1939 .
= = = 1940 – 48 : New features , strike , World War II = = =
The success of Snow White allowed Disney to build a new , larger studio on Buena Vista Street in Burbank , where The Walt Disney Company remains headquartered to this day . Walt Disney Productions had its initial public offering on April 2 , 1940 , with Walt Disney as president and chairman and Roy Disney as CEO .
The studio launched into the production of new animated features , the first of which was Pinocchio , released in February 1940 . Pinocchio was not initially a box office success . The box office returns from the film 's initial release were both below Snow White 's unprecedented success and below studio expectations . Of the film 's $ 2 @.@ 289 million cost – twice of Snow White – Disney only recouped $ 1 million by late 1940 , with studio reports of the film 's final original box office take varying between $ 1 @.@ 4 million and $ 1 @.@ 9 million . However , Pinocchio was a critical success , winning the Academy Award for Best Original Song and Best Original Score , making it the first film of the studio to win not only either Oscar , but both at the same time .
Fantasia , an experimental film produced to an accompanying orchestral arrangement conducted by Leopold Stokowski , was released in November 1940 by Disney itself in a series of limited @-@ seating roadshow engagements . The film cost $ 2 million to produce , and although the film earned $ 1 @.@ 4 million in its roadshow engagements , the high cost ( $ 85 @,@ 000 per theater ) of installing Fantasound placed Fantasia at an even greater loss than Pinocchio . RKO assumed distribution of Fantasia in 1941 , later reissuing it in severely edited versions over the years . Despite its financial failure , Fantasia was the subject of two Academy Honorary Awards on February 26 , 1942 – one for the development of the innovative Fantasound system used to create the film 's stereoscopic soundtrack , and the other for Stokowski and his contributions to the film .
Much of the character animation on these productions and all subsequent features until the late 1970s was supervised by a brain @-@ trust of animators Walt Disney dubbed the " Nine Old Men , " many of whom also served as directors and later producers on the Disney features : Frank Thomas , Ollie Johnston , Woolie Reitherman , Les Clark , Ward Kimball , Eric Larson , John Lounsbery , Milt Kahl , and Marc Davis . Other head animators at Disney during this period included Norm Ferguson , Bill Tytla , and Fred Moore . The development of the feature animation department created a caste system at the Disney studio : lesser animators ( and feature animators in @-@ between assignments ) were assigned to work on the short subjects , while animators higher in status such as the Nine Old Men worked on the features . Concern over Walt Disney accepting credit for the artists ' work as well as debates over compensation led to many of the newer and lower @-@ ranked animators seeking to unionize the Disney studio .
A bitter union strike began in May 1941 , which was resolved without the angered Walt Disney 's involvement in July and August of that year . As Walt Disney Productions was being set up as a union shop , Walt Disney and several studio employees were sent by the US government on a Good Neighbor policy trip to Central and South America . The Disney strike and its aftermath led to an exodus of several animation professionals from the studio , from top @-@ level animators such as Art Babbitt and Bill Tytla , to artists better known for their work outside the Disney studio such as Frank Tashlin , Maurice Noble , Walt Kelly , Bill Meléndez , and John Hubley . Hubley , with several other Disney strikers , went on to found the United Productions of America studio , Disney 's key animation rival in the 1950s .
Dumbo , in production during the midst of the animators ' strike , premiered in October 1941 , and proved to be a financial success . The simple film only cost $ 950 @,@ 000 to produce , half the cost of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , less than a third of the cost of Pinocchio , and two @-@ fifths of the cost of Fantasia . Dumbo eventually grossed $ 1 @.@ 6 million during its original release . In August 1942 , Bambi was released , and as with Pinocchio and Fantasia , did not perform well at the box office . Out of its $ 1 @.@ 7 million budget , it only grossed $ 1 @.@ 64 million .
Production of full @-@ length animated features was temporarily suspended after the release of Bambi . Given the financial failures of some of the recent features and World War II cutting off much of the overseas cinema market , the studio 's financiers at the Bank of America would only loan the studio working capital if it temporarily restricted itself to shorts production . Then in @-@ production features such as Peter Pan , Alice in Wonderland , and Lady and the Tramp were therefore put on hold until after the war . Other issues affecting the studio at the time included the drafting of several Disney animators to fight in World War II , and the necessity for the studio to focus on producing wartime content for the U.S. Army , particularly military training and civilian propaganda films . From 1942 to 1943 , 95 percent of the studio 's animation output was for the military . During the war , Disney produced the live @-@ action / animated military propaganda feature Victory Through Air Power ( 1943 ) , and a series of Latin culture @-@ themed shorts resulting from the 1941 Good Neighbor trip were compiled into two features , Saludos Amigos ( 1942 ) and The Three Caballeros ( 1944 ) .
Saludos and Caballeros set the template for several other 1940s Disney releases of " package films " : low @-@ budgeted films composed of animated short subjects with animated or live @-@ action bridging material . These films were Make Mine Music ( 1946 ) , Fun and Fancy Free ( 1947 ) , Melody Time ( 1948 ) , and The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad ( 1949 ) . The studio also produced two features , Song of the South ( 1946 ) and So Dear to My Heart ( 1948 ) , which used more expansive live @-@ action stories which still included animated sequences and sequences combining live @-@ action and animated characters . Shorts production continued during this period as well , with Donald Duck , Goofy , and Pluto cartoons being the main output accompanied by cartoons starring Mickey Mouse , Figaro , and in the 1950s , Chip ' n Dale and Humphrey the Bear .
In addition , Disney began reissuing the previous features , beginning with re @-@ releases of Snow White in 1944 , Pinocchio in 1945 , and Fantasia in 1946 . This led to a tradition of reissuing the Disney films every seven years , which lasted into the 1990s before being translated into the studio 's handling of home video releases .
= = = 1948 – 59 : Return of features , end of shorts , layoffs = = =
In 1948 , Disney returned to the production of full @-@ length features with Cinderella , a full @-@ length film based on the fairy tale by Charles Perrault . At a cost of nearly $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , the future of the studio depended upon the success of this film . Upon its release in 1950 , Cinderella proved to be a box office success , with the profits from the film 's release allowing Disney to carry on producing animated features throughout the 1950s . Following its success , production on the in @-@ limbo features Alice in Wonderland , Peter Pan , and Lady and the Tramp was resumed . In addition , an ambitious new project , an adaptation of the fairy tale " Sleeping Beauty " set to Tchaikovsky 's classic score , was begun but took much of the rest of the decade to complete .
Alice in Wonderland , released in 1951 , met with a lukewarm response at the box office and was a sharp critical disappointment in its initial release . Peter Pan , released in 1953 , was , on the other hand , a commercial success and the highest @-@ grossing film of the year . In 1955 , Lady and the Tramp was released to higher box office success than any other Disney feature from the studio since Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , earning an estimated $ 7 @.@ 5 million in rentals at the North American box office in 1955 . Lady is significant as Disney 's first widescreen animated feature , produced in the CinemaScope process , and was the first Disney animated feature to be released by Disney 's own distribution company , Buena Vista Distribution .
By the mid @-@ 1950s , with Walt Disney 's attention primarily set on new endeavour such as live @-@ action films , television , and the Disneyland theme park , production of the animated films was left primarily in the hands of the " Nine Old Men " trust of head animators and directors . This led to several delays in approvals during the production of Disney 's Sleeping Beauty , which was finally released in 1959 . At $ 6 million , it was Disney 's most expensive film to date , produced in a heavily stylized art style devised by artist Eyvind Earle and presented in large @-@ format Super Technirama 70 with six @-@ track stereophonic sound . However , the film 's large production costs and underperformance at the box office resulted in the studio posting its first annual loss in a decade for fiscal year 1960 , leading to massive layoffs throughout the studio .
By the end of the decade , the Disney short subjects were no longer being produced on a regular basis , with many of the shorts divisions ' personnel either leaving the company or begin reassigned to work on Disney television programs such as The Mickey Mouse Club and Disneyland . While the Disney shorts had dominated the Academy Award for Best Short Subject ( Cartoons ) during the 1930s , its reign over the award had been ended by MGM 's Tom and Jerry cartoons , Warner Bros ' Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies , and the works of United Productions of America ( UPA ) , whose flat art style and stylized animation techniques were lauded as more modern alternatives to the older Disney style . During the 1950s , only one Disney short , the stylized Toot , Whistle , Plunk and Boom , won the Best Short Subject ( Cartoons ) Oscar .
The Mickey Mouse , Pluto , and Goofy shorts had all ceased regular production by 1953 , with Donald Duck and Humphrey continuing and converting to widescreen CinemaScope before the shorts division was shut down in 1956 . After that , all future shorts were produced by the feature films division until 1969 . The last Disney short of the golden age of animation was It 's Tough to Be a Bird . Disney shorts would only be produced on a sporadic basis from this point on , with notable later shorts including Runaway Brain ( 1995 , starring Mickey Mouse ) , and Paperman ( 2012 ) .
= = = 1959 – 66 : Reduced feature animation , Walt Disney 's final years = = =
Despite the 1959 layoffs and competition for Walt Disney 's attention from the company 's grown live @-@ action film , TV , and theme park departments , production continued on feature animation productions at a reduced level . In 1961 , the studio released One Hundred and One Dalmatians , an animated feature which popularized the use of xerography during the process of inking and painting traditional animation cels . Using xerography , animation drawings could be photo @-@ chemically transferred rather than traced from paper drawings to the clear acetate sheets ( " cels " ) used in final animation production . The resulting art style – a scratchier line which revealed the construction lines in the animators ' drawings – typified Disney films into the 1980s . The film was a success , being the tenth highest grossing film of 1961 with rentals of $ 6 @.@ 4 million .
The Disney animation training program started at the studio before the development of Snow White in 1932 eventually led to Walt Disney helping found the California Institute of the Arts ( CalArts ) . This university , formed via the merger of Chouinard Art Institute and the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music , included a Disney @-@ developed animation program of study among its degree offerings . CalArts became the alma mater of many of the animators who would work at Disney and other animation studios from the 1970s to the present .
The Sword in the Stone was released in 1963 , and was the sixth highest grossing film of the year in North America with estimated rentals of $ 4 @.@ 75 million . A featurette adaptation of one of A. A. Milne 's Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh stories , Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree , was released in 1966 , to be followed by several other Pooh featurettes over the years and a full @-@ length compilation feature , The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh , which was released in 1977 .
Walt Disney died in December 1966 , ten months before the studio 's next film , The Jungle Book , was completed and released . The film was a success , finishing 1967 as the fourth highest @-@ grossing movie of the year .
= = = 1966 – 84 : Decline in popularity , Bluth 's entrance and departure , " rock bottom " = = =
Following Walt Disney 's passing , Woolie Reitherman continued as both producer and director of the features . The studio began the 1970s with the release of The Aristocats , the last film project to be approved by Walt Disney himself . In 1971 , Roy O. Disney , the studio co @-@ founder , died and Walt Disney Productions was left in the hands of Donn Tatum and Card Walker , who alternated as chairman and CEO in overlapping terms for the rest of the decade . The next feature , Robin Hood ( 1973 ) , was produced with a significantly reduced budget and animation repurposed from previous features . Both The Aristocats and Robin Hood were minor box office and critical successes .
The Rescuers , released in 1977 , was a success exceeding the achievements of the previous two Disney features . Receiving broad critical acclaim , commercial returns , and an Academy Award nomination , it ended up being the third highest grossing film in 1977 and the most successful and acclaimed Disney animated film since The Jungle Book . The film was reissued in 1983 , accompanied by a new Disney featurette , Mickey 's Christmas Carol .
The production of The Rescuers signaled the beginning of a changing of the guard process in the personnel at the Disney animation studio : as veterans such as Milt Kahl and Les Clark retired , they were gradually replaced by new talents such as Don Bluth , Ron Clements , John Musker , and Glen Keane . The new animators , culled from the animation program at CalArts and trained by Eric Larson , Frank Thomas , Ollie Johnston , and Woolie Reitherman got their first chances to prove themselves as a group with the animated sequences in Disney 's live @-@ action / animated hybrid feature Pete 's Dragon ( 1977 ) , the animation for which was directed by Don Bluth . In September 1979 , dissatisfied with what they felt was a stagnation in the development of the art of animation at Disney , Bluth and several of the other new guard animators quit to start their own studio , Don Bluth Productions , which became Disney 's chief competitor in the animation field during the 1980s .
Delayed half a year by the defection of the Bluth group , The Fox and the Hound was released in 1981 after four years in production . The film was considered a financial success by the studio , and development continued on The Black Cauldron , a long @-@ gestating adaptation of the Chronicles of Prydain series of novels by Lloyd Alexander produced in Super Technirama 70 .
The Black Cauldron was intended to expand the appeal of Disney animated films to older audiences and to showcase the talents of the new generation of Disney animators from CalArts . Besides Keane , Musker , and Clements , this new group of artists included other promising animators such as Andreas Deja , Mike Gabriel , John Lasseter , and Tim Burton . Lasseter was fired from Disney in 1983 for pushing the studio to explore computer animation production , but went on to become the creative head of Pixar , a pioneering computer animation studio that would begin a close association with Disney in the late 1980s . Similarly , Burton was fired in 1984 after producing a live @-@ action short shelved by the studio , Frankenweenie , then went on to become a high @-@ profile producer and director of live @-@ action and stop motion animated features for Disney and other studios . Some of Burton 's high @-@ profile projects for Disney would include the stop @-@ motion The Nightmare Before Christmas ( 1993 ) , a live @-@ action adaptation of Alice in Wonderland ( 2010 ) , and a stop @-@ motion feature remake of Frankenweenie ( 2012 ) .
= = = 1984 – 89 : Michael Eisner takeover , restructuring , return to prominence = = =
Ron Miller , Walt Disney 's son @-@ in @-@ law , became president of Walt Disney Productions in 1980 and CEO in 1983 . That year , he expanded the company 's film and television production divisions , creating the Walt Disney Pictures banner under which future films from the feature animation department would be released . After a series of corporate takeover attempts in 1984 , Roy E. Disney , son of Roy O. and nephew of Walt , resigned from the company 's board of directors and launched a campaign called " SaveDisney " , successfully convincing the board to fire Miller . Roy E. Disney brought in Michael Eisner as Disney 's new CEO , and Frank Wells as president . Eisner in turn named Jeffrey Katzenberg chairman of the film division , The Walt Disney Studios . Near completion when the Eisner regime took over Disney , The Black Cauldron would come to represent what would later be referred to as the " rock bottom " point for Disney animation . The studio 's most expensive feature to that point at $ 44 million , The Black Cauldron was a critical and commercial failure . The film 's $ 21 million box office gross led to a loss for the studio , putting the future of the animation division in jeopardy .
Between the 1950s and 1980s , the significance of animation to Disney 's bottom line was significantly reduced as the company expanded into further live @-@ action production , television , and theme parks . As new CEO , Michael Eisner strongly considered shuttering the feature animation studio and outsourcing future animation . Roy E. Disney intervened , offering to head the feature animation division and turn its fortunes around , while Eisner established the Walt Disney Pictures Television Animation Group to produce lower @-@ cost animation for television . Named Chairman of feature animation by Eisner , Roy E. Disney appointed Peter Schneider president of animation to run the day @-@ to @-@ day operations in 1985 . : 3
In February 1985 , Disney executives moved the animation division from the Disney studio lot in Burbank to a variety of warehouses , hangars , and trailers located about two miles east ( 3 @.@ 2 kilometers ) in nearby Glendale , California . The animation division 's first feature animation at its new location was The Great Mouse Detective , begun by John Musker and Ron Clements as Basil of Baker Street after both left the Black Cauldron production . The Great Mouse Detective was enough of a critical and commercial success to instill executive confidence in the animation studio . Later the same year , however , Universal Pictures and Steven Spielberg 's Amblin Entertainment released Don Bluth 's An American Tail , which outgrossed The Great Mouse Detective at the box office and became the highest @-@ grossing first @-@ issue animated film to that point .
Katzenberg , Schneider , and Roy E. Disney set about changing the culture of the studio , increasing staffing and production so that a new animated feature would be released every year instead of every two to four . The first of the releases on the accelerated production schedule was Oliver & Company in 1988 , which featured an all @-@ star cast including Billy Joel and Bette Midler and an emphasis on a modern pop soundtrack . Oliver & Company opened in the theaters on the same day as another Bluth / Amblin / Universal animated film , The Land Before Time ; however , Oliver outgrossed Time and went on to become the most successful animated feature to that date .
At the same time in 1988 , Disney 's started entering into Australia 's long standing animation industry , by purchasing Hanna @-@ Barbera 's Australian studio to start Disney Animation Australia .
While Oliver & Company and next feature animation , The Little Mermaid , were in production , Disney collaborated with Steven Spielberg 's Amblin Entertainment and master animator Richard Williams to produce Who Framed Roger Rabbit , a groundbreaking live action / animation hybrid directed by Robert Zemeckis which featured licensed animated characters from other animation studios . Disney set up a new animation studio under Williams ' supervision in London to create the cartoon characters for Roger Rabbit , with many of the artists from the California studio traveling to England to work on the film . A significant critical and commercial success , Roger Rabbit won three Academy Awards for technical achievements. and was key in renewing mainstream interest in American animation . Other than the film itself , the studio also produced three Roger Rabbit shorts during the late 1980s and early 1990s .
= = = 1989 – 94 : Beginning of the Disney Renaissance , successful releases , impact on the animation industry = = =
A second satellite studio , Walt Disney Feature Animation Florida , opened in 1989 with 40 employees . Its offices were located within the Disney @-@ MGM Studios theme park at Walt Disney World in Bay Lake , Florida , and visitors were allowed to tour the studio and observe animators at work . The same year , the studio released The Little Mermaid , which became a keystone achievement in Disney 's history as its largest critical and commercial success in decades . Directed by John Musker and Ron Clements , who 'd been co @-@ directors on The Great Mouse Detective , The Little Mermaid earned $ 84 million at the North American box office , a record for the studio . The film was built around a score from Broadway songwriters Alan Menken and Howard Ashman , who was also a co @-@ producer and story consultant on the film . Mermaid won two Academy Awards , for Best Original Song and for Best Original Score .
The Little Mermaid vigorously relaunched a profound new interest in the animation and musical film genres . Mermaid was also the first to feature the use of Disney 's Computer Animation Production System ( CAPS ) . Developed for Disney by Pixar , which had grown into a commercial computer animation and technology development company , CAPS would become significant in allowing future Disney films to more seamlessly integrate computer @-@ generated imagery and achieve higher production values with digital ink and paint and compositing techniques . The Little Mermaid was the first of a series of blockbusters that would be released over the next decade by Walt Disney Feature Animation , a period later designated by the term Disney Renaissance .
Accompanied in theaters by the Mickey Mouse featurette The Prince and the Pauper , The Rescuers Down Under ( 1990 ) was Disney 's first animated feature sequel and the studio 's first film to be fully colored and composited via computer using the CAPS
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system . However , the film did not duplicate the success of The Little Mermaid . The next Disney animated feature , Beauty and the Beast , had begun production in London , but was moved back to Burbank after Disney decided to shutter the London satellite office and retool Beauty into a musical @-@ comedy format similar to Mermaid . Alan Menken and Howard Ashman were retained to write the song score , though Ashman died before production was completed .
Debuting first in a work @-@ in @-@ progress version at the 1991 New York Film Festival before its November 1991 wide release , Beauty , directed by Kirk Wise & Gary Trousdale , was an unprecedented critical and commercial success , and would later be seen as one of the studio 's best films . The film earned six Academy Award nominations , including one for Best Picture , a first for an animated work , winning for Best Song and Best Original Score . Its $ 145 million box office gross set new records , and merchandising for the film – including toys , cross @-@ promotions , and soundtrack sales – was also lucrative .
The successes of Mermaid and Beauty established the template for future Disney releases during the 1990s : a musical @-@ comedy format with Broadway @-@ styled songs and tentpole action sequences , buoyed by cross @-@ promotional marketing and merchandising , all carefully designed to pull audiences of all ages and types into theatres . In addition to John Musker , Ron Clements , Kirk Wise , and Gary Trousdale , the new guard of Disney artists creating these films included story artists / directors Roger Allers , Rob Minkoff , Chris Sanders , and Brenda Chapman , and lead animators Glen Keane , Andreas Deja , Eric Goldberg , Nik Ranieri , Will Finn , and many others .
Aladdin , released in November 1992 , continued the upward trend in Disney 's animation success , earning $ 504 million worldwide at the box office , and two more Oscars for Best Song and Best Score . Featuring songs by Menken , Ashman , and Tim Rice ( who replaced Ashman after his passing ) and starring the voice of Robin Williams , Aladdin also established the trend of hiring celebrity actors and actresses to provide the voices of Disney characters , which had been explored to some degree with The Jungle Book and Oliver & Company , but now became standard practice .
In June 1994 , Disney released The Lion King , directed by Roger Allers and Rob Minkoff . An all @-@ animal adventure set in Africa , The Lion King featured an all @-@ star voice cast which included James Earl Jones , Matthew Broderick , and Jeremy Irons , and songs written by Tim Rice and pop star Elton John . The Lion King earned $ 768 million at the worldwide box office , to this date a record for a traditionally animated film , earning millions more in merchandising , promotions , and record sales for its soundtrack .
Aladdin and The Lion King had been the highest @-@ grossing films worldwide in each of their respective release years . With animation becoming again an increasingly important and lucrative part of Disney 's business , the company began to expand its operations . The flagship California studio was split into two units and expanded , and ground was broken on a new Disney Feature Animation building adjacent to the main Disney lot in Burbank , which was dedicated in 1995 . The Florida satellite , officially incorporated in 1992 , was expanded as well , and one of Disney 's television animation studios in the Paris , France suburb of Montreuil – the former Brizzi Brothers studio – became Walt Disney Feature Animation Paris , where A Goofy Movie ( 1995 ) and significant parts of later Disney films were produced . Also , Disney began producing lower cost direct to video sequels for its successful animated films using the services of its television animation studios under the name Disney MovieToons . The Return of Jafar ( 1994 ) , a sequel to Aladdin and a pilot for the Aladdin television show spin @-@ off , was the first of these productions . Walt Disney Feature Animation was also heavily involved in the adaptations of both Beauty and the Beast in 1994 and The Lion King in 1997 into Broadway musicals .
Jeffrey Katzenberg and the Disney story team were heavily involved in the development and production of Toy Story , the first fully computer @-@ animated feature ever produced . Toy Story was produced for Disney by Pixar and directed by former Disney animator John Lasseter , whom Peter Schneider had unsuccessfully tried to hire back after his success with Pixar shorts such as Tin Toy ( 1988 ) . Released in 1995 , Toy Story opened to critical acclaim and commercial success , leading to Pixar signing a five @-@ film deal with Disney , which bore critically and financially successful computer animated films such as A Bug 's Life ( 1998 ) , Toy Story 2 ( 1999 ) , and Monsters , Inc . ( 2001 ) .
In addition , the successes of Aladdin and The Lion King spurred a significant increase in the number of American @-@ produced animated features throughout the rest of the decade , with the major film studios establishing new animation divisions such as Fox Animation Studios , Turner Feature Animation , and Warner Bros. Animation being formed to produce films in a Disney @-@ esque musical @-@ comedy format such as Thumbelina ( 1994 ) , The Swan Princess ( 1994 ) , Anastasia ( 1997 ) , Cats Don 't Dance ( 1997 ) , Quest for Camelot ( 1998 ) , and The King and I ( 1999 ) respectively .
= = = 1994 – 99 : End of the Disney Renaissance , declining returns = = =
Concerns arose internally at Disney , particularly from Roy E. Disney , about studio chief Jeffrey Katzenberg taking too much credit for the success of Disney 's early 1990s releases . Disney president Frank Wells was killed in a helicopter accident in 1994 , and Katzenberg lobbied CEO Michael Eisner for the vacant president position . Instead , tensions between Katzenberg , Eisner , and Disney resulted in Katzenberg being forced to resign from the company that October , with Joe Roth taking his place . Katzenberg went on to become one of the founders of DreamWorks SKG , whose 's animation division became Disney 's key rival in feature animation with both computer animated films such as Antz ( 1998 ) , and traditionally animated films such as The Prince of Egypt ( 1998 ) .
In contrast to the early 1990s productions , the mid @-@ 1990s Disney animated features presented a trend of diminishing returns . Pocahontas , released in summer 1995 , was a critical and commercial disappointment compared to its predecessors , earning $ 346 million worldwide while still winning two Academy Awards for its music by Alan Menken and Stephen Schwartz . The next film , The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) , partially produced at the Paris studio , performed better critically but grossed only $ 325 million worldwide . The following summer , Hercules , grossed only $ 252 million worldwide and received positive reviews , but it was responsible for beginning the decline of traditional animated films . The declining box office success became doubly concerning inside the studio as wage competition from DreamWorks had significantly increased the studio 's overhead , with production costs increasing from $ 79 million in total costs ( production , marketing , and overhead ) for The Lion King in 1994 to $ 179 million for Hercules three years later . Moreover , Disney depended upon the popularity of its new features in order to develop merchandising , theme park attractions , direct @-@ to @-@ video sequels , and television programming in its other divisions . The production schedule was scaled back , and a larger number of creative executives were hired to more closely supervise production , a move that was not popular among the animation staff .
Mulan ( 1998 ) , the first film produced primarily at the Florida studio , earned $ 305 million in worldwide box office . The next summer 's Tarzan , directed by Kevin Lima and Chris Buck , had a high production cost of $ 150 million , but earned $ 448 million at the box office . The Tarzan song score by pop star Phil Collins resulted in significant record sales and an Academy Award for Best Song .
In October 1999 , Dream Quest Images , a special effects studio previously purchased by The Walt Disney Company in April 1996 to replace Buena Vista Visual Effects , was merged with the computer @-@ graphics operation of Walt Disney Feature Animation to form a division called The Secret Lab . The Secret Lab produced one feature film , Dinosaur ( 2000 ) , which featured CGI prehistoric creatures against filmed live @-@ action backgrounds . The $ 128 million production earned $ 349 million worldwide , below studio expectations , and the Secret Lab was closed in 2001 .
= = = 2000 – 05 : Slump , downsizing and conversion to computer animation , corporate issues = = =
Fantasia 2000 , a sequel to the 1940 film that had been a pet @-@ project of Roy E. Disney 's since 1990 , was released on January 1 , 2000 . Produced in pieces when artists were available between productions , Fantasia 2000 was the first animated feature produced for and released in IMAX format . A standard theatrical release followed in June , but the film 's $ 90 million worldwide box office total against its $ 90 million production cost resulted in it losing $ 100 million for the studio . Peter Schneider left his post as president of Walt Disney Feature Animation in 1999 to become president of The Walt Disney Studios under Joe Roth . Thomas Schumacher , who had been Schneider 's vice president of animation for several years , became the new president of Walt Disney Feature Animation . By this time , competition from other studios had driven animators ' incomes to all @-@ time highs , making traditionally animated features even more costly to produce . Schumacher was tasked with cutting costs , and massive layoffs began to cut salaries and bring the studio 's staff – which peaked at 2 @,@ 200 people in 1999 – down to approximately 1 @,@ 200 employees .
That December saw the release of The Emperor 's New Groove , which had originally been a musical epic called Kingdom of the Sun before being revised mid @-@ production into a smaller comedy , New Groove earned $ 169 million worldwide when released in December 2000 , though it was well reviewed and performed better on video . Atlantis : The Lost Empire ( 2001 ) , an attempt to break the Disney formula by moving into action @-@ adventure , received mixed reviews and earned $ 186 million worldwide against production costs of $ 120 million .
By 2001 , the notable successes of computer @-@ animated films from Pixar and DreamWorks such as Monsters , Inc. and Shrek , respectively , against Disney 's lesser returns for The Emperor 's New Groove and Atlantis led to a growing perception that hand @-@ drawn animation was becoming outdated and falling out of fashion . In March 2002 , just after the successful release of Blue Sky Studios ' computer @-@ animated feature Ice Age , Disney laid off most of the employees at the Feature Animation studio in Burbank , downsizing it to one unit and beginning plans to move into fully computer animated films . A handful of employees were offered positions doing computer animation . Morale plunged to a low not seen since the start of the studio 's ten @-@ year exile to Glendale in 1985 . The Paris studio was also closed in 2003 .
The Burbank studio 's remaining hand @-@ drawn productions , Treasure Planet ( 2002 ) and Home on the Range ( 2004 ) , continued production . Treasure Planet was a retelling of Treasure Island in space that was a pet project of writer @-@ directors Ron Clements & John Musker . It received generally positive reviews and an IMAX release but was financially unsuccessful upon release , resulting in a $ 74 million writedown for The Walt Disney Company in fiscal year 2003 . The Burbank studio 's 2D departments closed at the end of 2002 following completion of Home on the Range , a long @-@ in @-@ production feature originally known as Sweating Bullets .
Meanwhile , hand @-@ drawn feature animation production continued at the Feature Animation Florida studio , where the films could be produced at lower costs . Lilo & Stitch , an offbeat comedy written and directed by Chris Sanders and Dean DeBlois , became the studio 's first bonafide hit since Tarzan upon its summer 2002 release , earning $ 273 million worldwide against a $ 80 million production budget .
Most of the 1990s Disney features had been spun off into direct @-@ to @-@ video sequels , television series , or both , produced by the Disney Television Animation unit . Beginning with Return to Never Land , a 2002 sequel to 1953 's Peter Pan , Disney began releasing lower @-@ budgeted sequels to earlier films , originally intended for video premieres , in theaters , a process derided by some of the Disney animation staff and fans of the Disney films .
In 2003 , Tom Schumacher was appointed president of Buena Vista Theatrical Group , Disney 's stageplay and musical theater arm , and David Stainton , then president of Walt Disney Television Animation , was appointed as his replacement . Stainton continued to oversee Disney 's direct @-@ to @-@ video division , DisneyToon Studios , which had been part of the television animation department , though transferred at this time to Walt Disney Feature Animation management .
Under Stainton , the Florida studio completed Brother Bear ( 2003 ) , which did not perform as well as Lilo & Stitch critically or financially . Disney announced the closing of the Florida studio on January 12 , 2004 , with the then in @-@ progress feature My Peoples left unfinished when the studio closed two months later . Upon the unsuccessful April 2004 release of Home on the Range , Disney , led by executive Bob Lambert , officially announced its conversion of Walt Disney Feature Animation into a fully CGI studio – a process begun two years prior – now with a staff of 600 people and began selling off all of its traditional animation equipment .
Just after Brother Bear 's November 2003 release , Feature Animation chairman Roy E. Disney had resigned from The Walt Disney Company , launching with business partner Stanley Gold a second external " SaveDisney " campaign similar to the one that had forced Ron Miller out in 1984 , this time to force out Michael Eisner . Two of their arguing points against Eisner included his handling of Feature Animation and the souring of the studio 's relationship with Pixar .
Talks between Michael Eisner and Pixar CEO Steve Jobs over renewal terms for the highly lucrative Pixar @-@ Disney distribution deal broke down in January 2004 . Jobs in particular disagreed with Eisner 's insistence that sequels such as the then in @-@ development Toy Story 3 ( 2010 ) would not count against the number of films required in the studio 's new deal . To that end , Disney announced the launching of Circle 7 Animation , a division of Feature Animation which would produce sequels to the Pixar films , while Pixar began shopping for a new distribution deal .
In 2005 , Disney released its first fully computer @-@ animated feature , Chicken Little . The film was a moderate success at the box office , earning $ 315 million worldwide , but was not well @-@ received critically . Later that year , after two years of Roy E. Disney 's " SaveDisney " campaign , Michael Eisner announced that he would resign and named Bob Iger , then president of The Walt Disney Company , his successor as chairman and CEO .
= = = 2005 – 09 : Rebound , Disney 's acquisition of Pixar , renaming = = =
With Iger in place as the new CEO of Disney , Steve Jobs resumed negotiations for Pixar with Disney . On January 24 , 2006 , Disney announced that it would acquire Pixar for $ 7 @.@ 4 billion , with the deal closing that May . As part of the acquisition , Pixar executives Edwin Catmull and John Lasseter assumed control of Walt Disney Feature Animation as President and Chief Creative Officer , respectively , and the Circle 7 studio launched to produce Toy Story 3 was shut down , with most of its employees returning to Feature Animation and Toy Story 3 returning to Pixar 's control .
While Disney executives had originally discussed closing Feature Animation as redundant , Catmull and Lasseter refused and instead resolved to try to turn things around at the studio . Lasseter and Catmull set about rebuilding the morale of the Feature Animation staff , and rehired a number of its 1980s " new guard " generation of star animators who had left the studio , including Ron Clements , John Musker , Eric Goldberg , Mark Henn , Andreas Deja , Bruce W. Smith , and Chris Buck . To maintain the separation of Disney and Pixar despite their now common ownership and management , Catmull and Lasseter " drew a hard line " that each studio was solely responsible for its own projects and would not be allowed to borrow personnel from or lend tasks out to the other .
Catmull and Lasseter also brought to Disney the Pixar model of a " filmmaker @-@ driven studio " as opposed to an " executive @-@ driven studio " ; they abolished Disney 's prior system of requiring directors to respond to " mandatory " notes from development executives ranking above the producers in favor of a system roughly analogous to peer review , in which non @-@ mandatory notes come primarily from fellow producers , directors , and writers . Most of the layers of " gatekeepers " ( midlevel executives ) were stripped away , and Lasseter established a routine of personally meeting weekly with filmmakers on all projects in the last year of production and delivering feedback on the spot .
Lasseter renamed Walt Disney Feature Animation to Walt Disney Animation Studios , and re @-@ positioned the studio as an animation house that produced both traditional and computer @-@ animated projects . In order to keep costs down on hand @-@ drawn productions , animation , design , and layout were done in @-@ house at Disney while clean @-@ up animation and digital ink @-@ and @-@ paint were farmed out to vendors and freelancers .
In 2007 , the studio released Meet the Robinsons , its second all @-@ CGI film , earning $ 169 @.@ 3 million worldwide . That year , DisneyToon Studios was also restructured and began to operate as a separate unit under Lasseter and Catmull 's control . John Lasseter 's direct intervention with the studio 's next film , American Dog , resulted in the departure of director Chris Sanders , who went on to become a director at DreamWorks Animation . The film was retooled by new directors Byron Howard and Chris Williams as Bolt ( 2008 ) , which had the best critical reception of any Disney animated feature since Lilo & Stitch , and became a moderate financial success .
The Princess and the Frog , directed by Ron Clements & John Musker , was the studio 's first hand @-@ drawn animated film in five years . A return to the musical @-@ comedy format of the 1990s with songs by Randy Newman , the film was released in 2009 to a positive reception and was also nominated for three Academy Awards , including two for Best Song . The box office performance of The Princess and the Frog – a total of $ 267 million earned worldwide against a $ 105 million production budget – was seen as an underperformance due to competition with Avatar . In addition , the " Princess " aspect of the title was blamed , resulting in future Disney films then in production about princesses being given neutral / symbolic titles : Rapunzel became Tangled and The Snow Queen became Frozen . In 2014 , however , Disney animator Tom Sito compared the film 's box office performance to that of The Great Mouse Detective ( 1986 ) , which was a step @-@ up from the theatrical run of the 1985 film The Black Cauldron . In 2009 , the studio also produced the computer @-@ animated Prep & Landing holiday special for the Disney @-@ owned ABC television network .
= = = 2010 – present : Continued resurgence = = =
After The Princess and the Frog , the studio released Tangled , a musical CGI adaptation of the Brothers Grimm 's Rapunzel tale with songs by Alan Menken and Glenn Slater . In active development since 2002 under Glen Keane , Tangled , directed by Byron Howard and Nathan Greno , was released in November 2010 and became a significant critical and commercial success , and was nominated for several accolades . The film earned $ 591 million in worldwide box office revenue , becoming the studio 's third most successful release to date .
The hand @-@ drawn feature Winnie the Pooh , a new feature film based on the A.A. Milne characters , followed in 2011 to positive reviews but under @-@ performed at the box office . Winnie the Pooh remains to date the studio 's most recent hand @-@ drawn feature . Wreck @-@ It Ralph , directed by Rich Moore , was released in 2012 , to critical acclaim and commercial success . A comedy @-@ adventure about a video @-@ game villain who redeems himself as a hero , it won numerous awards , including the Annie , Critics ' Choice , and Kids ' Choice Awards for Best Animated Feature Film and received Golden Globe and Academy Award nominations . The film earned $ 471 million in worldwide box office revenue . In addition , the studio won its first Academy Award for a short film in forty @-@ four years with Paperman . Directed by John Kahrs , Paperman utilized new software developed in house at the studio called Meander , which merges hand @-@ drawn and computer animation techniques within the same character to create a unique " hybrid . " According to Producer Kristina Reed , the studio is continuing to develop the technique for future projects , including an animated feature .
In 2013 , the studio laid off nine of its hand @-@ drawn animators , including Nik Ranieri and Ruben Aquino , leading to speculation on animation blogs that the studio was abandoning traditional animation , an idea that the studio dismissed . That same year , Frozen , a CGI musical film inspired by Hans Christian Andersen 's The Snow Queen , was released to widespread acclaim and became a blockbuster hit . Directed by Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee with songs by the Broadway team of Robert Lopez & Kristen Anderson @-@ Lopez , it was the first Disney animated film to earn over $ 1 billion in worldwide box office revenue and is currently the highest @-@ grossing animated film of all time , surpassing Pixar 's Toy Story 3 . Frozen also became the first film from Walt Disney Animation Studios to win the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature ( a category started in 2001 ) , as well as the first feature @-@ length motion picture from the studio to win an Academy Award since Tarzan and the first to win multiple Academy Awards since Pocahontas . It was released in theaters with Get a Horse ! , a new Mickey Mouse cartoon combining black @-@ and @-@ white hand @-@ drawn animation and full @-@ color CGI animation . The studio 's next feature , Big Hero 6 , a CGI comedy @-@ adventure film inspired by Marvel 's Big Hero 6 comics , was released on November 7 , 2014 . For the film , the studio developed new light rendering software called Hyperion , which the studio continued to use on all subsequent films . Big Hero 6 received critical acclaim and was the highest @-@ grossing animated film of 2014 , and it also won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature . The film was accompanied in theaters by the animated short Feast , which won the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film . In March 2016 , the studio released Zootopia , a CGI buddy @-@ comedy film set in a modern world inhabited by anthropomorphic animals . Zootopia was a critical and commercial success .
= = Studio = =
= = = Management = = =
Walt Disney Animation Studios is currently managed by Edwin Catmull ( President , Walt Disney and Pixar Animation Studios ) , John Lasseter ( Chief Creative Officer ) and Andrew Millstein ( President ) . Since 2006 , while continuing to live in the San Francisco Bay Area ( where they manage Pixar ) , Catmull and Lasseter have regularly commuted to Burbank every week to spend at least two days ( usually Tuesdays and Wednesdays ) at Disney Animation . They initially appointed Millstein as general manager and executive vice president to handle day @-@ to @-@ day business operations on their behalf . Millstein was promoted to the title of president in November 2014 , along with his counterpart at Pixar , general manager Jim Morris . Both Millstein and Morris continue to report to Catmull , who retains the title of president of both studios .
Former presidents of the studio include David Stainton ( January 2003 – January 2006 ) , Thomas Schumacher ( January 2000 – December 2002 ) and Peter Schneider ( 1985 – December 1999 ) .
Other Disney executives who also exercised much influence within the studio were Roy E. Disney ( 1985 – 2003 , Chairman , Walt Disney Feature Animation ) , Jeffrey Katzenberg ( 1984 – 94 , Chairman , The Walt Disney Studios ) , Michael Eisner ( 1984 – 2005 , CEO , The Walt Disney Company ) , and Frank Wells ( 1984 – 94 , President and COO , The Walt Disney Company ) . Following Roy Disney 's passing in 2009 , the WDAS headquarters in Burbank was re @-@ dedicated as The Roy E. Disney Animation Building in May 2010 .
= = = Locations = = =
Since 1995 , Walt Disney Animation Studios has been headquartered in the Roy E. Disney Animation Building in Burbank , California , across Riverside Drive from The Walt Disney Studios , where the original Animation building ( now housing corporate offices ) is located . The Disney Animation Building 's lobby is capped by a large version of the famous hat from the Sorcerer 's Apprentice segment of Fantasia ( 1940 ) , and the building is informally called the " hat building " for that reason . Disney Animation shares its site with ABC Studios , whose building is located immediately to the west .
Until the mid @-@ 1990s , Disney Animation previously operated out of the Air Way complex , a cluster of old hangars , office buildings , and trailers in the Grand Central Business Centre , an industrial park on the site of the former Grand Central Airport about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east in the city of Glendale . Today , the DisneyToon Studios unit is currently based in Glendale . Disney Animation 's archive , formerly known as " the morgue " ( based on an analogy to a morgue file ) and today known as the Animation Research Library , is also located in Glendale . Unlike the Burbank buildings , DisneyToon Studios and the ARL are located in nondescript office buildings near Disney 's Grand Central Creative Campus . The 12 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ARL is home to over 64 million items of animation artwork going back to 1924 ; because of its importance to the company , it requires visitors to agree to not disclose its exact location within Glendale .
Previously , feature animation satellite studios were located around the world in Montreuil , Seine @-@ Saint @-@ Denis , France ( a suburb of Paris ) , and in Bay Lake , Florida ( near Orlando , at Disney 's Hollywood Studios , one of the four theme parks at Walt Disney World ) . The Paris studio was shut down in 2002 , while the Florida studio was shut down in 2004 . The Florida building survives as a show and tour called The Magic of Disney Animation .
In November 2014 , Disney Animation commenced a 16 @-@ month upgrade of the Roy E. Disney Animation Building , in order to fix what Catmull has called its " dungeon @-@ like " interior . For example , the interior was so cramped that it could not easily accommodate " town hall " meetings with all employees in attendance . Disney did not disclose the renovation 's cost , but Lasseter revealed that " [ t ] he whole center of the second floor will have an atrium that will go up two stories [ ; ] we want to make this building so beautiful that it 's worthy of the artistic talent that 's there . " In addition , it was revealed that the large sorcerer 's hat will become the building 's main entrance . Lasseter stated , " There will be a gorgeous stairway that goes up into the hat , it 's a really great symbol , like you 're entering the building through the magic of Mickey Mouse 's hat . " Due to the renovation , the studio 's employees have been temporarily moved from Burbank into the closest available Disney @-@ controlled studio space – the DisneyToon Studios building in the industrial park in Glendale and the old Imagineering warehouse in North Hollywood under the western approach to Bob Hope Airport ( the Tujunga Building ) . Director Don Hall analogized the studio 's relocation to the end of The Empire Strikes Back , where " you know they 're going to get back together . "
= = Productions = =
= = = Feature films = = =
Walt Disney Animation Studios has produced animated features in a series of animation techniques , including traditional animation , computer animation , and animation combined with live @-@ action scenes . The studio 's first film , Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , was released on December 21 , 1937 , and their most recent film , Zootopia , was released on March 4 , 2016 .
= = = Short films = = =
Since Alice Comedies in the 1920s , Walt Disney Animation Studios has produced a series of prominent short films , including the Mickey Mouse cartoons and the Silly Symphonies series . Many of these shorts provided a medium for the studio to experiment with new technologies that they would use in their filmmaking process , such as the synchronization of sound in Steamboat Willie ( 1928 ) , the integration of the three strip Technicolor process in Flowers and Trees ( 1932 ) , the multiplane camera in The Old Mill ( 1937 ) , the xerography process in Goliath II ( 1960 ) , and the hand @-@ drawn / CGI hybrid animation in Off His Rockers ( 1992 ) , Paperman ( 2012 ) , and Get a Horse ! ( 2013 ) .
= = Collaborations = =
= = = Parks and resorts = = =
Walt Disney Animation Studios has occasionally collaborated with Walt Disney Creative Entertainment and Walt Disney Imagineering to create attractions for various Disney theme parks and resorts . Some of these attractions are :
Gran Fiesta Tour Starring The Three Caballeros , at Epcot
Mickey 's PhilharMagic , at the Magic Kingdom , Hong Kong Disneyland and Tokyo Disneyland
Stitch 's Great
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Henry L. Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of President Harry S. Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear energy . Composed of prominent political , scientific and industrial figures , the Interim Committee had broad terms of reference which included advising the President on wartime controls and the release of information , and making recommendations on post @-@ war controls and policies related to nuclear energy , including legislation . Its first duty was to advise on the manner in which nuclear weapons should be employed against Japan . Later , it advised on legislation for the control and regulation of nuclear energy . It was named " Interim " in anticipation of a permanent body that would later replace it after the war , where the development of nuclear technology would be placed firmly under civilian control . The Atomic Energy Commission was enacted in 1946 to serve this function .
= = Composition = =
Stimson himself was chairman . The other members were : James F. Byrnes , former US Senator and soon to be Secretary of State , as President Truman 's personal representative ; Ralph A. Bard , Under Secretary of the Navy ; William L. Clayton , Assistant Secretary of State ; Vannevar Bush , Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development and president of the Carnegie Institution ; Karl T. Compton , Chief of the Office of Field Service in the Office of Scientific Research and Development and president of Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; James B. Conant , Chairman of the National Defense Research Committee and president of Harvard University ; and George L. Harrison , an assistant to Stimson and president of the New York Life Insurance Company . Harrison chaired the committee when Stimson was absent , but Byrnes , as the President 's personal representative , was probably its most influential member .
The Interim Committee held its first meeting on 9 May 1945 . Stimson began by outlining its broad terms of reference , which included advising the President on wartime controls and the release of information , and making recommendations on post @-@ war controls and policies related to nuclear energy , including legislation . The Interim Committee was not specifically charged with making recommendations on the military use of nuclear weapons but the composition of the committee and the close relationship between the wartime use of nuclear weapons and post @-@ war policies regarding them inevitably led to the Interim Committee 's involvement .
= = Decision on use of atomic bombs = =
The most immediate of the committee 's tasks , one that has been the focus of much subsequent controversy , was to make recommendations concerning the use of the atomic bomb against Japan . The committee 's consensus , arrived at in a meeting held June 1 , 1945 , is described as follows in the meeting 's log :
Mr. Byrnes recommended , and the Committee agreed , that the Secretary of War should be advised that , while recognizing that the final selection of the target was essentially a military decision , the present view of the Committee was that the bomb should be used against Japan as soon as possible ; that it be used on a war plant surrounded by workers ’ homes ; and that it be used without prior warning .
One member , Bard , later dissented from this decision and in a memorandum to Stimson laid out a case for a warning to Japan before using the bomb .
In arriving at its conclusion , the committee was advised by a Scientific Panel of four physicists from the Manhattan Project : Enrico Fermi and Arthur H. Compton of the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago ; Ernest O. Lawrence of the Radiation Laboratory at the University of California at Berkeley ; and J. Robert Oppenheimer , who directed the bomb assembly program at Los Alamos . Reinforcing the decision arrived at on June 1 , the scientists wrote in a formal report on June 16 :
The opinions of our scientific colleagues on the initial use of these weapons are not unanimous : they range from the proposal of a purely technical demonstration to that of the military application best designed to induce surrender . Those who advocate a purely technical demonstration would wish to outlaw the use of atomic weapons , and have feared that if we use the weapons now our position in future negotiations will be prejudiced . Others emphasize the opportunity of saving American lives by immediate military use , and believe that such use will improve the international prospects , in that they are more concerned with the prevention of war than with the elimination of this specific weapon . We find ourselves closer to these latter views ; we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war ; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use .
Although the committee 's recommendation was addressed to Stimson , Byrnes went directly from the June 1 meeting to brief Truman , who reportedly concurred with the committee 's opinion . Reviewing the Scientific Panel 's report on June 21 , the committee reaffirmed its position
... that the weapon be used against Japan at the earliest opportunity , that it be used without warning , and that it be used on a dual target , namely , a military installation or war plant surrounded by or adjacent to homes or other buildings most susceptible to damage .
= = Press releases = =
The Interim Committee was given responsibility for the preparation of separate prepared statements for the President and the Secretary of War to be released when nuclear weapons were used . The job of drafting them was given to William Laurence . Laurence submitted them to Arthur W. Page for review , and he in turn passed them on to the Interim Committee . At its meeting on July 6 , the Interim Committee considered and adopted a set of British suggestions . The final draft of President Truman 's speech was handed to him at the Potsdam Conference on August 1 . Following the dropping of an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6 , Truman read out the press release , which declared that :
With this bomb we have now added a new and revolutionary increase in destruction to supplement the growing power of our armed forces . In their present form these bombs are now in production and even more powerful forms are in development .
It is an atomic bomb . It is a harnessing of the basic power of the universe . The force from which the sun draws its power has been loosed against those who brought war to the Far East .
= = Post @-@ war legislation = =
In July 1944 , before the Interim Committee was formed , Bush , Conant and Irvin Stewart had produced a proposal for legislation to control nuclear energy . Conant submitted the proposals to the Interim Committee at its meeting on July 9 , 1945 . Harrison brought in two experienced lawyers , Kenneth Royall and William L. Marbury to take up the job of drafting the legislation . Their draft bill would have created a nine @-@ man commission consisting of five civilian and four military members . It granted the commission broad powers to acquire property , to operate facilities , to conduct research and to regulate all forms of nuclear energy . The Royall @-@ Marbury bill was reviewed by the Interim Committee at its July 19 meeting and revised in line with their suggestions . The bill was forwarded to the President in August . The Interim Committee met again on September 28 to discuss legislative strategy . The Royall @-@ Marbury bill was introduced into the United States Congress by the chairman of the House Military Affairs Committee , Andrew J. May , and the ranking member of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs , Senator Edwin C. Johnson on October 3 . It then became known as the May @-@ Johnson bill .
The May @-@ Johnson bill soon ran into difficulties . Although the Interim Committee was discharged in November , it met one more time in December to discuss amendments to the May @-@ Johnson bill . On December 20 , 1945 , Senator Brien McMahon introduced an alternative Senate bill on atomic energy , which quickly became known as the McMahon bill . This was initially a very liberal bill towards the control of scientific research , and was broadly supported by scientists . McMahon framed the controversy as a question of military versus civilian control of atomic energy , although the May @-@ Johnson bill also provided for civilian control of atomic energy . In 1946 , several major revisions were made to the McMahon bill in order to appease the more conservative elements in the Senate . The resulting bill passed both the Senate and the House without major modifications . On August 1 , 1946 , Truman signed the McMahon bill into law as the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 .
= Operation Bribie =
Operation Bribie ( 17 – 18 February 1967 ) , also known as the Battle of Ap My An , was fought during the Vietnam War in Phuoc Tuy province between Australian forces from the 6th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 6 RAR ) and two companies of Viet Cong from D445 Battalion , likely reinforced by North Vietnamese regulars . During the night of 16 February the Viet Cong attacked a South Vietnamese Regional Force compound at Lang Phuoc Hai , before withdrawing the following morning after heavy fighting with South Vietnamese forces . Two hours later a Viet Cong company was subsequently reported to have formed a tight perimeter in the rainforest 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) north of Lang Phuoc Hai , near the abandoned hamlet of Ap My An . In response the Australians mounted a quick reaction force operation . Considering that the Viet Cong would attempt to withdraw as they had during previous encounters , forces from 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) would subsequently be inserted into blocking positions on the likely withdrawal route in an attempt to intercept and destroy them .
On the afternoon of 17 February 6 RAR deployed into the area north @-@ west of Hoi My by American UH @-@ 1 Iroquois helicopters and M113 armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) in an attempt to cut off the anticipated Viet Cong withdrawal , establishing blocking and assault forces . Following an airmobile assault into an unsecured landing zone at 13 : 45 , A Company 6 RAR was subsequently surprised by a strong , well @-@ sited and dug @-@ in Viet Cong force , which , rather than withdrawing , had likely remained in location as part of an attempt to ambush any reaction force sent to the area . The Australians were soon contacted by heavy small arms fire , with a third of the lead platoon falling wounded in the initial volleys . A Company subsequently broke contact and withdrew under heavy fire from what appeared to be a Viet Cong base area . Initially believing they were opposed by only a company , 6 RAR subsequently launched a quick attack by two companies . However , unknown to the Australians the Viet Cong had been reinforced and they now faced a battalion @-@ sized force in well prepared positions .
With A Company providing fire support , B Company assaulted the position at 15 : 3
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5 with artillery , air strikes and armour in support . From the outset the lead elements came under constant Viet Cong sniper fire from the trees , and from machine @-@ guns that had not previously been detected by the Australians . The assault soon faltered with steadily increasing casualties as the Viet Cong resisted strongly , withstanding multiple frontal assaults , including bayonet charges by two separate platoons . Surrounded and receiving fire from all sides , the lead Australian elements from B Company could advance no further against a determined and well dug @-@ in force , and all attempts to regain momentum were unable to dislodge the defenders . Initially the Australians had used their APCs to secure the landing zone at the jungle 's edge , however with the infantry in trouble they were subsequently dispatched as a relief force . Fighting their way forward , the M113s finally arrived by 18 : 15 and began loading the most badly wounded as darkness approached . The Viet Cong subsequently launched two successive counter @-@ attacks , yet both were repulsed by the Australians . During the fighting one of the APCs was subsequently disabled by a recoilless rifle at close range , killing the driver .
Finally , by 19 : 00 B Company was able break contact and withdrew after a five @-@ hour battle , moving into a night harbour near the landing zone with the remainder of the battalion . Mortars , artillery fire and airstrikes covered the Australian withdrawal , and then proceeded to pound the battlefield into the evening . After a tense night the Australians returned the next morning only to find that the Viet Cong had left the area during the night , successfully avoiding a large blocking force while dragging most of their dead and wounded with them . A hard fought affair at close range , the Viet Cong had lost heavily during the fighting , yet the disciplined force had matched the Australians as both sides stood their ground , inflicting numerous casualties on the other before each fell back . Although 6 RAR had ultimately prevailed , if only by default , the vicious fighting at Ap My An was probably the closest that the Australian Army came to defeat in a major battle during the war .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
The Australian victory at the Battle of Long Tan on 18 August 1966 proved to be a major local set back for the Viet Cong , indefinitely forestalling an imminent movement against the Australian base at Nui Dat and challenging their previous domination of Phuoc Tuy province . In the months that followed the two infantry battalions of the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) — 5th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 5 RAR ) and 6th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 6 RAR ) — had conducted a number of search and destroy , village cordon and search , and route security operations in an attempt to further extend their control , and to separate the local people from the influence of the Viet Cong . Such operations usually resulted in contacts between the Australians and small groups of Viet Cong , while during cordon and search operations of Binh Ba and Hoa Long a number of villagers suspected of sympathising with the communists were apprehended and handed over to the South Vietnamese authorities . Several search operations were also conducted by the Australians in areas suspected of containing Viet Cong base camps , and these often resulted in the discovery of recently used and quickly evacuated camps , hospitals and logistic bases which had then been destroyed . Meanwhile , both battalions had also continued an extensive patrolling and ambushing program around the task force base at Nui Dat .
By December 1966 some Australian officers , including Lieutenant Colonel John Warr , the 5 RAR commanding officer , had begun to reassess their operational aims . Warr argued that they should move away from conventional operations and instead focus on population control and disrupting communist supply lines and freedom of movement . Assessing that with just two infantry battalions 1 ATF did not have the strength to destroy the Viet Cong forces then in Phuoc Tuy , Warr favoured cordon and search operations to eliminate cadres and block the supply of rice from the villages . On 7 January 1967 , Brigadier David Jackson was replaced as Commander 1 ATF by Brigadier Stuart Graham , and he subsequently approved Warr 's proposed concept of operations . Two days later 5 RAR conducted a successful cordon and search of the village of Binh Ba as part of Operation Caloundra , screening 1 @,@ 500 villagers and interrogating 591 . Nine confirmed members of the Viet Cong were captured , while five draft dodgers were also detained . By mid @-@ afternoon the operation had concluded without a shot being fired .
The Australians considered the operation a complete success and its results were largely seen to vindicate their evolving tactics , techniques and procedures . In the following months 5 RAR continued to develop cordon and search procedures as 1 ATF attempted to extend its influence , with such operations proving significant in weakening the Viet Cong infrastructure and removing a number of villages from their control . In this manner the Australians had continued to operate independently within Phuoc Tuy province , and while the war had become a series of big unit search and destroy operations in a war of attrition for the Americans , they had pursued their own counter @-@ insurgency campaign . Regardless , differences of opinion between Australian and American methods had produced friction , and increasingly impatient with the Australian approach , in early @-@ 1967 the Commander US Military Assistance Command Vietnam , General William Westmoreland , had complained to the Commander Australian Forces Vietnam , Major General Tim Vincent , demanding a more aggressive approach . However , the Australians were convinced that deliberate patrolling techniques were more effective in separating the Viet Cong from the population in the villages while working towards slowly extending government control , and such urgings went largely unheeded .
In February 1967 1 ATF focused on the Dat Do area and the south @-@ east of Phuoc Tuy province , initiating a program of conventional operations and pacification , with 5 RAR concentrating on cordon and search and civic action against Viet Cong cadres in the villages , while 6 RAR was tasked with search and destroy missions targeting the Viet Cong D445 Battalion . During the first week 6 RAR conducted ambushes along Route 23 between Dat Do and the Suoi Tre river , pre @-@ empting Viet Cong attacks in the area during the Tet holiday . The results of this operation were modest , and the Australians suffered a number of casualties from a misplaced fire mission from the 161st Battery , Royal New Zealand Artillery which killed four and wounded 13 , including Warrant Officer Class Two Jack Kirby , who had earlier received the Distinguished Conduct Medal for his actions at Long Tan , and was among the dead . Meanwhile , 5 RAR continued its cordon and search operations . On 13 – 14 February the battalion completed a cordon and search of An Nhut , just west of Dat Do , with South Vietnamese forces , apprehending 14 Viet Cong suspects , five communist sympathisers , two South Vietnamese Army ( ARVN ) deserters and a draft dodger . The Australians again suffered heavy casualties after the officer commanding C Company , his second @-@ in @-@ command , and a New Zealand artillery forward observer were killed by an unrecorded ARVN mine . Regardless , these operations met with some success , and over a six @-@ day period the battalion captured 40 Viet Cong . Yet even as Graham continued to refine his strategy the Viet Cong struck , and this sudden initiative would force the Australians into the type of conventional engagement that Westmoreland had been advocating .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
Based at Nui Dat in the III Corps Tactical Zone as part of US II Field Force , Vietnam , 1 ATF included two infantry battalions plus armour , aviation , engineers and artillery support , with total Australian troop strength in Vietnam reaching 6 @,@ 300 men . Logistic arrangements were provided by the 1st Australian Logistic Support Group based at the port of Vung Tau . Meanwhile , People 's Army of Vietnam ( PAVN ) units operating in the province in early @-@ 1967 included Main Forces from the 5th Division , which consisted of the 274th and 275th Regiments , each of three infantry battalions under the command of Senior Colonel Nguyen The Truyen . Supporting this force were a number of artillery , engineer , medical and logistic units . Group 89 ( Artillery ) was equipped with recoilless rifles , medium mortars and heavy machine @-@ guns . Local Forces included D445 Battalion , a provincial unit normally operating in the south of the province and in Long Khanh , while guerrilla forces included two companies in the Chau Duc district , one in Long Dat and a platoon in Xuyen Moc ; in total around 4 @,@ 500 men . Australian intelligence assessed the division as capable of conducting a regimental @-@ sized harassing raid against Nui Dat , while at the same time using its second regiment for ambushes , decoys or other supporting tasks . 274th Regiment was believed capable of inflicting heavy casualties on units up to a battalion , while 275th Regiment was assessed as only having the capability to attack isolated outposts or conduct limited ambushes and was unlikely to attempt a major attack without the support of 274th Regiment . Overall , it lacked the ability to conduct a protracted division @-@ sized operation , although one regiment could likely reinforce the other within a period of eight hours . Yet even while the possibility of a divisional attack against Nui Dat was considered remote , the threat of raids up to regimental strength forced Graham to maintain a defensive posture . Yet lacking a third infantry battalion , 1 ATF 's operational strength was limited . D445 Battalion was thought capable of mortaring , harassing fire and quick raids and was likely to be able to inflict heavy casualties on forces up to company size .
During the night of 16 / 17 February 1967 a Viet Cong force , likely from D445 Battalion , had attacked a South Vietnamese Regional Force ( RF ) post occupied by 612 RF Company , located 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) south @-@ east of Nui Dat near Hoi My , in the vicinity of the coastal village of Lang Phuoc Hai on the South China Sea . 1 ATF was first alerted to the Viet Cong movement against Lang Phuoc Hai in the early hours of the following morning by the senior American advisor in Phuoc Tuy , Lieutenant Colonel Jack Gilham . At 02 : 30 , Major Gordon Murphy , Officer Commanding A Squadron , 3rd Cavalry Regiment , was woken to be informed that the RF post there was under attack from a Viet Cong force of at least one company . A reaction force was likely to be requested from 1 ATF , and Murphy 's armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) would also be required . Shortly after 05 : 00 Gilham advised that the Viet Cong — now estimated at two companies — had occupied Lang Phuoc Hai and had subsequently entered the nearby hamlet of Lo Gom , and were attempting to collect boats in order to withdraw from the area by sea . Murphy was warned to have a troop of APCs ready by 06 : 00 to move the task force standby rifle company from 5 RAR to the area in order to relieve the South Vietnamese outpost . 3 Troop was immediately reacted to collect the company . Only recently arrived in Vietnam , Murphy had taken over command just the previous evening . Regardless , he believed that it would be unwise to send a reaction force down Route 44 as it would be too predictable , while in the near darkness the APC crews would be unable to effectively respond to any Viet Cong ambush . Graham subsequently agreed with Murphy 's objections , and the Australians began planning a more deliberate response .
At 05 : 30 Gilham urgently requested the Australian APCs be at a compound in Dat Do by 06 : 45 in order to transport an ARVN company . However , as the events unfolded A Squadron was not required for this operation , while 3 Troop was also recalled and the original order to load the task force standby rifle company was rescinded . As reports of the fighting around Lang Phuoc Hai continued , Headquarters 1 ATF struggled to respond amid delays and confusion . Difficulties in obtaining American assault helicopters and intelligence reports of a possible attack on the task force base by the Viet Cong 5th Division further hampered planning . Meanwhile , Operation Renmark — a 5 RAR operation planned to begin in the Long Hai hills the following day — was postponed , while arrangements were made to move the guns of the 101st Field Battery by CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopters to a temporary fire support base near Dat Do , in order to provide fire support to the reaction force which would be out of range of the guns at Nui Dat . Meanwhile , heavy fighting ensured between the Viet Cong and South Vietnamese near Lo Gom , as 615 RF Company from Xa Phuoc Loi and an ARVN battalion from Dat Do — the 3 / 43rd Infantry Battalion , entered the battle . By 09 : 35 the RF company was surrounded by the Viet Cong , now in battalion strength . However , supported by American airstrikes and artillery , the South Vietnamese successfully fought their way out , and by 10 : 10 the Viet Cong were reported to have withdrawn north @-@ east to the clear rainforest strip known to the Australians as the " Light Green " , after suffering heavy casualties during five hours of fighting .
Two hours later , a Viet Cong company was reported to have formed a tight perimeter in the jungle 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) north of Lang Phuoc Hai , near the abandoned hamlet of Ap My An . Believed to be from D445 Battalion , in spite of repeated airstrikes the force had remained in location and appeared to be attempting to cover the withdrawal of the main Viet Cong force to the east with heavy machine @-@ gun fire . The Australians assessed that , after having extended their night attack into daylight , the Viet Cong would now attempt to leave the battlefield in small parties before pulling @-@ back to their jungle bases . Yet Graham hoped to inflict a heavy defeat on the Viet Cong to boost the morale of the South Vietnamese territorial forces by demonstrating that they could not be attacked with impunity . Considering that the Viet Cong would attempt to withdraw as they had during previous encounters , forces from the 1 ATF would subsequently be inserted into blocking positions on the likely withdrawal route in an attempt to intercept and destroy them . A swift reaction was required in order to prevent the anticipated withdrawal and Graham subsequently decided on a full battalion operation with APCs in support , aimed at cutting @-@ off the Viet Cong 's likely withdrawal route to the east . Yet incomplete information and the need to conform to timings dictated by the limited availability of American helicopters for the insertion resulted in further delays .
= = Battle = =
= = = Encounter battle at the landing zone , 17 February 1967 = = =
Lieutenant Colonel Colin Townsend , the commanding officer of 6 RAR , was called to the task force command post for a briefing at 10 : 20 . Townsend subsequently issued verbal orders to deploy the battalion at 11 : 30 , and 6 RAR subsequently launched a quick reaction force code named Operation Bribie . The plan envisioned C Company , under the command of Major Brian McFarlane , being inserted by M113 APCs from A Squadron , 3rd Cavalry Regiment to secure a helicopter landing zone — known as LZ Amber — 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) east of Hoi My , just north of the hamlet of Ap My An . A , B and D Companies would then be flown into LZ Amber by American UH @-@ 1 Iroquois helicopters . The battalion would then link up and establish a blocking position to prevent the Viet Cong withdrawing east , before patrolling westward to contact . In direct support were 105 mm M2A2 howitzers from the 101st Field Battery at the airstrip at Dat Do , which would subsequently be secured by A Company 5 RAR , while also supporting the operation were Bell H @-@ 13 Sioux light observation helicopters from the 161st Reconnaissance Flight and elements of the US 1st Battalion , 83rd Artillery Regiment . A New Zealand forward observation party was attached
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from the band in the future .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Like many metalcore @-@ labeled bands , Bleeding Through is influenced by Swedish melodic death metal . It is the most apparent on Dust to Ashes , while with time the band 's music got gradually more and more melodic , with The Truth being the most melodic to date , even containing a power ballad , a novelty for the band . A keyboard player was introduced shortly before the band began performing as an unsigned act . According to former guitarist Scott Danough " it adds a different element " to their music .
Former guitarist Scott Danough has said that he is influenced by metal and hardcore bands , like At The Gates , Slayer , Cradle of Filth , Integrity and Earth Crisis . Vocalist Brandan Schieppati has also mentioned American thrash metal bands as an influence on Bleeding Through , e.g. Testament or Exodus . In an interview , guitarist Brian Leppke added Cro @-@ Mags , Entombed , Crowbar and Pantera as well to the list of influences . Lastly , keyboardist Marta Peterson is the one who brings industrial , symphonic black metal , and goth inspirations to the band 's sound .
= = Band members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = DVDs = = =
This Is Live , This Is Murderous ( June 15 , 2004 , Kung Fu Records )
Wolves Among Sheep ( November 15 , 2005 , Trustkill Records )
= = = Appearance on compilations = = =
MTV2 Headbangers Ball : The Revenge – " Kill to Believe "
The Best of Taste of Chaos – " On Wings of Lead "
The Best of Taste of Chaos Two . – " Love In Slow Motion "
Bring You To Your Knees | Bring You To Your Knees : A Tribute to Guns N ' Roses – " Rocket Queen "
Threat : Music That Inspired the Movie – " Number Seven with a Bullet "
Threat : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ( Soundtrack ) – " Number Seven with a Bullet "
Amp Magazine Presents : Volume 1 : Hardcore
Blood , Sweat & Ten Years – " On Wings of Lead " and " Love Lost in a Hale of Gunfire "
MTV2 Headbangers Ball , Vol . 2 – " Love Lost in a Hail of Gunfire " ( censored )
Fighting Music 2
Our Impact Will Be Felt : A Tribute to Sick of It All – " We Want the Truth "
Trustkill Takeover , Vol . II – " One Last Second "
2005 Warped Tour Compilation – " Love Lost in a Hail of Gunfire "
Punk Goes ' 90s – " Stars " – Hum cover
Black on Black : A Tribute to Black Flag – " My War "
Metal Hammer 204 – " Anti @-@ Hero "
Music videos
" Our Enemies "
" On Wings of Lead "
" Love Lost in a Hale of Gunfire "
" Kill to Believe "
" Line in the Sand "
" Love in Slow Motion "
" Death Anxiety "
" Germany "
" Anti @-@ Hero "
= Italian battleship Napoli =
Napoli was a Regina Elena @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in 1903 – 08 . She was the last member of the four @-@ ship class , which included the lead ship Regina Elena , Vittorio Emanuele , and Roma . Napoli was armed with a main battery of two 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) and twelve 8 in ( 203 mm ) guns , and was capable of a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) .
Napoli saw action in the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 and 1912 ; she took part in the attack on Derna , Libya , and the amphibious assaults on the islands of Rhodes and the Dodecanese in the Aegean Sea . Napoli remained in service during World War I in 1915 – 18 , but saw no action as a result of the cautious policies of both the Italian and Austro @-@ Hungarian navies . She remained in the Italian inventory until she was stricken from the naval register in August 1926 and was subsequently broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Napoli was 144 @.@ 6 meters ( 474 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 22 @.@ 4 m ( 73 ft ) and a maximum draft of 8 @.@ 58 m ( 28 @.@ 1 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 774 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 556 long tons ; 15 @,@ 183 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical four @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines rated at 19 @,@ 618 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 629 kW ) . Steam for the engines was provided by twenty @-@ eight coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 22 @.@ 15 knots ( 41 @.@ 02 km / h ; 25 @.@ 49 mph ) and a range of approximately 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Napoli had a crew of 742 – 764 officers and enlisted men .
As built , the ship was armed with two 12 in ( 305 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns placed in two single gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The ship was also equipped with twelve 8 in ( 203 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in six twin turrets amidships . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of twenty @-@ four 3 in ( 76 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns . She was also equipped with two 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes placed in the hull below the waterline . Napoli was protected with Krupp steel manufactured in Terni . The main belt was 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) thick , and the deck was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick . The conning tower was protected by 10 in ( 250 mm ) of armor plating . The main battery guns had 8 in ( 203 mm ) thick plating , and the 8 @-@ inch gun turrets had 6 in ( 152 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Napoli was laid down at Castellammare di Stabia on 21 October 1903 . She was launched on 10 September 1905 , and completed on 1 August 1908 . Napoli served in the active duty squadron through 1910 , which included her three sisters and the two Regina Margherita @-@ class battleships . At the time , these six battleships represented Italy 's front @-@ line battle fleet . The active duty squadron was typically in service for seven months of the year for training ; the rest of the year they were placed in reserve .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =
On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya . For the duration of the conflict , Napoli served in the 1st Division of the 1st Squadron with her three sister ships , under the command of Vice Admiral Augusto Aubry . After the outbreak of war , Napoli , her sister Roma , and the armored cruisers Pisa and Amalfi , were sent to blockade Tripoli in North Africa . On 2 October , the battleship Benedetto Brin and the training squadron arrived to relieve Napoli and the other ships , which thereafter left to rejoin the flagship , Vittorio Emanuele .
On 15 October , Napoli , which had been detached to reinforce the armored cruisers in the 2nd Division , 1st Squadron , arrived in Derna , Libya in company with several troopships . After a request sent to the defending Ottoman garrison to surrender was rejected , Napoli and the armored cruisers bombarded the town . In the span of 30 minutes , they had razed the town . At 14 : 00 , the Italians attempted to land a contingent of 500 infantry , but heavy Turkish fire repulsed the assault , which prompted further bombardment from the Italian fleet . On 18 October , the Turks retreated from the town , which was thereafter occupied by the Italian army . In the meantime , Napoli had rejoined the 1st Division , and on 18 October , the unit had escorted a convoy of troopships to Benghazi . The Italian fleet bombarded the city the next morning after the Ottoman garrison refused to surrender . During the bombardment , parties from the ships and the infantry from the troopships went ashore . The Italians quickly forced the Ottomans to withdraw into the city by evening . After a short siege , the Ottoman forces withdrew on 29 October , leaving the city to the Italians .
In November , the Ottomans launched a major attempt to retake the town . Toward the end of the month , the Italians launched a counter @-@ attack that consisted of three battalions of infantry and 150 men from Napoli . By December , Napoli and the other ships of the 1st Squadron were dispersed in the ports of Cyrenaica ; Napoli remained in Derna . In early 1912 , most of the fleet , including Napoli , withdrew to Italy for repairs and refit , leaving only a small force of cruisers and light craft to patrol the North African coast . On 13 April , the 1st Division left Taranto , bound for the island of Rhodes . Meanwhile , the 3rd Division escorted a convoy of troopships from Tobruk to the island . The Italian heavy ships demonstrated off the city of Rhodes while the transports landed the expeditionary force 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the south on 4 May ; the soldiers quickly advanced on the city , supported by artillery fire from the Italian fleet . The Turks surrendered the city the following day .
Between 8 and 20 May , Napoli was involved in the seizure of several islands in the Dodecanese between Crete , Rhodes , and Samos . In June , Napoli and the rest of the 1st Division was stationed at Rhodes . Over the next two months , the ships cruised in the Aegean to prevent the Turks from attempting to launch their own amphibious operations to retake the islands Italy had seized in May . The 1st Division returned to Italy in late August for repairs and refitting , and were replaced by the battleships of the 2nd Squadron . The 1st Division left port on 14 October , but was recalled later that day , when the Ottomans had agreed to sign a peace treaty to end the war .
= = = World War I = = =
Italy declared neutrality after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Italy 's traditional naval rival , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , was the primary opponent in the conflict , and lay directly across the narrow Adriatic Sea . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian Naval Chief of Staff , understood that Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines presented too serious a threat to his capital ships for him to mount an active fleet policy . Instead , Revel decided to implement blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Meanwhile , Revel 's battleships would be preserved to confront the Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet in the event that it sought a decisive engagement . As a result , the ship was not particularly active during the war .
During the war , Napoli and her three sisters were assigned to the 2nd Division . They spent much of the war rotating between the bases at Taranto , Brindisi , and Valona , but did not see combat . On 14 – 15 May 1917 , three light cruisers of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy raided the Otranto Barrage ; in the ensuring Battle of the Strait of Otranto , Napoli and her sisters raised steam to assist the Allied warships , but the Italian commander refused to permit them to join the battle for fear of risking their loss in the submarine @-@ infested Adriatic .
In early 1922 , the world 's major navies , including Italy , signed the Washington Naval Treaty . According to the terms of the treaty , Italy could keep Napoli and her three sisters , along with the newer dreadnought battleships . Due to the small size and age of the ships , particularly in comparison to the modern dreadnoughts , the Italians could have kept the ships in service indefinitely . They could not , however , be replaced by new battleships under the normal practice of the Treaty system , which provided for replacements after a ship was 20 years old . Napoli was retained for a few years , but was stricken from the naval register on 3 August 1926 and sold for scrap .
= New Age =
The New Age is a term applied to a range of spiritual or religious beliefs and practices that developed in Western nations during the 1970s . Precise scholarly definitions of the movement differ in their emphasis , largely as a result of its highly eclectic structure . Although analytically often considered to be religious , those involved in it typically prefer the designation of " spiritual " and rarely use the term " New Age " themselves . Many scholars of the subject refer to it as the New Age movement , although others contest this term , believing that it gives a false sense of homogeneity to the phenomenon .
As a form of Western esotericism , the New Age movement drew heavily upon a number of older esoteric traditions , in particular those that emerged from the occultist current that developed in the eighteenth century . Such prominent occult influences include the work of Emanuel Swedenborg and Franz Mesmer , as well as the ideas of Spiritualism , New Thought , and the Theosophical Society . A number of mid @-@ twentieth century influences , such as the UFO religions of the 1950s , the Counterculture of the 1960s , and the Human Potential Movement , also exerted a strong influence on the early development of the New Age movement . Although the exact origins of the movement remain contested , it is agreed that it developed in the 1970s , at which time it was centred largely in the United Kingdom . It expanded and grew largely in the 1980s and 1990s , in particular within the United States .
Despite its highly eclectic nature , a number of beliefs commonly found within the New Age movement have been identified . Theologically , the movement typically adopts a belief in a holistic form of divinity which imbues all of the universe , including human beings themselves . There is thus a strong emphasis on the spiritual authority of the self . This is accompanied by a common belief in a wide variety of semi @-@ divine non @-@ human entities , such as angels and masters , with whom humans can communicate , particularly through the form of channeling . Typically viewing human history as being divided into a series of distinct ages , a common New Age belief is that whereas once humanity lived in an age of great technological advancement and spiritual wisdom , it has entered a period of spiritual degeneracy , which will be remedied through the establishment of a coming Age of Aquarius , from which the movement gets its name . There is also a strong focus on healing , particularly using forms of alternative medicine , and an emphasis on a " New Age science " which seeks to unite science and spirituality .
Those involved in the New Age movement have been primarily from middle and upper @-@ middle @-@ class backgrounds . The degree to which New Agers are involved in the movement varied considerably , from those who adopted a number of New Age ideas and practices to those who fully embraced and dedicated their lives to it . The movement has generated criticism from established Christian organisations as well as contemporary Pagan and indigenous communities . From the 1990s onward , the movement became the subject of research by academic scholars of religious studies .
= = Definition = =
The New Age phenomenon has proved difficult to define , with much scholarly disagreement as to how this can be done . Religious studies scholar Paul Heelas characterised the New Age movement as " an eclectic hotch @-@ potch of beliefs , practices , and ways of life " which can be identified as a singular phenomenon through their use of " the same ( or very similar ) lingua franca to do with the human ( and planetary ) condition and how it can be transformed " . Similarly , historian of religion Olav Hammer termed it " a common denominator for a variety of quite divergent contemporary popular practices and beliefs " which have emerged since the late 1970s and which are " largely united by historical links , a shared discourse and an air de famille " . Sociologist of religion Michael York described the New Age movement as " an umbrella term that includes a great variety of groups and identities " but which are united by their " expectation of a major and universal change being primarily founded on the individual and collective development of human potential " .
The religious studies scholar Wouter Hanegraaff adopted a different approach by asserting that " New Age " was " a label attached indiscriminately to whatever seems to fit it " and that as a result it " means very different things to different people " . He thus argued against the idea that the New Age movement could be considered " a unified ideology or Weltanschaaung " , although believed that it could be considered a " more of less unified " movement " " . Conversely , while echoing the view that the " New Age " phenomenon was not " even a homogenous entity at all " , the religious studies scholar Steven J. Sutcliffe rejected the idea of a " New Age movement " , deeming it to be " a false etic category " .
Many of those groups and individuals who could analytically be categorised as part of the New Age movement reject the term " New Age " when in reference to themselves . Rather than term themselves " New Agers " , those involved in this milieu commonly describe themselves as spiritual " seekers " . In 2003 , Sutcliffe observed that the use of the term was " optional , episodic and declining overall " , adding that among the very few individuals who did use it , they usually did so with qualification , for instance by placing it in inverted commas . Hence , although the religious studies scholar James R. Lewis acknowledged that " New Age " was a problematic term , he asserted that " there exists no comparable term which covers all aspects of the movement " and that thus it remained a useful etic category for scholars to use .
Those involved in the movement rarely consider it to be " religion " – negatively associating the latter solely with organized religion – and instead describe their practices as " spirituality " . Religious studies scholars however have repeatedly referred to the movement as a " religion " . The New Age movement is a form of Western esotericism . Hanegraaff considered the New Age to be a form of " popular culture criticism " , in that it represented a reaction against the dominant Western values of Judeo @-@ Christian religion and rationalism , adding that " New Age religion formulates such criticism not at random , but falls back on " the ideas of earlier Western esoteric groups .
York described the New Age movement as a new religious movement ( NRM ) . Conversely , both Heelas and Sutcliffe rejected this categorisation ; he believed that while elements of the New Age movement represented NRMs , this was not applicable to every New Age group . Hammer identified much of the New Age movement as corresponding to the concept of " folk religions " in that it seeks to deal with existential questions regarding subjects like death and disease in " an unsystematic fashion , often through a process of bricolage from already available narratives and rituals " . York also heuristically divides the New Age movement into three broad trends . The first , the " social camp " , represents groups which primarily seek to bring about social change , while the second , " occult camp " , instead focus on contact with spirit entities and channeling . York 's third group , the " spiritual camp " , represents a middle ground between these two camps , and which focuses largely on individual development .
= = = Terminology of the " New Age " = = =
The term " new age " , along with related terms like " new era " and " new world " , long predate the emergence of the New Age movement , and have widely been used to assert that a better way of life for humanity is dawning . It has , for instance , widely been used in political contexts ; the Great Seal of the United States , designed in 1782 , proclaims a " new order of ages " , while in the 1980s the Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev proclaimed that " all mankind is entering a new age " . The term has also appeared within Western esoteric schools of thought , having a scattered use from the mid @-@ nineteenth century onward . In 1864 the American Swedenborgian Warren Felt Evans published The New Age and its Message , while in 1907 Alfred Orage and Holbrook Jackson began editing a weekly journal of Christian liberalism and socialism titled The New Age . The concept of a coming " new age " that would be inaugurated by the return to Earth of Jesus Christ was a theme in the poetry of Wellesley Tudor Pole and Johanna Brandt , and then also appeared in the work of the American Theosophist Alice Bailey , who used the term prominently in such titles as Disciplineship
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the 3rd Brigade , 2nd Division , of the II Corps in the Army of the Potomac . Devereux was placed on sick leave just before the Seven Days Battles and therefore missed the unit 's first severe action . The unit was involved in the Second Battle of Bull Run on August 30 , 1862 . During the Battle of Antietam on September 17 , 1862 , the 19th Massachusetts , as part of Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick 's division , took part in an infamous charge on Confederate lines in the West Woods . The division was virtually surrounded by Confederates and suffered heavy casualties . Lt. Col. Devereux was wounded during this action . Col. Hinks suffered a severe wound at Antietam which required his extended absence from the army . In his place , Devereux took command of the 19th Massachusetts . Devereux 's promotion to colonel was effective November 29 , 1862 .
Devereux and the 19th Massachusetts played a significant role in the Battle of Gettysburg on July 3 , 1863 . Confederate forces attempted a massive frontal assault on the Union position known as Pickett 's Charge . The attack only managed to breach Union lines in one small place along Cemetery Ridge . The spot is now referred to as the " high @-@ water mark " of the Confederacy , not only because it was the furthest position reached by Confederate troops during the charge but also because the failure of Pickett 's Charge is regarded as the major turning point of the Civil War . The 19th Massachusetts happened to be one of several Union infantry regiments positioned at the high @-@ water mark . The regiment had been placed slightly to the south of the " copse of trees " which served as the target of the Confederate units during the charge . The 19th Massachusetts was in line with the 42nd New York . The two units were the second line of defense in their brigade .
As the Confederate charge struck the Union position , a gap in the Union line opened in front of the 19th Massachusetts between their brigade and the adjacent brigade commanded by Brig. Gen. Webb . Seeing the break , Devereux turned to the colonel of the 42nd New York and , gesturing to the gap said , " Mallon , we must move ! " At that moment , Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock rode by and Devereux called out to Hancock , " They have broken through ! Shall I get in there ? " To which Hancock replied , " Go at them ! " The 19th Massachusetts and the 42nd New York together filled the gap , entering a pandemonium of hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . In the brutal fighting , the 19th Massachusetts captured four Confederate regimental flags which Devereux personally delivered to his brigade commander after the battle .
Following the Battle of Gettysburg , Devereux was detached from the regiment to assist in the draft service in Massachusetts . During the fall of 1863 , he was in command of the garrison at Camp Wightman on Long Island in Boston Harbor .
= = = Brigade command = = =
Returning to the Army of the Potomac in November 1863 , Devereux was placed in command of the Second Brigade , Second Division , II Corps . In that capacity , he was selected to lead a dangerous charge during the planning of the Battle of Mine Run on November 30 , 1863 . Fortunately , the attack was called off .
Devereux was forced to resign his command on February 27 , 1864 , according to historian James Bowen , due to , " imperative family considerations . " Devereaux was nominated by President Andrew Johnson on February 21 , 1866 for the award of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general , U.S. Volunteers , to rank from March 13 , 1865 , for gallant services during the war and the U.S. Senate confirmed the award on April 10 , 1866 .
= = Family and post @-@ war life = =
About the time of his resignation in 1864 , Devereux married Clara Anna Rich of Haverhill , Massachusetts . They had three sons and four daughters .
Arthur Devereux went back to a business career after the war , first in Boston , then in New York and eventually settling with his wife and children in Cincinnati , Ohio . In Ohio , Devereux became a representative in the Ohio legislature . His wife , Clara , pursued a career in journalism , writing editorials and a social column for the Cincinnati Commercial Gazette , among other publications , and became one of the best @-@ known female journalists of her time . In the latter decades of the 19th century , the Devereux family played a key role in defining the elite social circles of Cincinnati . In 1894 , Clara Devereux published Mrs. Devereux 's Blue Book of Cincinnati , a social register of notable residents of that city . She was assisted by her daughter , Marion , who later took up her mother 's mantle and wrote an influential social column during the early 20th century which , according to a more recent journalist , " made Cincinnati aristocrats quake for 29 years . "
Arthur Devereux died on February 13 , 1906 and is interred in Spring Grove Cemetery in Cincinnati .
= LocoRoco =
LocoRoco ( ロコロコ ) is a platform video game released worldwide in 2006 for the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) handheld game console , and developed and published by Sony Computer Entertainment . The game was developed by Tsutomu Kouno , striving to create a game that was different to other titles being released for the PSP at the time . After demonstrating a prototype of the core gameplay to his management , Kouno was able to complete development over a course of one and a half years . In LocoRoco , the player must tilt the environment by using the shoulder buttons on the PSP in order to maneuver the LocoRoco , multi @-@ colored jelly @-@ like characters , through each level , being aided by other odd residents while avoiding hazards and the deadly Moja Troop , to reach an end goal .
Along the way , the LocoRoco can grow in size by eating special berries , and then can be split and rejoined to pass the LocoRoco through narrow spaces . The game 's bright and colorful visuals and dynamic music soundtrack were hallmarks of the game , earning it several awards from the gaming press in 2006 . While the game did not sell high volumes , its success led to the development of four other LocoRoco titles - two sequels for the PSP ( PlayStation Portable ) / PSP Go , a spin @-@ off for the PlayStation 3 and a mobile version ( called LocoRoco Mobile and LocoRoco Hi , depending on the market ) for cellular ( mobile ) telephones .
= = Plot = =
Living peacefully on a faraway planet , the LocoRoco and their friends , the Mui Mui , help grow vegetation and look after nature , making the planet a pleasant place to be , playing and singing the days away . When the Moja Troop comes to the planet to take it over , the LocoRoco do not know how to fight against these invaders from outer space . As such , the player assumes the role of " the planet " that is capable of guiding the LocoRoco around to defeat the Moja Troop and rescue the remaining LocoRoco , returning the planet to its peaceful ways .
= = Gameplay = =
LocoRoco is divided into 5 worlds each consisting of 8 levels . In each level , the goal is to reach the end point of the level , with the player scored on the number of LocoRoco found , the time to complete the level , and other factors . There are six varieties of LocoRoco in the game , identified by their color , appearance , and musical voice , but outside of the first yellow one ( Kulche ) , the rest are unlocked as the player completes the levels . The player can then opt which LocoRoco they want to use for a level , however , this selection has no fundamental gameplay effects and only changes the songs used . LocoRoco act as blobs of gelatin , deforming from their normally round shape when demanded by the environment . Certain beings in the world can change the default shape of the LocoRoco into other forms , such as squares or triangles , which lasts until they wash off in water or they encounter another similar being .
The player starts with a single LocoRoco . When this LocoRoco eats a berry , it grows by one , up to a maximum size of twenty . The single large LocoRoco may be split into individual beings by pressing ○ or through specific points on the level , while individual LocoRoco can merge back into a single being by holding down ○ . Manipulation of the LocoRoco in this manner may be necessary to guide them to the finish ; while the single large LocoRoco is easier to control , small passages can only be navigated by individual LocoRoco . The player can lose LocoRoco if they are touched by harmful objects or they run into the Moja , and the game will be over if they lose all their LocoRoco . With the exception of making them jump , the player does not otherwise directly control the LocoRoco , but instead controls the planet itself , tilting the planet using the L and R buttons . This causes the LocoRoco to roll in the direction of tilt , as well as causing certain mechanical objects such as platforms to also tilt . The player can also cause the LocoRoco to jump by holding and releasing both buttons ; this not only allows the LocoRoco a way to cross gaps , but to burst through walls as well as harm the Moja without taking damage . As the player collects more LocoRoco in a level , the music gains more voices , each LocoRoco singing a part in the overall song .
Throughout the levels are areas that require a minimum number of LocoRoco in order to cause them to sing and wake up one of the planet 's odd residents , who will then reward the player with an item for their " Loco House " . There are also hidden MuiMui throughout the levels to be found . Levels also contain " Pickories " which can be collected by the LocoRoco and are used as a form of currency to play two mini @-@ games outside of the main game . The mini @-@ games are " MuiMui Crane " , a variation of a crane game , and " Chuppa Chuppa " that use Chuppa , bird @-@ like launchers for the LocoRoco , to navigate a long course . Both mini @-@ games grant additional Loco House parts and Pickories as prizes . The player can use the accumulated Loco House parts to create a course that the LocoRoco will automatically navigate , with additional parts that can be collected by directing the course appropriately . A Loco Editor is also an unlockable feature in the game , creating an interactive course with a start and finish using the Loco House parts . LocoRoco has lots of other characters and enemies that have strange names .
= = Development = =
LocoRoco was envisioned by Tsutomu Kouno , who had previously work on development of Ico . While on a train during the second quarter of 2004 , Kouno had used a PDA to sketch a game that would involve multiple similar characters that would not be in direct control of the player . He realized the planet @-@ tilting aspect after seeing how rotating the phone with the sketch around would lead to a compelling game . At that time , the PlayStation Portable was nearing release , and Kouno felt the unit 's shoulder buttons would be appropriate for the tilting controls . Kouno also opted to develop for the PSP to break the mold of other , more complicated sequels from PlayStation 2 games that were being developed for the unit and instead create something that " really seemed at home on the PSP " . Kouno also wanted " every aspect of the game [ ... ] to be unique " , and led to his choices for graphics and music in the game .
Three concepts were part of Kouno 's vision for the game , " easy to play , fun and to have dramatic visuals " . Kouno sought not only to make the game accessible to younger players , but also to a wider , international audience . While his team experimented with different control schemes for the game , they recognized that the simple tilting controls would be easily learned by children as well as those outside Japan . This approach also led to the use of a new " language " for the music , instead of relying on Japanese works which would not be understood by the international audience . However , despite the simple controls , Kouno noted they included deep gameplay around those that would require players to master to gain all the collectibles in the game .
Kouno opted to keep the game in 2D instead of the more popular 3D to maintain the simplicity of the game . The Loco Roco team had experimented with different designs for the characters and world , including claymation , papercraft , and detailed textures , but settled on the resulting patterns not only to convey a " bright , cheerful " world , but as well as to keep budget costs down , no longer having a need to seek artists for textures . Kouno drew upon his interest in the natural world to design the other characters in the game ; for example , one character was based on the appearance of his pet tropical fish . Kouno found that using 2D graphics allowed him to constantly present the faces of the LocoRoco and other beings within the game , and used that to convey a constant sense of emotion from all the characters . Maya was used to construct the levels and place hazards and obstacles . The graphics themselves were based on using and animating Bezier curves , a feature of the PSP 's software capabilities .
Kouno had attempted to present the idea at pitch meetings twice in the early part of 2005 but was turned away . While management was able to understand the mechanic of tilting the world , they could not understand Kouno 's vision of applying artificial intelligence to the LocoRoco or other creatures in the game . On the second rejection , the management staff suggested that Kouno return with something more concrete to explain his ideas . Kouno spent one month with a four @-@ person team to create a simple pre @-@ prototype version of the game that demonstrated the rolling gameplay aspect . The pre @-@ prototype version was well received , and Kouno was given further resources to develop the full game . A complete prototype was created by an eight @-@ person team over three months to establish the rest of the game 's core mechanics , including the joining and splitting of the Loco Roco and the dynamic music . The remainder of the game was completed in the following 11 months by the full 16 @-@ person staff at Sony Computer Entertainment Japan .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack for Loco Roco is based on a fictional language created by Kouno to avoid alienating foreign players by using Japanese music . Kouno created the language by compiling a list of interesting words in katakana , then altering the words slightly to make them sound cool in Japanese as to mask their origins . Kouno then sent the lyrics along with some of his preferred reggae , soul and R & B music to the composers , Nobuyuki Shimizu and Kemmei Adachi , to complete the soundtrack . Kouno requested that the composers use as little electronic @-@ sounding instruments as possible to give the music a feeling of " live sound " . The team ultimately created about 60 songs to be used in the game . While the soundtrack had many different themes , Kouno felt that the fictional LocoRoco language helped to unify the songs across the game .
The LocoRoco Original Soundtrack : LocoRoco No Uta was published by Columbia Records and released in October 2006 in Japan . The album contains 42 tracks from the game .
= = Demo versions = =
= = = Standard demo = = =
Following the release of Firmware 2 @.@ 7 on April 25 , 2006 , a downloadable demo of LocoRoco was released on the game 's Japanese website and was the first Sony @-@ sanctioned user @-@ downloadable game for the PSP . A demo localized for western countries was released in June 2006 , shortly before the game 's full European release . It includes one level that will take the player around 5 – 15 minutes to complete , depending on the number of secret areas the player encounters .
= = = Halloween demo = = =
A special Halloween @-@ themed demo was released for download on October 26 , 2006 , It featured some exclusive graphics and objects , like Jack @-@ o @-@ lanterns , spirits , and more . Few puzzles were implemented .
= = = Christmas demo = = =
A Christmas @-@ themed demo was released for download on December 11 , 2006 . It featured some exclusive graphics like Santa 's sleigh and more . A unique LocoRoco song is implemented .
= = Reception = =
LocoRoco has received mostly positive reviews from critics . The game was consistently praised for its bright and bold graphics . Charles Herold of the New York Times compared the graphics to Katamari Damacy , calling them " simple " and " pretty " while Sam Kennedy of 1UP considered it akin to " playing out an adorable cartoon " . The unique environments of each level were also credited to help the game 's charm , with Kristan Reed of Eurogamer believing that the game presents a " look and feel unlike anything we 've seen before " and that shows " a truly brilliant realisation of how to take 2D gaming into uncharted territory . " The music of the game was considered to be " quirky and catchy " , with Will Tuttle of GameSpy saying that " there 's a good chance that you 'll be humming some of the tunes all day " . The game , at times , was compared to a " slow @-@ motion version of Sonic the Hedgehog " with the player controlling the LocoRoco as they move up and down hills and through loop @-@ de @-@ loops in the level . This gameplay allows the game to be easily accessible to players , with IGN 's Juan Castro noting that the controls are " not simplistic so much as it 's refreshingly elegant " , and Kennedy commenting that while LocoRoco is not perfect , it was " perfect for the PSP " . As noted by Neil McGreevy of the BBC , LocoRoco " is the best game Nintendo never made . "
A common complaint for the game reviewers was the repetitive nature of the game , as no new gameplay mechanics are introduced after the player learns to roll and jump , and that the levels are " far from challenging " . However , these reviewers also commented that the monotonous gameplay is not as significant an issue with a gaming system like the PSP that encourages shorter play sessions . Reviewers also commented on the length of the game , considering it short with only a few extras that would add some additional enjoyment after completing the main game .
The game has won two awards at the 2006 BAFTA Games Awards for " Best Children 's Game " and " Best Character " , and was nominated for six additional awards , " Best Audio " , " Best Original Score " , " Best Innovation " , " Artistic Achievement " , " Best Gameplay " and " Best Casual and Social Game " . LocoRoco also won two awards at the 10th Annual Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences Awards for " Children 's Game of the Year " and " Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Competition " , in addition to being nominated for " Outstanding Innovation " and " Handheld Game of the Year " . The Associated Press named LocoRoco its handheld game of the year for 2006 .
Prior to its release in North America , 1UP blogger Alejandro Quan @-@ Madrid equated the Moja characters in LocoRoco to blackface , and citing the game as an example of " institutionalized racism that needs calling out " . Quan @-@ Madrid and 1UP reporter Jemery Parish noted that the Japanese culture does not have the same racial population as western countries like the United States , and as such , blackface or other similar representations of black persons are taken for granted in that country , and localization usually handles such issues . Quan @-@ Madrid called on Sony to make a simple color change to the Moja , similar to what Capcom had done for the character of Oilman in Mega Man Powered Up . Developers for the game , including Kouno , noted that the Moja character design was based on the hairstyle of Keigo Tsuchiya , the game 's artist , at the time of development , and did not mean to imply any racist tones . The accusation of racism came days before a similar charge against Sony for an advertisement for the white @-@ colored PSP , portraying a white woman subjugating a black woman .
The Yellow LocoRoco , as seen on the game 's cover , has become a mascot for the PSP system .
Sales of LocoRoco were not strong in Japan , with just more than 30 @,@ 000 copies sold the first week , and about 170 @,@ 000 in total sales for the year . The game was more successful in Europe and North America , prompting Sony to start development of additional titles .
= = Mobile version = =
A mobile version of LocoRoco , LocoRoco Mobile , was created for distribution via i @-@ mode , a wireless service in Japan in 2007 . The mobile game has since been ported for western countries by Gamelion , however it has been renamed LocoRoco Hi .
= = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = =
LocoRoco Cocoreccho is a LocoRoco program for the PlayStation 3 , released in September 2007 as a downloadable title through the PlayStation Store . It is described by Sony as an " interactive screensaver , " rather than a game . Instead of tilting the world , the game instead puts the player in control of a butterfly that will draw LocoRoco to it , guiding them to sleeping LocoRoco to wake them up and collect enough LocoRoco to progress to other parts of the single stage .
LocoRoco 2 , a sequel to the original LocoRoco , was officially announced at the 2008 Tokyo Game Show though Phil Harrison , Sony 's worldwide studios chief , revealed the game to be in development during an interview at the 2007 D.I.C.E. Summit . The game was released worldwide between late 2008 and early 2009 .
A third PSP LocoRoco game , LocoRoco Midnight Carnival , is a Halloween @-@ themed spin @-@ off title which features an enhanced bounce skill called " Boing ! " The game was digitally released on October 29 , 2009 for North American and European areas , and on November 1 , 2009 in Japan for the launch of the PSP Go . There are also LocoRoco costumes for LittleBigPlanet .
= Lachine massacre =
The Lachine massacre , part of the Beaver Wars , occurred when 1 @,@ 500 Mohawk warriors attacked by surprise the small , 375 @-@ inhabitant , settlement of Lachine , New France at the lower end of Montreal Island on the morning of August 5 , 1689 . The attack was precipitated by growing Iroquois dissatisfaction with the increased French incursions into their territory , and was encouraged by the settlers of New England as a way to leverage power against New France during King William 's War .
In their attack , the Mohawk destroyed a substantial portion of the Lachine settlement by fire and killed or captured numerous inhabitants , although historic sources have varied widely in estimates of the number killed , from 24 to 250 .
= = Background and motivations = =
The Mohawk and other Iroquois attacked the French and their native allies for a variety of reasons , related to both economic and cultural circumstances .
= = = Cultural motives = = =
The Europeans ( French , Dutch and English ) in the Northeast developed a fur trade with natives , including the Five Nations of the Iroquois ; beaver furs were most desired . However , in the 17th century , the dominance of what historian Daniel Richter refers to as “ Francophiles ” or French takeover , contributed to an erosion of French @-@ native relations . The French mission to assimilate natives required the abandonment of native tradition , which was met with resistance . By 1667 , large numbers of Huron and Iroquois , especially Mohawk , started arriving at the St Lawrence Valley and its mission villages , to escape the effects of warfare . Many traditionalists , including some Mohawk , resented the Jesuits for destroying traditional native society but were unable to do anything to stop them . However , traditionalists reluctantly accepted the establishment of a mission in order to have good relations with the French , whom they needed for trade . This cultural invasion increased tensions between the two factions . The relationship between the French and the Iroquois were strained long before the Lachine Massacre , as the French maintained relations with other tribes as well , both for trade and war alliances , such as the Abenaki . In 1679 , following the end of the Iroquois war with the Susquehannock and the Mahican , the Iroquois raided native villages in the West . Pushing out Siouan tribes to the west , they claimed hunting grounds in the Ohio Valley by right of conquest . These were kept empty of inhabitants in order to encourage hunting . As a result , the Iroquois regularly raided trading parties in the western frontier which under French protection , and took loot from them . Following military confrontation in 1684 , though the Iroquois negotiated a peace treaty with New France governor Le Febvre de la Barre , the treaty stated the Iroquois were free to attack the western Indians . The French Crown objected to the treaty , and replaced LaBarre with the Marquis de Denonville . He was less sympathetic to native relations , and did not pay attention to the Iroquois @-@ Algonquian tensions . In part , the Iroquois attacked the French because they were not willing to accept constraints against their warfare related to traditional Iroquois enemies .
What were known as " mourning wars " were also an important cultural factor in native warfare . Natives fought war to “ avenge perceived wrongs committed by one people against another ” . These mourning wars were also a means to replace the dead within a native community . In times of war , natives would capture members of another native group and adopt them in order to rebuild their society . When new diseases such as smallpox killed large numbers of native people within their communities , survivors were motivated to warfare in order to take captives to rebuild .
= = = Economic motives = = =
What the Iroquois wanted was not war , but instead a better share of the fur trade . To serve as punishment for attacks on French fur fleets , New France ordered two expeditions under Courcelles and Tracy into Mohawk territory in 1666 . These expeditions burned villages and destroyed much of the Mohawk winter corn supply . In addition , Denonville ’ s 1687 invasion of the Seneca nation country destroyed approximately 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 bushels of corn , crippling the Iroquois economy . This kind of aggression served as fuel for the Iroquois ’ retaliation that was to come .
Following two decades of uneasy peace , Britain and France declared war against one another in 1689 . Despite the 1669 Treaty of Whitehall , in which European forces agreed that Continental conflicts would not disrupt colonial peace and neutrality , the war was fought primarily by proxy in New France and New England . The British of New York prompted local Iroquois warriors to attack New France 's undefended settlements . While the British were preparing to engage in acts of warfare , the inhabitants of New France were ill prepared to defend against the Indian attacks ” due to the isolation of the farms and villages . Denonville was quoted as saying “ If we have a war , nothing can save the country but a miracle of God , ” .
= = The attack = =
On the rainy morning of August 5 , 1689 , Iroquois warriors used surprise to launch their nighttime raid against the undefended settlement of Lachine . They traveled up the Saint Lawrence River by boat , crossed Lake Saint @-@ Louis , and landed on the south shore of Montreal Island . While the colonists slept , the invaders surrounded their homes and waited for their leader to signal when the attack should begin . They attacked the homes , breaking down doors and windows , and dragging the colonists outside , where many were killed . When some of the colonists barricaded themselves within the village 's structures , the attackers set fire to the buildings and waited for the settlers to flee the flames . According to a 1992 article , the Iroquois , wielding weapons such as the tomahawk , killed 24 French and took more than 70 prisoners . Other sources , such as Encyclopædia Britannica , claim that 250 settlers and soldiers lost their lives during the “ Massacre . ” The Iroquois wanted to avenge the 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 bushels of corn burned by the French , but since they were unable to reach the food stores in Montreal , they kidnapped and killed the Lachine crop producers instead . Lachine was the main departure point for westward @-@ traveling fur traders , which may have provided extra motivation for the Mohawk attack .
= = Aftermath = =
Word of the attack spread when one of the Lachine survivors reached a local garrison , three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away , and notified the soldiers of the events . In response to the attack , the French mobilized 200 soldiers , under the command of Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase , along with 100 armed civilians and some soldiers from nearby forts Rémy , Rolland and La Présentation , to marched against the Iroquois . They defended some of the fleeing colonists from their Mohawk pursuers , but just prior to reaching Lachine , the armed forces were recalled to Fort Rolland by order of Governor Denonville . He was trying to pacify the local Iroquois inhabitants . Governor Denonville had 700 soldiers at his disposal within the Montreal barracks , and might have overtaken the Iroquois forces . He decided to follow a diplomatic route .
Numerous attacks from both sides followed , but none were fatal , and the two groups quickly realized the futility of their attempts to drive the other out . In February of 1690 , the French began peace negotiations with the Iroquois . The French returned captured natives in exchange for the beginnings of peace talks . Through the 1690s , there were no major French or native raids and , even against the will of the English , peace talks continued . This time of relative peace eventually led to the Montreal Treaty of 1701 , by which the Iroquois promised to remain neutral in case of war between the French and English .
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take a further five to twenty minutes for instructions to travel from Earth to Mars .
NASA must wait several hours for information from a probe orbiting Jupiter , and if it needs to correct a navigation error , the fix will not arrive at the spacecraft for an equal amount of time , creating a risk of the correction not arriving in time .
Receiving light and other signals from distant astronomical sources can even take much longer . For example , it has taken 13 billion ( 13 × 109 ) years for light to travel to Earth from the faraway galaxies viewed in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field images . Those photographs , taken today , capture images of the galaxies as they appeared 13 billion years ago , when the universe was less than a billion years old . The fact that more distant objects appear to be younger , due to the finite speed of light , allows astronomers to infer the evolution of stars , of galaxies , and of the universe itself .
Astronomical distances are sometimes expressed in light @-@ years , especially in popular science publications and media . A light @-@ year is the distance light travels in one year , around 9461 billion kilometres , 5879 billion miles , or 0 @.@ 3066 parsecs . In round figures , a light year is nearly 10 trillion kilometres or nearly 6 trillion miles . Proxima Centauri , the closest star to Earth after the Sun , is around 4 @.@ 2 light @-@ years away .
= = = Distance measurement = = =
Radar systems measure the distance to a target by the time it takes a radio @-@ wave pulse to return to the radar antenna after being reflected by the target : the distance to the target is half the round @-@ trip transit time multiplied by the speed of light . A Global Positioning System ( GPS ) receiver measures its distance to GPS satellites based on how long it takes for a radio signal to arrive from each satellite , and from these distances calculates the receiver 's position . Because light travels about 300000 kilometres ( 186000 mi ) in one second , these measurements of small fractions of a second must be very precise . The Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment , radar astronomy and the Deep Space Network determine distances to the Moon , planets and spacecraft , respectively , by measuring round @-@ trip transit times .
= = = High @-@ frequency trading = = =
The speed of light has become important in high @-@ frequency trading , where traders seek to gain minute advantages by delivering their trades to exchanges fractions of a second ahead of other traders . For example , traders have been switching to microwave communications between trading hubs , because of the advantage which microwaves travelling at near to the speed of light in air , have over fibre optic signals which travel 30 – 40 % slower at the speed of light through glass .
= = Measurement = =
There are different ways to determine the value of c . One way is to measure the actual speed at which light waves propagate , which can be done in various astronomical and earth @-@ based setups . However , it is also possible to determine c from other physical laws where it appears , for example , by determining the values of the electromagnetic constants ε0 and μ0 and using their relation to c . Historically , the most accurate results have been obtained by separately determining the frequency and wavelength of a light beam , with their product equalling c .
In 1983 the metre was defined as " the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1 ⁄ 299792458 of a second " , fixing the value of the speed of light at 299792458 m / s by definition , as described below . Consequently , accurate measurements of the speed of light yield an accurate realization of the metre rather than an accurate value of c .
= = = Astronomical measurements = = =
Outer space is a convenient setting for measuring the speed of light because of its large scale and nearly perfect vacuum . Typically , one measures the time needed for light to traverse some reference distance in the solar system , such as the radius of the Earth 's orbit . Historically , such measurements could be made fairly accurately , compared to how accurately the length of the reference distance is known in Earth @-@ based units . It is customary to express the results in astronomical units ( AU ) per day .
Ole Christensen Rømer used an astronomical measurement to make the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light . When measured from Earth , the periods of moons orbiting a distant planet are shorter when the Earth is approaching the planet than when the Earth is receding from it . The distance travelled by light from the planet ( or its moon ) to Earth is shorter when the Earth is at the point in its orbit that is closest to its planet than when the Earth is at the farthest point in its orbit , the difference in distance being the diameter of the Earth 's orbit around the Sun . The observed change in the moon 's orbital period is caused by the difference in the time it takes light to traverse the shorter or longer distance . Rømer observed this effect for Jupiter 's innermost moon Io and deduced that light takes 22 minutes to cross the diameter of the Earth 's orbit .
Another method is to use the aberration of light , discovered and explained by James Bradley in the 18th century . This effect results from the vector addition of the velocity of light arriving from a distant source ( such as a star ) and the velocity of its observer ( see diagram on the right ) . A moving observer thus sees the light coming from a slightly different direction and consequently sees the source at a position shifted from its original position . Since the direction of the Earth 's velocity changes continuously as the Earth orbits the Sun , this effect causes the apparent position of stars to move around . From the angular difference in the position of stars ( maximally 20 @.@ 5 arcseconds ) it is possible to express the speed of light in terms of the Earth 's velocity around the Sun , which with the known length of a year can be converted to the time needed to travel from the Sun to the Earth . In 1729 , Bradley used this method to derive that light travelled 10 @,@ 210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit ( the modern figure is 10 @,@ 066 times faster ) or , equivalently , that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth .
= = = = Astronomical unit = = = =
An astronomical unit ( AU ) is approximately the average distance between the Earth and Sun . It was redefined in 2012 as exactly 149597870700 m . Previously the AU was not based on the International System of Units but in terms of the gravitational force exerted by the Sun in the framework of classical mechanics . The current definition uses the recommended value in metres for the previous definition of the astronomical unit , which was determined by measurement . This redefinition is analogous to that of the metre , and likewise has the effect of fixing the speed of light to an exact value in astronomical units per second ( via the exact speed of light in metres per second ) .
Previously , the inverse of c expressed in seconds per astronomical unit was measured by comparing the time for radio signals to reach different spacecraft in the Solar System , with their position calculated from the gravitational effects of the Sun and various planets . By combining many such measurements , a best fit value for the light time per unit distance could be obtained . For example , in 2009 , the best estimate , as approved by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) , was :
light time for unit distance : 499 @.@ 004783836 ( 10 ) s
c
= 0 @.@ 00200398880410 ( 4 ) AU / s =
173 @.@ 144632674 ( 3 ) AU / day .
The relative uncertainty in these measurements is 0 @.@ 02 parts per billion ( 2 × 10 − 11 ) , equivalent to the uncertainty in Earth @-@ based measurements of length by interferometry . Since the metre is defined to be the length travelled by light in a certain time interval , the measurement of the light time in terms of the previous definition of the astronomical unit can also be interpreted as measuring the length of an AU ( old definition ) in metres .
= = = Time of flight techniques = = =
A method of measuring the speed of light is to measure the time needed for light to travel to a mirror at a known distance and back . This is the working principle behind the Fizeau – Foucault apparatus developed by Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault .
The setup as used by Fizeau consists of a beam of light directed at a mirror 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) away . On the way from the source to the mirror , the beam passes through a rotating cogwheel . At a certain rate of rotation , the beam passes through one gap on the way out and another on the way back , but at slightly higher or lower rates , the beam strikes a tooth and does not pass through the wheel . Knowing the distance between the wheel and the mirror , the number of teeth on the wheel , and the rate of rotation , the speed of light can be calculated .
The method of Foucault replaces the cogwheel by a rotating mirror . Because the mirror keeps rotating while the light travels to the distant mirror and back , the light is reflected from the rotating mirror at a different angle on its way out than it is on its way back . From this difference in angle , the known speed of rotation and the distance to the distant mirror the speed of light may be calculated .
Nowadays , using oscilloscopes with time resolutions of less than one nanosecond , the speed of light can be directly measured by timing the delay of a light pulse from a laser or an LED reflected from a mirror . This method is less precise ( with errors of the order of 1 % ) than other modern techniques , but it is sometimes used as a laboratory experiment in college physics classes .
= = = Electromagnetic constants = = =
An option for deriving c that does not directly depend on a measurement of the propagation of electromagnetic waves is to use the relation between c and the vacuum permittivity ε0 and vacuum permeability μ0 established by Maxwell 's theory : c2 = 1 / ( ε0μ0 ) . The vacuum permittivity may be determined by measuring the capacitance and dimensions of a capacitor , whereas the value of the vacuum permeability is fixed at exactly 4π × 10 − 7 H · m − 1 through the definition of the ampere . Rosa and Dorsey used this method in 1907 to find a value of 299710 ± 22 km / s .
= = = Cavity resonance = = =
Another way to measure the speed of light is to independently measure the frequency f and wavelength λ of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum . The value of c can then be found by using the relation c = fλ . One option is to measure the resonance frequency of a cavity resonator . If the dimensions of the resonance cavity are also known , these can be used to determine the wavelength of the wave . In 1946 , Louis Essen and A.C. Gordon @-@ Smith established the frequency for a variety of normal modes of microwaves of a microwave cavity of precisely known dimensions . The dimensions were established to an accuracy of about ± 0 @.@ 8 μm using gauges calibrated by interferometry . As the wavelength of the modes was known from the geometry of the cavity and from electromagnetic theory , knowledge of the associated frequencies enabled a calculation of the speed of light .
The Essen – Gordon @-@ Smith result , 299792 ± 9 km / s , was substantially more precise than those found by optical techniques . By 1950 , repeated measurements by Essen established a result of 299792 @.@ 5 ± 3 @.@ 0 km / s .
A household demonstration of this technique is possible , using a microwave oven and food such as marshmallows or margarine : if the turntable is removed so that the food does not move , it will cook the fastest at the antinodes ( the points at which the wave amplitude is the greatest ) , where it will begin to melt . The distance between two such spots is half the wavelength of the microwaves ; by measuring this distance and multiplying the wavelength by the microwave frequency ( usually displayed on the back of the oven , typically 2450 MHz ) , the value of c can be calculated , " often with less than 5 % error " .
= = = Interferometry = = =
Interferometry is another method to find the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation for determining the speed of light . A coherent beam of light ( e.g. from a laser ) , with a known frequency ( f ) , is split to follow two paths and then recombined . By adjusting the path length while observing the interference pattern and carefully measuring the change in path length , the wavelength of the light ( λ ) can be determined . The speed of light is then calculated using the equation c = λf .
Before the advent of laser technology , coherent radio sources were used for interferometry measurements of the speed of light . However interferometric determination of wavelength becomes less precise with wavelength and the experiments were thus limited in precision by the long wavelength ( ~ 0 @.@ 4 cm ) of the radiowaves . The precision can be improved by using light with a shorter wavelength , but then it becomes difficult to directly measure the frequency of the light . One way around this problem is to start with a low frequency signal of which the frequency can be precisely measured , and from this signal progressively synthesize higher frequency signals whose frequency can then be linked to the original signal . A laser can then be locked to the frequency , and its wavelength can be determined using interferometry . This technique was due to a group at the National Bureau of Standards ( NBS ) ( which later became NIST ) . They used it in 1972 to measure the speed of light in vacuum with a fractional uncertainty of 3 @.@ 5 × 10 − 9 .
= = History = =
Until the early modern period , it was not known whether light travelled instantaneously or at a very fast finite speed . The first extant recorded examination of this subject was in ancient Greece . The ancient Greeks , Muslim scholars , and classical European scientists long debated this until Rømer provided the first calculation of the speed of light . Einstein 's Theory of Special Relativity concluded that the speed of light is constant regardless of one 's frame of reference . Since then , scientists have provided increasingly accurate measurements .
= = = Early history = = =
Empedocles ( c . 490 – 430 BC ) was the first to propose a theory of light and claimed that light has a finite speed . He maintained that light was something in motion , and therefore must take some time to travel . Aristotle argued , to the contrary , that " light is due to the presence of something , but it is not a movement " . Euclid and Ptolemy advanced Empedocles ' emission theory of vision , where light is emitted from the eye , thus enabling sight . Based on that theory , Heron of Alexandria argued that the speed of light must be infinite because distant objects such as stars appear immediately upon opening the eyes.Early Islamic philosophers initially agreed with the Aristotelian view that light had no speed of travel . In 1021 , Alhazen ( Ibn al @-@ Haytham ) published the Book of Optics , in which he presented a series of arguments dismissing the emission theory of vision in favour of the now accepted intromission theory , in which light moves from an object into the eye . This led Alhazen to propose that light must have a finite speed , and that the speed of light is variable , decreasing in denser bodies . He argued that light is substantial matter , the propagation of which requires time , even if this is hidden from our senses . Also in the 11th century , Abū Rayhān al @-@ Bīrūnī agreed that light has a finite speed , and observed that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound .
In the 13th century , Roger Bacon argued that the speed of light in air was not infinite , using philosophical arguments backed by the writing of Alhazen and Aristotle . In the 1270s , Witelo considered the possibility of light travelling at infinite speed in vacuum , but slowing down in denser bodies . By the 14th century , Sayana had made statements about the speed of light in his commentary on the Hindu Rigveda .
In the early 17th century , Johannes Kepler believed that the speed of light was infinite , since empty space presents no obstacle to it . René Descartes argued that if the speed of light were to be finite , the Sun , Earth , and Moon would be noticeably out of alignment during a lunar eclipse . Since such misalignment had not been observed , Descartes concluded the speed of light was infinite . Descartes speculated that if the speed of light were found to be finite , his whole system of philosophy might be demolished . In Descartes ' derivation of Snell 's law , he assumed that even though the speed of light was instantaneous , the more dense the medium , the faster was light 's speed . Pierre de Fermat derived Snell 's law using the opposing assumption , the more dense the medium the slower light traveled . Fermat also argued in support of a finite speed of light .
= = = First measurement attempts = = =
In 1629 , Isaac Beeckman proposed an experiment in which a person observes the flash of a cannon reflecting off a mirror about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away . In 1638 , Galileo Galilei proposed an experiment , with an apparent claim to having performed it some years earlier , to measure the speed of light by observing the delay between uncovering a lantern and its perception some distance away . He was unable to distinguish whether light travel was instantaneous or not , but concluded that if it were not , it must nevertheless be extraordinarily rapid . In 1667 , the Accademia del Cimento of Florence reported that it had performed Galileo 's experiment , with the lanterns separated by about one mile , but no delay was observed . The actual delay in this experiment would have been about 11 microseconds .
The first quantitative estimate of the speed of light was made in 1676 by Rømer ( see Rømer 's determination of the speed of light ) . From the observation that the periods of Jupiter 's innermost moon Io appeared to be shorter when the Earth was approaching Jupiter than when receding from it , he concluded that light travels at a finite speed , and estimated that it takes light 22 minutes to cross the diameter of Earth 's orbit . Christiaan Huygens combined this estimate with an estimate for the diameter of the Earth 's orbit to obtain an estimate of speed of light of 220000 km / s , 26 % lower than the actual value .
In his 1704 book Opticks , Isaac Newton reported Rømer 's calculations of the finite speed of light and gave a value of " seven or eight minutes " for the time taken for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth ( the modern value is 8 minutes 19 seconds ) . Newton queried whether Rømer 's eclipse shadows were coloured ; hearing that they were not , he concluded the different colours travelled at the same speed . In 1729 , James Bradley discovered stellar aberration . From this effect he determined that light must travel 10 @,@ 210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit ( the modern figure is 10 @,@ 066 times faster ) or , equivalently , that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth .
= = = Connections with electromagnetism = = =
In the 19th century Hippolyte Fizeau developed a method to determine the speed of light based on time @-@ of @-@ flight measurements on Earth and reported a value of 315000 km / s . His method was improved upon by Léon Foucault who obtained a value of 298000 km / s in 1862 . In the year 1856 , Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch measured the ratio of the electromagnetic and electrostatic units of charge , 1 / √ ε0μ0 , by discharging a Leyden jar , and found that its numerical value was very close to the speed of light as measured directly by Fizeau . The following year Gustav Kirchhoff calculated that an electric signal in a resistanceless wire travels along the wire at this speed . In the early 1860s , Maxwell showed that , according to the theory of electromagnetism he was working on , electromagnetic waves propagate in empty space at a speed equal to the above Weber / Kohrausch ratio , and drawing attention to the numerical proximity of this value to the speed of light as measured by Fizeau , he proposed that light is in fact an electromagnetic wave .
= = = " Luminiferous aether " = = =
It was thought at the time that empty space was filled with a background medium called the luminiferous aether in which the electromagnetic field existed . Some physicists thought that this aether acted as a preferred frame of reference for the propagation of light and therefore it should be possible to measure the motion of the Earth with respect to this medium , by measuring the isotropy of the speed of light . Beginning in the 1880s several experiments were performed to try to detect this motion , the most famous of which is the experiment performed by Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley in 1887 . The detected motion was always less than the observational error . Modern experiments indicate that the two @-@ way speed of light is isotropic ( the same in every direction ) to within 6 nanometres per second . Because of this experiment Hendrik Lorentz proposed that the motion of the apparatus through the aether may cause the apparatus to contract along its length in the direction of motion , and he further assumed , that the time variable for moving systems must also be changed accordingly ( " local time " ) , which led to the formulation of the Lorentz transformation . Based on Lorentz 's aether theory , Henri Poincaré ( 1900 ) showed that this local time ( to first order in v / c ) is indicated by clocks moving in the aether , which are synchronized under the assumption of constant light speed . In 1904 , he speculated that the speed of light could be a limiting velocity in dynamics , provided that the assumptions of Lorentz 's theory are all confirmed . In 1905 , Poincaré brought Lorentz 's aether theory into full observational agreement with the principle of relativity .
= = = Special relativity = = =
In 1905 Einstein postulated from the outset that the speed of light in vacuum , measured by a non @-@ accelerating observer , is independent of the motion of the source or observer . Using this and the principle of relativity as a basis he derived the special theory of relativity , in which the speed of light in vacuum c featured as a fundamental constant , also appearing in contexts unrelated to light . This made the concept of the stationary aether ( to which Lorentz and Poincaré still adhered ) useless and revolutionized the concepts of space and time .
= = = Increased accuracy of c and redefinition of the metre and second = = =
In the second half of the 20th century much progress was made in increasing the accuracy of measurements of the speed of light , first by cavity resonance techniques and later by laser interferometer techniques . These were aided by new , more precise , definitions of the metre and second . In 1950 , Louis Essen determined the speed as 299792 @.@ 5 ± 1 km / s , using cavity resonance . This value was adopted by the 12th General Assembly of the Radio @-@ Scientific Union in 1957 . In 1960 , the metre was redefined in terms of the wavelength of a particular spectral line of krypton @-@ 86 , and , in 1967 , the second was redefined in terms of the hyperfine transition frequency of the ground state of caesium @-@ 133 .
In 1972 , using the laser interferometer method and the new definitions , a group at the US National Bureau of Standards in Boulder , Colorado determined the speed of light in vacuum to be c = 299792456 @.@ 2 ± 1 @.@ 1 m / s . This was 100 times less uncertain than the previously accepted value . The remaining uncertainty was mainly related to the definition of the metre . As similar experiments found comparable results for c , the 15th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1975 recommended using the value 299792458 m / s for the speed of light .
= = = Defining the speed of light as an explicit constant = = =
In 1983 the 17th CGPM found that wavelengths from frequency measurements and a given value for the speed of light are more reproducible than the previous standard . They kept the 1967 definition of second , so the caesium hyperfine frequency would now determine both the second and the metre . To do this , they redefined the metre as : " The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1 / 299792458 of a second . " As a result of this definition , the value of the speed of light in vacuum is exactly 299792458 m / s and has become a defined constant in the SI system of units . Improved experimental techniques that prior to 1983 would have measured the speed of light , no longer affect the known value of the speed of light in SI units , but instead allow a more precise realization of the metre by more accurately measuring the wavelength of Krypton @-@ 86 and other light sources .
In 2011 , the CGPM stated its intention to redefine all seven SI base units using what it calls " the explicit @-@ constant formulation " , where each " unit is defined indirectly by specifying explicitly an exact value for a well @-@ recognized fundamental constant " , as was done for the speed of light . It proposed a new , but completely equivalent , wording of the metre 's definition : " The metre , symbol m , is the unit of length ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum to be equal to exactly 299792458 when it is expressed in the SI unit m s − 1 . " This is one of the proposed changes to be incorporated in the next revision of the SI also termed the New SI .
= = = Historical references = = =
= = = Modern references = = =
= Chris Higgins ( ice hockey , born 1983 ) =
Christopher Robert Higgins ( born June 2 , 1983 ) is an American professional ice hockey winger who is currently an unrestricted free agent of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . While playing college hockey , he was selected 14th overall by the Montreal Canadiens in the first round of the 2002 NHL Entry Draft . He finished a two @-@ year career with the Yale Bulldogs , earning ECAC Hockey Player of the Year honors as a sophomore , before turning professional for the 2003 – 04 season . After two seasons with the Canadiens ' minor league affiliate , the Hamilton Bulldogs of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , he joined the NHL in 2005 – 06 . He recorded three consecutive 20 @-@ goal seasons to begin his NHL career before being traded to the New York Rangers in June 2009 . After brief stints with the Rangers , Calgary Flames and Florida Panthers , he joined the Vancouver Canucks in February 2011 . Internationally , Higgins has competed for the United States in two World Junior Championships ( 2002 and 2003 ) and one World Championship ( 2009 ) .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur career ( 1998 – 2003 ) = = =
Higgins played four years of high school hockey for Avon Old Farms , a preparatory school in Avon , Connecticut , graduating in 2001 . He then opted to play in the National Collegiate Athletics Association ( NCAA ) with the Yale Bulldogs . Higgins also considered offers from Boston College and Harvard University . In 2001 – 02 , Higgins began a two @-@ year stint with the Yale Bulldogs of the ECAC Hockey Conference . After recording a team @-@ leading 31 points ( 14 goals and 17 assists ) over 27 games as a freshman , he was named the ECAC Rookie of the Year . He additionally received ECAC All @-@ Rookie and Second All @-@ Star Team honors .
In the off @-@ season , Higgins was selected 14th overall by the Montreal Canadiens in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft . He became the first ECAC Hockey player to be selected in the first round of the NHL Entry Draft since Normand Lacombe in 1983 ( the Buffalo Sabres selected him 10th overall ) . Returning to Yale for one more season , he improved to 41 points over 28 games , leading his team in scoring for the second consecutive year . Higgins earned ECAC Player of the Year ( co @-@ recipient with Cornell Big Red goaltender David LeNeveu ) and First All @-@ Star Team honors ; he was also recognized regionally on the NCAA East All @-@ American Team .
= = = Montreal Canadiens ( 2003 – 2009 ) = = =
Following his sophomore year , he signed a three @-@ year , entry @-@ level contract with the Canadiens on May 22 , 2003 . Higgins made his NHL debut on October 11 , 2003 , registering three minutes of ice time in a 4 – 0 win against the Toronto Maple Leafs . Struggling to play his way onto the Canadiens ' lineup , he was often made a healthy scratch ( non @-@ dressing player ) in October before being assigned to the team 's minor league affiliate , the Hamilton Bulldogs of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , by the end of the month . He recorded 48 points over 67 AHL games in 2003 – 04 , ranking fifth in team scoring . Due to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , Higgins automatically remained in Hamilton and improved to 51 points , ranking third among Bulldogs scorers .
The following season , as NHL play resumed , Higgins made the Canadiens ' roster out of training camp . He scored his first career NHL goal on October 6 , 2005 , against New York Rangers goalie Kevin Weekes during an away game at Madison Square Garden . The Canadiens won the contest 4 – 3 in overtime . He finished the season with 23 goals , ranking seventh among league rookies , and 15 assists for a total of 38 points .
A month into the 2006 – 07 season , Higgins suffered a sprained left ankle during a game against the New Jersey Devils . At the time of the injury , on November 4 , 2006 , he was leading the Canadiens with eight goals . Sidelined for 6 weeks , Higgins was limited to 61 games , though still managed to match his previous season 's points total with 22 goals and 16 assists . Set to become a restricted free agent in the off @-@ season , Montreal re @-@ signed Higgins to a two @-@ year , US $ 3 @.@ 4 million deal on June 25 , 2007 . Prior to the start of the 2007 – 08 season , Higgins was named an alternate captain for the Canadiens . He went on to have a career season with personal bests of 27 goals , 25 assists and 52 points . On November 11 , 2008 , Higgins recorded his first NHL hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 0 win over the Ottawa Senators . However , his points total decreased in his fourth NHL campaign with 23 points over 57 games .
= = = Rangers , Flames and Panthers ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = =
Coming off what was the lowest statistical season of his career , he was traded by the Canadiens , along with Ryan McDonagh , Pavel Valentenko and Doug Janik , to the New York Rangers in exchange for Scott Gomez , Tom Pyatt and Michael Busto on June 30 , 2009 . A restricted free agent at the time of the trade , he agreed to a one @-@ year , US $ 2 @.@ 25 contract with the Rangers six days later . He scored his first goal with the Rangers on November 3 , 2009 , against the Vancouver Canucks , his team 's lone marker in a 4 – 1 loss . His offensive struggles continued in New York ( he recorded 15 points in 55 games ) and he was subsequently traded to the Calgary Flames on February 2 , 2010 . Higgins was dealt , along with Aleš Kotalík , in exchange for Olli Jokinen and Brandon Prust . He scored his first goal with the Flames on March 9 , an empty netter , in a 4 – 1 win against the Detroit Red Wings . Two days later , he suffered a foot injury that sidelined him for the remaining 14 games of the regular season . Splitting the season between New York and Calgary , he had eight goals and 17 points over 67 games .
Becoming an unrestricted free agent in the off @-@ season , Higgins signed a one @-@ year , US $ 1 @.@ 6 million deal with the Florida Panthers on July 2 , 2010 . He had considered re @-@ signing with Calgary , but cited new Florida Panthers General Manager Dale Tallon 's experience as a strong factor for joining Florida ( Tallon was largely responsible for assembling the Chicago Blackhawks team that won the Stanley Cup the previous season ) . In December 2010 , he was sidelined four games with a Staphylococcal infection in his foot , an injury that was misdiagnosed first as " skate bite , " then a spider bite . Higgins later missed an additional seven games the following month with a hamstring injury .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 2011 – 2016 ) = = =
With the Panthers out of playoff contention late in the season , the team began trading away numerous veterans and core players . At the NHL trade deadline , on February 28 , 2011 , Higgins was dealt to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for defensive prospect Evan Oberg and a third @-@ round draft pick in 2013 . The Canucks had reportedly been interested in a different Panthers player , but with a minute left until the trade deadline , Panthers Assistant General Manager Mike Santos called the Canucks back and offered Higgins . In 48 games with the Panthers , he had recorded 11 goals and 23 points . Injured with a hand injury at the time of the trade , he did not debut with the Canucks until March 10 . He scored his first two goals as a Canuck on March 27 in a 4 – 1 win against the Columbus Blue Jackets . He completed the season with 13 goals and 28 points in 62 games between Florida and Vancouver . While Higgins played the majority of the regular season with the Canucks as a bottom @-@ six forward , by the playoffs , he was playing on the second line centred by Ryan Kesler . Entering the post @-@ season as the Presidents ' Trophy champions , the Canucks held the first seed in the West . After eliminating the Chicago Blackhawks , Nashville Predators and San Jose Sharks in the first three rounds , the Canucks advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals . Facing the Boston Bruins , the series went to a seventh game , which the Canucks lost 4 – 0 . Following the Canucks ' defeat , it was revealed that several Canucks players had been playing with injuries , including Higgins . His injury occurred in the second round against the Predators , when he blocked a shot with his skate , breaking his foot . Over 25 playoff games , Higgins recorded four goals and eight points . Three of his goals were game @-@ winners , tying him with Geoff Courtnall ( 1994 ) for the most in a single playoff season by a Canucks player .
During the off @-@ season , Higgins re @-@ signed with Vancouver to a two @-@ year , $ 3 @.@ 8 million contract on July 1
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, 2011 . The deal was agreed upon prior to his scheduled unrestricted free agency . During the season , Higgins struggled with two bouts of Staph infection , one in December 2011 and the other in February 2012 . He missed a combined 11 games as a result of swelling and suffering from severe side effects to the associated medication . Though he missed time , Higgins also played through the adverse reactions for several games following both bouts with the infection . Through the first half of the season , he often played on the second line with Kesler and David Booth ; the trio were dubbed the " American Express Line , " as they were all born in the United States . Towards the end of the season , he was consistently placed on the team 's third line , a defensive shutdown unit with fellow two @-@ way forwards Jannik Hansen and deadline @-@ acquisition Samuel Påhlsson . Used in both roles over the campaign , Higgins was often recognized as the team 's most consistent and hardest @-@ working forward . On the last day of the regular season , he was accordingly awarded the Fred J. Hume Award , voted by fans as the team 's " unsung hero . " Appearing in 71 games , Higgins recorded 43 points ( 18 goals and 25 assists ) , his highest total in four years and fifth among team forwards . On April 2 , 2013 Higgins signed a four @-@ year , $ 10 million extension with the Canucks .
During the 2015 – 16 season , on January 12 , 2016 , Higgins was put on waivers after unsuccessful attempts to trade the winger . He cleared waivers the next day and was sent down to the Utica Comets , the AHL affiliate of the Canucks . On March 19 , 2016 , Higgins was recalled by the Vancouver Canucks after multiple injuries occurred on both the Canucks and Comets rosters .
In the off @-@ season , on June 27 , 2016 , Higgins 's tenure in Vancouver ended when he was placed on waivers by the Canucks for the intention of buying out the remaining year of his contract .
= = International play = =
Higgins played in back @-@ to @-@ back World Junior Championships during his college career . First appearing in 2002 , he recorded four goals and two assists over seven games . He helped the United States qualify for the quarterfinal , where they were eliminated by Russia 6 – 1 . The following year , Higgins matched his points total with three goals and three assists . After losing their semifinal to Canada 3 – 2 , the United States lost by the same score to Finland in the bronze medal game .
Higgins made his first international appearance for the American men 's team at the 2009 IIHF World Championship . He scored his only goal of the tournament in a 4 – 3 overtime loss to Switzerland in the qualifying round . After losing their semifinal game to Russia , the United States lost the bronze medal to Sweden by a 4 – 2 score .
= = Playing style = =
Listed at 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 83 meters ) tall and 203 pounds ( 92 kilograms ) , Higgins plays mostly in the style of a power forward . He is known as a two @-@ way player with good skating , capable of contributing offensively while remaining defensively responsible . He has alternated between playing the wing and center positions . Early in his career , he was compared to Dallas Stars forward Brendan Morrow .
= = Personal = =
Higgins grew up in Smithtown , New York , the second eldest among five siblings . His father , Robert , is a New York City firefighter and his younger brother is a New York City police officer .
Higgins played on minor hockey teams with former Canadiens teammate Mike Komisarek and former Flames teammate Eric Nystrom , both of whom he remains close friends with . He was a student of Lithuanian hockey coach Aleksey Nikiforov at hockey camps in his teenage years . Though he grew up on Long Island , Higgins was a Montreal Canadiens fan as a child , following after his father ; his favorite players on the team were goaltender Patrick Roy and captain Kirk Muller .
Higgins left home to join the high school hockey program of Avon Old Farms in Connecticut . Following his high school graduation , Higgins was enrolled in Yale University for two years , majoring in political science while playing on the school 's hockey team .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honors = =
= Brian Kendrick =
Brian David Kendrick ( born May 29 , 1979 ) is an American professional wrestler signed to WWE , both as a wrestler and as a trainer at the WWE Performance Center .
Kendrick is also known for his appearances with New Japan Pro Wrestling and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling under his real name , as well as his appearances with Pro Wrestling Zero1 as Leonardo Spanky and on the independent circuit as Spanky . Championships held by Kendrick over the course of his career include the NWA International Junior Heavyweight Championship , NWA International Lightweight Tag Team Championship , TNA X Division Champion , World Tag Team Championship , WWE Tag Team Championship and Zero @-@ One United States Openweight Championship . He is also a former DDT Ironman Heavymetalweight Champion and the head trainer of Brian Kendrick 's School of Pro Wrestling .
= = Early life = =
Kendrick was born in Fairfax , Virginia , and is the son of Barbara Kendrick and the oldest of three children — a brother named Neal and a sister named Shannon . He later moved to Olympia , Washington where he attended North Thurston High School in Lacey , Washington . During his senior year , he worked as a dishwasher in a pizza parlor while saving money to attend wrestling school .
While growing up , Kendrick 's favorite wrestlers included Ultimate Warrior , Blue Blazer and Koko B. Ware . He was also a fan of Shawn Michaels , who trained him , and Chris Jericho . He was already very good friends with his former tag team partner Paul London , with Lance Cade and Bryan Danielson , both of whom he trained with .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
In 1999 , he moved to Texas to begin training at the NWA Southwest wrestling school and later attended the Shawn Michaels Wrestling Academy . It was there that Kendrick adopted the ring name Spanky , a nickname he was given due to his method of staying awake during long drives on the indy circuit . He made his professional wrestling debut on October 8 , 1999 in a match with American Dragon that ended in a 10 @-@ minute time limit draw . In October 2001 , Kendrick wrestled American Dragon in the first round of The King of the Indies tournament , but lost . The crowd , however , gave both men a standing ovation after the match .
= = = World Wrestling Federation = = =
= = = = Memphis Championship Wrestling ( 2000 – 2001 ) = = = =
In February 2000 , Kendrick signed a developmental deal with the World Wrestling Federation , spending a year in the company 's " farm territory " , Memphis Championship Wrestling ( MCW ) , before the promotion closed and Kendrick was released from his contract . Kendrick won his first Championship in MCW when he defeated American Dragon for the MCW Southern Light Heavyweight Championship on September 22 . He later teamed with American Dragon to win the MCW Southern Tag Team Championship , on December 1 , becoming a double champion . The tag team disbanded after they lost the Championships to The Dupps . On December 30 , however , the Southern Light Heavyweight title was declared vacant after a match that Kendrick had with Derrick King . In a match for the vacant championship , Kendrick regained the title after beating King , on January 6 , 2001 . He later dropped it to Tyler Gates , before regaining it on May 11 . On June 1 , however , Spanky was stripped of the title and it was abandoned , making Spanky the last ever MCW Southern Light Heavyweight Champion . He also holds the record for most reigns , with three .
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2002 ) = = =
On February 23 , 2002 , Kendrick wrestled on the premiere show of Ring of Honor ( ROH ) , winning the match to gain an ROH contract . While in ROH , Kendrick competed in several other promotions such as Heartland Wrestling Association and All Pro Wrestling , before leaving for Japan in June to compete in Pro Wrestling Zero @-@ One ( Zero1 ) . There , he wrestled under the ring name Leonardo Spanky , a gimmick proposed by Shinya Hashimoto due to Kendrick 's resemblance to Leonardo DiCaprio . On June 29 , he became the first NWA International Junior Heavyweight Champion in company history . He dropped the title to Low Ki a few months later .
= = = Return to WWE ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = =
In late 2002 , Kendrick signed a contract with WWE but was unable to compete until he completed his time in the independent circuit . He made his WWE debut on the January 11 , 2003 edition of Velocity under the gimmick of a mascot representing the local sports team of the town in which he was competing . He continued wearing masks for several weeks , each time competing under a different identity . After acting as a telegram deliverer for Big Show to Undertaker , and getting a Last Ride for his troubles , he showed up the following week and began a series of events trying to impress the then General Manager of Smackdown ! Stephanie McMahon in order to earn a contract for the WWE . He eventually earned himself a contract on the March 20 , 2003 episode of Smackdown ! by defeating Shannon Moore . His first major storyline within WWE came on the May 1 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! . He reverted to his former " Spanky " ring name after he interrupted a promo by John Cena . The two feuded over their similar hip hop gimmicks , until May 22 . On October 30 , Spanky began teaming with Paul London until January 13 , 2004 when Kendrick left WWE to return to Zero1 .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = =
After leaving WWE , Kendrick wrestled in different independent promotions . He returned to Zero1 as " Spanky " and was quickly pushed to capture the NWA International Lightweight Tag Team Championship . This occurred with partner Low Ki on February 19 , 2004 , when they defeated Dick Togo and Ikuto Hidaka . They lost the championship to Tatsuhito Takaiwa and Tomohiro Ishii a few months later . Kendrick gained a new tag team partner in Kaz Hayashi , on September 19 , 2004 , and won back the championships . They held onto the titles until March 2005 , when they dropped them to Hidaka and Minoru Fujita . Although he lost the tag titles in March , Kendrick , as Spanky , received a singles push , and won the Zero @-@ One United States Heavyweight Championship that same month. but he lost the title in September 2005 .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2004 ) = = =
Kendrick had a brief stint in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling in November 2004 , where he defeated Kaz , Matt Sydal and Amazing Red , in a four @-@ way match .
= = = Return to ROH ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = =
He then returned to ROH , as well as debuting on its sister promotion Full Impact Pro ( FIP ) on December 17 , 2004 , winning the first ever Florida Rumble . On February 25 , Kendrick wrestled a match against fellow WWE alumnus , James Gibson . Throughout the match , the crowd chanted " Welcome Back ! " and " SmackDown ! Sucks ! " , and both men received a standing ovation after the match . During his time in ROH , Kendrick was booked as a mid @-@ carder , consistently having matches late on the card . Kendrick also competed in the Trios Tournament , but lost in the first round with his team members , Gibson and Nigel McGuinness . He unsuccessfully competed for several titles such as the ROH Pure Championship , ROH World Championship and ROH World Tag Team Championship . In July 2005 , Kendrick announced that he had re @-@ signed with World Wrestling Entertainment , and would be returning there after he had fulfilled his obligations on the Independent circuit . In FIP , Kendrick won the FIP Tag Team Championship with Sal Rinauro on August 6 , 2005 , but lost it to The Heartbreak Express less than a month later , shortly before he returned to WWE .
= = = Second return to WWE = = =
= = = = Teaming with Paul London ( 2005 – 2008 ) = = = =
In July 2005 , Kendrick announced that after he had fulfilled his obligations on the independent circuit , he would return to WWE . He made his return during a live event on August 22 , 2005 , losing in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship . He then reformed a tag team with his former partner Paul London on the September 30 edition of Velocity . On December 16 , the pair remade their image , wearing theatrical masks to the ring with matching vests and shorts . They were quickly elevated into the WWE Tag Team Championship picture , receiving a non @-@ title match against WWE Tag Team Champions MNM on the February 10 , 2006 edition of SmackDown ! , which London and Kendrick lost . On April 7 , they faced MNM again , picking up a win in a non @-@ title match . Their storyline feud continued , as London and Kendrick continued their winning streak over the champions , including singles victories for both Kendrick and London on MNM members Johnny Nitro and Joey Mercury , respectively . London and Kendrick won the WWE Tag Team Title at Judgment Day , thus defeating MNM six times in a row in singles and tag team matches altogether .
Their first main competition for the titles came when K. C. James and Idol Stevens defeated the champions in a non @-@ title match , in early August , igniting a storyline feud between the two teams . During the rivalry , WWE Diva Ashley Massaro began accompanying London and Kendrick to the ring , acting as a valet to the team while combating the actions of James and Stevens ' manager Michelle McCool .
On October 14 , London and Kendrick became the longest reigning WWE Tag Team Champions of all time , surpassing MNM 's previous record of 145 days . Despite this , they were still booked as the underdogs in their feuds , and this was shown when they began a losing streak to the team of William Regal and Dave Taylor . Regal defeated both in singles matches and on the December 8 episode of SmackDown ! , Kendrick and London lost a non @-@ title tag team match to the duo , although Kendrick beat Taylor on the December 9 episode of Velocity . London and Kendrick had a scheduled title defense at Armageddon , against Regal and Taylor . Before the pay @-@ per @-@ view , the match changed into a Fatal Four Way tag team ladder match with London and Kendrick defending their titles against Regal and Taylor , MNM , and The Hardys . London and Kendrick won the match and retained the titles .
On February 2 , 2007 , London and Kendrick suffered a non @-@ title loss to the rookie team Deuce ' n Domino . In a title match at No Way Out , London and Kendrick retained the championship . London and Kendrick , however , dropped the championship to them on the April 20 edition of SmackDown ! , ending their reign at 331 days ( SmackDown ! was recorded on April 17 ) . In the storyline , London missed a moonsault from the ring apron to the floor during the title match , injuring his ribs , leaving Kendrick to battle Deuce ' n Domino alone . London and Kendrick unsuccessfully competed for the title on June 1 in a triple threat tag team match , which also involved Regal and Taylor , and lost a rematch on June 15 in a standard tag team match .
Kendrick , along with London , was drafted to the Raw brand on June 17 , 2007 during the Supplemental Draft . They won their debut match on Raw against The World 's Greatest Tag Team on June 18 . They were soon established as a threat to the tag titles , and on the September 3 edition of Raw , they won a number one contender 's match for Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch 's World Tag Team Championship . Kendrick and London then worked a feud with Cade and Murdoch , and at a house show on September 5 , they defeated Cade and Murdoch to win the titles , only to lose it back to Cade and Murdoch three days later . London and Kendrick continued to feud with Cade and Murdoch and lost to the Tag Team champions at Unforgiven . For the rest of 2007 , London and Kendrick mainly competed on Heat or in tag title bouts , until London got injured in late 2007 . As a result , Kendrick was mainly used as a jobber on Raw , until London returned at the start of February 2008 , although Kendrick still won sometimes on Heat .
In his next storyline , Kendrick abandoned London during a handicap match with Umaga . This abandonment resulted in Umaga performing the Samoan Spike on London , allowing Umaga to pick up the win over the duo . London and Kendrick still teamed together with no apparent dissension rising between the former tag team champions . After defeating Charlie Haas and Robbie McAllister on Heat , London and Kendrick said they were ready to win the World Tag Team Championship . London and Kendrick beat the champions Hardcore Holly and Cody Rhodes next week on Heat in a non @-@ title match . However , they failed to win the World Tag Team Titles on Raw after Holly pinned London .
= = = = The Brian Kendrick ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
As part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft , Kendrick was drafted back to the SmackDown brand while London stayed on Raw , thus ending the team . He made his return to the brand on the July 18 , 2008 airing of SmackDown ! as a major heel , with new ring attire defeating Jimmy Wang Yang with the help of his bodyguard , Ezekiel , who was later given a surname and became Ezekiel Jackson . Kendrick was later given the name " The Brian Kendrick " . On the August 22 edition of SmackDown , Kendrick won a 10 @-@ man battle royal to qualify for the WWE Championship Scramble match at Unforgiven . Kendrick won his first WWE Championship title at the event , though he did lose minutes after making him the longest reign as " interim " champion . As Kendrick was not the final interim champion , he never officially held the title . He later teamed with Jackson on many occasions , becoming number one contenders to the WWE Tag Team Championship held by Carlito and Primo , but they never managed to win the championship .
On April 15 , 2009 , Kendrick was separated from Jackson as he was drafted back to the Raw brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft while Jackson was drafted to the ECW brand . He wrestled his return match on Raw on the April 27 episode , against Kofi Kingston . He won a match on Raw after defeating Carlito on the May 11 episode before declaring his intention to win the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship ; in the following weeks , Kendrick tried several unsuccessful pairings . In his final match , he was defeated by Kofi Kingston while cutting a promo on Jerry Lawler . The match ended with Kendrick turning around into Trouble In Paradise . On July 30 , 2009 , WWE announced that Kendrick was released from his WWE contract .
= = = Return to the independent circuit ( 2009 – 2014 ) = = =
Kendrick signed with Dragon Gate USA on August 6 , 2009 . His first match for the company , a losing effort against Cima at Untouchable , aired on pay @-@ per @-@ view edited down
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to only the highlights of the match . On August 28 he made his return to Pro Wrestling Guerrilla at Speed of Sound where he , wrestling as a heel , defeated Bryan Danielson after a low blow . Afterwards he formed an alliance with PWG World Tag Team Champions The Young Bucks and started a feud with El Generico , Colt Cabana and the PWG World Champion Kenny Omega . On December 19 Ring of Honor announced that Kendrick would be making his return to the company on February 13 , 2010 , at the 8th Anniversary Show . At the event Kendrick was defeated by Roderick Strong .
On January 30 , 2010 , at PWG 's WrestleReunion 4 the Young Bucks decided that Kendrick did not fit in with them and turned on him , only for him to be saved by his old tag team partner Paul London . Later in the night , Kendrick and London defeated the Young Bucks , now renamed Generation Me , in a non @-@ title match . On March 27 , 2010 , at the tapings of Dragon Gate USA 's Mercury Rising pay @-@ per @-@ view , Kendrick was defeated by Jimmy Jacobs in a Loser Leaves Company tag team match , where he teamed with Paul London against Jacobs and Jack Evans and as a result was forced to leave the company for good .
On February 26 , 2011 , Kendrick defeated Tommy Lee Curtis for the Steeltown Pro Wrestling Provisional Championship and lost it to Jerin Rose on April 9 .
In March 2012 , Kendrick made his debut in Family Wrestling Entertainment , defeating Mike Benett . In mid May , Kendrick participated in Absolute Intense Wrestling 's JT Lightning Invitational Tournament and made it to the semi final before losing to B.J. Whitmer . On July 28 , at FWE X , he wrestled against FWE Champion Tommy Jay Lethal , Tommy Dreamer and Carlito for the title , but the match was won by Dreamer . Three months later , London , Kendrick and Lethal defeated Petey Williams and The Young Bucks . He also was in the first event of House of Hardcore , where Londron & Kendrick defeated The Young Bucks .
Kendrick returned to DGUSA on January 26 , 2013 , winning an Eight Way Fray . Next Day , Kendrick was defeated By Johnny Gargano for the Open the Freedom Gate title . In February , at Preston City Wrestling , Kendrick participated in the Road To Glory Tournament where he reached the semi final , losing to Noam Dar . At FWE No Limits , Kendrick lost a number one contendership match for the FWE Tri @-@ Borough Championship to Paul London . Kendrick made his Combat Zone Wrestling debut on April 5 , 2013 , defeating Sami Callihan . Same day , Kendrick and Garando defeated The Gentlemen 's Club on EVOLVE 19 . On April 6 and 7 , was defeated by Rich Swann on DGUSA Open the Ultimate Gate . On June 22 , 2013 , Londrick were defeated by The Young Bucks at House of Hardcore 2 .
On March 30 , 2014 , Kendrick made his ICW debut in a match against Joe Coffey at ICW - Still Smokin ' in the O2 ABC in Glasgow , Scotland where he was narrowly defeated . On 8 September 2014 , it was announced that Kendrick would once again team up with Paul London to take on The New Age Kliq in Newcastle , England on October 5 for the Insane Championship Wrestling Tag @-@ Team Championship . Both men won the titles and lost them on November 2 , 2014 .
= = = Return to TNA = = =
= = = = EV 2 @.@ 0 ( 2010 ) = = = =
On January 17 , 2010 at Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) ' s pay @-@ per @-@ view Genesis , Kendrick made his return to the promotion using his real name and losing to Amazing Red in a match for the TNA X Division Championship , under a similar heel gimmick to his The Brian Kendrick gimmick used in WWE . On April 7 , 2010 , Dixie Carter announced on her Twitter account that Kendrick had signed a new multi @-@ year deal with the company . On the May 3 , 2010 edition of TNA Impact ! , Kendrick turned face by having a confrontation with his partner Douglas Williams after their match against Ink Inc . ( Shannon Moore and Jesse Neal ) , but then Samoa Joe came out and attacked both of them . The following week , Kendrick picked up his first singles victory since returning to TNA by defeating Williams after a distraction from Kazarian . As a result of his victory , Kendrick was given a shot at Williams ' X Division Championship at Slammiversary VIII , but was unable to win the title . Kendrick received a rematch the following month at Victory Road , but was defeated again by Williams , this time in an Ultimate X submission match . On the September 2 edition of Impact ! , Kendrick joined EV 2 @.@ 0 , a stable consisting of former Extreme Championship Wrestling performers . At Bound for Glory Kendrick interfered in a Lethal Lockdown match between EV 2 @.@ 0 and Fortune and helped his team win the match between the two factions . At Turning Point EV 2 @.@ 0 faced Fortune in a ten @-@ man tag team match , where each member of EV 2 @.@ 0 put their TNA careers on the line . Kendrick was taken out of the match immediately , after being attacked by Douglas Williams . In the end , EV 2 @.@ 0 lost the match and Sabu was released from TNA .
= = = = X Division Champion ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = = =
After the dissolution of EV 2 @.@ 0 , Kendrick spent months wrestling mainly house show matches , before returning to PPV on April 17 , 2011 , at Lockdown , where he wrestled in an eight @-@ man X Division number one contender 's Xscape match , where he outlasted six other men , before losing to Max Buck . On the May 5 edition of Impact ! , Kendrick came together with Amazing Red and Generation Me to battle for X Division 's future , after the legitimate firing of Jay Lethal . On June 12 at Slammiversary IX , Kendrick failed in his attempt to win the X Division Championship from Abyss in a three – way match with Kazarian . On July 10 at Destination X , Kendrick defeated Abyss to win the TNA X Division Championship for the first time . On the July 21 edition of Impact Wrestling , Kendrick made his first successful defense of the X Division Championship by defeating Alex Shelley , following outside interference from Austin Aries . The following week Kendrick successfully defended the title against Abyss in an Ultimate X match to end the feud . On August 7 at Hardcore Justice , Kendrick successfully defended the title against Alex Shelley and Austin Aries in a three @-@ way match . On September 11 at No Surrender , Kendrick lost the X Division Championship . On the September 29 edition of Impact Wrestling , Kendrick won a five @-@ man ladder match to earn a rematch with Aries . On the October 6 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kendrick was attacked by Kid Kash for disrespect on Kash . On October 16 at Bound for Glory , Kendrick failed in his attempt to regain the X Division Championship from Austin Aries , this was Kendrick 's last TNA pay @-@ per @-@ view appearance . On the November 17 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kendrick teamed up with Jesse Sorensen to help defeat Austin Aries and Kid Kash in a tag team match , this was Kendrick 's last appearance in TNA . After three months of inactivity , TNA announced that Kendrick was released from his TNA contract on February 27 , 2012 .
= = = New Japan Pro Wrestling ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = =
On June 18 , 2011 , at Dominion 6 @.@ 18 , Kendrick made a surprise debut for New Japan Pro Wrestling in Osaka , teaming with Gedo and Jado in a six @-@ man tag team match , where they defeated Jushin Thunder Liger , Kushida and Tiger Mask , when Kendrick pinned Kushida with the Sliced Bread # 2 . Three days later Kendrick , Gedo and Jado were eliminated from the J Sports Crown Openweight 6 Man Tag Tournament in the first round by the team of IWGP Heavyweight Champion Hiroshi Tanahashi , Kushida and Máscara Dorada . The two matches built to a singles match between Kendrick and Kushida on June 23 , where Kushida managed to pick up the win . During his time in New Japan , Kendrick became an associate member of Chaos and competes for Chaos whenever he has toured New Japan .
On May 11 , 2012 , New Japan announced that Kendrick would return to the promotion to take part in the 2012 Best of the Super Juniors tournament as Davey Richards ' replacement . In the round @-@ robin stage of the tournament , which ran from May 27 to June 9 , Kendrick won five out of his eight matches , but a loss to Ryusuke Taguchi in his final round @-@ robin match caused him to narrowly miss advancing to the semifinals of the tournament . Kendrick returned to New Japan on October 21 , when he and Low Ki entered the 2012 Super Jr . Tag Tournament as " Chaos World Wrestling Warriors " . However , the team was eliminated from the tournament in the first round by Apollo 55 ( Prince Devitt and Ryusuke Taguchi ) .
In May 2013 , Kendrick returned to participate in the 2013 Best of the Super Juniors , where he managed to win four out of his eight matches , failing to qualify for the semifinals . Kendrick returned to NJPW on October 25 to take part in the 2013 Super Jr . Tag Tournament , where he teamed with Beretta . They were , however , eliminated in their first round match by The Young Bucks , following a pre @-@ match assault by Bullet Club . Kendrick teamed with various Chaos stablemates in midcard six @-@ man and eight @-@ man tag team matches for the rest of the tour , which lasted until November 6 .
= = = Third return to WWE ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On December 11 , Kendrick was backstage at NXT TakeOver : R Evolution as he was reportedly trying out for a Trainer role at the WWE Performance Center . Kendrick returned to WWE with his " The Brian Kendrick " character at the NXT television tapings on December 12 , 2014 , losing a dark match to Solomon Crowe . Kendrick made a televised return on the February 25 , 2015 episode of NXT , losing to Finn Balor in the main event . Soon after , Kendrick began working as a trainer at the WWE Performance Center and began training WWE Diva Eva Marie , as well as Tough Enough Season 6 contestants Daria Berenato and Mada Abdelhamid .
On June 13 , 2016 , Kendrick was announced as a participant in WWE 's upcoming Cruiserweight Classic tournament . The tournament kicked off on June 23 with Kendrick defeating Raul Mendoza in his first round match . On July 14 , Kendrick defeated Tony Nese in his second round match .
= = = Second return to ROH ( 2016 ) = = =
Kendrick returned to Ring of Honor on February 2nd , 2016 to defeat Will Ferrara in a non @-@ televised match .
= = Personal life = =
Kendrick has been married to Tough Enough finalist Taylor Matheny since August 2008 .
= = Media = =
Best of Spanky – Danger ! Danger ! ( DVD ) Ring of Honor
= = Other media = =
Kendrick appeared as a contestant on the March 8 , 2011 episode of The Price Is Right , where he won his " one bid " prize ( a $ 3 @,@ 018 popcorn machine ) , played the game Secret " X " and lost , and was eliminated from the game after spinning the wheel .
Kendrick also appeared in Season 4 of Total Divas , training Eva Marie .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Cobra clutch with bodyscissors – mid – 2010
Crossface – 2016 – present
Sliced Bread # 2 ( Independent circuit / WWE / TNA ) / The Kendrick ( WWE ) ( Shiranui )
Shooting star press
Signature moves
Camel clutch followed by multiple crossface punches
Dr. Smoothe 's Secret Recipe ( Corner backflip kick )
Electric Mayhem ( Diving facebreaker knee smash )
Hurricanrana
Left Turn at Albuquerque ( Turning frog splash )
Leg lariat
Tornado DDT
Whirling Twirlixer ( Diving somersault corkscrew plancha )
Nicknames
" The Post @-@ Apocalyptic Scavenger "
" The Man With A Plan "
" Spanky "
" The Wizard of Odd " '
Managers
Prince Nana
Ashley
Ezekiel Jackson
Entrance Themes
" Shine " by The Dirty Heads ( FWE )
" Man With A Plan " by Chris Goulstone ft . Nick Walker ( WWE / NXT )
" Sweet Talk " by Kito featuring Reija Lee ( NJPW )
" Make Em ' Say " by King Keleze ( ROH )
" Danger ! High Voltage " by Electric Six ( ROH )
" Quality Control " by Jurassic 5 ( ROH )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
DDT Pro @-@ Wrestling
Ironman Heavymetalweight Championship ( 1 time )
Full Impact Pro
FIP Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Sal Rinauro
Florida Rumble ( 2004 )
Insane Championship Wrestling
ICW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Paul London
Los Angeles Wrestling
LAW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time , current )
Memphis Championship Wrestling
MCW Southern Light Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times )
MCW Southern Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with American Dragon
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI Tag Team of the Year ( 2007 ) with Paul London
PWI ranked him # 43 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2003
Pro Wrestling Zero @-@ One / Pro Wrestling Zero1 @-@ Max
NWA International Lightweight Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Low Ki ( 1 ) and Kaz Hayashi ( 1 )
NWA / UPW / ZERO @-@ ONE International Junior Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Zero1 @-@ Max United States Openweight Championship ( 1 time )
Santino Bros. Wrestling
SBW Championship ( 2 times )
Steeltown Pro Wrestling
SPW Provincial Championship ( 1 time )
Texas Wrestling Alliance
TWA Television Championship ( 1 time )
TWA Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with American Dragon
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA X Division Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Entertainment
World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Paul London
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Paul London
= Halo : Contact Harvest =
Halo : Contact Harvest is a military science fiction novel by Joseph Staten , based on the Halo series of video games . The book was released in October 2007 and is the fifth Halo novel , following 2006 's Halo : Ghosts of Onyx , written by Eric Nylund . Staten is a longtime employee of Bungie , the developer of the Halo video game series ; he directed the cut scenes in the video games and is a major contributor to Halo 's storyline . He set out to write a novel that appealed to gamers , as well as those who had never read a Halo novel .
Set in 2525 , twenty @-@ seven years before the events of Halo : Combat Evolved , the novel tells the story of the United Nations Space Command 's first encounter with the alien collective known as the Covenant on the colony world of Harvest , and the beginning of the long war that follows . The novel is an ensemble piece , with the action being narrated from both human and Covenant viewpoints . The protagonist is a young Marine , Staff Sergeant Avery Johnson , who also appears in the Halo video games . Upon release , the book was generally well received and became The New York Times bestseller in its first week . Critics pointed to the novel 's success as a sign of the increasing importance of story in video games .
= = Background = =
According to Staten , Tor Books asked Bungie if they had someone suited to writing the next novel ; Staten , having written much of the Halo series canon , was the obvious choice . The author found that the book was the perfect way to elaborate on the Halo story without stripping it down for a video game : " I always felt we shortchanged [ the player ] . We don 't have a lot of time to tell story while the bullets are flying . " In addition , Staten said that the novel was the perfect way to do the character of Sergeant Johnson — who had appeared somewhat one @-@ dimensional in the games — proper justice as a well @-@ rounded character . Replying to G4TV 's question about writing action , Staten replied that he felt that writing " involves slowing things down " , in comparison to a game of Halo . The author also said that the work of his favorite science @-@ fiction authors helped teach him the importance of honing a " strong , consistent voice " .
Originally , the novel was due to ship before the September 25 release of Halo 3 ; Staten stated that due to his involvement with both projects , the novel slipped behind . He also emphasized that he hoped Contact Harvest was a good novel , not just a good Halo novel ; " ... someone who isn 't a Halo fan – someone who hasn 't read any of the previous novels – will be able to pick up Contact Harvest and enjoy the read " .
This focus on accuracy was a challenge for Staten , as he believes his audience is highly intelligent , willing , and able to report flaws ; fellow Bungie employees cross @-@ referenced his drafts with the " Halo Story Bible " to ensure canonical agreement . One example of fans taking Staten to task over the novel occurred soon after the novel 's cover was revealed in July 2007 . The cover depicts the protagonist , Sergeant Avery Johnson holding a weapon known as the Battle Rifle . As the weapon was first introduced in the video game Halo 2 and the events of Contact Harvest take place decades before the game , fans were quick to say that Staten had made a mistake . Staten later pointed out he had good reasons for including the offending weapon in the book , and justified the inclusion by stating that the weapon is a prototypical form of the version players use in the game .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Contact Harvest takes place in the year 2524 of the Halo universe , where faster @-@ than @-@ light technology has allowed humanity to spread across the galaxy , founding new colonies administrated by the United Nations Space Command , or UNSC . The wealthier " Inner " colonies are politically
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. The pia mater is a very delicate impermeable membrane that firmly adheres to the surface of the brain , following all the minor contours . The arachnoid mater ( so named because of its spider @-@ web @-@ like appearance ) is a loosely fitting sac on top of the pia mater . The subarachnoid space separates the arachnoid and pia mater membranes and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid . The outermost membrane , the dura mater , is a thick durable membrane , which is attached to both the arachnoid membrane and the skull .
In bacterial meningitis , bacteria reach the meninges by one of two main routes : through the bloodstream or through direct contact between the meninges and either the nasal cavity or the skin . In most cases , meningitis follows invasion of the bloodstream by organisms that live upon mucous surfaces such as the nasal cavity . This is often in turn preceded by viral infections , which break down the normal barrier provided by the mucous surfaces . Once bacteria have entered the bloodstream , they enter the subarachnoid space in places where the blood – brain barrier is vulnerable — such as the choroid plexus . Meningitis occurs in 25 % of newborns with bloodstream infections due to group B streptococci ; this phenomenon is less common in adults . Direct contamination of the cerebrospinal fluid may arise from indwelling devices , skull fractures , or infections of the nasopharynx or the nasal sinuses that have formed a tract with the subarachnoid space ( see above ) ; occasionally , congenital defects of the dura mater can be identified .
The large @-@ scale inflammation that occurs in the subarachnoid space during meningitis is not a direct result of bacterial infection but can rather largely be attributed to the response of the immune system to the entry of bacteria into the central nervous system . When components of the bacterial cell membrane are identified by the immune cells of the brain ( astrocytes and microglia ) , they respond by releasing large amounts of cytokines , hormone @-@ like mediators that recruit other immune cells and stimulate other tissues to participate in an immune response . The blood – brain barrier becomes more permeable , leading to " vasogenic " cerebral edema ( swelling of the brain due to fluid leakage from blood vessels ) . Large numbers of white blood cells enter the CSF , causing inflammation of the meninges and leading to " interstitial " edema ( swelling due to fluid between the cells ) . In addition , the walls of the blood vessels themselves become inflamed ( cerebral vasculitis ) , which leads to decreased blood flow and a third type of edema , " cytotoxic " edema . The three forms of cerebral edema all lead to increased intracranial pressure ; together with the lowered blood pressure often encountered in acute infection , this means that it is harder for blood to enter the brain , consequently brain cells are deprived of oxygen and undergo apoptosis ( programmed cell death ) .
It is recognized that administration of antibiotics may initially worsen the process outlined above , by increasing the amount of bacterial cell membrane products released through the destruction of bacteria . Particular treatments , such as the use of corticosteroids , are aimed at dampening the immune system 's response to this phenomenon .
= = Diagnosis = =
= = = Blood tests and imaging = = =
In someone suspected of having meningitis , blood tests are performed for markers of inflammation ( e.g. C @-@ reactive protein , complete blood count ) , as well as blood cultures .
The most important test in identifying or ruling out meningitis is analysis of the cerebrospinal fluid through lumbar puncture ( LP , spinal tap ) . However , lumbar puncture is contraindicated if there is a mass in the brain ( tumor or abscess ) or the intracranial pressure ( ICP ) is elevated , as it may lead to brain herniation . If someone is at risk for either a mass or raised ICP ( recent head injury , a known immune system problem , localizing neurological signs , or evidence on examination of a raised ICP ) , a CT or MRI scan is recommended prior to the lumbar puncture . This applies in 45 % of all adult cases . If a CT or MRI is required before LP , or if LP proves difficult , professional guidelines suggest that antibiotics should be administered first to prevent delay in treatment , especially if this may be longer than 30 minutes . Often , CT or MRI scans are performed at a later stage to assess for complications of meningitis .
In severe forms of meningitis , monitoring of blood electrolytes may be important ; for example , hyponatremia is common in bacterial meningitis , due to a combination of factors , including dehydration , the inappropriate secretion of the antidiuretic hormone ( SIADH ) , or overly aggressive intravenous fluid administration .
= = = Lumbar puncture = = =
A lumbar puncture is done by positioning the person , usually lying on the side , applying local anesthetic , and inserting a needle into the dural sac ( a sac around the spinal cord ) to collect cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) . When this has been achieved , the " opening pressure " of the CSF is measured using a manometer . The pressure is normally between 6 and 18 cm water ( cmH2O ) ; in bacterial meningitis the pressure is usually elevated . In cryptococcal meningitis , intracranial pressure is markedly elevated . The initial appearance of the fluid may prove an indication of the nature of the infection : cloudy CSF indicates higher levels of protein , white and red blood cells and / or bacteria , and therefore may suggest bacterial meningitis .
The CSF sample is examined for presence and types of white blood cells , red blood cells , protein content and glucose level . Gram staining of the sample may demonstrate bacteria in bacterial meningitis , but absence of bacteria does not exclude bacterial meningitis as they are only seen in 60 % of cases ; this figure is reduced by a further 20 % if antibiotics were administered before the sample was taken . Gram staining is also less reliable in particular infections such as listeriosis . Microbiological culture of the sample is more sensitive ( it identifies the organism in 70 – 85 % of cases ) but results can take up to 48 hours to become available . The type of white blood cell predominantly present ( see table ) indicates whether meningitis is bacterial ( usually neutrophil @-@ predominant ) or viral ( usually lymphocyte @-@ predominant ) , although at the beginning of the disease this is not always a reliable indicator . Less commonly , eosinophils predominate , suggesting parasitic or fungal etiology , among others .
The concentration of glucose in CSF is normally above 40 % of that in blood . In bacterial meningitis it is typically lower ; the CSF glucose level is therefore divided by the blood glucose ( CSF glucose to serum glucose ratio ) . A ratio ≤ 0 @.@ 4 is indicative of bacterial meningitis ; in the newborn , glucose levels in CSF are normally higher , and a ratio below 0 @.@ 6 ( 60 % ) is therefore considered abnormal . High levels of lactate in CSF indicate a higher likelihood of bacterial meningitis , as does a higher white blood cell count . If lactate levels are less than 35 mg / dl and the person has not previously received antibiotics then this may rule out bacterial meningitis .
Various other specialized tests may be used to distinguish between different types of meningitis . A latex agglutination test may be positive in meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae , Neisseria meningitidis , Haemophilus influenzae , Escherichia coli and group B streptococci ; its routine use is not encouraged as it rarely leads to changes in treatment , but it may be used if other tests are not diagnostic . Similarly , the limulus lysate test may be positive in meningitis caused by Gram @-@ negative bacteria , but it is of limited use unless other tests have been unhelpful . Polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) is a technique used to amplify small traces of bacterial DNA in order to detect the presence of bacterial or viral DNA in cerebrospinal fluid ; it is a highly sensitive and specific test since only trace amounts of the infecting agent 's DNA is required . It may identify bacteria in bacterial meningitis and may assist in distinguishing the various causes of viral meningitis ( enterovirus , herpes simplex virus 2 and mumps in those not vaccinated for this ) . Serology ( identification of antibodies to viruses ) may be useful in viral meningitis . If tuberculous meningitis is suspected , the sample is processed for Ziehl @-@ Neelsen stain , which has a low sensitivity , and tuberculosis culture , which takes a long time to process ; PCR is being used increasingly . Diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis can be made at low cost using an India ink stain of the CSF ; however , testing for cryptococcal antigen in blood or CSF is more sensitive , particularly in people with AIDS .
A diagnostic and therapeutic difficulty is " partially treated meningitis " , where there are meningitis symptoms after receiving antibiotics ( such as for presumptive sinusitis ) . When this happens , CSF findings may resemble those of viral meningitis , but antibiotic treatment may need to be continued until there is definitive positive evidence of a viral cause ( e.g. a positive enterovirus PCR ) .
= = = Postmortem = = =
Meningitis can be diagnosed after death has occurred . The findings from a post mortem are usually a widespread inflammation of the pia mater and arachnoid layers of the meninges . Neutrophil granulocytes tend to have migrated to the cerebrospinal fluid and the base of the brain , along with cranial nerves and the spinal cord , may be surrounded with pus — as may the meningeal vessels .
= = Prevention = =
For some causes of meningitis , protection can be provided in the long term through vaccination , or in the short term with antibiotics . Some behavioral measures may also be effective .
= = = Behavioral = = =
Bacterial and viral meningitis are contagious ; however , neither is as contagious as the common cold or flu . Both can be transmitted through droplets of respiratory secretions during close contact such as kissing , sneezing or coughing on someone , but cannot be spread by only breathing the air where a person with meningitis has been . Viral meningitis is typically caused by enteroviruses , and is most commonly spread through fecal contamination . The risk of infection can be decreased by changing the behavior that led to transmission .
= = = Vaccination = = =
Since the 1980s , many countries have included immunization against Haemophilus influenzae type B in their routine childhood vaccination schemes . This has practically eliminated this pathogen as a cause of meningitis in young children in those countries . In the countries in which the disease burden is highest , however , the vaccine is still too expensive . Similarly , immunization against mumps has led to a sharp fall in the number of cases of mumps meningitis , which prior to vaccination occurred in 15 % of all cases of mumps .
Meningococcus vaccines exist against groups A , B , C , W135 and Y. In countries where the vaccine for meningococcus group C was introduced , cases caused by this pathogen have decreased substantially . A quadrivalent vaccine now exists , which combines all four vaccines . Immunization with the ACW135Y vaccine against four strains is now a visa requirement for taking part in Hajj . Development of a vaccine against group B meningococci has proved much more difficult , as its surface proteins ( which would normally be used to make a vaccine ) only elicit a weak response from the immune system , or cross @-@ react with normal human proteins . Still , some countries ( New Zealand , Cuba , Norway and Chile ) have developed vaccines against local strains of group B meningococci ; some have shown good results and are used in local immunization schedules . Two new vaccines , both approved in 2014 , are effective against a wider range of group B meningococci strains . In Africa , until recently , the approach for prevention and control of meningococcal epidemics was based on early detection of the disease and emergency reactive mass vaccination of the at @-@ risk population with bivalent A / C or trivalent A / C / W135 polysaccharide vaccines , though the introduction of MenAfriVac ( meningococcus group A vaccine ) has demonstrated effectiveness in young people and has been described as a model for product development partnerships in resource @-@ limited settings .
Routine vaccination against Streptococcus pneumoniae with the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine ( PCV ) , which is active against seven common serotypes of this pathogen , significantly reduces the incidence of pneumococcal meningitis . The pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine , which covers 23 strains , is only administered to certain groups ( e.g. those who have had a splenectomy , the surgical removal of the spleen ) ; it does not elicit a significant immune response in all recipients , e.g. small children . Childhood vaccination with Bacillus Calmette @-@ Guérin has been reported to significantly reduce the rate of tuberculous meningitis , but its waning effectiveness in adulthood has prompted a search for a better vaccine .
= = = Antibiotics = = =
Short @-@ term antibiotic prophylaxis is another method of prevention , particularly of meningococcal meningitis . In cases of meningococcal meningitis , preventative treatment in close contacts with antibiotics ( e.g. rifampicin , ciprofloxacin or ceftriaxone ) can reduce their risk of contracting the condition , but does not protect against future infections . Resistance to rifampicin has been noted to increase after use , which has caused some to recommend considering other agents . While antibiotics are frequently used in an attempt to prevent meningitis in those with a basilar skull fracture there is not enough evidence to determine whether this is beneficial or harmful . This applies to those with or without a CSF leak .
= = Management = =
Meningitis is potentially life @-@ threatening and has a high mortality rate if untreated ; delay in treatment has been associated with a poorer outcome . Thus , treatment with wide @-@ spectrum antibiotics should not be delayed while confirmatory tests are being conducted . If meningococcal disease is suspected in primary care , guidelines recommend that benzylpenicillin be administered before transfer to hospital . Intravenous fluids should be administered if hypotension ( low blood pressure ) or shock are present . In children routine intravenous fluids for two days may improve outcomes in those who arrive at hospital after being sick for some time . Given that meningitis can cause a number of early severe complications , regular medical review is recommended to identify these complications early and to admit the person to an intensive care unit if deemed necessary .
Mechanical ventilation may be needed if the level of consciousness is very low , or if there is evidence of respiratory failure . If there are signs of raised intracranial pressure , measures to monitor the pressure may be taken ; this would allow the optimization of the cerebral perfusion pressure and various treatments to decrease the intracranial pressure with medication ( e.g. mannitol ) . Seizures are treated with anticonvulsants . Hydrocephalus ( obstructed flow of CSF ) may require insertion of a temporary or long @-@ term drainage device , such as a cerebral shunt .
= = = Bacterial meningitis = = =
= = = = Antibiotics = = = =
Empiric antibiotics ( treatment without exact diagnosis ) should be started immediately , even before the results of the lumbar puncture and CSF analysis are known . The choice of initial treatment depends largely on the kind of bacteria that cause meningitis in a particular place and population . For instance , in the United Kingdom empirical treatment consists of a third @-@ generation cefalosporin such as cefotaxime or ceftriaxone . In the USA , where resistance to cefalosporins is increasingly found in streptococci , addition of vancomycin to the initial treatment is recommended . Chloramphenicol , either alone or in combination with ampicillin , however , appears to work equally well .
Empirical therapy may be chosen on the basis of the person 's age , whether the infection was preceded by a head injury , whether the person has undergone recent neurosurgery and whether or not a cerebral shunt is present . In young children and those over 50 years of age , as well as those who are immunocompromised , the addition of ampicillin is recommended to cover Listeria monocytogenes . Once the Gram stain results become available , and the broad type of bacterial cause is known , it may be possible to change the antibiotics to those likely to deal with the presumed group of pathogens . The results of the CSF culture generally take longer to become available ( 24 – 48 hours ) . Once they do , empiric therapy may be switched to specific antibiotic therapy targeted to the specific causative organism and its sensitivities to antibiotics . For an antibiotic to be effective in meningitis it must not only be active against the pathogenic bacterium but also reach the meninges in adequate quantities ; some antibiotics have inadequate penetrance and therefore have little use in meningitis . Most of the antibiotics used in meningitis have not been tested directly on people with meningitis in clinical trials . Rather , the relevant knowledge has mostly derived from laboratory studies in rabbits . Tuberculous meningitis requires prolonged treatment with antibiotics . While tuberculosis of the lungs is typically treated for six months , those with tuberculous meningitis are typically treated for a year or longer .
= = = = Steroids = = = =
Additional treatment with corticosteroids ( usually dexamethasone ) has shown some benefits , such as a reduction of hearing loss , and better short term neurological outcomes in adolescents and adults from high @-@ income countries with low rates of HIV . Some research has found reduced rates of death while other research has not . They also appear to be beneficial in those with tuberculosis meningitis , at least in those who are HIV negative .
Professional guidelines therefore recommend the commencement of dexamethasone or a similar corticosteroid just before the first dose of antibiotics is given , and continued for four days . Given that most of the benefit of the treatment is confined to those with pneumococcal meningitis , some guidelines suggest that dexamethasone be discontinued if another cause for meningitis is identified . The likely mechanism is suppression of overactive inflammation .
Additional treatment with corticosteroids have a different role in children than in adults . Though the benefit of corticosteroids has been demonstrated in adults as well as in children from high @-@ income countries , their use in children from low @-@ income countries is not supported by the evidence ; the reason for this discrepancy is not clear . Even in high @-@ income countries , the benefit of corticosteroids is only seen when they are given prior to the first dose of antibiotics , and is greatest in cases of H. influenzae meningitis , the incidence of which has decreased dramatically since the introduction of the Hib vaccine . Thus , corticosteroids are recommended in the treatment of pediatric meningitis if the cause is H. influenzae , and only if given prior to the first dose of antibiotics ; other uses are controversial .
= = = Viral meningitis = = =
Viral meningitis typically only requires supportive therapy ; most viruses responsible for causing meningitis are not amenable to specific treatment . Viral meningitis tends to run a more benign course than bacterial meningitis . Herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus may respond to treatment with antiviral drugs such as aciclovir , but there are no clinical trials that have specifically addressed whether this treatment is effective . Mild cases of viral meningitis can be treated at home with conservative measures such as fluid , bedrest , and analgesics .
= = = Fungal meningitis = = =
Fungal meningitis , such as cryptococcal meningitis , is treated with long courses of high dose antifungals , such as amphotericin B and flucytosine . Raised intracranial pressure is common in fungal meningitis , and frequent ( ideally daily ) lumbar punctures to relieve the pressure are recommended , or alternatively a lumbar drain .
= = Prognosis = =
Untreated , bacterial meningitis is almost always fatal . Viral meningitis , in contrast , tends to resolve spontaneously and is rarely fatal . With treatment , mortality ( risk of death ) from bacterial meningitis depends on the age of the person and the underlying cause . Of newborns , 20 – 30 % may die from an episode of bacterial meningitis . This risk is much lower in older children , whose mortality is about 2 % , but rises again to about 19 – 37 % in adults . Risk of death is predicted by various factors apart from age , such as the pathogen and the time it takes for the pathogen to be cleared from the cerebrospinal fluid , the severity of the generalized illness , a decreased level of consciousness or an abnormally low count of white blood cells in the CSF . Meningitis caused by H. influenzae and meningococci has a better prognosis than cases
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Act 1910 , which allowed for 80 per cent of the value of a property to be advanced to a worker at 4 @.@ 5 per cent interest over 36 @.@ 5 years . In his speeches Denny highlighted that many workers were faced with high rents and poor conditions . He also sponsored the Female Law Practitioners Act 1911 , which enabled women to practice law in South Australia for the first time . Tall , with " long , spindly legs " , Denny was a favourite of cartoonists .
Verran called an election in February 1912 , and the ULP were defeated by the Liberal Union , although Denny was again returned first in the seat of Adelaide with 15 @.@ 8 per cent of votes cast . He became a member of the University of Adelaide Council in April 1912 , as a representative of the Parliament . In 1913 , a referendum to fix the closing time of licensed premises was proposed by the ULP . Even after the governing Liberal Union agreed to the conduct of the referendum at the next state election , Denny attacked them , claiming that they had no intention of implementing the outcome of the referendum if they were re @-@ elected . Denny was returned unopposed at the March 1915 state election .
= = World War I = =
Denny enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 17 August 1915 at the age of 43 , initially as a trooper . Before departing overseas , Denny had always been an advocate of conscription . He was later commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 9th Light Horse Regiment . While in Egypt , he transferred to the divisional artillery of the 5th Division , which then shipped to France , and he was promoted to lieutenant in June 1916 . In January 1917 , despite his previous stance on conscription , Denny refused requests to endorse it , instead stating that he did not think that intervention would be compatible with his duties as a soldier . He also considered that the majority of soldiers voted against it , and deplored the split in the Labor Party that conscription had created . In mid @-@ 1917 he was attached to the divisional artillery of the 1st Division . On the night of 15 September 1917 , he was leading a convoy carrying water to forward areas when it was hit by a heavy artillery barrage , and he was wounded . His recommendation for the Military Cross read :
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty whilst engaged in pack transport work near HOGGE on the night of 15 September 1917 . Lieutenant DENNY showed great coolness and initiative throughout , especially when his convoy came under very heavy barrage in the vicinity of CLAPHAM JUNCTION . Although wounded himself , Lieut . DENNY personally obtained assistance for two of his men who were wounded . He then reorganised his command and succeeded in reaching his destination . Lieut . DENNY after delivering this water then went to the dressing station where he dictated a report to D.H.Q. before being evacuated .
He was invested with the Military Cross by King George V at Buckingham Palace in November 1917 . After recovering from his wounds , he was attached to the repatriation section of AIF Administrative Headquarters in London from January 1918 . He was promoted to captain in September that year . He resigned his commission in the AIF in 1919 and published a memoir titled The Diggers , the foreword of which was written by General Sir William Birdwood , who had commanded the AIF from 1915 until the end of the war .
= = Return to Parliament = =
Still serving overseas at the time of the 1918 state election , Denny was returned first of three in Adelaide with 30 @.@ 2 per cent of the ballots cast . He was repatriated to Australia via the United States on 2 August 1919 , returning to his seat . While in the United States , he had been regularly published in the New York Herald . He married Winefride Mary Leahy , a pianist and singer , on 15 January 1920 at St. Ignatius Church , Norwood . His brother , the Reverend Richard Denny , officiated at their wedding . He was elected second of two in 1921 and second of three in 1924 with similar proportions of the vote . He was appointed Attorney @-@ General in the Labor government of John Gunn in April 1924 , and was also Minister for Housing , and initially , Assistant Minister for Repatriation . In January 1925 he was appointed as Minister for Irrigation and Minister for Repatriation , while retaining his Attorney @-@ General and housing portfolios .
During this period he carried out several significant legislative changes . In 1924 , as Minister for Housing , Denny was closely associated with the Thousand Homes Scheme , which aimed to provide affordable housing , particularly for returned soldiers and their families , and lower income groups . The land used for this development was the site of the Mitcham military camp at which Denny had trained before embarking for service overseas . Denny 's work on the Scheme resulted in a clash with former Premier Sir Henry Barwell , whom he sued for libel after Barwell made statements suggesting that Denny had made false statements to induce merchants to provide goods and services . Barwell later apologised for his comments .
Another change was the transition to the use of judges as the electoral returning officer for South Australia . This was done to impose state control on a system which had effectively combined the administration of the national and state electoral rolls . On 27 May 1925 , Denny arranged the appointment of Judge Herbert Kingsley Paine of the Insolvency Court to be appointed as Electoral Officer for the state , replacing Charles Mathews , a state public servant who had held the position since 1907 . Denny had previously worked for Paine as a legal associate .
As a returned soldier , Denny was an exception among Labor politicians at both state and federal level in the 1920s . Willing and able to speak about his personal war experiences , he was one of the few Labor politicians invited to unveil memorials . He performed this role for the Soldiers ' Memorial Hall at Lameroo in 1926 , where his " address was punctuated with applause " . When his political enemies persistently queried the circumstances under which he was awarded the Military Cross , he published the citation in response . Despite Labor 's loss in the 1927 state election , Denny was returned first of three in the seat of Adelaide , with over 25 per cent of the vote . At the April 1930 state election , he was returned first of three with nearly 82 per cent of the ballots cast . Appointed Attorney @-@ General in the Labor government of Lionel Hill , Denny was also Minister of Railways , and for the first six months he was also Minister of Local Government . On Anzac Day 1931 , acting as Premier in Hill 's absence , he officiated at the unveiling of the National War Memorial at the corner of North Terrace and Kintore Avenue , Adelaide , before a crowd of about 75 @,@ 000 . Denny is one of only a few South Australian ministers to have ever had military experience .
In 1931 , Denny was expelled from the Labor Party , along with Hill and the rest of the cabinet , for supporting the " Premiers ' Plan " , which sought to impose austerity measures due to the poor economic conditions . The cabinet formed the Parliamentary Labor Party which continued to govern the state , led by Hill and then by Robert Richards , with the support of the opposition until the 1933 state election . At the 1933 election , Denny lost his seat to a Lang Labor Party candidate .
= = Later life = =
In September 1936 , Bill 's brother , the Catholic priest Reverend Denny , and his sister , Mary Catherine Denny , were involved in a vehicle accident in which Mary received fatal injuries . Reverend Denny suffered from an illness that resulted from the accident which contributed to his death in June 1941 . Denny wrote a further autobiographical book , A Digger at Home and Abroad , which was published in 1941 . He continued to practice law until his death , despite difficulties associated with rheumatoid arthritis . He died on 2 May 1946 of a heart attack which developed at his home on Osmond Terrace , Norwood , after he returned from his office in Adelaide . He was survived by his wife , one son and three daughters . He was accorded a state funeral , and was buried at West Terrace Cemetery .
Denny was the patron of the West Adelaide Football Club for 20 years ending in 1930 . He enjoyed diving for crayfish under the rocks at the back of Rosetta Head near Victor Harbor on Encounter Bay , and was often accompanied by Ephriam " Brownie " Tripp , an Aboriginal man from the Point McLeay Aboriginal Mission . According to his entry in the Australian Dictionary of Biography , " his preferred reading was Shakespeare and the Bible and he quoted liberally from both . His integrity , versatility and wide knowledge were unquestioned , and he was proud of the democratic legislation he had sponsored . "
= = = Books = = =
= = = Papers = = =
= = = Newspapers = = =
= Gary Hooper =
Gary Hooper ( born 26 January 1988 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a forward for Championship club Sheffield Wednesday .
Hooper started his career at non @-@ League Grays Athletic in 2003 . While there he won the 2004 – 05 Conference South , as well as the FA Trophy twice in 2005 and 2006 . After this Championship club Southend United signed him on a free transfer in 2006 . He was loaned out twice by the club , on a three @-@ month loan to League One club Leyton Orient in 2007 and a six @-@ month loan to League Two club Hereford United in 2008 . Scunthorpe United signed him in 2008 , for a fee of £ 175 @,@ 000 . After two years he was signed by Scottish Premier League side Celtic for £ 2 @.@ 4 million . In his first season with the club he was the top scorer and also won the 2011 Scottish Cup .
Hooper has scored in the Premier League , Championship , League One , League Two , FA Cup , League Cup , Football League Trophy , FA Trophy , UEFA Champions League , UEFA Europa League , Scottish Cup , Scottish League Cup and the Scottish Premier League , the first and only player to achieve this feat . On top of this , he has also scored in the Conference National and the Conference South .
Hooper was born in England but has not represented the national team at any level . In March 2011 it was thought that he may be eligible to represent Scotland . However , this possibility was later closed off . Since his move to Celtic he has been considered for England duty and was called up to the under @-@ 21 squad for a friendly but had to pull out due to injury . He was then included in the provisional squad for the 2011 European Under @-@ 21 Championship but did not go to the tournament .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Hooper was born in Harlow , Essex and grew up in Loughton . He joined the Tottenham Hotspur youth team at the age of seven . When he was 14 he played 20 minutes of a trial game and was then released by the club . After this he had trials with Northampton Town and Luton Town . These proved unsuccessful and he started playing Sunday league football . He then had a short spell with Maldon Town , before he was signed by Conference National side Grays Athletic at the start of the 2003 – 04 season .
= = = Grays Athletic = = =
Hooper joined Isthmian Premier side Grays Athletic , in the 2003 – 04 season , being named as an unused substitute in an Essex Senior Cup clash against Braintree Town whilst he was still 15 years old .
His debut was the following season when Grays were promoted into the newly formed Conference South , helping them to win the league by scoring 12 goals in 29 league appearances . He started for Grays in the 2004 – 05 FA Trophy Final against Hucknall Town , but was substituted towards the end of extra @-@ time . The match went to penalties and Grays won the shoot @-@ out 6 – 5 .
The following season in the Conference National , Hooper scored eight times in 40 league appearances . He was an unused substitute in Grays Athletic 's 2 – 0 triumph over Woking in the final of the 2006 FA Trophy . At the end of the 2006 season he was released by Grays . Hooper said that he was only getting substitute appearances for the last few minutes of games and that he wanted to move .
= = = Southend United = = =
In July 2006 , after his release by Grays , Hooper went on two trials . Firstly to League Two side Barnet , then to Championship club Southend United , where he was given a one @-@ year contract by manager Steve Tilson the following month . On 24 October , Hooper scored twice in a 3 – 1 League Cup win over Leeds United . He went on to make 18 appearances for Southend in the Championship , although only two were starts . On 15 March , Hooper joined League One side Leyton Orient on loan for the rest of the season . Tilson said that this loan would allow him to assess whether Hooper merited a new contract and would give the young striker experience . Hooper was recalled from loan on 1 May before , already relegated , Southend 's last match of the season . A number of players were out injured for the match and , five days after his recall , Hooper started in the 4 – 1 defeat to Southampton .
Hooper made 18 appearances in League One for Southend during the first half of the 2007 – 08 season , scoring twice . On 28 January 2008 , Hooper signed a new 18 @-@ month contract to extend his stay with the club . He then moved on loan to League Two club Hereford United .
At the start of the 2008 – 09 season . Hooper , along with three other strikers , was listed for transfer as Tilson looked to re @-@ build his attack . Hereford had a bid accepted for Hooper after his successful loan spell , but could not afford to match the larger transfer fees offered by other teams . Several other League One sides were interested in him . Cheltenham Town had a bid accepted but Hooper eventually decided to move to Scunthorpe United . He scored just four goals in 44 appearances during his time at Southend . Although he did have two successful loan spells .
= = = = Leyton Orient ( loan ) = = = =
On 15 March 2007 , Hooper moved on loan to League One club Leyton Orient . Two days after joining the club he scored in a 2 – 2 draw with Oldham Athletic after coming on as a substitute . A week later , he scored against League One leaders Scunthorpe United in another 2 – 2 draw . Hooper made two more appearances for Orient , before being recalled to Southend on 1 May , when the club activated a 24 @-@ hour return clause in his contract . Orient manager Martin Ling said that he thought Hooper had done well during his loan spell with the club and that he would monitor the progress of the young striker .
= = = = Hereford United ( loan ) = = = =
On 28 January 2008 , Hooper signed a one @-@ month loan deal with League Two side Hereford United . He made his debut two days after signing for them , starting in a 2 – 1 loss to Barnet . He scored in his next game for the club , a 1 – 0 win over Rotherham United . He played five more times , scoring four goals , before his loan deal was due to expire on 28 February . However , manager Graham Turner agreed a deal to keep him until the end of the season . Southend manager Steve Tilson agreed to this despite having two strikers out injured at the time . Hooper 's 11 goals in 19 appearances for Hereford helped them finish third in League Two and secure promotion .
= = = Scunthorpe United = = =
On 14 July 2008 , Scunthorpe United signed Hooper for a fee of £ 125 @,@ 000 , rising to £ 175 @,@ 000 . Hooper signed a three @-@ year contract with the League One club . In the first game of Scunthorpe 's league campaign , Hooper scored in a 2 – 1 defeat at Glanford Park against Leeds United . He scored his first ever hat @-@ trick against , Brighton , on 6 September and netted seven goals in his
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for the Japanese market ) . However , it was later revealed that the album was to feature a total of 13 tracks . Several of the songs on the album were previously recorded by the band in one form or another , although most of the songs are completely new material .
= = = Reworked older material = = =
" Sudden Death " , " New World Order " , " Black Swan " and " Millennium of the Blind " were released previously in different or incomplete versions , and were included as bonus tracks on previous albums or used for other projects . " Sudden Death " was originally written for the 2010 music video game Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock . The song was released as a digital single via iTunes in September 2010 .
" New World Order " was originally written during the Clash of the Titans Tour in 1991 , however , early versions of the song were not released until years later . The original finished version was released on the Duke Nukem soundtrack in 1999 , and a demo had been included as a bonus track on the 2004 remix / remaster of Youthanasia . Ellefson stated the song was re @-@ recorded at the insistence of Shawn Drover , and ( compared to previous versions of the song ) Mustaine had " updated some parts and made them more violent . " Drover , for his part , stated re @-@ recording " New World Order " was initially Mustaine 's idea , though he strongly supported re @-@ recording the song .
" Black Swan " was originally intended as a special edition bonus track for United Abominations . According to Ellefson , finishing and including " Black Swan " on Thirteen was Johnny K 's idea . Ellefson also noted that , having been written several years beforehand , it has nothing to do with the 2010 film of the same name ; the lyrics were inspired by the C.S. Lewis novel The Great Divorce . In part of the effort to promote the album , the song was released for streaming via Hot Topic 's official YouTube page on October 24 , 2011 .
According to Ellefson , " Millennium of the Blind " was originally written in 1991 and a demo was recorded , and a version of the song would later be included as a bonus track on the 2004 remix / remaster of Youthanasia . In the liner notes for the 2004 re @-@ release of Youthanasia , Mustaine claimed that " Millennium of the Blind " reminded him too much of another song he was working on at the time , " Absolution " ( which would later form part of " Trust " from Cryptic Writings ) . Mustaine states in the Youthanasia re @-@ release liner notes that he came up with the lyrics after watching Highlander . Ellefson explained Johnny K and Mustaine were able to finish the song for Thirteen .
= = = New compositions = = =
On July 4 , 2011 Megadeth debuted a new song entitled " Public Enemy No. 1 " at a show in Hamburg , Germany . According to Mustaine , " Public Enemy No. 1 " was written about 1920s gangster Al Capone . Ellefson revealed in an interview that " Public Enemy No. 1 " was to be released as a single A Western @-@ themed music video , which featured the band and live animals , was made to support the single . The video was released on November 4 , 2011 .
" Whose Life ( Is It Anyways ? ) " saw its radio debut during an appearance by Dave Mustaine on the October 14 – 16 , 2011 edition of the Full Metal Jackie radio show . On October 17 , the song was released as a limited @-@ time free download via Megadeth 's Facebook page . In March 2012 , a lyric video for the song was released .
" Never Dead " , was written for inclusion on NeverDead , a third @-@ person action / fantasy game . To help promote the album , Roadrunner Records posted the song on their YouTube channel for streaming on September 21 , 2011 .
Being interviewed about the album in September 2011 , Ellefson commented on several of the album 's other songs . He also described the title track as " theatrical " and compared it to " In My Darkest Hour " from So Far , So Good ... So What ! ( 1988 ) . Ellefson said " 13 " is a song that " summed up the arc of Megadeth as a band " . While referring to another song , " Deadly Nightshade " , Ellefson stated the song 's main riff " was written during the sessions for Youthanasia , or maybe Cryptic Writings [ from 1997 ] . It ’ s been around for a while . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Reaction from critics towards Thirteen has been mostly positive , with the average rating for the album being around a 7 / 10 . Reviewing the album for Allmusic , James Christopher Monger stated : " Darker , heavier , and more immediate than 2009 's Endgame " , and noted that although Mustaine 's vocals are higher in the mix on this album , " his fleet fingers are still possessed with the power to conjure the dead . " Sputnikmusic 's Mike Stagno wrote that except for the lyrical content , Thirteen doesn 't have major flaws .
According to Kevin Stewart @-@ Panko of Rock Sound , the album 's musical style " gravitates between classy thrashers and hokey anthemic rock " . He praised the " scorching guitar work and Mustaine ’ s snarling voice " . Carla Gillis from Now described the record as " thrashy , angry and melody @-@ packed , like Megadeth ’ s best Peace Sells @-@ era songs " . She said that the album was not " perfect " , but noted that Mustaine 's vocals and guitar playing " never get old " . Dom Lawson , writing in The Guardian , stated that Megadeth 's " music has lost none of its intensity , passion or rage " over the years . He finished his review by saying that Thirteen is " an all @-@ killer , no @-@ filler feast of state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art metal " . Similarly , Chris Colgan of PopMatters named Thirteen " the latest in a series of well @-@ composed and well @-@ executed albums " by Megadeth . Colgan went on to say that " Mustaine and his cohorts are still making great music and keeping classic thrash relevant in the metal community " . Heather McDaid from This Is Fake DIY described the record as " good old fashioned , classic heavy metal in its rough and ready glory " .
However , not all critical reaction to the album was positive . Neil Arnold from Metal Forces was disappointed by the album 's musical direction , because he felt that Mustaine " has reverted back to a more simple , less furious sound " . In a brief review for Spin , Jon Young commented on several of the album 's tracks , saying " Public Enemy No. 1 " and " Guns , Drugs & Money " were " deceptively melodic hard rock not far from Alice Cooper 's early classics " but also said they lack the same sense of humor . However , Young stated that " We the People " should be on " the apocalypse 's official soundtrack " . BBC Music 's Ian Winwood said the album " is something of an unremarkable affair . Not a bad album , but not one for the ages . " However , Winwood also called " Sudden Death " " quite brilliant " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Thirteen debuted at number 11 on the Billboard 200 , selling 42 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week . This was a slight fall from the first @-@ week sales ( about 45 @,@ 000 copies ) and chart position ( number 9 ) of its predecessor , Endgame . Another 10 @,@ 780 copies were sold in the second week , and the album 's position on the Billboard 200 fell to number 53 . The album charted similarly in Australia , New Zealand ( number 13 ) and on the Japanese chart ( number 11 ) . Elsewhere , the album failed to enter into the top 20 . As of December 2012 , Thirteen had sold 120 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = = Grammy nominations = = =
Three of the album 's songs received Grammy nominations . " Sudden Death " was nominated for " Best Metal Performance " at the 2011 Grammys , but lost to Iron Maiden 's " El Dorado " . " Public Enemy No. 1 " received a nomination in the " Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance " category the next year , but lost to the Foo Fighters ' " Wasting Light | White Limo " . " Whose Life ( Is This Anyways ? ) " received a nomination in the same category at the 2013 Grammys , but lost to Halestorm 's " Love Bites ( So Do I ) " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Chart performance = =
= Bartolomé de las Casas =
Bartolomé de las Casas ( c . 1484 – 18 July 1566 ) was a 16th @-@ century Spanish historian , social reformer and Dominican friar . He became the first resident Bishop of Chiapas , and the first officially appointed " Protector of the Indians " . His extensive writings , the most famous being A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies and Historia de Las Indias , chronicle the first decades of colonization of the West Indies and focus particularly on the atrocities committed by the colonizers against the indigenous peoples .
Arriving as one of the first European settlers in the Americas , he initially participated in , but eventually felt compelled to oppose , the atrocities committed against the Native Americans by the Spanish colonists . In 1515 , he reformed his views , gave up his Indian slaves and encomienda , and advocated , before King Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor , on behalf of rights for the natives . In his early writings , he advocated the use of African slaves instead of Natives in the West @-@ Indian colonies ; consequently , criticisms have been leveled at him as being partly responsible for the beginning of the Transatlantic slave trade . Later in life , he retracted those early views as he came to see all forms of slavery as equally wrong . In 1522 , he attempted to launch a new kind of peaceful colonialism on the coast of Venezuela , but this venture failed , causing Las Casas to enter the Dominican Order and become a friar , leaving the public scene for a decade . He then traveled to Central America undertaking peaceful evangelization among the Maya of Guatemala and participated in debates among the Mexican churchmen about how best to bring the natives to the Christian faith . Traveling back to Spain to recruit more missionaries , he continued lobbying for the abolition of the encomienda , gaining an important victory by the passing of the New Laws in 1542 . He was appointed Bishop of Chiapas , but served only for a short time before he was forced to return to Spain because of resistance to the New Laws by the encomenderos , and conflicts with Spanish settlers because of his pro @-@ Indian policies and activist religious stances . The remainder of his life was spent at the Spanish court where he held great influence over Indies @-@ related issues . In 1550 , he participated in the Valladolid debate in which Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda argued that the Indians were less than human and required Spanish masters in order to become civilized . Las Casas maintained that they were fully human and that forcefully subjugating them was unjustifiable .
Bartolomé de las Casas spent 50 years of his life actively fighting slavery and the violent colonial abuse of indigenous peoples , especially by trying to convince the Spanish court to adopt a more humane policy of colonization . And although he failed to save the indigenous peoples of the Western Indies , his efforts resulted in several improvements in the legal status of the natives , and in an increased colonial focus on the ethics of colonialism . Las Casas is often seen as one of the first advocates for universal human rights .
= = Life and times = =
= = = Background and arrival in the New World = = =
Bartolomé de las Casas was born in Seville in 1484 , on 11 November . For centuries , Las Casas 's birthdate was believed to be 1474 ; however , in the 1970s , scholars conducting archival work demonstrated this to be an error , after uncovering in the Archivo General de Indias records of a contemporary lawsuit that demonstrated he was born a decade later than had been supposed . Subsequent biographers and authors have generally accepted and reflected this revision . His father , Pedro de las Casas , a merchant , descended from one of the families that had migrated from France to found the town of Seville ; his family also spelled the name Casaus . According to one biographer , his family were of converso heritage , although others refer to them as ancient Christians who migrated from France . Following the testimony of Las Casas 's biographer Antonio de Remesal , tradition has it that Las
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Casas studied a licentiate at Salamanca , but this is never mentioned in Las Casas 's own writings . As a young man , in 1507 , he journeyed to Rome where he observed the Festival of Flutes .
With his father , Las Casas immigrated to the island of Hispaniola in 1502 on the expedition of Nicolás de Ovando . Las Casas became a hacendado and slave owner , receiving a piece of land in the province of Cibao . He participated in slave raids and military expeditions against the native Taíno population of Hispaniola . In 1510 , he was ordained a priest , the first one to be ordained in the Americas .
In September 1510 , a group of Dominican friars arrived in Santo Domingo led by Pedro de Córdoba ; appalled by the injustices they saw committed by the slaveowners against the Indians , they decided to deny slave owners the right to confession . Las Casas was among those denied confession for this reason . In December 1511 , a Dominican preacher Fray Antonio de Montesinos preached a fiery sermon that implicated the colonists in the genocide of the native peoples . He is said to have preached , " Tell me by what right of justice do you hold these Indians in such a cruel and horrible servitude ? On what authority have you waged such detestable wars against these people who dealt quietly and peacefully on their own lands ? Wars in which you have destroyed such an infinite number of them by homicides and slaughters never heard of before . Why do you keep them so oppressed and exhausted , without giving them enough to eat or curing them of the sicknesses they incur from the excessive labor you give them , and they die , or rather you kill them , in order to extract and acquire gold every day . " Las Casas himself argued against the Dominicans in favour of the justice of the encomienda . The colonists , led by Diego Columbus , dispatched a complaint against the Dominicans to the King , and the Dominicans were recalled from Hispaniola .
= = = Conquest of Cuba and change of heart = = =
In 1513 , as a chaplain , Las Casas participated in Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 's and Pánfilo de Narváez ' conquest of Cuba . He participated in campaigns in Bayamo and Camagüey and in the massacre of Hatuey . He witnessed many atrocities committed by Spaniards against the native Ciboney and Guanahatabey peoples . He later wrote : " I saw here cruelty on a scale no living being has ever seen or expects to see . " Las Casas and his friend Pablo de la Rentería were awarded a joint encomienda which was rich in gold and slaves , located on the Arimao River close to Cienfuegos . During the next years , he divided his time between being a colonist and his duties as an ordained priest .
In 1514 , Las Casas was studying a passage in the book Ecclesiasticus ( Sirach ) 34 : 18 – 22 for a Pentecost sermon and pondering its meaning . Las Casas was finally convinced that all the actions of the Spanish in the New World had been illegal and that they constituted a great injustice . He made up his mind to give up his slaves and encomienda , and started to preach that other colonists should do the same . When his preaching met with resistance , he realized that he would have to go to Spain to fight there against the enslavement and abuse of the native people . Aided by Pedro de Córdoba and accompanied by Antonio de Montesinos , he left for Spain in September 1515 , arriving in Seville in November .
= = = Las Casas and King Ferdinand = = =
Las Casas arrived in Spain with the plan of convincing the King to end the encomienda system . This was easier thought than done , as most of the people who were in positions of power were themselves either encomenderos or otherwise profiting from the influx of wealth from the Indies . In the winter of 1515 , King Ferdinand lay ill in Plasencia , but Las Casas was able to get a letter of introduction to the Majesty from the Archbishop of Seville , Diego de Deza . On Christmas Eve of 1515 , Las Casas met the Monarch and discussed the situation in the Indies with him ; the King agreed to hear him out in more detail at a later date . While waiting Las Casas produced a report that he presented to the Bishop of Burgos Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca and secretary Lope Conchillos , who were functionaries in complete charge of the Royal policies regarding the Indies ; both were encomenderos . They were not impressed by his account , and Las Casas had to find a different avenue of change . He put his faith in his coming audience with the King , but it never came , for King Ferdinand died on January 25 , 1516 . The regency of Castile passed on to Ximenez Cisneros and Adrian of Utrecht who were guardians for the under @-@ age Prince Charles . Las Casas was resolved to see Prince Charles who resided in Flanders , but on his way there he passed Madrid and delivered to the regents a written account of the situation in the Indies and his proposed remedies . This was his " Memorial de Remedios para Las Indias " of 1516 . In this early work , Las Casas advocated importing Black slaves from Africa to relieve the suffering Indians , a stance he later retracted , becoming an advocate for the Africans in the colonies as well . This shows that Las Casas 's first concern was not to end slavery as an institution , but to end the physical abuse and suffering of the Indians . In keeping with the legal and moral doctrine of the time Las Casas believed that slavery could be justified if it was the result of Just War , and at the time he assumed that the enslavement of Africans was justified . Worried by the visions that Las Casas had drawn up of the situation in the Indies , Cardenal Cisneros decided to send a group of Hieronymite friars to take over the government of the islands .
= = = Protector of the Indians = = =
Three Hieronymite friars , Luis de Figueroa , Bernardino de Manzanedo and Alonso de Santo Domingo , were selected as commissioners to take over the authority of the Indies . Las Casas had a considerable part in selecting them and writing the instructions under which their new government would be instated , largely based on Las Casas 's memorial . Las Casas himself was granted the official title of Protector of the Indians , and given a yearly salary of one hundred pesos . In this new office Las Casas was expected to serve as an advisor to the new governors with regards to Indian issues , to speak the case of the Indians in court and send reports back to Spain . Las Casas and the commissioners traveled to Santo Domingo on separate ships , and Las Casas arrived two weeks later than the Hieronimytes . During this time the Hieronimytes had time to form a more pragmatic view of the situation than the one advocated by Las Casas ; their position was precarious as every encomendero on the Islands was fiercely against any attempts to curtail their use of native labour . Consequently , the commissioners were unable to take any radical steps towards improving the situation of the natives . They did revoke some encomiendas from Spaniards , especially those who were living in Spain and not on the islands themselves ; they even repossessed the encomienda of Fonseca , the Bishop of Burgos . They also carried out an inquiry into the Indian question at which all the encomenderos asserted that the Indians were quite incapable of living freely without their supervision . Las Casas was disappointed and infuriated . When he accused the Hieronymites of being complicit in kidnapping Indians , the relationship between Las Casas and the commissioners broke down . Las Casas had become a hated figure by Spaniards all over the Islands , and he had to seek refuge in the Dominican monastery . The Dominicans had been the first to indict the encomenderos , and they continued to chastise them and refuse the absolution of confession to slave owners , and even stated that priests who took their confession were committing a mortal sin . In May 1517 , Las Casas was forced to travel back to Spain to denounce to the regent the failure of the Hieronymite reforms . Only after Las Casas had left did the Hieronymites begin to congregate Indians into towns similar to what Las Casas had wanted .
= = = Las Casas and King Charles V : The peasant colonization scheme = = =
When he arrived in Spain , his former protector , regent and Cardinal Ximenez Cisneros , was ill and had become tired of Las Casas 's tenacity . Las Casas resolved to meet instead with the young King Carlos I. Ximenez died on November 8 , and the young King arrived in Valladolid on November 25 , 1517 . Las Casas managed to secure the support of the King 's Flemish courtiers , including the powerful Chancellor Jean de la Sauvage . Las Casas 's influence turned the favor of the court against Secretary Conchillos and Bishop Fonseca . Sauvage spoke highly of Las Casas to the King , who appointed Las Casas and Sauvage to write a new plan for reforming the governmental system of the Indies .
Las Casas suggested a plan where the encomienda would be abolished and Indians would be congregated into self @-@ governing townships to become tribute @-@ paying vassals of the King . He still suggested that the loss of Indian labor for the colonists could be replaced by allowing importation of African slaves . Another important part of the plan was to introduce a new kind of sustainable colonization , and Las Casas advocated supporting the migration of Spanish peasants to the Indies where they would introduce small @-@ scale farming and agriculture , a kind of colonization that didn 't rely on resource depletion and Indian labor . Las Casas worked to recruit a large number of peasants who would want to travel to the Islands , where they would be given lands to farm , cash advances , and the tools and resources they needed to establish themselves there . The recruitment drive was difficult , and during the process the power relation shifted at court when Chancellor Sauvage , Las Casas 's main supporter , unexpectedly died . In the end a much smaller number of peasant families were sent than originally planned , and they were supplied with insufficient provisions and no support secured for their arrival . Those who survived the journey were ill @-@ received , and had to work hard even to survive in the hostile colonies . Las Casas was devastated by the tragic result of his peasant migration scheme , which he felt had been thwarted by his enemies . He decided instead to undertake a personal venture which would not rely on the support of others , and fought to win a land grant on the American mainland which was in its earliest stage of colonization .
= = = The Cumaná venture = = =
Following a suggestion by his friend and mentor Pedro de Córdoba , Las Casas petitioned a land grant to be allowed to establish a settlement in northern Venezuela at Cumaná . Founded in 1515 , there was already a small Franciscan monastery in Cumaná and a Dominican one at Chiribichi , but the monks there were being harassed by Spaniards operating slave raids from the nearby Island of Cubagua . In order to make the proposal palatable to the King , Las Casas had to incorporate the prospect of profits for the royal treasury . He suggested fortifying the northern coast of Venezuela , establishing ten royal forts to protect the Indians and starting up a system of trade in gold and pearls . All the Indian slaves of the New World should be brought to live in these towns and become tribute paying subjects to the King . In order to secure the grant Las Casas had to go through a long fight in court against Bishop Fonseca and his supporters Gonzalo de Oviedo and Bishop Quevedo of Tierra Firme . Las Casas 's supporters were Diego Columbus and the new chancellor Gattinara . Las Casas 's enemies slandered him to the King , accusing him of planning to escape with the money to Genoa or Rome . In 1520 Las Casas 's concession was finally granted , but it was a much smaller grant than he had initially proposed ; he was also denied the possibilities of extracting gold and pearls , which made it difficult for him to find investors for the venture . Las Casas committed himself to producing 15 @,@ 000 ducats of annual revenue , increasing to 60 @,@ 000 after ten years , and to erecting three Christian towns of at least 40 settlers each . Some privileges were also granted to the initial 50 shareholders in Las Casas 's scheme . The King also promised not to give any encomienda grants in Las Casas 's area . That said , finding fifty men willing to invest 200 ducats each and three years of unpaid work proved impossible for Las Casas . In the end , he ended up leaving in November 1520 with just a small group of peasants , paying for the venture with money borrowed from his brother in @-@ law .
Arriving in Puerto Rico , in January 1521 , he received the terrible news that the Dominican convent at Chiribichi had been sacked by Indians , and that the Spaniards of the islands had launched a punitive expedition , led by Gonzalo de Ocampo , into the very heart of the territory that Las Casas wanted to colonize peacefully . The Indians had been provoked to attack the settlement of the monks because of the repeated slave raids by Spaniards operating from Cubagua . As Ocampo 's ships began returning with slaves from the land Las Casas had been granted , he went to Hispaniola to complain to the Audiencia . After several months of negotiations Las Casas set sail alone ; the peasants he had brought had deserted , and he arrived in his colony already ravaged by Spaniards .
Las Casas worked there in adverse conditions for the following months , being constantly harassed by the Spanish pearl fishers of Cubagua island who traded slaves for alcohol with the natives . Early in 1522 Las Casas left the settlement to complain to the authorities . While he was gone the native Caribs attacked the settlement of Cumaná , burned it to the ground and killed four of Las Casas 's men . He returned to Hispaniola in January 1522 , and heard the news of the massacre . The rumours even included him among the dead . To make matters worse , his detractors used the event as evidence of the need to pacify the Indians using military means . The tragic outcome of Las Casas 's great mainland adventure made him turn his life in a new direction .
= = = A Dominican friar = = =
Devastated , Las Casas reacted by entering the Dominican monastery of Santa Cruz in Santo Domingo as a novice in 1522 and finally taking holy vows as a Dominican friar in 1523 . There he continued his theological studies , being particularly attracted to Thomist philosophy , and there is little information about his activities in the following ten years . He oversaw the construction of a monastery in Puerto Plata on the north coast of Hispaniola , subsequently serving as prior of the convent . In 1527 he began working on his History of the Indies in order to report many of the experiences he had witnessed at first hand in the conquest and colonization of New Spain . In 1531 he wrote a letter to Garcia Manrique , Count of Osorno , protesting again the mistreatment of the Indians and advocating a return to his original reform plan of 1516 . In 1531 a complaint was sent by the encomenderos of Hispaniola that Las Casas was again accusing them of mortal sins from the pulpit . In 1533 he contributed to the establishment of a peace treaty between the Spanish and the rebel Taíno band of chief Enriquillo . In 1534 Las Casas made an attempt to travel to Peru to observe the first stages of conquest of that region by Francisco Pizarro . His party made it as far as Panama , but had to turn back to Nicaragua due to adverse weather . Lingering for a while in the Dominican convent of Granada , he got into conflict with Rodrigo de Contreras , Governor of Nicaragua , when Las Casas vehemently opposed slaving expeditions by the Governor . In 1536 Las Casas followed a number of friars to Guatemala , where they began to prepare to undertake a mission among the Maya Indians . They stayed in the convent founded some years earlier by Fray Domingo Betanzos and studied the K 'iche ' language with Bishop Francisco Marroquín , before traveling into the interior region called Tuzulutlan , " The Land of War " , in 1537 .
Also in 1536 , before venturing into Tuzulutlan , Las Casas went to Oaxaca , Mexico , to participate in a series of discussions and debates among the bishops of the Dominican and Franciscan orders . The two orders had very different approaches to the conversion of the Indians . The Franciscans used a method of mass conversion , sometimes baptizing many thousands of Indians in a day . This method was championed by prominent Franciscans such as Toribio de Benavente , known as " Motolinia " , and Las Casas made many enemies among the Franciscans for arguing that conversions made without adequate understanding were invalid . Las Casas wrote a treatise called " De unico vocationis modo " ( On the Only Way of Conversion ) based on the missionary principles he had used in Guatemala . Motolinia would later be a fierce critic of Las Casas , accusing him of being all talk and no action when it came to converting the Indians . As a direct result of the debates between the Dominicans and Franciscans and spurred on by Las Casas 's treatise , Pope Paul III promulgated the Bull " Sublimus Dei , " which stated that the Indians were rational beings and should be brought peacefully to the faith as such .
Las Casas returned to Guatemala in 1537 wanting to employ his new method of conversion based on two principles : 1 ) to preach the Gospel to all men and treat them as equals , and 2 ) to assert that conversion must be voluntary and based on knowledge and understanding of the Faith . It was important for Las Casas that this method be tested without meddling from secular colonists , so he chose a territory in the heart of Guatemala where there were no previous colonies and where the natives were considered fierce and war @-@ like . Because of the fact that the land had not been possible to conquer by military means , the governor of Guatemala , Alonso de Maldonado , agreed to sign a contract promising that if the venture was successful he would not establish any new encomiendas in the area . Las Casas 's group of friars established a Dominican presence in Rabinal , Sacapulas and Cobán . Through the efforts of Las Casas 's missionaries the so @-@ called " Land of War " came to be called " Verapaz " , " True Peace " . Las Casas 's strategy was to teach Christian songs to merchant Indian Christians who then ventured into the area . In this way he was successful in converting several native chiefs , among them those of Atitlán and Chichicastenango , and in building several churches in the territory named Alta Verapaz . These congregated a group of Christian Indians in the location of what is now the town of Rabinal . In 1538 Las Casas was recalled from his mission by Bishop Marroquín who wanted him to go to Mexico and then on to Spain in order to seek more Dominicans to assist in the mission . Las Casas left Guatemala for Mexico , where he stayed for more than a year before setting out for Spain in 1540 .
= = = The New Laws = = =
In Spain , Las Casas started securing official support for the Guatemalan mission , and he managed to get a royal decree forbidding secular intrusion into the Verapaces for the following five years . He also informed the Theologians of Salamanca , led by Francisco de Vitoria , of the mass baptism practiced by the Franciscans , resulting in a dictum condemning the practice as sacrilegious .
But apart from the clerical business , Las Casas had also traveled to Spain for his own purpose : to continue the struggle against the colonists ' mistreatment of the Indians . The encomienda had , in fact , legally been abolished in 1523 , but it had been reinstituted in 1526 , and in 1530 a general ordinance against slavery was reversed by the Crown . For this reason it was a pressing matter for Bartolomé de las Casas to plead once again for the Indians with Charles V who was by now Holy Roman Emperor and no longer a boy . He wrote a letter asking for permission to stay in Spain a little longer in order to argue for the Emperor that conversion and colonization were best achieved by peaceful means .
When the hearings started in 1542 , Las Casas presented a narrative of atrocities against the natives of the Indies that would later be published in 1552 as " Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias " . Before a council consisting of Cardinal García de Loaysa , the Count of Osorno , Bishop Fuenleal and several members of the Council of the Indies , Las Casas argued that the only solution to the problem was to remove all Indians from the care of secular Spaniards , by abolishing the encomienda system and putting them instead directly under the Crown as royal tribute @-@ paying subjects . On November 20 , 1542 , the Emperor signed the New Laws abolishing the encomiendas and removing certain officials from the Council of the Indies . The New Laws made it illegal to use Indians as carriers , except where no other transport was available , it prohibited all taking of Indians as slaves , and it instated a gradual abolition of the encomienda system , with each encomienda reverting to the Crown at the death of its holders . It also exempted the few surviving Indians of Hispaniola , Cuba , Puerto Rico and Jamaica from tribute and all requirements of personal service . However , the reforms were so unpopular back in the New World that riots broke out and threats were made against Las Casas 's life . The Viceroy of New Spain , himself an encomendero , decided not to implement the laws in his domain , and instead sent a party to Spain to argue against the laws on behalf of the encomenderos . Las Casas himself was also not satisfied with the laws , as they were not drastic enough and the encomienda system was going to function for many years still under the gradual abolition plan . He drafted a suggestion for an amendment arguing that the laws against slavery were formulated in such a way that it presupposed that violent conquest would still be carried out , and he encouraged once again beginning a phase of peaceful colonization by peasants instead of soldiers .
= = = Bishop of Chiapas = = =
Before Las Casas returned to Spain , he was also appointed as Bishop of Chiapas , a newly established diocese of which he took possession in 1545 upon his return to the New World . He was consecrated in the Dominican Church of San Pablo on March 30 , 1544 . As Archbishop Loaysa strongly disliked Las Casas , the ceremony was officiated by Loaysa 's nephew , Diego de Loaysa , Bishop of Modruš , with Pedro Torres , Titular Bishop of Arbanum , and Cristóbal de Pedraza , Bishop of Comayagua , as co @-@ consecrators . As a bishop Las Casas was involved in frequent conflicts with the encomenderos and secular laity of his diocese : among the landowners there was the conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo . In a pastoral letter issued on March 20 , 1545 , Las Casas refused absolution to slave owners and encomenderos even on their death bed , unless all their slaves had been set free and their property returned to them . Las Casas furthermore threatened that anyone who mistreated Indians within his jurisdiction would be excommunicated . He also came into conflict with the Bishop of Guatemala Francisco Marroquín , to whose jurisdiction the diocese had previously belonged . To Las Casas 's dismay Bishop Marroquín openly defied the New Laws . While bishop , Las Casas was the principal consecrator of Antonio de Valdivieso , Bishop of Nicaragua ( 1544 ) .
The New Laws were finally repealed on October 20 , 1545 , and riots broke out against Las Casas , with shots being fired against him by angry colonists . After a year he had made himself so unpopular among the Spaniards of the area that he had to leave . Having been summoned to a meeting among the bishops of New Spain to be held in Mexico City on January 12 , 1546 , he left his diocese , never to return . At the meeting , probably after lengthy reflection , and realizing that the New Laws were lost in Mexico , Las Casas presented a moderated view on the problems of confession and restitution of property , Archbishop Juan de Zumárraga of Mexico and Bishop Julián Garcés of Puebla agreed completely with his new moderate stance , Bishop Vasco de Quiroga of Michoacán had minor reservations , and Bishops Francisco Marroquín of Guatemala and Juan Lopez de Zárate of Oaxaca did not object . This resulted in a new resolution to be presented to viceroy Mendoza . His last act as Bishop of Chiapas was writing a confesionario , a manual for the administration of the sacrament of confession in his diocese , still refusing absolution to unrepentant encomenderos . Las Casas appointed a vicar for his diocese and set out for Europe in December 1546 , arriving in Lisbon in April 1547 and in Spain on November 1547 .
= = = The Valladolid debate = = =
Las Casas returned to Spain , leaving behind many conflicts and unresolved issues . Arriving in Spain he was met by a barrage of accusations , many of them based on his Confesionario and its 12 rules , which many of his opponents found to be in essence a denial of the legitimacy of Spanish rule of its colonies , and hence a form of treason . The Crown had for example received a fifth of the large number of slaves taken in the recent Mixtón War , and so could not be held clean of guilt under Las Casas 's strict rules . In 1548 the Crown decreed that all copies of Las Casas 's Confesionario be burnt , and his Franciscan adversary , Motolinia , happily obliged , sending back a report to Spain . Las Casas defended himself by writing two treatises on the " Just Title " – arguing that the only legality with which the Spaniards could claim titles over realms in the New World was through peaceful proselytizing . All warfare was illegal and unjust and only through the papal mandate of peacefully bringing Christianity to heathen peoples could " Just Titles " be acquired .
As a part of Las Casas 's defense by offense , he had to argue against Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda . Sepúlveda was a doctor of theology and law who , in his book Democrates Alter , sive de justis causis apud Indios ( Democrates Alter , or on the just causes of War against the Indians ) had argued that the native people were naturally inferior and should be pacified forcefully , and were destined to perpetual servitude to Christian Europeans . The book was deemed unsound for publication by the theologians of Salamanca and Alcalá for containing unsound doctrine , but the pro @-@ encomendero faction seized on Sepúlveda as their intellectual champion .
In order to settle the issues , a formal debate was organized , the famous Valladolid debate , which took place in 1550 – 51 with Sepúlveda and Las Casas each presenting their arguments in front of a council of jurists and theologians . First Sepúlveda read the conclusions of his Democrates Alter , and then the council listened to Las Casas reading his counterarguments in the form of an " Apología " . Sepúlveda argued that the subjugation of the Indians was warranted because of their sins as pagans ; that their low level of civilization required civilized masters to maintain social order ; that they required Christianity and that this in turn required them to be pacified ; and that only the Spanish could defend the weak Indians against the abuses of the stronger ones . Las Casas countered that the scriptures did not in fact support war against all heathens , only against certain Canaanite tribes ; that the Indians were not at all uncivilized nor lacked social order ; that peaceful mission was the only true way of converting the natives ; and finally that some weak Indians suffering at the hands of stronger ones was preferable to all Indians suffering at the hands of Spaniards .
Then the judge , Fray Domingo de Soto , summarised the arguments . Sepúlveda addressed Las Casas 's arguments with twelve refutations , which were again countered by Las Casas . The judges then deliberated on the arguments presented for several months before coming to a verdict . The verdict was inconclusive , and both debaters claimed that they had won .
In 1552 , Las Casas published A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies . This book , written a decade earlier and sent to the attention of then @-@ prince Philip II of Spain , contained accounts of the abuses committed by some Spaniards against Native Americans during the early stages of colonization . In 1555 his old Franciscan adversary Toribio de Benavente Motolinia wrote a letter in which he described Las Casas as an ignorant , arrogant troublemaker . Benavente described indignantly how Las Casas had once denied baptism to an aging Indian who had walked many leagues to receive it , only on the grounds that he did not believe that the man had received sufficient doctrinal instruction . This letter , which reinvoked the old conflict over the requirements for the sacrament of baptism between the two orders , was intended to bring Las Casas in disfavour . However , it did not succeed .
= = = Later years and death = = =
Having resigned the Bishopric of Chiapas , Las Casas spent the rest of his life working closely with the imperial court in matters relating to the Indies . In 1551 he rented a cell at the College of San Gregorio , where he lived with his assistant and friend Fray Rodrigo de Ladrada . He continued working as a kind of procurator for the natives of the Indies , many of whom directed petitions to him to speak to the Emperor on their behalf . Sometimes indigenous nobility even related their cases to him in Spain , for example , the Nahua noble Francisco Tenamaztle from Nochistlán . His influence at court was so great that some even considered that he had the final word in choosing the members of the Council of the Indies .
One matter in which he invested much effort was the political situation of the Viceroyalty of Peru . In Peru , power struggles between conquistadors and the viceroy became an open civil war in which the conquistadors led by Gonzalo Pizarro rebelled against the New Laws and defeated and executed the viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela in 1546 . The Emperor sent Pedro de la Gasca , a friend of Las Casas , to reinstate the rule of law , and he in turn defeated Pizarro . In order to restabilize the political situation the encomenderos started pushing not only for the repeal of the New Laws , but for turning the encomiendas into perpetual patrimony of the encomenderos – the worst possible outcome from Las Casas 's point of view . The encomenderos offered to buy the rights to the encomiendas from the crown , and Charles V was inclined to accept since his wars had left him in deep economic troubles . Las Casas worked hard to convince the king that it would be a bad economic decision , that it would return the viceroyalty to the brink of open rebellion , and could result in the crown losing the colony entirely . The Emperor , probably because of the doubts caused by Las Casas 's arguments , never took a final decision on the issue of the encomiendas .
In 1561 , he finished his Historia General de las Indias and signed it over to the College of San Gregorio , stipulating that it could not be published until after forty years . In fact it was not published for 314 years , finally being done so in 1875 . He also had to repeatedly defend himself against accusations of treason : someone , possibly Sepúlveda , denounced him to the Spanish Inquisition , but nothing came from the case . Las Casas also appeared as a witness in the case of the Inquisition against his friend Archbishop Bartolomé Carranza de Miranda , who had been falsely accused of heresy . In 1565 he wrote his last will , signing over his immense library to the college . Bartolomé de Las Casas died on July 18 , 1566 , in Madrid .
= = Works = =
= = = Memorial de Remedios para las Indias = = =
The text , written 1516 , starts by describing its purpose : to present " The remedies that seem necessary in order that the evil and harm that exists in the Indies cease , and that God and our Lord the Prince may draw greater benefits than hitherto , and that the republic may be better preserved and consoled . "
Las Casas 's first proposed remedy was a complete moratorium on the use of Indian labor in the Indies until such time as better regulations of it were set in place . This was meant simply to halt the decimation of the Indian population and to give the surviving Indians time to reconstitute themselves . Las Casas feared that at the rate the exploitation was proceeding it would be too late to hinder their annihilation unless action were taken rapidly . The second was a change in the labor policy so that instead of a colonist owning the labor of specific Indians , he would have a right to man @-@ hours , to be carried out by no specific persons . This required the establishment of self @-@ governing Indian communities on the land of colonists – who would themselves organize to provide the labor for their patron . The colonist would only have rights to a certain portion of the total labor , so that a part of the Indians were always resting and taking care of the sick . He proposed 12 other remedies , all having the specific aim of improving the situation for the Indians and limiting the powers that colonists were able to exercise over them .
The second part of the Memorial described suggestions for the social and political organization of Indian communities relative to colonial ones . Las Casas advocated the dismantlement of the city of Asunción and the subsequent gathering of Indians into communities of about 1 @,@ 000 Indians to be situated as satellites of Spanish towns or mining areas . Here , Las Casas argued , Indians could be better governed , better taught and indoctrinated in the Christian faith , and would be easier to protect from abuse than if they were in scattered settlements . Each town would have a royal hospital built with four wings in the shape of a cross , where up to 200 sick Indians could be cared for at a time . He described in detail social arrangements , distribution of work , how provisions would be divided and even how table manners were to be introduced . Regarding expenses , he argued that " this should not seem expensive or difficult , because after all , everything comes from them [ the Indians ] and they work for it and it is theirs . " He even drew up a budget of each pueblo 's expenses to cover wages for administrators , clerics , Bachelors of Latin , doctors , surgeons , pharmacists , advocates , ranchers , miners , muleteers , hospitalers , pig herders , fishermen , etc . He showed that this arrangement could easily be maintained and gold still be extracted at a profit .
= = = A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies = = =
A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies ( Spanish : Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias ) is an account written in 1542 ( published in Seville in 1552 ) about the mistreatment of the indigenous peoples of the Americas in colonial times and sent to then @-@ Prince Philip II of Spain .
One of the stated purposes for writing the account was Las Casas 's fear of Spain coming under divine punishment and his concern for the souls of the native peoples . The account
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two and a half hour special that featured Midnight Madness events from several Big Ten campuses on October 17 , 2008 , the Michigan Wolverines were not a featured part of the show . Michigan began the season with Ben Cronin suffering from a torn acetabular labrum ( hip joint ) and considering redshirting . The team started its season as the host of a 2K Sports College Hoops Coaches Vs . Cancer Classic tournament regional in which they defeated the Michigan Tech Huskies and Northeastern Huskies at Crisler Arena . Manny Harris won the second Big Ten Player of the week award of his career for his performances during these games .
The first two victories qualified Michigan to appear in the tournament final four at the Madison Square Garden where the unranked Wolverines team upset the # 4 ranked UCLA Bruins men 's basketball team for its first win over a top @-@ five team in eleven years on November 20 , 2008 . The 55 – 52 win also ended a twelve @-@ game losing streak against ranked opponents . During the game , Michigan forced 17 UCLA turnovers with its 1 – 3 – 1 zone defense . Nonetheless , Michigan fell behind by as many as 10 points at one point in the game . In the first half , the Wolverines shot 31 @.@ 3 % from the field , and in the second half , they shot 61 @.@ 9 % , including 4 of 8 on three @-@ point shots . Michigan trailed by two with 4 minutes and 16 seconds left before Stu Douglass made a three @-@ point basket and Sims scored a few possessions later after a steal . In the final seconds UCLA 's Nikola Dragovic hit a 3 @-@ point shot with five seconds left to reduce Michigan 's four @-@ point lead to one . Then UCLA sent Harris to the line where he made two free throws . In the final seconds Michigan defended an attack by Darren Collison who had his final shot blocked by Harris . At that point in the season , Michigan used DeShawn Sims as a sixth man . He played 28 minutes off the bench and led the team in scoring with 18 while being tied for the lead with 5 rebounds . Despite losing to # 10 ranked ( # 5 in the Coaches ' Poll ) Duke the following night , the Wolverines began receiving votes in the 2008 @-@ 09 NCAA Division I men 's basketball rankings for the week of November 24 .
The team earned a pair of non @-@ conference victories against Norfolk State and Savannah State . In the Savannah St. game , Sims made a jump shot from the corner as time expired to win the game in overtime . Michigan had trailed by 20 at halftime , but scored the first 15 points of the second half . Next , the team was matched up against the Maryland in the ACC – Big Ten Challenge , where they lost on December 3 . The Maryland game marked Sims ' entry into the starting lineup .
On December 6 , 2008 Michigan posted its second consecutive win over a top 5 opponent in a rematch against Duke with an 81 – 73 victory . The game included 11 lead changes and 16 ties . The close contest allowed the fans to play a part as they forced Duke to use a time out to quiet the noisy crowd late in the second half . The game , which had an attendance of 13 @,@ 751 , marked Michigan 's 168th sellout and eighth consecutive as host to Duke . Sims , in his new starting role , led the way with 28 points ( a career @-@ high ) and 12 rebounds . Novak contributed 14 off the bench including 4 for 7 on three @-@ point shots . Gerald Henderson fouled out in only 19 minutes of play . Michigan trailed 53 – 50 with 8 minutes and 38 seconds remaining before Novak hit three @-@ point shots on consecutive possessions to give Michigan the lead for good . Michigan built a 68 – 59 lead with 3 minutes and 7 seconds left . Then , Duke made four straight three @-@ point shots while Michigan made 13 of its last 14 free throws to defend its lead . The fourth three @-@ pointer cut the lead to 75 – 71 with 51 @.@ 3 seconds remaining . The game was the first time Michigan had defeated multiple top five teams in the same season since 1986 – 87 when it upended fifth @-@ ranked Syracuse , 91 – 88 ( January 18 , 1987 ) , second @-@ ranked Iowa , 100 – 92 ( January 31 , 1987 ) , and third @-@ ranked Purdue , 104 – 68 ( March 7 , 1987 ) . At that point in the season , Michigan 's two wins against top five teams were as many as the rest of the nation combined .
Then , after beating Eastern Michigan the following week , they welcomed Laval Lucas @-@ Perry to the lineup as he contributed 14 points in 16 minutes of play in a victory over the Oakland Golden Grizzlies . Two days later on December 22 , Michigan entered the Associated Press top 25 poll for the first time since February 6 , 2006 . Later that night in a victory over Florida @-@ Gulf Coast , DeShawn Sims became the first Wolverine to score 20 points and add 20 rebounds since Phil Hubbard had 22 points and 26 rebounds in a victory over University of Detroit in the 1977 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . This performance earned him his second career Big Ten Player of the Week award . On December 29 , the team entered the top 25 of the ESPN / USA Today Coaches Poll .
= = = Big Ten Season = = =
After a win over North Carolina Central , which gave the Wolverines ten wins to match its previous season 's total , the team lost its Big Ten Conference opener against the Wisconsin Badgers on New Years Eve . The win made Michigan the first ranked team that Wisconsin defeated during the season after three previous losses . During the game Zack Novak scored his season high 20 points , but Harris was held to 9 points and Wisconsin shot 58 @.@ 7 % from the field . On January 4 , the team earned its first conference victory against the Illinois Fighting Illini when five player chipped in with double digit scoring efforts and the defense induced a low shooting percentage in the second half . The loss during the week caused Michigan to fall from the top 25 of both polls . Michigan rallied from a 20 @-@ point deficit against the Indiana Hoosiers to force overtime in which it prevailed on January 7 . It was the team 's first victory in Bloomington , Indiana since 1995 . On January 11 , defeated the Iowa Hawkeyes marking eight wins in nine games starting with the Duke upset . Michigan opened a 32 – 16 lead and was never challenged afterwards . Following the Indiana and Iowa victories , Michigan moved back into the top 25 in both polls ( AP # 25 , ESPN / USAT # 24 ) .
Beilein stayed at 499 career wins at four @-@ year academic institutions , as Michigan suffered its first consecutive losses of the season when its second conference loss , which came against Illinois on January 14 , was followed by a loss to the Ohio State Buckeyes on January 17 . The Illinois contest was a rematch from ten days earlier . After a 31 – 30 Michigan halftime lead resulting from 11 lead changes , Illinois shut down Michigan early in the second half to build a 57 – 45 lead with 5 minutes remaining . In the game , Michigan did not attempt a free throw until the last 1 minute and 45 seconds of the second half . Against Ohio State , Michigan struggled against a 1 – 2 – 2 zone early in the game and fell behind by 11 before closing to a 29 – 25 halftime deficit . Michigan took a 44 – 40 lead with eight minutes remaining , and the score was tied at 47 before Ohio State ran off 10 points in a row . The game was a twentieth year celebration of the last Wolverine national championship with all but two members of the 1989 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament championship team in attendance as the team wore throwback uniforms . The consecutive losses caused the team to lose almost all of their support in the national rankings . On January 20 , in a contest against Penn State that pitted the conferences two leading scorers ( Harris and Talor Battle ) , Michigan shot 9 for 30 from the field in the first half including 2 for 16 on three @-@ point shot attempts . They fell behind by as many as 23 points in the second half . The loss extended the losing streak to three games . Although Michigan rebounded with Beilein 's 500th win in a January 24 victory over Northwestern in which they scored on their first five possessions and never looked back , they lost all support among the voters in the polls .
Michigan ended January with a pair of losses to Ohio State and Purdue . The Ohio State game was notable for Novak 's flagrant foul and ejection for elbowing P.J. Hill in the face . Harris accumulated a triple double of sorts with 22 points , 12 rebounds and 10 turnovers . Against Purdue , Harris was held to single digit scoring for the third time in four games . During the game he was ejected for elbowing Purdue captain Chris Kramer in the nose , which spurred Purdue to a 40 – 20 run . Novak was ineligible due to an ejection in the prior game and Harris was ejected toward the beginning of the second half . On February 5 , Harris was selected as a John R. Wooden Award 2008 – 09 Midseason Top 30 Candidate . After starting February play by snapping the two @-@ game losing streak against Penn State on February 5 , Michigan lost consecutive games to top ten opponents : Connecticut Huskies ( # 1 ) and Michigan State Spartans ( # 9 ) . Harris posted a 28 points as Michigan rallied from a two @-@ point halftime deficit to win by 20 against Penn State . Although Michigan confused Connecticut with a 2 – 3 zone defense instead of its normal 1 – 3 – 1 zone , which forced 10 first @-@ half turnovers , Connecticut was victorious . The 11th double double of the season by Hasheem Thabeet helped Connecticut overcome only its second halftime deficit . Michigan stayed in the game in part due to six three @-@ pointers by Stu Douglass . The loss against Michigan State marked 7 losses in 9 games for Michigan and gave Michigan State a 7 – 0 road record . On February 15 , Michigan raised its record to 3 – 0 in overtime games in a victory over the Northwestern Wildcats on the road . Michigan took a 56 – 51 lead with 1 minute and 44 seconds left , but let it slip away . Michigan never trailed in the overtime . Then four days later , they posted their first consecutive win since a three @-@ game streak from January 4 — 11 with a victory over the Minnesota Golden Gophers . In the game , Novak posted a career @-@ best 6 three @-@ pointers .
Michigan suffered an 80 – 70 overtime loss at the hands of ten @-@ place Big Ten foe , Iowa , on February 22 . Michigan had led 56 – 52 with 1 minute and 13 seconds remaining in regulation before allowing four straight free throws by Matt Gatens . The game was notable because Harris did not play during the overtime . At the time of the benching , Harris was in a battle with fellow sophomores Talor Battle and Evan Turner for the Big Ten Scoring leadership . Beilein commented on the benching : " That 's what we had to do to make our team better now and in the future . " . In the subsequent game against # 16 @-@ ranked Purdue , Michigan won 87 – 78 , raising its record to 3 – 4 against ranked opponents on the season . Harris was one of Michigan 's leaders with 27 points and 8 rebounds , while Sims had a career @-@ high 29 points . On March 1 , Michigan lost to Wisconsin 60 – 55 . After taking a 34 – 32 halftime lead , Michigan opened the second half shooting 1 for 12 . Michigan closed the contest to a 52 – 50 game with 3 minutes and 55 seconds remaining . They stayed close as Wisconsin missed four of eight late free throws . Prior to the final game of the season , the Wolverines adopted the slogan " Queme los barcos , " which means " burn the ships " and which had been used by 16th @-@ century Spanish conquistador Hernando Cortez as a command to his troops to remind them that there was no turning back in their battle with the Aztec . The team traded in their traditional warmup jersey 's for shirts with their adopted slogan . On March 7 , they recovered from a 51 – 39 deficit to win their conference finale against Minnesota . Laval Lucas @-@ Perry scored a career @-@ high 19 points , including three straight three @-@ pointers after Minnesota opened up the 12 @-@ point lead . Of the three teams that were ranked at the end of February and that Michigan had played twice ( Duke , Illinois and Purdue ) , Michigan split the two games against each opponent , winning against each at home .
= = = Postseason = = =
Michigan concluded its regular season with a 19 – 12 ( 9 – 9 Big Ten ) record . This earned the team a tie for seventh place in the conference standings with Minnesota . Since Michigan swept the season series with a February 19 74 – 62 win at home and a March 7 67 – 64 win at Minnesota , Michigan was seeded seventh in the 2009 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament held at the Conseco Fieldhouse in Indianapolis , Indiana while Minnesota was seeded eighth . During Championship Week , the Wolverines defeated the number ten seeded Iowa Hawkeyes on March 12 by a 73 – 45 margin . Sims helped Michigan open a 22 – 9 lead by scoring 16 of his 27 points in the first 10 minutes . Then the team lost to the number two seeded Illinois Fighting Illini on March 13 . Sims scored 15 and Harris was held to 9 .
Michigan continued to wear warmup shirts with the team slogan at the 2009 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . In the tournament , where Michigan earned the number 10 seed , the team defeated the Clemson Tigers 62 – 59 on March 19 in Kansas City . At one point , Michigan held a 16 @-@ point lead . After Harris gave Michigan a 58 – 43 lead with 5 : 51 remaining , Clemson had a 14 – 0 run to cut the deficit to 58 – 57 with 49 seconds left . Harris completed a three @-@ point play on a driving layup with 37 @.@ 4 second left . During the game , Clemson 's top shooter Terrence Oglesby was ejected for a flagrant foul . The Wolverines lost in the second round game played on March 21 , 2009 to the 2 @-@ seeded Oklahoma in a 73 – 63 . During the game four of Michigan 's five starters who were trying to defend against Blake Griffin spent much of the game in foul trouble with Harris and Lee fouling out and Novak and Sims finishing with four fouls . Although Michigan tried a variety of defenders and various approaches such as doubling him , sagging in the lane , bumping him , Griffin still posted 33 points and 17 rebounds .
= = Awards and honors = =
No Wolverines were drafted into the 2009 NBA Draft after the season . Before , during and after the season , individual players earned the following awards and honors :
Manny Harris
Preseason first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten
11 / 17 / 09 Big Ten Player of the Week
John R. Wooden Award 2008 – 09 Midseason Top 30 Candidate
National Association of Basketball Coaches Division I All ‐ District team
U.S. Basketball Writers Association 2008 – 09 Men 's District V All @-@ District Team
Postseason first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten
Big Ten Academic All @-@ Conference
DeShawn Sims
12 / 22 / 08 Big Ten Player of the Week
Postseason All @-@ Big Ten second @-@ team ( media ) , third @-@ team ( coaches )
C. J. Lee
Big Ten Sportsmanship Award ( Michigan )
Big Ten Academic All @-@ Conference
David Merritt
Big Ten Academic All @-@ Conference
Laval Lucas @-@ Perry
Big Ten Academic All @-@ Conference
= = = Statistical leadership = = =
Harris led the Big Ten in free throw percentage according to some sources who recognize a 2 @.@ 5 free throws made per game minimum , but was considered second according to the conference website that uses a 2 FTM / game minimum . The NCAA recognizes a 2 @.@ 5 attempts per game minimum . Thus , according to the Big Ten Gatens is the Conference Free Throw Champion and according to the NCAA Harris is the champion . Harris and Sims were both ranked among the leaders in the Conference in several statistics and divided the team leadership in most statistics . Harris led the Wolverines in points , minutes , assists , free throws made , free throw percentage and steals , while Sims led the team in field goal percentage , rebounds and blocked shots . Although Harris led the team in scoring for the season , Sims led the team in scoring in all its victories against ranked teams during the regular season and during the last five games before the NCAA tournament , while the team was on the bubble . However , Harris and Turner became the 4th and 5th players in conference history to finish in the top ten in the conference in average points , rebounds , and assists for a season since assists became a statistic in 1983 – 84 , following Steve Smith , Jim Jackson , and Brian Evans . After , Harris was named team MVP , he requested that Sims be recognized as co @-@ MVP . Sims was recognized as co @-@ MVP .
The team posted the following statistics :
= = Schedule = =
Bold text indicates game high ; ( nth time player led stat )
= Pinewood Derby ( South Park ) =
" Pinewood Derby " is the sixth episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 187th overall episode of the series , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 15 , 2009 and in the United Kingdom on April 17 , 2009 . In the episode , Randy helps Stan cheat in a pinewood derby race , which inadvertently leads to the discovery of alien life . When an alien gangster visits South Park and the residents come into possession of his stolen " space cash " , they decide to keep it for themselves and hide it from alien police officers who are looking for it .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States for strong to extreme language . " Pinewood Derby " was seen by 2 @.@ 78 million households in its original broadcast , according to Nielsen ratings , making it the second most @-@ watched episode on Comedy Central the week it aired . The episode received mixed reviews upon its initial broadcast .
" Pinewood Derby " has been noted for spoofing a number of world leaders , such as Gordon Brown , Silvio Berlusconi , Vladimir Putin , Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , Raila Odinga , Taro Aso , Han Seung @-@ soo , Nicolas Sarkozy , Matti Vanhanen , Angela Merkel , Wen Jiabao and John Howard . The episode was originally scheduled to air on MTV Latin America in February 2010 but was pulled at the last minute , allegedly due to its perceived negative portrayal of Mexican President Felipe Calderón .
= = Plot = =
Randy Marsh , determined to make sure his son Stan win the annual statewide pinewood derby , slips an object into the back of the car to give it an advantage . Stan learns from a news report that the object is a superconducting magnet , stolen from the Large Hadron Collider by Randy disguised as Princess Leia . During the finals , Randy coaxes Stan to lie to the judges and say he used only the parts in the approved pinewood derby kit . Stan wins first place when his car reaches warp speed , shooting off the track and into space , where it is later found by an alien species . Soon after , a spaceship lands in South Park , but its pilot is a bank robber named " BabyFart McGee @-@ zax " who demands that Stan and Randy build him a new warp drive while holding the entire planet at gunpoint . Everyone believes Stan and his father can create the drive using only the approved pinewood derby kit .
Stan tries to persuade Randy to tell the truth about the stolen magnet , but Randy refuses in order to avoid embarrassment . As the pair works on the warp drive , an Intergalactic Police ship approaches Earth ; McGee @-@ zax cloaks his ship and drags Stan out of sight as a hostage , leaving the townspeople to divert the officers ' questions . The officers say that McGee @-@ zax stole a large sum of space cash , but no one admits to seeing him , and the officers leave . Randy then provides a diversion for McGee @-@ zax while Stan , at Randy 's insistence , stabs him to death with a shank . McGee @-@ zax 's ship is found to contain the stolen space cash , but instead of returning it , Randy persuades everyone to divide it among themselves . Randy , in contact with all world leaders , buys other countries ' silence by giving them a share . Four days later , the officers return to South Park . They now know that McGee @-@ zax landed here and Randy tells them of his death , but everyone denies finding any space cash .
Randy tries to keep other countries from spending the space cash since that might alert the Intergalactic Police ; however , this fails when Mexico spends its money on 32 hospitals and 7 water parks , and China spends it on 48 soccer stadiums . Learning that Finland is about to divulge to the cops , Randy persuades the rest of the world to wipe Finland out in a nuclear missile attack . The Intergalactic Police pay a third visit to ask about the strike , but the South Park residents fake disbelief . By this time , Stan has had enough of the deception , so he tells the truth about cheating in the pinewood derby and returns his trophy ; however , no one else on the planet comes clean about the space cash . McGee @-@ zax emerges from the officers ' ship , having only faked his death . He reveals that he is really Kevern Zaksor , ambassador to new world testing , and that the entire chain of events was a test to see if Earth was worthy of joining the intergalactic community . As punishment for failing , the Earth and the moon are isolated from the rest of the Universe ( although it appears to have disappeared later on ) . The episode ends with Randy saying " Well , that sucks " .
= = Production = =
" Pinewood Derby " was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . The episode first aired on April 15 , 2009 , in the United States , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . The theme of the episode was a warning about the dangers of greed , lying and cheating .
= = Cultural references = =
The NSA agents who contact the Marsh family are Agents Clark and Mars , an obvious reference to the Clark Bar and Mars Bar candy bars .
Among the world leaders who communicate with Randy in the episode are French president Nicolas Sarkozy , Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel , Brazilian president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , Prime Minister of Italy Silvio Berlusconi , Chinese president Hu Jintao , Japanese prime minister Taro Aso , Mexican president Felipe Calderón , and Finnish prime minister Matti Vanhanen . The episode received some degree of criticism overseas for depicting the wrong leaders for its countries . The episode featured John Howard as Prime Minister of Australia , even though he had been replaced by Kevin Rudd almost eighteen months earlier ; according to the Macquarie National News , the episode " has copped some flack on video sharing websites " over the error . The episode also features Vladimir Putin as President of Russia , even though he stepped down in May 2008 . The episode also featured Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Gordon Brown .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Pinewood Derby " was watched by 2 @.@ 78 million overall households , according to the Nielsen ratings , making it the second most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week , behind the Ron White stand @-@ up special " Behavioral Problems " , which was seen by 3 @.@ 36 million households .
The episode received mixed reviews . Josh Modell of The A.V. Club said the episode was " boring " and " unfunny " , and was particularly disappointing following the episode " Fishsticks " the previous week . Modell said , " South Park episodes don 't get much lazier or uninspired than this one . It was like half an idea stretched out forever and ever , and with very little payoff . " Carlos Delgado of If Magazine said the episode plot was too silly and lacked laughs : " All in all , I was left feeling a little cheated . " Pinewood Derby " wasn ’ t funny , it was just weird . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly said the episode was told with " the warp @-@ speed storytelling style that is making this season one of South Park '
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to Iowa , 38 – 28 . Robinson was limited to 96 passing yards and 105 rushing yards and threw his fifth interception of the season . In the third quarter , Robinson suffered a shoulder injury and did not return to the game .
Michigan 's record dropped to 5 – 3 with a 41 – 31 loss to Penn State . Despite the loss , Robinson 's offensive output rebounded against the Nittany Lions . He rushed for 191 yards on 27 carries ( an average of 7 @.@ 1 yards per carry ) and passed for another 190 yards , including a 60 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Kevin Koger . With 191 rushing yards against Penn State , Robinson 's season rushing total reached 1 @,@ 287 yards , breaking Antwaan Randle El 's Big Ten record of 1 @,@ 270 rushing yards by a quarterback .
= = = = Offensive free @-@ for @-@ all against Illinois = = = =
In his ninth start , Robinson passed for a career @-@ high 302 yards and ran for 62 yards against Illinois . On the first play from scrimmage , Robinson threw a 75 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Roy Roundtree . In the second quarter , Robinson also threw a 33 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Roundtree and another 75 @-@ yard pass to Roundtree to set up Michigan 's third touchdown . Robinson set a school single @-@ half record with 262 passing yards in the first half . Robinson came out of the game at the end of the third quarter after reporting concussion @-@ like symptoms , including dizziness and headaches . Michigan went on to win the game 67 – 65 . Robinson and substitute Tate Forcier combined to break Michigan 's all @-@ time , single @-@ game record with 419 passing yards , surpassing the prior record of 396 yards by Tom Brady and Drew Henson against Michigan State in 1999 . The following week , Robinson , was named as one of sixteen Maxwell Award semifinalists .
= = = = Consecutive losses to Wisconsin and Ohio State = = = =
Robinson 's shot at the Heisman Trophy was lost with a disappointing performance against Purdue and consecutive blowout losses to Wisconsin and Ohio State .
In the Purdue game , Robinson turned the ball over four times ( two interceptions and two lost fumbles ) in heavy rain and gusting wind . Robinson was also held to a season @-@ low 68 rushing yards against Purdue .
One week later , Michigan suffered a 48 – 28 loss to Wisconsin . Robinson passed for 239 yards and two touchdowns , rushed for 121 yards and two touchdowns , set the Division I FBS record for rushing yards by a quarterback and become the first NCAA player with 1 @,@ 500 rushing yards and 2 @,@ 000 passing yards in the same season . However , Robinson 's individual performance was overshadowed by the 20 @-@ point loss to the Badgers .
In the final game of the regular season , Michigan lost by a 30 @-@ point margin ( 37 – 7 ) against Ohio State in The Game . Robinson failed to register a passing or rushing touchdown for the first time since 2010 . Although he rushed for 105 yards on 18 carries , he was limited to 87 passing yards . After sustaining two dislocated fingers on his non @-@ throwing hand , Robinson was replaced in the second half by Tate Forcier .
= = = = 2011 Gator Bowl = = = =
Michigan finished its 2010 season with a 52 – 14 loss to Mississippi State in the 2011 Gator Bowl , the worst defeat ever suffered by Michigan in a bowl game . Robinson completed 27 of 41 passes for 254 yards , two touchdowns and one interception . He added 59 rushing yards on 11 carries for 313 yards of total offense , enough to break Drew Brees ' Big Ten single @-@ season total offense record of 4 @,@ 189 yards .
= = = = 2010 season statistics and awards = = = =
Robinson finished the 2010 season with 1 @,@ 702 rushing yards ( 130 @.@ 9 yards per game ) , which stood as an FBS single @-@ season record for a quarterback until it was surpassed two years later by Jordan Lynch . He also passed for 2 @,@ 570 yards and compiled 4 @,@ 272 yards of total offense ( 328 @.@ 6 yards per game ) . In the 10th game of the season against Purdue , Robinson passed John Navarre 's Michigan single @-@ season total offense record of 3 @,@ 240 yards set in 2003 . Against Wisconsin one week later , he broke the Division I FBS single @-@ season quarterback rushing record of 1 @,@ 494 yards previously held by Beau Morgan of Air Force . He also became the first person in NCAA ( all divisions ) history to record 1 @,@ 500 yards rushing and passing in the same season .
At the end of the regular season , Robinson received the Chicago Tribune Silver Football trophy as the Most Valuable Player in the Big Ten Conference . He was also named Big Ten Offensive Player of the Year by the Big Ten coaches and media and by the College Football News . Robinson was also selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ American by the Football Writers Association of America as a running back , a third @-@ team All @-@ American by the Associated Press as an all @-@ purpose player , and an honorable mention quarterback selection by Sports Illustrated and College Football News . He finished sixth in the 2010 Heisman Trophy voting , and was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten quarterback by both the Big Ten media and College Football News .
With 313 yards of total offense in the 2011 Gator Bowl , Robinson broke Drew Brees ' Big Ten single @-@ season total offense record of 4 @,@ 189 yards . He fell 116 yards short of Tim Biakabutuka 's Michigan school record of 1 @,@ 818 rushing yards . However , he led the conference in both total offense and rushing yards per game .
= = = 2011 football season = = =
= = = = Decision to stay after coaching change = = = =
Following Michigan 's season @-@ ending loss in the 2011 Gator Bowl , head coach Rich Rodriguez was fired and replaced by Brady Hoke . As Robinson had thrived in Rodriguez 's spread offense , the coaching change led to speculation that Robinson may transfer . On January 17 , 2011 , Robinson ended the speculation when he issued a statement confirming that he would stay at Michigan . In the video statement released by the University of Michigan , Robinson said he seriously considered transferring and noted that Rodriguez was one of the few coaches willing to give him the chance to play quarterback at the next level . Robinson explained his decision to stay at Michigan : " This is my family . This is my home now . ... I couldn 't let it go . " He also noted that he talked to his teammates and told them , " ' You know , I can 't just leave you out there . ' I 've been around these guys two years and we 've bonded and it 's like a family here . There 's nothing like this . "
= = = = Preseason focus on adaptability to new offense = = = =
Robinson entered the 2011 season on watchlists for the Maxwell Award , the Davey O 'Brien Award , the Walter Camp Award , the Paul Hornung Award , and the Manning Award . In the weeks leading up to the 2011 season , the media focused on questions surrounding Robinson 's ability to adapt to the pro @-@ style offense being implemented by new offensive coordinator , Al Borges and also on Borges ' willingness to adjust his game plan to take advantage of Robinson 's running capability . Robinson noted that the running game would remain an option even in passing situations , adding , " If nobody 's open , the broken play is probably the hardest play to stop in college football – in any football . "
= = = = Regular season = = = =
In Michigan 's 2011 season opener against Western Michigan , Robinson completed 9 of 13 passes for 98 yards and had 46 rushing yards on eight carries . The game was ended with 1 : 27 left in the third quarter due to inclement weather .
In Michigan 's next game against Notre Dame , Robinson completed 11 of 24 passes for 338 yards with four touchdowns and had 108 yards rushing on 16 carries with a touchdown on a recovered fumble near the goal line . He threw the game @-@ winning touchdown pass to Roy Roundtree with two seconds left in the fourth quarter to defeat the Irish 35 – 31 . The performance moved Robinson into third place in Big Ten history for rushing yards by a quarterback . In recognition of his performance during the game , the Big Ten named Denard Robinson its Offensive Player of the Week , while the Davey O 'Brien Award named him its Quarterback of the Week . He was also named Rivals.com 's Big Ten and National Player of the Week and was nominated for the Capital One Cup Impact Performance of the Week , which he won by fan vote .
In Michigan 's third game , against Eastern Michigan , Robinson posted 198 rushing yards giving him five of the top ten quarterback single @-@ game rushing outputs in conference history .
In Michigan 's fourth game , against San Diego State , Robinson tallied three touchdowns in the first half on his way to a 200 @-@ yard rushing effort . The effort moved him into second place in Big Ten history in career rushing yards by a quarterback , behind only Antwaan Randle El . He also earned Big Ten Conference Co @-@ Offensive Player of the Week recognition .
On October 8 , against Northwestern , Robinson contributed 454 yards of total offense with 337 yards passing and 117 rushing . He scored two rushing touchdowns and had two passing .
On October 15 , against Michigan State Robinson was shut down by the Spartan defense throwing for just 123 yards completing 9 of 24 attempts and a costly interception that was returned for a touchdown with 4 : 31 left in the game . Robinson stated after the game " I got a little beat up , " as he was knocked out of the game in the 28 @-@ 14 loss , his third straight loss in the rivalry .
During Michigan 's November 19 victory over Nebraska , Robinson posted 180 yards passing and 83 rushing yards with two rushing touchdowns and two passing touchdowns to earn Co @-@ Big Ten Offensive Player of the Week honors from the conference . He also won the Rivals.com Big Ten Player of the Week and was a nominee for the Capital One Cup Impact Performances of the Week .
On November 26 , in a victory over Ohio State , Fitzgerald Toussaint joined Robinson with 1000 yards for the season , marking the first time since the 1975 team that Michigan had two 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard rushers . Robinson posted a five @-@ touchdown performance ( three passing and two rushing ) and became the fourth player in NCAA history to gain 2 @,@ 000 yards passing and 1 @,@ 000 yards rushing in a season twice in his career . Robinson totalled 170 yards rushing and earned a share of his fourth Big Ten Offensive Player of the Week recognition for the season . He also repeated as the Rivals.com Big Ten Player of the Week and was a College Football Performance Awards honorable mention as the National Quarterback of the Week .
Following the 2011 Big Ten Conference football season , he earned second team All @-@ Conference recognition from the media . He was voted team MVP for the second year in a row . He was a Sports Illustrated All @-@ American honorable mention selectee .
= = = 2012 football season = = =
In August 2012 , Robinson and teammate Taylor Lewan were selected by the media among the five " Players to Watch " in Big Ten Legends Division . Robinson was elected team captain .
After a disappointing performance in a season @-@ opening , 41 – 14 loss to Alabama ( 27 rushing yards , 200 passing yards , and two interceptions ) , Robinson rebounded in Michigan 's second game against Air Force . Robinson contributed 426 yards of total offense against Air Force ( 208 passing yards , 218 rushing yards , two rushing touchdowns , and two passing touchdowns ) . For his performance , he was named Big Ten Offensive Player of the Week and received College Football Performance Award honors as National Player of the Week and National Quarterback of the Week . He became the first NCAA athlete to both rush and pass for 200 yards in a game on three separate occasions . It marked the first time since the 1993 Rose Bowl performance by Tyrone Wheatley that a Michigan player had two rushing touchdowns of over 50 yards .
On September 15 , 2012 , playing against UMass , Robinson tallied 397 yards of total offense in three quarters of play , including 291 passing yards , three passing touchdowns , and 369 yards of total offense in the first half . With the performance against UMass , Robinson passed Tom Brady on Michigan 's all @-@ time passing yardage list .
On September 22 , Robinson was responsible for five turnovers , four first @-@ half interceptions and a lost fumble on the opening drive of the second half , in a 13 – 6 loss to Notre Dame . The Detroit Free Press called it " the worst game of his Michigan career . "
On October 7 , Robinson rushed for 235 yards on 24 carries and threw for 105 yards against Purdue . His performance gave him 3 @,@ 905 career rushing yards , moving past Antwaan Randle El as the Big Ten career leader in rushing yards by a quarterback . He also tied Mike Hart 's Michigan school record with his fifth career 200 @-@ yard rushing game . The 235 yards rushing was also a personal best for Robinson in a Big Ten game . The performance won him recognition as the Maxwell Award Player of the Week and a Manning Award " Star of the Week " . It also earned him his ninth Big Ten Offensive Player of the Week award , tying a career record set in 1999 by Ron Dayne . Robinson was named a semifinalist for the Davey O 'Brien Award and a finalist for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award .
After suffering an injury and being knocked out of Michigan 's game with Nebraska ( a 23 – 9 loss to the Cornhuskers ) on October 27 , Robinson returned to the lineup for the last home game of the 2012 season , a 42 @-@ 17 victory over Iowa . Playing in his final game at Michigan Stadium , Robinson split his playing time between the tailback , quarterback , and wide receiver positions . He accounted for 122 yards , including 98 rushing yards on 13 carries and 24 receiving yards on two receptions . With the injury to the ulnar nerve in his right elbow , Robinson did not throw the ball during the game and was forced to carry the ball in his right hand .
In his final regular season game , the annual Michigan – Ohio State rivalry game , Robinson rushed for 122 yards on 10 carries , including a 67 @-@ yard touchdown run with a minute to go in the first half . He was a 2012 All @-@ Big Ten honorable mention selection by the media for the 2012 Wolverines . Denard played his final game at Michigan on January 1 , 2013 in the Outback Bowl vs South Carolina . In the game , he surpassed Pat White 's FBS record for career rushing yards by a quarterback by 15 yards to reach a total of 4 @,@ 495 . On December 28 , 2015 , Keenan Reynolds achieved a total of 4 @,@ 559 , surpassing Robinson .
= = Statistics at Michigan = =
= = = Career statistics = = =
= = = Michigan 's all @-@ time total offense leaders = = =
= = = = Single game = = = =
As Michigan 's starting quarterback , Robinson has seven of the top ten single @-@ game performances in total yards in Michigan history , as reflected in the following list of the all @-@ time , single @-@ game leaders .
= = = = Single season = = = =
Michigan 's top five single @-@ season performances in total offense are set forth below . Robinson holds the single @-@ season record for total yards with 4272 , set in 2010 .
= = = Big Ten single @-@ game quarterback rushing yards leaders = = =
= = College honors and awards = =
— NCAA ( all divisions )
Only 1500 @-@ yard passing / 1500 @-@ yard rushing season
Most rushing yards by a QB in a Career
— Division I FBS
Division I FBS 200 @-@ yard passing / 200 @-@ yard rushing regular season games ( career and season )
— Big Ten Conference
Rushing yards by a QB ( single @-@ game , single @-@ season and career )
Total offense ( single @-@ season )
Big Ten Offensive Player of the Week awards ( career )
— Michigan
Total offense ( career )
Rushing yards on the road ( single game )
Passing yards ( single half )
200 @-@ yard rushing games ( career )
Yards per carry ( career , min 250 carries )
— Other
Notre Dame Stadium longest run from scrimmage
High school championship
FHSAA state champion 4 x 100 metres
Honors
Chicago Tribune Silver Football ( Big Ten MVP ) ( 2010 )
Big Ten Offensive Player of the Year ( 2010 )
2010 All @-@ American ( 1st team – FWAA , 3rd team – AP , honorable mention – SI & CFN )
First @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten ( 2010 , media )
Second @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten ( 2011 , media )
Led Big Ten in rushing ( 2010 )
Led Big Ten in total offense ( 2010 )
2011 All @-@ American ( honorable mention – SI )
2012 All @-@ Big Ten Conference honorable mention
= = 2013 NFL Draft = =
After his final season at Michigan , Robinson stated that he was open to playing any position in the National Football League . Some suggested that he would have a better chance of being drafted by an NFL team if he switched to cornerback , receiver , running back or kick returner because of his quickness – 4 @.@ 35 in the 40 yard dash . CBS Sports ' Mike Freeman said his talents would be wasted on the defensive side of the ball . Doug Flutie ( Buffalo Bills ) and Dieter Brock ( Los Angeles Rams ) were relatively successful quarterbacks similar in stature to Robinson . Russell Wilson who currently plays starting quarterback for the Seattle Seahawks is also similar in stature to Robinson .
Robinson participated in the 2013 Senior Bowl at wide receiver . In the game , Robinson caught two passes for 21 yards and rushed the ball once for a three @-@ yard loss . His performance in the game and the preceding week of practice was regarded as unimpressive and his draft stock fell to the late rounds .
Robinson was the only Wolverine from the 2012 – 2013 team who was invited to participate in the NFL combine . He was not invited as a quarterback , but rather as a wide receiver , but he did intend to throw and return kickoffs and punts on his Pro Day . On the Pro Day , he did not do quarterback drills , but he did return punts , made catches while running routes , and also did running back drills . Scouts concluded he should become a running back first before developing into a wideout .
= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =
Robinson 's 40 @-@ yard dash official time of 4 @.@ 43 was the tenth fastest on February 24 ( quarterback , running back and wide receiver day ) . After disappointing as a receiver at the Senior Bowl , Robinson caught every pass during the gauntlet drill .
= = NCAA Football 14 cover vote = =
After Robinson 's successful collegiate career , he was voted as the next athlete to be on the cover of NCAA Football 14 . The contest achieved more than 6 million votes making Robinson the first Michigan quarterback to be on the cover and third Wolverine overall . He is the first since Heisman Trophy winner Desmond Howard in 2006 , with the other being Charles Woodson on the 1999 version of the game . The voting , which took place on social media websites such as Facebook and Twitter opened in mid December 2012 , lasted until March 8 , 2013 . During this time , the contest had gone through several rounds of voting , until finally being shrunken down to the final two , where Robinson faced off against Texas A & M wide receiver Ryan Swope . Robinson lasted through all voting rounds , and outlasted Alabama Crimson Tide running back Eddie Lacy , and possible National Football League 1st round draft selections Jarvis Jones of the Georgia Bulldogs and standout Tight End Tyler Eifert of the Notre Dame Fighting Irish . The contest gained attention worldwide , with former students and athletes vouching support for their former schools . Decorated Olympian Michael Phelps was one of many celebrities to publicly show his support for his former school ( he attended the University of Michigan as a non @-@ degree candidate while his coach Bob Bowman served as the university 's swimming coach ) , as well as rap artist / celebrity Snoop Dogg , who does not have any ties to the University itself .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Jacksonville Jaguars = = =
Robinson was selected by the Jacksonville Jaguars in the 5th round of the 2013 NFL Draft with the 135th overall selection . He was selected as a running back when his name was finally called . His position is referred to by the team as " offensive weapon " , which involves playing running back , wide receiver , and kickoff returner . He will also contribute as a quarterback in the Wildcat formation . In midseason , they moved Robinson to the number two position on the depth chart at running back . On November 24 , he attempted a forward pass to Cecil Shorts III , but it was broken up by Johnathan Joseph of the Houston Texans . That remains his only career pass attempt as of 21 October 2014 . As a rookie , Robinson played in all 16 games and totaled 66 yards rushing on 20 carries but no receptions for the 2013 Jacksonville Jaguars .
On September 7 , in week 1 of the season , Robinson had his first reception . On September 28 , Robinson made his first career NFL start against the San Diego Chargers . On October 19 in week 7 of 2014 , Robinson made his first start at running back in place of an injured Toby Gerhart . He had an NFL @-@ career @-@ high 127 rushing on 22 carries against the Cleveland Browns to help the 2014 Jacksonville Jaguars end a nine @-@ game losing streak . It was the first 100 @-@ yard rushing game for the team for the season and the most rushing yards by a Jaguar in two seasons . He posted career highs in yards and carries and also scored his first NFL touchdown . When Robinson had 108 on 18 carries the following week against Miami , he became the first Jaguar to have back @-@ to @-@ back 100 @-@ yard games since Maurice Jones @-@ Drew in 2011 . On December 7 , Robinson endured a foot sprain against the 2014 Houston Texans and he was placed on season @-@ ending injured reserve on December 10 . He finished 2014 with 135 carries , 582 yards , and 4 touchdowns .
On September 20 in the second week of the 2015 NFL season Robinson endured a medial collateral ligament sprain in his left knee against the Miami Dolphins while serving as a backup to T. J. Yeldon . The injury caused him to miss the next three games . On December 13 , Yeldon suffered the same injury against the Indianapolis Colts making way for Robinson to tally 75 yards on 14 carries and his first touchdown of the season that day .
= = = Career statistics = = =
= A Benihana Christmas =
" A Benihana Christmas " is the tenth and eleventh episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the thirty @-@ eighth and thirty @-@ ninth episode overall . It was written by Jennifer Celotta and directed by Harold Ramis . The episode originally aired in the United States on December 14 , 2006 , on NBC .
In the episode , Christmas time at the office leads to depression for Michael , when his girlfriend Carol ( Steve Carell 's wife , Nancy Walls ) breaks up with him . Michael , Andy , Dwight , and Jim then go to a local Benihana restaurant , where Michael and Andy find dates with two of the restaurant 's waitresses . Back at the office , after a conflict with a bossy Angela , Karen and Pam decide to create their own Christmas party . When the majority of the office decide to go to Karen and Pam 's party , Angela becomes upset , and seeing this , Karen and Pam decide to combine the parties . Soon after , Michael and Andy 's dates leave them , but Michael nevertheless finds someone to go to Jamaica with him .
= = Synopsis = =
Carol Stills ( Nancy Walls ) confronts Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) about the Christmas card he sent her , in which he superimposed his head on the body of Carol 's former husband in a family photo . She breaks off the relationship , leaving Michael heartbroken and stuck with a pair of tickets to Jamaica . For the past several months , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) has led Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) to believe that he is being recruited by the CIA , and her gift to Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) is that he can choose Dwight 's first assignment . Jim declines the gift and claims that as the new office " Number Two " he shouldn 't be engaging in such activities , leaving Pam discouraged by a changed Jim .
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) takes Michael to Benihana ( an " Asian Hooters " according to Michael ) to help him forget his recent troubles ; Michael drags Dwight and Jim along . The group stumbles upon an unexpecting couple ( Anne Sertich / Stephen Saux ) at the table and Dwight fails when attempting to impress the chef with his knowledge of Japanese knives . Andy successfully isolates Dwight from the rest of the party and convinces Michael to ask out their waitress , Cindy ( Brittany Ishibashi ) . Meanwhile , Jim plays pranks on Dwight and realizes that his excuse for declining Pam 's gift doesn 't hold water .
Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) kicks Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) off the Party Planning Committee . In response , Pam reaches out to Karen , and the two plan a rival party . The rival Christmas parties begin , and the office staff members are forced to choose sides . Pam and Karen 's party is a hit , while Angela 's is a dreary affair . Michael and Andy each return with a waitress as their " new girlfriend " ( though neither is the one who waited on them at the restaurant ) . Angela accepts Pam 's offer to merge the parties . Oscar enters the office with his partner Gil just as Angela is singing The Little Drummer Boy , pauses for a moment , says , " Too soon " and leaves .
Meanwhile , Michael is unable to tell the two waitresses apart . To remedy this , he surreptitiously marks his date 's arm with a Sharpie . When he offers to take her to Jamaica , she declines and says that she has to attend school , and the two waitresses leave the party because it " blows " .
Jim consoles Michael by explaining that he just had a " rebound " relationship . Jim mentions that they 're fun for a while , but then you keep on thinking about the girl that broke your heart , implying he still thinks about Pam ( the girl who " broke his heart " ) . From his office , Michael makes a phone call and asks an unknown person to go to Jamaica with him . The offer is accepted . Pam is crushed when she sees Jim and Karen exchange gifts . Jim is crushed when he sees Roy give a gift to Pam .
At the end of the day , Jim tells Pam that a helicopter will be arriving to take Dwight to a welcoming party at CIA headquarters in Langley , Virginia . As Dwight waits on the roof , he receives the text message : " You have been compromised . Abort mission . Destroy phone . " Dwight throws his phone off the roof and walks away .
= = Production = =
" A Benihana Christmas " was directed by Harold Ramis and written by Jennifer Celotta . It was produced by Stephen Merchant , Ricky Gervais , Greg Daniels , Howard Klein , and Ben Silverman . The episode was shot in a real Benihana restaurant . According to the show 's prop master , different actresses were used because Andy and Michael failed to pick up the original waitresses , and settled for " less attractive ones " . At Paley Fest 2007 , Greg Daniels admitted that the joke failed due to poor casting . The waitresses that come to the office were supposed to be unattractive . Daniels stated that the actresses they hired for the role were " too good @-@ looking " . During filming , John Krasinski threw a shrimp across the table at Rainn Wilson . It bounced off Dwight 's glasses and landed in the glass of water he was about to drink . The producers chose not to use the footage because it looked so improbable as to be unbelievable .
= = Reception = =
" A Benihana Christmas " was first broadcast on December 14 , 2006 in the United States . According to estimates by the Nielsen Media Research 's the episode was watched by an estimated 8 @.@ 44 million viewers . The episode earned a 3 @.@ 9 / 11 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 , meaning that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . Among that demographic , The Office finished in twenty @-@ first place for the week among all of the major networks . On the day that the episode first aired , it was the second most watched show of the night , behind only CBS 's Survivor : Cook Islands .
" A Benihana Christmas " was generally well received by critics . The episode was also given a 9 @.@ 2 out of 10 rating by IGN . An IGN review stated :
= Cöln @-@ class cruiser =
The Cöln class of light cruisers was Germany 's last class commissioned before her defeat in World War I. Originally planned to comprise ten ships , only two were completed ; Cöln and Dresden . Five more were launched , but not completed : Wiesbaden , Magdeburg , Leipzig , Rostock and Frauenlob , while another three were laid down but not launched : Ersatz Cöln , Ersatz Emden and Ersatz Karlsruhe ( for the last three , the names quoted were only provisional titles to be used during construction , and the three would have received other names at their launch if that had taken place ) . The design was a slightly modified version of the preceding Königsberg class .
Cöln and Dresden joined the High Seas Fleet in 1918 , which limited their service careers . They were assigned to the II Scouting Group , and participated in an abortive fleet operation to Norway to attack British convoys . They were to have led attacks on British merchant traffic designed to lure out the British Grand Fleet and force a climactic fleet battle in the final days of the war , but the Wilhelmshaven Mutiny forced the cancellation of the plan . The two ships were interned and eventually scuttled in Scapa Flow in June 1919 . Both Dresden and Cöln remain on the bottom of Scapa Flow .
= = Design = =
By 1916 , thirteen German light cruisers had been lost in the course of World War I. To replace them , the Kaiserliche Marine ordered ten new cruisers built to a modified Königsberg class design . All ten ships were laid down in 1915 and 1916 . Cöln was built by the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Bremen . Wiesbaden and Rostock were built at AG Vulcan in Stettin , and Leipzig , Ersatz Cöln , and Ersatz Emden were ordered from the AG Weser dockyard in Bremen . Dresden and Magdeburg were built at the Howaldtswerke shipyard in Kiel , while Frauenlob and Ersatz Karlsruhe were built by the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel .
Cöln and Dresden , the only two ships to be completed , were launched on 5 October 1916 and 25 April 1917 , respectively . Wiesbaden was launched on 3 March 1917 and was five months away from completion when she was canceled in December 1918 . Magdeburg followed on 17 November 1917 ; she was nine months from being finished when she was canceled . Leipzig was launched on 28 January 1918 and canceled seven months from completion . Rostock followed on 6 April , and also was seven months away from being finished . Frauenlob , the last ship of the
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Steve Finnan had racially abused Evra in the match . The abuse claims surfaced from two deaf television viewers lodging a police complaint . The viewers claimed to have lip @-@ read Finnan abusing Evra during the televised match . Finnan denied the charge and , after an investigation , The Football Association ( FA ) decided against charging the player . Evra regularly alternated between the bench and the starting 11 to close out the campaign . He finished the season with 14 total appearances for his new club .
In Evra 's first full season as a Manchester United player , he struggled to consistently appear as a starter early on in the season as Ferguson preferred Evra 's compatriot Mikaël Silvestre . After appearing as an unused substitute in United 's first two Champions League matches , on 17 October 2006 , Evra made his European debut for the club in its 3 – 0 group stage win over Danish club Copenhagen . On 18 November , he provided the assist for the game @-@ winning goal , scored by Wayne Rooney , in the team 's 2 – 1 win over Sheffield United . Eight days later , Evra scored his first goal for the club in a 3 – 0 league win over Everton . He also assisted on a goal in the match . By December , Evra began featuring as a regular in the starting 11 . After starting in United 's 3 – 1 Champions League win over Portuguese club Benfica on 6 December , Evra started nine consecutive matches . Evra provided assists in two of the matches ; a Rooney goal in a 2 – 1 away defeat to Arsenal and another in a 2 – 0 victory over Charlton Athletic . On 10 April 2007 , Evra scored the final goal in a 7 – 1 win over Roma in the second leg of the quarter @-@ finals of the 2007 – 08 UEFA Champions League . The goal was his first @-@ ever in the Champions League and helped progress Manchester United to the semi @-@ finals where the club suffered defeat to the eventual champions Milan . Following the league season , which Manchester United won by a six @-@ point margin , Evra was named to the Professional Footballers ' Association ( PFA ) Team of the Year , despite only appearing in 24 league matches .
Evra began the 2007 – 08 season as the first @-@ choice left @-@ back . He began the campaign appearing in United 's 3 – 0 penalty shoot @-@ out win over rivals Chelsea in the 2007 FA Community Shield . In competitive matches , Evra appeared in the club 's first 12 matches . He missed his first match of the season against Ukrainian club Dynamo Kyiv in the Champions League after suffering a calf injury during warm @-@ ups . Evra returned to the team a few days later for the team 's league match against Arsenal . The rest paid off as he assisted on a Cristiano Ronaldo goal in the 82nd minute to give United a 2 – 1 lead . France international teammate William Gallas later equalised for Arsenal to draw the match at 2 – 2 . In the return match against Dynamo Kyiv in the Champions League , Evra provided the assist for one of the goals in a 4 – 0 victory . Though he made 48 appearances in all competitions , Evra failed to score a goal . Manchester United clinched its second consecutive Premier League title on the final day , edging Chelsea by two points . The club later completed the double after defeating the same club on penalties in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final . Evra made ten appearances in the competition , which included playing the entire 120 minutes in the final . After the season , on 12 June , he signed a four @-@ year contract extension with Manchester United , a deal that was set to keep him at Old Trafford until 2012 .
= = = = 2008 – 2014 = = = =
Prior to the start of the 2008 – 09 season , on 18 July 2008 , Evra was charged with four separate counts of improper conduct by the FA . The charges were related to an incident that occurred during the 2007 – 08 season when Evra had an altercation with a Chelsea groundsman during a warm @-@ down following a match on 26 April . The defender denied the charges and was supported by several members of the club 's staff who commented that the player was racially abused by the groundsman prior to the confrontation . Evra remained free to play for United up to the date of the hearing despite the charges being made in July 2008 . He began the campaign in similar fashion to last season as Manchester United won the Community Shield following the team 's 3 – 0 victory over Portsmouth on penalties . Evra was ever @-@ present in Manchester United 's first 22 competitive matches of the season , starting 19 of them . At the hearing on 5 December , Evra was found guilty of improper conduct , and handed a four @-@ match ban – due to start on 22 December 2008 – and a £ 15 @,@ 000 fine .
Despite the suspension , Evra still featured with Manchester United in December as the club participated in the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup . He appeared in both matches the team contested as United came out as champions after defeating Ecuadorian club LDU Quito in the final . Evra temporarily returned to the team domestically for its home match , coincidentally , against Chelsea on 11 January 2009 . In the match , Evra assisted on the second goal in a 3 – 0 victory . He was later forced to leave the match due to a foot injury , which was later discovered to be serious . Evra missed a month and returned to the line @-@ up on 15 February in a 3 – 0 win over Fulham . Evra subsequently appeared in every remaining competitive match for United , excluding an April league match against Sunderland , as the club cruised to its third consecutive Premier League title , won the Football League Cup , and reached the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final after defeating league rivals Arsenal 4 – 1 on aggregate in the semi @-@ finals . Following the second leg against Arsenal , Evra was asked his opinion of the team 's 3 – 1 second leg victory , and declared " It was 11 men against 11 babies . We never doubted ourselves " . The final marked Evra 's third appearance in Champions League finals as Manchester United lost 2 – 0 to Barcelona . At the end of the season , Evra was included in the PFA Team of the Year for the second time .
For the first time in his career , Evra appeared in all 38 league matches in the 2009 – 10 season . The campaign initially began badly for him after he delivered a soft penalty shot , described by some in the media as " awful " , in the team 's penalty shoot @-@ out defeat to Chelsea in the 2009 FA Community Shield . Due to injuries to Rio Ferdinand , Gary Neville and Ryan Giggs , he captained the team in several matches during the season wearing the armband for the first time in his Manchester United career in the team 's 3 – 1 Champions League victory over VfL Wolfsburg . In December 2009 , Evra was among three Manchester United players named to the FIFPro World XI for the 2009 calendar year , before being named to the UEFA Team of the Year in January 2010 . On 28 February 2010 , Evra captained Manchester United to a 2 – 1 win against Aston Villa in the 2010 Football League Cup Final . The league cup title was Evra 's fourth overall as well as his first title earned as a captain . He also became only the second Frenchman after Eric Cantona to captain a Manchester United team to victory in a major competition . In league play , Manchester United failed to win its fourth straight league title conceding the honour to Chelsea . The club also failed to reach the UEFA Champions League final for their third straight final appearance , losing to German champions Bayern Munich in the quarter @-@ finals .
Early on during the 2010 – 11 season , Evra was hampered by constant inquiries about what happened at the 2010 FIFA World Cup from the French Football Federation , the French media , as well as the French government . Evra 's contract with Manchester United was also up at the end of the 2011 – 12 season , which led to the player being linked with a move to Real Madrid . Evra 's hearing with the federation in Paris , which he attended , was held the day after the team 's opening 3 – 0 league win over Newcastle United . Evra played over 85 minutes in the match . On 20 November , Evra scored his second Premier League goal in a 2 – 0 win at home against Wigan . On 21 February 2011 , after weeks of negotiations , Evra signed a contract extension with Manchester United that would keep him with the club until at least the end of the 2013 – 14 season . Two days after signing his contract extension , Evra participated in United 's 0 – 0 draw with Marseille in the first leg of the team 's first knockout round tie in the Champions League . The match , played at the Stade Vélodrome in Marseille , was Evra 's first match played in France since the 2010 World Cup debacle . As a consequence , he was subjected to a barrage of jeers and boos every time he touched the ball .
At the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Evra helped United win the 2011 Community Shield against Manchester City on 7 August . Despite being caught out in the first half by a header from Joleon Lescott and a long range Edin Džeko strike that put City into a 2 – 0 lead , United rallied back in the second half and won 3 – 2 to claim the Shield . On 15 October , Evra captained Manchester United in the club 's 1 – 1 draw away to Liverpool . Following the match , in an interview with French television channel Canal + , Evra asserted that Liverpool player Luis Suárez had racially abused him multiple times during the match . He also stated that he had informed referee Andre Marriner of the incidents at the conclusion of the match . The following day , the FA announced that it would investigate the claim , and on 17 November , the FA announced it would charge Suárez with " abusive and / or insulting words and / or behaviour contrary to FA rules " , including " a reference to the ethnic origin and / or colour and / or race of Patrice Evra . "
During the 2012 – 13 season , despite being just 174 cm ( 5 ft 9 in ) tall , Evra built up a reputation as an attacking threat at corners , doubling his goals tally from his previous seven years at the club with three headed goals from corners in the space of 13 games , against Newcastle United , Arsenal and Swansea City . He continued this run into the 2013 – 14 season , heading home against Cardiff City on 24 November 2013 . In addition to the headers , Evra has also scored twice from open play since the start of the 2012 – 13 season , the first a low drive from just outside the penalty area against Newcastle United on Boxing Day 2012 , and the second a curling , right @-@ footed effort against Stoke City in the fifth round of the League Cup almost a year later . On 23 May 2014 , Evra signed a new one @-@ year contract extension that would have kept him at Manchester United until at least the summer of 2015 .
= = = Juventus = = =
On 21 July 2014 , Evra joined Serie A club Juventus on a two @-@ year contract . The fee was £ 1 @.@ 2 million , which rose to £ 1 @.@ 5 million , after Juventus qualified for the 2015 – 16 UEFA Champions League . On 14 December 2014 , he scored his first goal for the club , opening the scoring of a 1 – 1 home draw to Sampdoria .
On 6 June 2015 , Evra started for Juventus in the 2015 UEFA Champions League Final as Juventus were defeated 3 – 1 by Barcelona at Berlin 's Olympiastadion ; the match was the fifth Champions League final in which he had appeared , and the defeat meant that he became the first player to lose four Champions League finals .
On 25 November 2015 , he made his 100th Champions League appearance in a 1 – 0 home win over Manchester City , becoming the second French player to do so after Thierry Henry . Evra scored a goal in the last match of the 2015 – 16 Serie A season on 14 May 2016 , in a 5 – 0 home win over Sampdoria , as Juventus celebrated winning the league title for a fifth consecutive time since the 2011 – 12 season . On 6 June , Evra renewed his contract with the club for a season .
= = International career = =
= = = Under @-@ 21s = = =
Evra is a former French youth international having played for the under @-@ 21 team . Due to harboring in Italy during his development years , he failed to earn call @-@ ups with teams below the under @-@ 21 level . Evra earned his first call @-@ up to the under @-@ 21 team under coach Raymond Domenech on 3 October 2002 for matches against Slovenia and Malta . He made his under @-@ 21 debut in the match against Slovenia as France cruised to a 1 – 0 victory . Evra was forced to miss the match against Malta after suffering an injury in the win over Slovenia . The defender regularly appeared for the team through 2002 – 2004 as France attempted to qualify for both the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship and the football tournament at the 2004 Summer Olympics . France failed to qualify for both competitions , which resulted in the end of Evra 's youth career .
= = = Senior team = = =
Evra earned his first call @-@ up to the senior national team in May 2004 after coach Jacques Santini named him to the 31 @-@ man preliminary squad to participate in UEFA Euro 2004 . Following the trimming of the squad to 23 players , Evra was not included and subsequently missed out on the competition . Following the European Championship , with former under @-@ 21 coach Domenech now coaching the team , Evra was called up to the senior team for its friendly against Bosnia and Herzegovina on 18 August 2004 . The defender admitted that he was " very proud " to have been called up to the team . Evra made his senior international debut in the match against Bosnia and Herzegovina . He started on the left wing before being substituted out in the 75th minute for Robert Pirès . The match ended in a 1 – 1 draw . Due to an injury to starter Éric Abidal , Evra supplanted him and appeared as the starting left @-@ back in France 's first two 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification matches . After being called up for the team 's March 2005 friendly against Switzerland , Evra was forced to withdraw from the team due to injury . As a result , William Gallas was inserted in the role as a makeshift left @-@ back . Following Abidal 's return from injury and , due to Domenech preferring Mikaël Silvestre as the incumbent 's back @-@ up , Evra went without a call @-@ up for almost two years and , consequently , missed the 2006 FIFA World Cup . In October 2007 , the defender explained to L 'Equipe that the World Cup snub " gave me my determination " .
Evra returned to the team in November 2006 for the team 's friendly match against Greece . He appeared as a half @-@ time substitute for Abidal as France won the match 1 – 0 . After going another year without representing France , Evra began appearing as a regular under Domenech in 2007 . On 28 May 2008 , he was included in the squad to participate in UEFA Euro 2008 . Evra was initially placed onto the squad to serve as back @-@ up to Abidal , however , after failing to appear in the team 's opening 0 – 0 draw with Romania , there were calls from the French media urging Domenech to insert Evra into the starting line @-@ up at the behest of Abidal . Domenech relented and started Evra in the team 's next
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In Thailand , the color green is consider auspicious for those born on a Wednesday day ( light green for those born at night ) .
= = = Springtime , freshness , and hope = = =
Green is the color most commonly associated in the U.S. and Europe with springtime , freshness , and hope . Green is often used to symbolize rebirth and renewal and immortality . In Ancient Egypt ; the god Osiris , king of the underworld , was depicted as green @-@ skinned . Green as the color of hope is connected with the color of springtime ; hope represents the faith that things will improve after a period of difficulty , like the renewal of flowers and plants after the winter season .
= = = Youth and inexperience = = =
Green the color most commonly associated in Europe and the U.S. with youth . It also often is used to describe anyone young , inexperienced , probably by the analogy to immature and unripe fruit . Examples include green cheese , a term for a fresh , unaged cheese , and greenhorn , an inexperienced person .
= = = Calm , tolerance , and the agreeable = = =
Surveys also show that green is the color most associated with the calm , the agreeable , and tolerance . Red is associated with heat , blue with cold , and green with an agreeable temperature . Red is associated with dry , blue with wet , and green , in the middle , with dampness . Red is the most active color , blue the most passive ; green , in the middle , is the color of neutrality and calm , sometimes used in architecture and design for these reasons . Blue and green together symbolize harmony and balance .
= = = Jealousy and envy = = =
Green is often associated with jealousy and envy . The expression " green @-@ eyed monster " was first used by William Shakespeare in Othello : " it is the green @-@ eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds on . " Shakespeare also used it in the Merchant of Venice , speaking of " green @-@ eyed jealousy . "
= = = Love and sexuality = = =
Green today is not commonly associated in Europe and the United States with love and sexuality , but in stories of the medieval period it sometimes represented love and the base , natural desires of man . It was the color of the serpent in the Garden of Eden who caused the downfall of Adam and Eve . However , for the troubadours , green was the color of growing love , and light green clothing was reserved for young women who were not yet married .
In Persian and Sudanese poetry , dark @-@ skinned women , called " green " women , were considered erotic . The Chinese term for cuckold is " to wear a green hat . " This was because in ancient China , prostitutes were called " the family of the green lantern " and a prostitute 's family would wear a green headscarf .
In Victorian England , the color green was associated with homosexuality .
= = = Dragons , fairies , monsters , and devils = = =
In legends , folk tales and films , fairies , dragons , monsters , and the devil are often shown as green .
In the Middle Ages , the devil was usually shown as either red , black or green . Dragons were usually green , because they had the heads , claws and tails of reptiles .
Modern Chinese dragons are also often green , but unlike European dragons , they are benevolent ; Chinese dragons traditionally symbolize potent and auspicious powers , particularly control over water , rainfall , hurricane , and floods . The dragon is also a symbol of power , strength , and good luck . The Emperor of China usually used the dragon as a symbol of his imperial power and strength . The dragon dance is a popular feature of Chinese festivals .
In Irish folklore and English folklore , the color was sometimes was associated with witchcraft , and with faeries and spirits . The type of Irish fairy known as a leprechaun is commonly portrayed wearing a green suit , though before the 20th century he was usually described as wearing a red suit .
= = Theater = =
In the theater and in films , green was often connected with horror or ghost stories , and with corpses . The earliest films of Frankenstein were in black and white , but in the poster for the 1935 version The Bride of Frankenstein , the monster had a green face . Actor Bela Lugosi wore green @-@ hued makeup for the role of Dracula in the 1927 – 1928 Broadway stage production .
= = = Poison and sickness = = =
Like other common colors , green has several completely opposite associations . While it is the color most associated by Europeans and Americans with good health , it is also the color most often associated with toxicity and poison . There was a solid foundation for this association ; in the nineteenth century several popular paints and pigments , notably verdigris , vert de Schweinfurt and vert de Paris , were highly toxic , containing copper or arsenic . The intoxicating drink absinthe was known as " the green fairy " .
A green tinge in the skin is sometimes associated with nausea and sickness . The expression ' green at the gills ' means appearing sick . The color , when combined with gold , is sometimes seen as representing the fading of youth . In some Far East cultures the color green is used as a symbol of sickness and / or nausea .
= = = Social status , prosperity and the dollar = = =
Green in Europe and the United States is sometimes associated with status and prosperity . From the Middle Ages to the 19th century it was often worn by bankers , merchants country gentlemen and others who were wealthy but not members of the nobility . The benches in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom , where the landed gentry sat , are colored green .
In the United States green was connected with the dollar bill . Since 1861 , the reverse side of the dollar bill has been green . Green was originally chosen because it deterred counterfeiters , who tried to use early camera equipment to duplicate banknotes . Also , since the banknotes were thin , the green on the back did not show through and muddle the pictures on the front of the banknote . Green continues to be used because the public now associates it with a strong and stable currency .
One of the more notable uses of this meaning is found in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz . In this story is the Emerald City , where everyone wears tinted glasses which make everything look green . According to the populist interpretation of the story , the city ’ s color is used by the author , L. Frank Baum , to illustrate the financial system of America in his day , as he lived in a time when America was debating the use of paper money versus gold .
= = On flags = =
The flag of Italy ( 1797 ) was modeled after the French tricolor . It was originally the flag of the Cisalpine Republic , whose capital was Milan ; red and white were the colors of Milan , and green was the color of the military uniforms of the army of the Cisalpine Republic . Other versions say it is the color of the Italian landscape , or symbolizes hope .
The flag of Brazil has a green field adapted from the flag of the Empire of Brazil . The green represented the royal family .
The flag of India was inspired by an earlier flag of the independence movement of Gandhi , which had a red band for Hinduism and a green band representing Islam , the second largest religion in India .
The flag of Pakistan symbolizes Pakistan 's commitment to Islam and equal rights of religious minorities where the larger portion ( 3 : 2 ratio ) of flag is dark green representing Muslim majority ( 98 % of total population ) while a white vertical bar ( 3 : 1 ratio ) at the mast representing equal rights for religious minorities and minority religions in country . The crescent and star symbolizes progress and bright future respectively .
The Flag of Bangladesh has a green field based on a similar flag used during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 . It consists of a red disc on top of a green field . The red disc represents the sun rising over Bengal , and also the blood of those who died for the independence of Bangladesh . The green field stands for the lushness of the land of Bangladesh .
Green is one of the three colors ( along with red and black , or red and gold ) of Pan @-@ Africanism . Several African countries thus use the color on their flags , including Nigeria , South Africa , Ghana , Senegal , Mali , Ethiopia , Togo , Guinea , Benin , and Zimbabwe . The Pan @-@ African colors are borrowed from the Ethiopian flag , one of the oldest independent African countries . Green on some African flags represents the natural richness of Africa .
Many flags of the Islamic world are green , as the color is considered sacred in Islam ( see below ) . The flag of Hamas , as well as the flag of Iran , is green , symbolizing their Islamist ideology . The 1977 flag of Libya consisted of a simple green field with no other characteristics . It was the only national flag in the world with just one color and no design , insignia , or other details . Some countries used green in their flags to represent their country 's lush vegetation , as in the flag of Jamaica , and hope in the future , as in the flags of Portugal and Nigeria . The green cedar of Lebanon tree on the Flag of Lebanon officially represents steadiness and tolerance .
Green is a symbol of Ireland , which is often referred to as the " Emerald Isle " . The color is particularly identified with the republican and nationalist traditions in modern times . It is used this way on the flag of the Republic of Ireland , in balance with white and the Protestant orange . Green is a strong trend in the Irish holiday St. Patrick 's Day .
= = In politics = =
The first recorded green party was a political faction in Constantinople during the 6th century Byzantine Empire. which took its name from a popular chariot racing team . They were bitter opponents of the blue faction , which supported Emperor Justinian I and which had its own chariot racing team . In 532 AD rioting between the factions began after one race , which led to the massacre of green supporters and the destruction of much of the center of Constantinople . ( See Nika Riots ) .
Green was the traditional color of Irish nationalism , beginning in the 17th century . The green harp flag , with a traditional gaelic harp , became the symbol of the movement . It was the banner of the Society of United Irishmen , which organized the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , calling for Irish independence . The uprising was suppressed with great bloodshed by the British army . When Ireland achieved independence in 1922 , green was incorporated into the national flag .
In the 1970s green became the color of the third biggest Swiss Federal Council political party , the Swiss People 's Party SVP . The ideology is Swiss nationalism , national conservatism , right @-@ wing populism , economic liberalism , agrarianism , isolationism , euroscepticism . The SVP was founded on September 22 , 1971 and has 90 @,@ 000 members .
In the 1980s green became the color of a number of new European political parties organized around an agenda of environmentalism . Green was chosen for its association with nature , health , and growth . The largest green party in Europe is Alliance ' 90 / The Greens ( German : Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen ) in Germany , which was formed in 1993 from the merger of the German Green Party , founded in West Germany in 1980 , and Alliance 90 , founded during the Revolution of 1989 – 1990 in East Germany . In the 2009 federal elections , the party won 10 @.@ 7 % of the votes and 68 out of 622 seats in the Bundestag .
Green parties in Europe have programs based on ecology , grassroots democracy , nonviolence , and social justice . Green parties are found in over one hundred countries , and most are members of the Global Green Network .
Greenpeace is a non @-@ governmental environmental organization which emerged from the anti @-@ nuclear and peace movements in the 1970s . Its ship , the Rainbow Warrior , frequently tried to interfere with nuclear tests and whaling operations . The movement now has branches in forty countries . The Australian Greens party was founded in 1992 . At the 2010 federal election , the party received 13 percent of the vote ( more than 1 @.@ 6 million votes ) in the Senate , a first for any Australian minor party .
Green is the color associated with Puerto Rico 's Independence Party , the smallest of Puerto Rico 's three major political parties and which advocates for Puerto Rican independence from the United States .
= = In religion = =
Green is the traditional color of Islam . According to tradition , the robe and banner of Muhammad were green. and according to the Koran ( XVIII , 31 and LXXVI , 21 ) , those fortunate enough to live in paradise wear green silk robes . Muhammad is quoted in a hadith as saying that " water , greenery , and a beautiful face " were three universally good things .
Al @-@ Khidr ( " The Green One " ) , was an important Qur 'anic figure who was said to have met and traveled with Moses . He was given that name because of his role as a diplomat and negotiator . Green was also considered to be the median color between light and obscurity .
Roman Catholic and more traditional Protestant clergy wear green vestments at liturgical celebrations during Ordinary Time . In the Eastern Catholic Church , green is the color of Pentecost . Green is one of the Christmas colors as well , possibly dating back to pre @-@ Christian times , when evergreens were worshiped for their ability to maintain their color through the winter season . Romans used green holly and evergreen as decorations for their winter solstice celebration called Saturnalia , which eventually evolved into a Christmas celebration . In Ireland and Scotland especially , green is used to represent Catholics , while orange is used to represent Protestantism . This is shown on the national flag of Ireland .
= = In gambling and sports = =
Gambling tables in a casino are traditionally green . The tradition is said to have started in gambling rooms in Venice in the 16th century .
Billiards tables are traditionally covered with green woolen cloth . The first indoor tables , dating to the 15th century , were colored green after the grass courts used for the similar lawn games of the period .
Green was the traditional color worn by hunters in the 19th century , particularly the shade called hunter green . In the 20th century most hunters began wearing the color olive drab , a shade of green , instead of hunter green .
Green is a common color for sports teams . Well @-@ known teams include A.S. Saint @-@ Étienne of France , known as Les Verts ( The Greens ) . The Mexico national football team has a green uniform .
British racing green was the international motor racing color of Britain from the early 1900s until the 1960s , when it was replaced by the colors of the sponsoring automobile companies .
A green belt in karate , taekwondo and judo symbolizes a level of proficiency in the sport .
= = Idioms and expressions = =
Having a green thumb . To be passionate about or talented at gardening . The expression was popularized beginning in 1925 by a BBC gardening program .
Greenhorn . Someone who is inexperienced .
Green @-@ eyed monster . Refers to jealousy . ( See section above on jealousy and envy ) .
Greenmail . A term used in finance and corporate takeovers . It refers to the practice of a company paying a high price to buy back shares of its own stock to prevent an unfriendly takeover by another company or businessman . It originated in the 1980s on Wall Street , and originates from the green of dollars .
Green room . A room at a theater where actors rest when not onstage , or a room at a television studio where guests wait before going on @-@ camera . It originated in the late 17th century from a room of that color at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane in London .
Greenwashing . Environmental activists sometimes use this term to describe the advertising of a company which promotes its positive environmental practices to cover up its environmental destruction .
Green around the gills . A description of a person who looks physically ill .
Going green . An expression commonly used to refer to preserving the natural environment , and participating in activities such as recycling materials .
= Manhunter ( film ) =
Manhunter is a 1986 American crime horror thriller film based on Thomas Harris ' novel Red Dragon . Written and directed by Michael Mann , it stars William Petersen as FBI profiler Will Graham . Also featured are Tom Noonan as serial killer Francis Dollarhyde , Dennis Farina as Graham 's FBI superior Jack Crawford , and Brian Cox as incarcerated killer Hannibal Lecktor . The film focuses on Graham coming out of retirement to lend his talents to an investigation on Dollarhyde , a killer known as " The Tooth Fairy . " In doing so , he must confront the demons of his past and meet with Lecktor , who nearly counted Graham amongst his victims .
Manhunter focuses on the forensic work carried out by the FBI to track down killers and shows the long @-@ term effects that cases like this have on profilers such as Graham , highlighting the similarities between him and his quarry . The film features heavily stylized use of color to convey this sense of duality , and the nature of the characters ' similarity has been explored in academic readings of the film . It was the first film adaptation of Harris ' Hannibal Lecter novels , as well as the first adaptation of Red Dragon , which later became the basis for a film of the same name in 2002 .
Opening to mixed reviews , Manhunter fared poorly at the box office at the time of its release , making only $ 8 @.@ 6 million in the United States . However , it has been reappraised in more recent reviews and now enjoys a more favorable reception , as both the acting and the stylized visuals have been appreciated better in later years . Its resurgent popularity , which may be due to later adaptations of Harris ' books and Petersen 's success in CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , has seen it labelled as a cult film .
= = Plot = =
Will Graham ( William Petersen ) is a former FBI criminal profiler who has retired because of a mental breakdown after being attacked by a cannibalistic serial killer , Dr. Hannibal Lecktor ( Brian Cox ) whom he captured . Graham is approached at his Florida home by his former FBI superior Jack Crawford ( Dennis Farina ) , who is seeking help with a new serial killer case . Promising his wife ( Kim Greist ) that he will do nothing more than examine evidence and not risk physical harm , Graham agrees to visit the most recent crime scene in Atlanta , where he tries to enter the mindset of the killer , now dubbed the " Tooth Fairy " by the police for the bite @-@ marks left on his victims .
Having found the killer 's fingerprints , Graham meets with Crawford . They are accosted by tabloid journalist Freddy Lounds ( Stephen Lang ) , with whom Graham has a bitter history ; Lounds ' paper had run photographs of Graham taken secretly while he was hospitalized . Graham pays a visit to Lecktor , a former psychiatrist , in his cell and asks for his insight into the killer 's motivations . After a tense conversation , Lecktor agrees to look at the case file . A little later , Lecktor contrives and manages to obtain Graham 's home address by deceit during his phone privileges .
Graham travels to the first crime scene in Birmingham , Alabama , where he is contacted by Crawford , who tells him of Lounds ' tabloid story on the case . Crawford also patches Graham through to Frederick Chilton ( Benjamin Hendrickson ) , Lecktor 's warden , who has found a note in Lecktor 's personal effects . Reading it , they realize it is from the Tooth Fairy , expressing admiration for Lecktor — and an interest in Graham . Crawford brings Graham to the FBI Academy at Quantico , where a missing section of the note is analyzed to determine what Lecktor has removed . It is found to be an instruction to communicate through the personals section of the National Tattler , Lounds ' newspaper .
The FBI intends to plant a fake advertisement to replace Lecktor 's , but they realize that without the proper book code the Tooth Fairy will know it is fake ; therefore , they let the advertisement run as it is , and Graham organizes an interview with Lounds , during which he gives a false and derogatory profile of the Tooth Fairy to incite him . After a sting operation fails to catch the killer , Lounds is kidnapped by the Tooth Fairy ( Tom Noonan ) . Waking in the killer 's home , he is shown a slideshow of William Blake 's The Great Red Dragon paintings , along with the Tooth Fairy 's past victims and slides of a family the killer identifies as his next targets . Lounds is forced to tape @-@ record a statement before being set on fire in a wheelchair and killed , his flaming body rolled into the parking garage of the National Tattler as a warning .
Graham is told by Crawford that they have cracked Lecktor 's coded message to the Tooth Fairy — it is Graham 's home address with an instruction to kill the family ( ending with " Save yourself . Kill them all , " revealing that Lecktor believes Graham would find the Tooth Fairy ) . Graham rushes home to find his family safe but terrified . After the FBI moves Graham 's family to a safe house , he tries to explain to his son Kevin why he had retired previously .
At his job in a St. Louis film lab , Francis Dollarhyde — The Tooth Fairy — approaches a blind co @-@ worker , Reba McClane ( Joan Allen ) , and ends up offering her a lift . They go to Dollarhyde 's home , where Reba is oblivious to the fact that Dollarhyde is watching home @-@ movie footage of his planned next victim . She kisses him and they make love . Dollarhyde is confused by this newfound relationship , though it
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rock to orchestral arrangements and avant @-@ garde sound collages . Although the album was initially poorly received in the United States , it was a success in Europe . It gained a cult following in America , where it continued to sell in substantial quantities until it was discontinued in the early 1970s .
In 1999 , it was honored with the Grammy Hall of Fame Award , and in 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked it among the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . " In 2006 , The MOFO Project / Object , an audio documentary on the making of the album , was released in honor of its 40th anniversary . This is Official Release # 1 .
= = Background = =
In the early 1960s , Zappa met Ray Collins . Collins supported himself by working as a carpenter , and on weekends sang with a group called the Soul Giants . Collins got into a fight with their guitar player , who quit , leaving the band in need of a substitute , and Zappa filled in . The Soul Giants ' repertoire originally consisted of R & B covers ; though after Zappa joined the band he encouraged them to play his own original material and try to get a record contract . While most of the band members liked the idea , then @-@ leader and saxophone player Davy Coronado felt that performing original material would cost them bookings , and quit the band . The Soul Giants became the Mothers and Zappa took over leadership of the band .
The group moved to Los Angeles in early 1965 after Zappa got them a management contract with Herb Cohen . They gained steady work at clubs along the Sunset Strip . MGM staff producer Tom Wilson offered the band a record deal on the Verve Records division in early 1966 . He had heard of their growing reputation but had seen them perform only one song , " Trouble Every Day " , which concerned the Watts riots . According to Zappa , this led Wilson to believe that they were a " white blues band . " The group signed their contract on March 1 , 1966 and quickly began work on their first album.This would have made them a part of the " white blues band " trend , initiated in 1965 with the debut of The Paul Butterfield Blues Band from Chicago and the 1966 debut of the Blues Project from New York City .
= = Recording = =
The first two songs recorded for the album were " Any Way The Wind Blows " and " Who Are the Brain Police ? " When Tom Wilson heard the latter , he realized that The Mothers were not merely a blues band . In The Real Frank Zappa Book , Zappa wrote " I could see through the window that he was scrambling toward the phone to call his boss — probably saying : ' Well , uh , not exactly a " white blues band " , but ... sort of . ' " In a 1968 article written for Hit Parader magazine , Zappa wrote that when Wilson heard these songs , " he was so impressed he got on the phone and called New York , and as a result I got a more or less unlimited budget to do this monstrosity . " Freak Out ! is an early example of the concept album , a sardonic farce about rock music and America . " All the songs on it were about something , " Zappa wrote in The Real Frank Zappa Book . " It wasn 't as if we had a hit single and we needed to build some filler around it . Each tune had a function within an overall satirical concept . "
If you were to graphically analyze the different types of directions of all the songs in the Freak Out ! album , there 's a little something in there for everybody . At least one piece of material is slanted for every type of social orientation within our consumer group , which happens to be six to eighty . Because we got people that like what we do , from kids six years old screaming on us to play " Wowie Zowie " . Like I meet executives doing this and that , and they say , " My kid 's got the record , and ' Wowie Zowie ' ' s their favorite song . "
The album was recorded at TTG Studios at the corner of Sunset and Highland in Hollywood , California , between March 9 and March 12 , 1966 . Some songs , such as " Motherly Love " and " I Ain 't Got No Heart " had already been recorded before the Freak Out ! sessions . These early recordings , said to have been made around 1965 , were not officially released until 2004 , when they appeared on the posthumous Zappa album Joe 's Corsage . An early version of the song " Any Way The Wind Blows " , recorded in 1963 , appears on another posthumous release , The Lost Episodes . The song was written when Zappa considered divorcing first wife Kay Sherman . In the liner notes for Freak Out ! , Zappa wrote " If I had never gotten divorced , this piece of trivial nonsense would never have been recorded . " Tom Wilson became more enthusiastic as the sessions continued . In the middle of the week of recording , Zappa told him " I would like to rent $ 500 worth of percussion equipment for a session that starts at midnight on Friday and I want to bring all the freaks from Sunset Boulevard into the studio to do something special . " Wilson agreed . The material was worked into " The Return of the Son of Monster Magnet " . In a November 1967 radio interview ( posthumously included as part of the 2006 MOFO album ) , Zappa is heard complaining that the version of " Monster Magnet " released on Freak Out ! was in fact an unfinished piece ; the percussion track was intended to serve as the foundation for an even more complex piece , but MGM refused to approve the studio time needed to record the intended overdubs that would have completed the composition , and so it was released ( to Zappa 's great dissatisfaction ) in this unfinished form .
Zappa later found out that when the material was recorded , Wilson had taken LSD . " I 've tried to imagine what [ Wilson ] must have been thinking , " Zappa recounted , " sitting in that control room , listening to all that weird shit coming out of the speakers , and being responsible for telling the engineer , Ami Hadani ( who was not on acid ) , what to do . " By the time Freak Out ! was edited and shaped into an album , Wilson had spent $ 25 – 35 @,@ 000 of MGM 's money . In Hit Parader magazine , Zappa wrote that " Wilson was sticking his neck out . He laid his job on the line by producing the album . MGM felt that they had spent too much money on the album . "
The label requested that two lines be removed from the " It Can 't Happen Here " section of " Help , I 'm a Rock " , ( a song dedicated to Elvis Presley ) both of which had been interpreted by MGM executives to be drug references . However , the label either had no objections to , or else did not notice , a sped @-@ up recording of Zappa shouting the word " fuck " after accidentally smashing his finger , occurring at 11 minutes and 36 seconds into " The Return of the Son of Monster Magnet " . On the 1995 compact disc issue of the album , " Help , I 'm a Rock " and " It Can 't Happen Here " were indexed as separate tracks , as " It Can 't Happen Here " had been on the 1969 vinyl compilation Mothermania .
MGM also told Zappa that the band would have to change their name , claiming that no DJ would play a record on the air by a group called " The Mothers . "
... at the time , it was , you know , if you were a good musician , you were a motherfucker , and Mothers was short for collection of motherfuckers . And actually , it was kind of presumptuous to name the band that , because we weren 't that good musicians , we were ... But by bar @-@ band standards in the area , we were light @-@ years ahead of our competition , but in terms of real musicianship , I just suppose we were right down there in the swamp .
= = Release = =
Freak Out ! was released June 27 , 1966 , with the band 's name changed to The Mothers of Invention , a name Zappa chose in favor of MGM 's original suggested name , " The Mothers Auxiliary " . The album 's back cover included a " letter " from Zappa @-@ created fictional character Suzy Creamcheese ( who also appears on the album itself ) , which read :
These Mothers is crazy . You can tell by their clothes . One guy wears beads and they all smell bad . We were gonna get them for a dance after the basketball game but my best pal warned me you can never tell how many will show up ... sometimes the guy in the fur coat doesn 't show up and sometimes he does show up only he brings a big bunch of crazy people with him and they dance all over the place . None of the kids at my school like these Mothers ... specially since my teacher told us what the words to their songs meant . Sincerely forever , Suzy Creamcheese , Salt Lake City , Utah .
Because the text was printed in a typeface resembling typewriter lettering , some people thought that Suzy Creamcheese was real , and many listeners expected to see her in concert performances . Because of this , it was decided that " it would be best to bring along a Suzy Creamcheese replica who would demonstrate once and for all the veracity of such a beast . " Because the original voice of Suzy Creamcheese , Jeannie Vassoir , was unavailable , Pamela Lee Zarubica took over the part .
Early US pressings of the album included a blurb for a " Freak Out Hot Spots ! " map . Inside the gatefold jacket the small ad was aimed at people coming to visit Los Angeles and it listed several famous restaurants and clubs including Canter 's and The Whiskey A Go @-@ Go . The ad also claimed information concerning police arrests . It states : " Also shows where the heat has been busting frequently , with tips on safety in police terror situations " . Those interested in the map were instructed to send $ 1 @.@ 00 to MGM Records c / o 1540 Broadway NY . NY. address . The phony map blurb was not included on later pressings but was removed and the space was left blank . , It was eventually reprinted and included with The MOFO Project / Object , a four @-@ disc audio documentary on the making of the album , released posthumously by the Zappa Family Trust in 2006 .
= = Response = =
Though it reached No. 130 on the Billboard chart , Freak Out ! was neither a major commercial nor critical success when it was first released in the United States . Many listeners were convinced that the album was drug @-@ inspired , and interpreted the album 's title as slang for a bad LSD trip . The album made the Mothers of Invention immediate underground darlings with a strong counter @-@ cultural following . In The Real Frank Zappa Book , Zappa quotes a negative review of the album by Pete Johnson of the Los Angeles Times , who wrote :
I guess you might call it surrealistic paintings set to music . Not
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Carlos Ramirez from Noisecreep felt that the album contains many underrated songs that " also deserve their time in the spotlight " and highlighted the dueling guitar leads by Mustaine and Friedman featured in " Go to Hell " . Despite the negative reviews , material featured on the EP has been credited with helping expand the group 's MTV audience in the early 1990s .
= = Track listing = =
The following track list can be verified with the Hidden Treasures liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes .
Megadeth
Dave Mustaine – lead vocals , guitar
David Ellefson – bass , backing vocals
Marty Friedman – guitar , backing vocals
Nick Menza – drums
Production
Produced by Desmond Child and Dave Mustaine ( track 1 ) ; Max Norman and Dave Mustaine ( tracks 2 – 8 )
Engineered by Max Norman ( tracks 2 – 8 )
Mixed by Max Norman ( tracks 2 – 6 ) ; Max Norman and Dave Mustaine ( tracks 7 – 8 )
= = Chart performance = =
= Japanese battleship Musashi =
Musashi ( 武蔵 ) was the second ship of the Yamato class of Imperial Japanese Navy World War II battleships .
She and her sister ship , Yamato , were the heaviest battleships ever constructed , displacing 72 @,@ 800 tonnes at full load and armed with nine 46 cm ( 18 @.@ 1 inch ) 45 Caliber Type 94 main guns , which were the largest guns ever mounted on a warship . Neither ship survived the war .
Named after Japan 's ancient Musashi Province , the Musashi was commissioned in mid @-@ 1942 , modified to serve as the flagship of the Combined Fleet , and spent the rest of the year working up . The ship was transferred to Truk in early 1943 and sortied several times that year with the fleet in unsuccessful searches for American forces . She was used to transfer forces and equipment between Japan and various occupied islands several times in 1944 . Torpedoed in early 1944 by an American submarine , Musashi was forced to return to Japan for repairs , where the navy greatly augmented her anti @-@ aircraft armament . She was present during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June , but did not come in contact with American surface forces . Musashi was sunk by an estimated 19 torpedo and 17 bomb hits from American carrier @-@ based aircraft on 24 October 1944 during the Battle of Leyte Gulf . Over half of her crew was rescued .
Her wreck was located in March 2015 by Microsoft co @-@ founder Paul Allen and his team of researchers .
= = Design and description = =
During the 1930s the Japanese government adopted an ultranationalist militancy with a view to greatly expanding the Japanese Empire . Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in 1934 , renouncing its treaty obligations . After withdrawing from the Washington Naval Treaty , which limited the size and power of capital ships , the Imperial Japanese Navy began their design of the new Yamato class of heavy battleships . Their planners recognized Japan would be unable to compete with the output of U.S. naval shipyards should war break out , so the 70 @,@ 000 ton vessels of the Yamato class were designed to be capable of engaging multiple enemy battleships at the same time .
Musashi had a length of 244 metres ( 800 ft 6 in ) between perpendiculars and 263 metres ( 862 ft 10 in ) overall . She had a beam of 36 @.@ 9 metres ( 121 ft 1 in ) and a draft of 10 @.@ 86 metres ( 35 @.@ 6 ft ) at deep load. she displaced 64 @,@ 000 long tons ( 65 @,@ 000 t ) at standard load and 71 @,@ 659 long tons ( 72 @,@ 809 t ) at deep load . Her crew consisted of 2 @,@ 500 officers and enlisted men in 1942 , and about 2 @,@ 800 in 1944 .
The battleship had four sets of Kampon geared steam turbines , each of which drove one propeller shaft . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 150 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam provided by 12 Kampon water @-@ tube boilers , to give her a maximum speed of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . She had a stowage capacity of 6 @,@ 300 long tons ( 6 @,@ 400 t ) of fuel oil , giving a range of 7 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 300 km ; 8 @,@ 300 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Musashi 's main battery consisted of nine 45 @-@ calibre 46 cm ( 18 @.@ 1 in ) Type 94 guns mounted in three triple gun turrets , numbered from front to rear , each with an elevation range of − 5 to + 45 degrees . They fired a 1 @,@ 460 @-@ kilogram ( 3 @,@ 220 lb ) armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) shell to a range of 42 @,@ 000 metres ( 46 @,@ 000 yd ) . These were the largest @-@ calibre guns ever fitted to a ship . The guns had a rate of fire of 1 @.@ 5 to 2 rounds per minute .
The ship 's secondary battery consisted of twelve 60 @-@ calibre 15 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) 3rd Year Type guns mounted in four triple turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure and one on each side amidships . These had become available once the Mogami @-@ class cruisers were rearmed with 20 @.@ 3 @-@ centimetre ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns . With a 55 @.@ 87 @-@ kilogram ( 123 @.@ 2 lb ) AP shell , the guns had a maximum range of 27 @,@ 400 metres ( 30 @,@ 000 yd ) at an elevation of 45 degrees . Their rate of fire was five rounds per minute . Heavy anti @-@ aircraft defence was provided by a dozen 40 @-@ calibre 127 @-@ millimetre Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns in six twin turrets , three on each side of the superstructure . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 metres ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) ; they had a maximum ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 metres ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at their maximum elevation of 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute ; their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute .
Musashi also carried thirty @-@ six 25 mm Type 96 light anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in triple @-@ gun mounts , all mounted on the superstructure . These 25 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of + 85 degrees . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen @-@ round magazines . This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II ; it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon . According to historian Mark Stille , the twin and triple mounts " lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation ; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets ; the gun exhibited excessive vibration ; the magazine was too small , and ... the gun produced excessive muzzle blast " . The ship was also provided with two twin mounts for the licence @-@ built 13 @.@ 2 mm Type 93 anti @-@ aircraft machine guns , one on each side of the bridge . The maximum range of these guns was 6 @,@ 500 metres ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) , but the effective range against aircraft was only 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) . The cyclic rate was adjustable between 425 and 475 rounds per minute ; the need to change 30 @-@ round magazines reduced the effective rate to 250 rounds per minute .
While the ship was under repair in April 1944 , the two 15 @.@ 5 centimetre wing turrets were removed and replaced with three triple 25 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) gun mounts each . Twenty @-@ one triple 25 mm mounts and 25 single mounts were added , for a total light AA armament of one hundred and thirty 25 mm guns .
= = = Armour = = =
The ship 's waterline armour belt was 410 millimetres ( 16 @.@ 1 in ) thick and angled outwards 20 degrees at the top . Below it was a strake of armour that ranged in thickness from 270 to 200 millimetres ( 10 @.@ 6 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) over the magazines and machinery spaces respectively ; it tapered to a
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500 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = = = Ice Peak eruptive period = = = =
Ice Peak , 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) high , which overlaps the northern flank of Armadillo Peak , began to form during Edziza 's third phase of activity , starting 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 years ago when the regional Cordilleran Ice Sheet began retreating . It is a stratovolcano that was constructed when large areas of the Edziza lava plateau were free from glacial ice and now enclosed by glacial deposits . However , additional parts of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex were likely still covered by glacial ice . The volcanic activity from Ice Peak during this period produced both basic and intermediate to light @-@ coloured lava flows and pyroclastic rocks which mixed with meltwater to produce debris flows . As Ice Peak began to form , basic lava spread to the flanks of the cone where it formed meltwater lakes and combines with and forms part of the adjacent shield volcano . As lava continued to flow into these meltwater lakes , pillow lava and solidified rubble was created . Many of the lava flows with compositions of trachyte and basalt were however erupted just below the surface of the soil . Continuous volcanic activity eventually made Ice Peak reach an elevation of 2 @,@ 400 metres ( 7 @,@ 900 ft ) when three viscous , intermediate , and light @-@ coloured lava flows built up around secondary lava domes parallel with its western side during its final stage of activity 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 years ago and develops nearly all of the steep , higher flanks of the volcano . These viscous light @-@ coloured lava flows are displayed at two cliffs with broad faces , known as Ornostay Bluff and Koosick Bluff and contain basic rock made of solidified rubble overlain by large fractured lava with massive , poorly established pillars .
Two cinder cones on Ice Peak 's southern flank called Camp Hill and Cache Hill and possibly first erupted when glacial ice was still existing on the Edziza lava plateau . As lava flowed into the glacial ice above a vent , pools of meltwater were created . Continuous lava eruptions that flowed into the meltwater pools were cooled and fractured . This fragmental material was interrupted by explosions of steam , water , ash , rock , and volcanic bombs called phreatic eruptions . Camp Hill was eventually developed and over time it grew above water level inside the meltwater lake . Later eruptions produced a pyroclastic cone on top of the original fragmental cone . Cache Hill erupted when nearly all the glacial ice had retreated . The first lava flows from Cache Hill flowed through and dammed a river valley , which eventually ponded to produce a small lake . Subsequent lava flows traveled into the lake to produce pillow lava and solidified rubble . During the long period of Ice Peak activity , high @-@ altitude glaciers developed and melted cutting valleys into the volcano . The current 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) high summit of Ice Peak is a remnant of the western rim of a small summit caldera , which has been nearly destroyed by erosion from high @-@ altitude glaciation . Near the end of Ice Peak activity 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 years ago , this high @-@ altitude glacial ice combined with the regional ice forming part of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet . It is likely that only the tallest mountains might have been visible over the Cordilleran Ice Sheet which was at least 2 @,@ 285 metres ( 7 @,@ 497 ft ) thick . A small volume of intermediate lava was erupted from Ice Peak compared to the other central volcanoes .
= = = = Mount Edziza eruptive period = = = =
The fourth phase of activity began one million years ago when the Cordilleran Ice Sheet retreated from the upper flanks of the adjacent lava plateau , creating Mount Edziza proper which is the most northerly of the four central volcanoes . It is a steep @-@ sided stratovolcano and the largest and highest of the peaks that form the volcanic complex with an elevation of 2 @,@ 787 metres ( 9 @,@ 144 ft ) , overlapping the northern flank of Ice Peak . The stratovolcano is made up of a fine @-@ grained volcanic rock called trachyte and is associated with several lava domes which were formed by trachyte lava flows and explosive eruptions . Its smooth northern and western flanks , only slightly channeled by erosion , curve up to a circular 2 @,@ 700 @-@ metre ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) summit ridge which surrounds a central , ice @-@ filled caldera 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) in diameter . Many glaciers cover Mount Edziza proper , including the Tencho Glacier on its southern flank . Active cirques on the eastern flank have breached the caldera rim , exposing the remnants of numerous lava lakes which ponded in the caldera 900 @,@ 000 years ago and rest on hydrothermally altered breccia of the main conduit . Piles of pillow lava and hyaloclastite , formed by subglacial eruptions , are found on the flanks of Mount Edziza and nearby Ice Peak , as well as on the surface of the surrounding shield volcano . Pillow Ridge on Edziza 's northwest flank was formed when basaltic lava erupted beneath the regional Cordilleran Ice Sheet when it was close to its greatest thickness .
= = = = Central volcano flank eruptive period = = = =
The fifth and final phase of eruptive activity occurred from secondary volcanic vents along the flanks of the four central volcanoes starting 10 @,@ 000 years ago . This phase of activity began at a time when remnants of glacial ice were still present and continued after the glacial period . The initial flank eruptions , quenched by glacial meltwater , formed hyaloclastite tuff rings , whereas later activity created 30 small cinder cones , primarily of basaltic composition , including Mess Lake Cone , Kana Cone , Cinder Cliff , Icefall Cone , Ridge Cone , Williams Cone , Walkout Creek Cone , Moraine Cone , Sidas Cone , Sleet Cone , Storm Cone , Triplex Cone , Twin Cone , Cache Hill , Camp Hill , Cocoa Crater , Coffee Crater , Nahta Cone , Tennena Cone , The Saucer and the well @-@ preserved Eve Cone . These cinder cones were formed no more than the year 700 based on the age of burnt plant stems still rooted in former soil under 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) of loose basaltic fragments . These cinder cones were built on the basaltic fragments and blocky lava fields surrounding the cones . The Snowshoe lava field , on the southern end of the Big Raven Plateau , is one of the areas of young lava flows in the region while the Desolation lava field , on the northern end of the Big Raven Plateau , is the largest area of young lava flows , covering an area of 150 km2 . The longest lava flow is 12 kilometres ( 7 mi ) . This volcanic activity was followed by at least two younger , but still undated eruptions , including an undated air @-@ fall pumice deposit .
The undated air @-@ fall pumice deposit exists across the southwestern part of the Big Raven Plateau called Sheep Track Pumice or Sheep Track member . Pumice is a light volcanic rock full of air spaces and commonly pale in colour , ranging from white , cream , blue or grey , but can be green or black . The Sheep Track Pumice is mysterious because the vent of its origin is unknown , even though it is estimated from its state of preservation to be younger than 500 years . This pumice deposit emphasizes one of the significant volcanic hazards linked to the Mount Edziza volcanic complex - the likelihood of a violent explosive eruption . The volcano that produced the pumice might be covered by glacial ice . Collaborators at the University of British Columbia have started work on samples collected from deposits of Sheep Track Pumice .
= = = Current activity = = =
The Mount Edziza volcanic complex is one of the eleven Canadian volcanoes associated with recent seismic activity : the others are Castle Rock , Mount Garibaldi , Mount Cayley , Hoodoo Mountain , The Volcano , Crow Lagoon , Silverthrone Caldera , Mount Meager , Wells Gray @-@ Clearwater volcanic field and Nazko Cone . Seismic data suggests that these volcanoes still contain live magma plumbing systems , indicating possible future eruptive activity . Although the available data does not allow a clear conclusion , these observations are further indications that some of Canada 's volcanoes are potentially active , and that their associated hazards may be significant . The seismic activity correlates both with some of Canada 's most youthful volcanoes , and with long @-@ lived volcanic centres with a history of significant explosive behavior , such as the Mount Edziza volcanic complex .
The most recent volcanic activity at the Mount Edziza volcanic complex have been hot springs , several of which are found on the volcano 's western flank , including Elwyn springs ( 36 ° C or 97 ° F ) , Taweh springs ( 46 ° C or 115 ° F ) , and inactive springs near Mess Lake . The springs are near the youngest lava fields of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex and are most likely associated with the most recent eruptive activity . These hot springs were highly important to the adjacent Tahltan people .
Hot springs are closely associated with fumaroles , which are vents in an active volcanic area releasing steam and hot gases , such as sulfur dioxide . In general , the water is rotating groundwater that comes into contact with rocks heated by magma and finds openings to the surface . The formation of the springs depends both on the rocks the water has passed through and the profusion of volcanic discharges mixed with the groundwater . Iron oxide , iron sulfides and other substances
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usually colour pools of boiling mud brilliant yellow , red , brown or green . Hot springs comprising significantly softened silica may deposit it to form siliceous sinter , whereas those comprising softened calcium carbonate deposit spongy @-@ looking calcareous rock called tufa . Overflow of the springs can build masses , spires or stepped terraces of calcareous sinter or tufa .
= = Human history = =
= = = Indigenous people = = =
As early as 10 @,@ 000 years ago , the Tahltan First Nations people , who now live in Dease Lake , Telegraph Creek and the Iskut , used obsidian from the Mount Edziza volcanic complex to make tools and weapons for trading material . Most of the obsidian occurs at relatively high elevations at about 1 @,@ 800 to 1 @,@ 900 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 – 6 @,@ 200 ft ) . This is the main source of obsidian found in northwestern British Columbia , which was traded as far away as Alaska and northern Alberta . Obsidian is a type of naturally occurring glass that is highly valued for its cutting qualities and is produced by the rapid cooling of lava . Like all glass and some other types of naturally occurring rocks , obsidian breaks with a characteristic conchoidal fracture , creating razor sharp edges . A knife made of Edziza obsidian , possibly 2 @,@ 000 years old , has been recovered in the Stikine River area . Two exposed columnar basalt formations exist within the volcanic complex : the Tahltan Eagle at the meeting of the Tahltan and Stikine rivers , and Pipe Organ Mountain . The Tahltan Eagle has significant spiritual and cultural importance to the Tahltan people , while the correct name and cultural significance of Pipe Organ Mountain to the Tahltan people is unknown .
= = = Geologic studies = = =
This area of long @-@ lived volcanic activity has been studied and mapped in detail for many years by geoscientists . The first detail studying and mapping of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex was accomplished in the early 1970s by a Geological Survey of Canada society led by Canadian scientist Jack Souther . Edziza was a significant study area by Souther . While mapping , Souther looked at a mineral tenure map of Stikine Country and was surprised to see that many of the small cinder cones in the area had been maintained by mineral tenures . Upon investigation , the staking had been completed for the British Columbia Railway , then under construction to Dease Lake . The staking was designed to provide a ready source of weight for the railway bed . The Geological Survey of Canada agreed to support a series of Canada @-@ wide lectures by Jack Souther to establish the Mount Edziza Provincial Park to protect the Mount Edziza volcanic complex . Coincidentally , Jack Souther had an opportunity to examine the Red Dog ( Spectrum ) property gold veins and he accomplished several section studies of specimens . It was not Souther 's intention to include in the park any of the mineralization within near @-@ surface older rocks . However , the British Columbia Ministry of Parks established the Mount Edziza Recreation Area covering 1 @,@ 007 @.@ 7 km2 ( 389 @.@ 1 sq mi ) on July 27 , 1972 as the park proclamation , providing a 1 to 10 km ( 1 to 6 mi ) wide buffer zone around the park area . On March 21 , 1989 , all but 40 km2 ( 15 sq mi ) of the recreation area , covering the Spectrum gold property on its margin , was surreptitiously merged with Mount Edziza Provincial Park , almost doubling its size to 2 @,@ 287 square kilometres ( 883 sq mi ) .
Souther 's studies in 1992 highlighted the importance and size of the region , and proposed that numerous subglacial eruptions emplaced lava in a sub @-@ ice or ice @-@ contact environment . More recent studies have worked on Souther 's contributions with more detailed studies which are funded by colleges and universities . Since colleges and universities started studying the Mount Edziza volcanic complex , it has been an extremely important volcano for subglacial volcanism because its ice @-@ contact lavas record evidence of ice existence and thickness in an area for which there is very little data on ice conditions before the Illinoian Stage of glaciation , which preceded the last glacial , or " Wisconsin " , period . Several areas of possible basaltic and trachytic ice @-@ contact products were studied in detail on the western flank of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex , in order to approve their ice @-@ contact nature , and to eventually better constrain former ice existence and thickness . Its lava plateau has also been an important cultural resource . In 2006 , Jeff Hungerford , a student of the University of Pittsburgh in Carlisle , Pennsylvania , United States , focused on fieldwork on the region surrounding Edziza 's Tennena Cone , located immediately west of Ice Peak which formed subglacially during the early Holocene period when this area had remnants of glacial ice from the last ice age . Hungerford 's studies in 2006 focused on subglacial volcanism , sampling pillow lavas to be used for degassing studies aimed at determining ice thicknesses during a subglacial eruption , and describing coeval glaciogenic sediments immediately underlying pillow lavas at the distal end of the lava flows . Hungerford also worked on describing glaciogenic sediments immediately underlying lava flows from Ice Peak adjacent to Tennena Cone , which may preserve a record of a one @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old ice sheet .
Kristen LaMoreaux , another student of the University of Pittsburgh , focused on the emplacement of trachyte lava flows and domes . In 2006 , LaMoreaux analyzed jointing patterns at Ornostay Bluff , a viscous series of trachyte lava flows on the western lava plateau of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex . LaMoreaux also examined trachytic lava flows from Koosick Bluff and Triangle Dome , a trachytic lava dome which last erupted during the Pleistocene period . Other studies by LaMoreaux determined criteria for understanding how lava flow thickness may or may not be an indication that the progress of a lava flow was impeded by an ice barrier , resulting in an unusually thick lava flow .
Chira Endress , a student of Dickinson College in Carlisle , Pennsylvania , United States , focused on a section of glaciogenic sediments immediately beneath the same Ice Peak trachyte lava flow sampled and described by Jeff Hungerford during his 2006 studies . Endress ettempted to determine if the sediments were deposited immediately before the lava flow was emplaced , or if they are likely to be much older . Endress has quantified the mineralogy of clasts and sand @-@ sized particles from samples in the sediment , and has determined that the mineralogy of several of the trachytic clasts is very similar to that in the overlying lava flow , including the minerals clinopyroxene , magnetite , alkali feldspar , and aenigmatite . Endress has also found small lenses of pristine basaltic glass , which could have derived from the Pillow Ridge subglacial mound near Mount Edziza .
Alexander S. Lloyd , a student of Dickinson College , focused on the cooling rates of pillow lavas . Lloyd studied in detail the variation in crystal sizes from the edge pristine pillow lava , which could have derived from nearby Pillow Ridge which last erupted during the Pleistocene period .
Courtney Haynes , another student of Dickinson College , focused on mathematics of the pillow lavas in 2007 .
= = Monitoring = =
Currently the Mount Edziza volcanic complex is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active the volcano 's magma system is . The existing network of seismographs has been established to monitor tectonic earthquakes and is too far away to provide a good indication of what is happening beneath the volcanic complex . The network may sense an increase in activity if the volcano becomes very restless , but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption . It might detect activity only once the volcano has started erupting .
A possible way to detect an eruption is studying Edziza 's geological history since every volcano has its own pattern of behavior , in terms of its eruption style , magnitude and frequency , so that its future eruption is expected to be similar to its previous eruptions .
While there is a likelihood of Canada being critically affected by local or close by volcanic eruptions argues that some kind of improvement program is required . Benefit @-@ cost thoughts are critical to dealing with natural hazards . However , a benefit @-@ cost examination needs correct data about the hazard types , magnitudes and occurrences . These do not exist for volcanoes in British Columbia or elsewhere in Canada in the detail required .
Other volcanic techniques , such as hazard mapping , displays a volcano 's eruptive history in detail and speculates an understanding of the hazardous activity that could possibly be expected in the future . A large volcanic hazard program has never existed within the Geological Survey of Canada . The information has been collected in a lengthy , separate way from the support of several employees , such as volcanologists and other geologic scientists . Current knowledge is best established at Mount Meager in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt of southwestern British Columbia and is likely to rise considerably with a temporary mapping and monitoring project . Knowledge at the Mount Edziza volcanic complex and other volcanoes in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is not as established , but certain contributions are being done at least Mount Cayley , another volcano in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt . An intensive program classifiying infrastructural exposure near all young Canadian volcanoes and quick hazard assessments at each individual volcanic edifice associated with recent seismic activity would be in advance and would produce a quick and productive determination of priority areas for further efforts .
The existing network of seismographs to monitor tectonic earthquakes has existed since 1975 , although it remained small in population until 1985 . Apart from a few short @-@ term seismic monitoring experiments by the Geological Survey of Canada , no volcano monitoring has been accomplished at the Mount Edziza volcanic complex or at other volcanoes in Canada at a level approaching that in other established countries with historically active volcanoes . Active or restless volcanoes are usually monitored using at least three seismographs all within approximately 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) , and frequently within 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) , for better sensitivity of detection and reduced location errors , particularly for earthquake depth . Such monitoring detects the risk of an eruption , offering a forecasting capability which is important to mitigating volcanic risk . Currently the Mount Edziza volcanic complex does not have a seismograph closer than 88 kilometres ( 55 mi ) . With increasing distance and declining numbers of seismographs used to indicate seismic activity , the prediction capability is reduced because earthquake location accuracy and depth decreases , and the network becomes less accurate . At carefully monitored volcanoes both the located and noticed events are recorded and surveyed immediately to improve the understanding of a future eruption .
In countries like Canada it is possible that small precursor earthquake swarms might go undetected , particularly if no events were observed ; more significant events in larger swarms would be detected but only a minor subdivision of the swarm events would be complex to clarify them with confidence as volcanic in nature , or even associate them with an individual volcanic edifice .
= Empire : Total War =
Empire : Total War is a turn @-@ based strategy and real @-@ time tactics computer game developed by The Creative Assembly and published by Sega . The fifth installment in the Total War series , the game was released in North America on 3 March 2009 , and in the rest of the world the following day . The game , which focuses on the early modern period of the 18th century , was announced at the Leipzig Games Convention in August 2007 . The Mac OS X version of the game was released by Feral Interactive on 13 September 2012 . Linux version was released , also by Feral Interactive , on 9 December 2014 .
Following a similar style of interface and play to earlier Total War titles , players choose a contemporary 18th @-@ century faction and set out to ensure that faction 's domination over the known world through military force , diplomacy , espionage and economics . Although the campaign element of the game is turn @-@ based , players can direct battles in real @-@ time . Empire : Total War is the first game in the series to allow naval battles to be conducted in real @-@ time . In addition to the standard campaign mode , the game includes a special campaign that follows the development of the United States from the settlement of Jamestown to the American War of Independence . Players may also engage in recreations of several historical battles from the early modern era such as the Battle of Fontenoy , Battle of Rossbach , Battle of Brandywine Creek and Battle of Lagos .
Reviewers gave Empire : Total War a positive response upon release ; several critics commended it as one of the foremost strategy titles of recent times . Praise was bestowed upon the extensive strategy breadth , accurate historical challenges and visual effects . The real @-@ time land battles , with a far greater focus on gunpowder weaponry than earlier Total War titles , were thought to be successfully implemented . Criticisms focused on shortcomings with the game 's artificial intelligence and on the real @-@ time naval battles , the latter of which were perceived to be difficult to control and co @-@ ordinate . The game was a commercial success , topping sales charts within the week of release ; nevertheless , several Creative Assembly employees later commented on issues caused by a perceived early release .
= = Gameplay = =
Empire : Total War is focused on exploration , economics , politics , religion , the founding of colonies and , ultimately , conquest . The game is set in the early modern period , spanning from 1700 until the end of the 18th century , allowing players to lead a variety of contemporary nations to dominate Europe , the Middle East , India , North America and the Caribbean , along with maritime trade theaters including the South American coast , the Gulf of Guinea , the Mozambique Channel and the East Indies . The player will use both complex strategies on the campaign map as well as command military forces in battles on both land and sea . As with previous Total War games , Empire : Total War consists of two broad areas of gameplay : a turn @-@ based geopolitical campaign that allows the user to move armies and navies across the globe , conduct diplomacy , trade , espionage , and the internal politics of their nation , and other tasks needed to run their nation , as well as a real @-@ time battle mode that enables players to direct the course of any battles that take place .
Empire : Total War features approximately fifty 18th @-@ century factions ; however , only eleven of the most powerful and influential factions of the era are playable . In western Europe , the main factions are Great Britain , France , the United Provinces , Spain and Sweden , while central and eastern Europe are represented by Prussia , Austria , Russia and Poland – Lithuania . In the Balkans and Middle East , the Ottoman Empire is depicted as a dominating faction for Islam , while the Maratha Confederacy and Mughal Empire are the major powers on the Indian subcontinent . The New World colonies of the major powers are represented as protectorates of their respective home nations . The establishment of key nations during the era , such as Revolutionary France and the United States , and the fall of native states to the larger empires is reflected in the game , though given player involvement any of these major events may be averted . Smaller factions , including the less powerful German and Italian states , Native American tribes and North African countries are also represented . Each faction varies in territory , strengths and specialities .
A story @-@ driven campaign mode entitled " Road to Independence " is also included in Empire : Total War , where the player guides the British colonisation of America in three structured chapters . The first chapter sees the player establish and develop the English colony of Jamestown , the second focuses on the British fighting both the French and their allied Native American nations in the French and Indian War , whilst the third portion has the player directing the American Continental Army against the British in the War of Independence . This campaign is goal @-@ oriented and strictly historical in nature , and additionally functions as an active learning experience , where players may learn , in each chapter : firstly , to manage and defend regional economies , secondly , to form alliances and to capture and hold territories and exploit their resources on increasingly large scales , and finally , to use all of the player 's acquired skills to survive and achieve victory in a total war against a superior opponent . Completion of " Road to Independence " unlocks the newly formed United States for use in a shorter , later version of the full campaign .
= = = Campaign = = =
The main campaign of Empire : Total War involves a player choosing a faction and moving to forge a global empire during the 18th century . Each faction controls various historical provinces , each with a regional capital , and a number of other settlements ranging from minor villages to prosperous sea ports ( as long as they are coastal territories ) . The player can recruit armies and navies to take and defend provinces by military means , or adopt diplomacy and politics to make advances in the game . In addition , players can use economics and religion to their advantage , as well as clandestine means such as espionage and assassination . The campaign mode is turn @-@ based , with each turn representing six months starting in summer or winter , allowing the player to attend to all needs of their faction before ending their turn and allowing the artificial intelligence to make all other factions ' moves .
The campaign mode features a similar approach to those in Rome : Total War and Medieval II : Total War , but includes several enhancements . The game features three main theatres of play : Europe ( which also includes North Africa and the Middle East ) , the Americas , and the Indian subcontinent , as well as four minor trade theatres : the East Indies , the Ivory Coast , the Straits of Madagascar and Brazil . The way provinces work has been decentralised ; although a central settlement is still used , other locations within a province can deal with trade and technology , allowing factions to disrupt a province 's productivity without assaulting the main settlement . Diplomacy , taxation , and trade have been streamlined with the aim of reducing the need for micromanagement . Part of this streamlining involves allowing the player to appoint ministers to form a cabinet or court to govern the nation . Previous Total War games required the player to promote governors for each major city , whose qualifications would affect only the government of that city , whereas in Empire ministers ' qualifications affect the government of all the player 's cities , modified in each individual case by the size of the metropolitan administration , reflecting the shift to modern nation @-@ statehood from premodern city @-@ statehood . The wandering scholars , spies , emissaries and assassins used in previous titles to deal with the diplomatic , trade and espionage aspects of the game have been replaced with just three units : gentlemen , rakes , and missionaries . The former handle research and can challenge other characters to a duel to dispose of them honourably ( thus eliminating the diplomatic risk of being implicated in an assassination plot ) , while rakes perform clandestine tasks such as spying , assassination , and sabotage . Missionaries serve to convert the populace of regions to the state religion of the nation deploying them , which reduces religious unrest and softens cultural unrest . Isomorphic units also exist for certain nations - namely , Ottomans , Persians , and other near eastern nations replace rakes with Hashashin , while Indian nations use Thugees for the same purposes , and all nations south and east of the Ottoman Empire use Eastern Scholars instead of gentlemen ( these are not completely isomorphic , however , because they cannot duel ) , and a variety of isomorphic religious leaders exist , such as Catholic , Orthodox , and Protestant missionaries , Imams , and Brahmin . The way armies are produced also differs : in addition to being produced by settlements and then moved to generals by the player , generals can now also build their armies directly by recruiting from nearby settlements . Players can now research technologies along a technology tree , leading to advances and new discoveries in areas such as infrastructure , politics , agriculture or the military .
Changes in government may occur during the campaign as the rise of republicanism over the traditional rule by monarchy becomes an issue in the early modern time period . For instance , the United States may only come into existence if the ruling British Empire is unable to maintain social order . In addition , nations with highly unpopular governments and a history of workers ' strikes , riots , or popular demands for change may experience revolutions similar to the French Revolution . When the middle or upper classes become similarly disenchanted with a current government , a civil war or revolt may occur . Factions will also have a varying number of objectives such as establishing successful colonies , trade routes and dominance in certain regions as victory conditions . Rebellions and revolutions may occur , and are influenced by the form of government in place . When a revolution occurs , the player can opt to side with the rebellious forces or the loyalist troops . The type of government installed by the player in their faction will determine how other factions view the player and will influence their diplomatic relations . While religion no longer plays a central role as in Medieval II : Total War , it is still important in helping bring under control newly captured regions and in defining to some degree diplomatic relations between nations .
= = = Warfare = = =
The second major area of gameplay is the battle and or fighting system . Unlike the campaign part of the game , players control battles in real @-@ time . As with all titles in the series after Shogun : Total War , battles in Empire : Total War can take place on both land and water . However , Empire is the first Total War title to allow naval battles as well as land @-@ based engagements to be fought in real @-@ time ; previously , when a naval battle was fought it would be automatically resolved by the game 's artificial intelligence , taking into account factors such as number of ships and crew , and armament types to decide the victor . Automatic resolution of battles during a campaign is an option for both land and sea battles . Outside the main campaign mode , players can participate in recreations of historical battles in the 18th century and early 19th century .
In land engagements , players are given access to an 18th @-@ century army consisting of a variety of units , such as cavalry , musketeers , riflemen and artillery . Each unit has its own intrinsic advantages , disadvantages , cost , and overall level of effectiveness . Players must use 18th @-@ century tactics and formations with the units they have available to defeat their enemies . The terrain of the battlefield and the weather also impact on how a battle is fought . Factions can lay siege to settlements , replacing open land battles with street fighting and close @-@ quarters combat . Each unit has morale , which can increase if the battle goes well for their faction , or decrease in cases such as heavy casualties , army losses , being under artillery bombardment or the death of the general . Tactical situations such as attacking from a flank or a rear , or depriving a unit of allied reinforcements would also cause the morale of the unit to drop dramatically . When a unit 's morale is sufficiently depleted , it will be routed and attempt to flee the battlefield . Depending on whether the unit 's morale is merely broken or entirely shattered , the player may be able to rally the men in the unit and regroup . Victory in battle is achieved by causing every enemy unit to rout , or by annihilating the opposing army . In addition , siege battles can be won if the attacker manages to take control of the settlement 's central square for a set amount of time . Empire : Total War also introduces several new battlefield elements to the Total War series . Units can take cover behind walls or in buildings , allowing increased interactivity with the terrain and making some buildings points of strategic interest . Field defences may be set up in real @-@ time on the battlefield , to adjust for given situations . Infantry units can also scale small obstacles in the field , such as walls and fences . Weapons based on gunpowder are prone to accidents and can misfire . Each unit has different capabilities like Square Formation , Wedge , Diamond , Equip bayonets , or Fire at will .
In naval battles , players can control a fleet of up to twenty ships , varying in class , size , armament and crew . As in land @-@ based conflicts , players must make use of 18th @-@ century tactics to overcome enemy fleets . As with army units , each ship 's crew has a set amount of morale that changes as a battle progresses ; a crew may attempt to withdraw their vessel from the battle if their morale is broken , or in extreme cases may surrender without further enemy action . A battle is won when all of the hostile ships have been sunk or captured or have left the map . Individual ships can be adjusted to allow for a maximum field of fire while attempting to maintain a minimised target , all whilst remaining within an overall formation with the rest of the fleet . Players can designate which parts of a hostile ship they want a crew to target , making ships prone to sustaining authentic damage during a battle : masts can be toppled , sails and gun ports can be destroyed and various other damage can entirely disable a ship 's ability to manoeuvre or eventually sink it . Various types of ammunition can be used during a battle , such as grapeshot , chain @-@ shot and round shot , which have different uses , from killing enemy crew to disabling enemy movement . As battles progress , crews can attempt to board enemy vessels and fight hand @-@ to @-@ hand in an attempt to capture the ship . Lastly , the weather in a naval battle can impact how it is fought ; bad weather can result in effects from poor visibility to endangering a ship 's safety . Ships cannot be repaired in mid @-@ battle unlike its successor , Napoleon : Total War but fires on board ships can be put out automatically .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Multiplayer comes in two forms in Empire : Total War . As with previous Total War titles , players can engage in real @-@ time battles against each other either by creating the composition of their armies themselves , or reenacting historical battles . However , following a one @-@ month delay of Empire : Total War in January 2009 , the addition of a full campaign multiplayer mode was unveiled . The technology to create a multiplayer campaign game was not available in previous Total War games , and the extended development time allowed The Creative Assembly to implement the underlying technology for such a mode in Empire : Total War . The campaign multiplayer mode was first tested in a two @-@ player beta build which was released on 7 December 2009 .
= = Development = =
Empire : Total War was announced by The Creative Assembly and publisher Sega at the Leipzig Games Convention on 22 August 2007 . In their press release , The Creative Assembly outlined various features in the game , such as the new game engine and the addition of real @-@ time naval combat . However , while the game had been in the planning stages since the release of Rome : Total War , it was still in early development ; no gameplay footage was demonstrated at the convention . The game was announced alongside The Creative Assembly 's console title Viking : Battle for Asgard . Media releases over the subsequent months showed screenshots of the game and elaborated more on Empire : Total War 's game mechanics . The game 's trailer , consisting of computer @-@ generated cut scene footage , was released 10 July 2008 . A playable demonstration of the game 's naval combat was showcased at the E3 convention later in July 2008 , where it was estimated that the game would ship in 2009 . The land combat was demonstrated at the later 20
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for 87 , setting up an Australian victory . His achievement was engulfed by controversy , as English media and former players accused him of throwing Australia to victory .
The controversy over Meckiff 's action persisted as throwing was in the spotlight in England , where it was regarded as a growing problem . The issue prompted numerous international discussions and meetings on amending the throwing law and the interpretation thereof . An expected confrontation with English umpires in 1961 was averted when the bowler suffered multiple injuries in the preceding Australian summer and was omitted from the team to tour England , but Meckiff had two strong seasons in domestic cricket that forced the Australian selectors to recall him for the Tests against South Africa in 1963 – 64 . The Victorian 's recall had occurred despite his being no @-@ balled for throwing in two separate Sheffield Shield matches in the previous season . In his first over of the Test , Meckiff was no @-@ balled four times by umpire Egar . Australian captain Richie Benaud chose to not bowl his paceman again , and Meckiff retired from all cricket at the end of the match . The throwing controversy provoked heavy debate among cricket commentators , players and umpires , past and present ; some praised Egar 's no @-@ ball call while others condemned the umpire and felt that the paceman had bowled in the same way as he had always done . Others felt that Meckiff had been set up so that he would be no @-@ balled in an " execution " or " sacrifice " to prove Australia 's resolve against throwing .
= = Early life = =
Meckiff was the second of three children born to Vera and Walter Meckiff ; he had an older brother Don and a younger sister Margaret . Growing up in the south @-@ eastern Melbourne suburb of Mentone , the children went to Mentone Primary School before progressing to Mordialloc @-@ Chelsea High School , where both brothers became prefects . All of the children represented their high school for sport — Don and Ian in athletics , swimming , football and cricket ; and Margaret in softball . The brothers played for Mentone Cricket Club in the Federal District Cricket Association , Ian as a left @-@ arm unorthodox spinner . He routinely dominated the opposition batsmen in the competition , taking 200 wickets at a bowling average of only 4 @.@ 50 during his career with Mentone . He began playing in Mentone 's under @-@ 16 team at the age of 11 .
= = Early career = =
Having failed as a spin bowler in a trial at Richmond in 1950 , Meckiff switched to fast bowling in 1951 – 52 when he began his district career in Victorian Premier Cricket with South Melbourne . He started in the Fourth XI after his brother had to withdraw from a match . The following summer , aged 17 , Meckiff was in the senior team and played in South Melbourne 's first championship @-@ winning side in his debut season in the First XI , although his club career was sometimes interrupted by national service in the reserves . After receiving requests from cricket administrators , the military authorities scheduled the leave of young players for weekends , so that the impact on their careers would be minimised . At the time , Australia lacked bowlers of great pace , so a teammate advised Meckiff to bowl as fast as he could , without regard for accuracy — a plan he successfully adopted .
Meckiff made his first @-@ class debut for Victoria in 1956 – 57 against Western Australia . Coming in to bat with his state 's score at 8 wickets for 77 ( 8 / 77 ) , he made 19 not out to help them reach 131 , before taking three wickets for 45 runs ( 3 / 45 ) to restrict Western Australia to a 34 @-@ run first innings lead . His first wicket was future Australian captain Bob Simpson for a duck , and he followed up by removing Test batsmen Barry Shepherd and Ken Meuleman . Meckiff made 11 in the second innings and took 0 / 40 as Victoria lost by four wickets .
Meckiff 's most prominent showing in his debut season was in the Sheffield Shield match against New South Wales during the Christmas period of 1956 . At the time , the two states were by far the strongest in Australia ; in the past decade , the teams had 18 of the 20 top @-@ two Shield placings between them , and New South Wales were in the process of winning nine consecutive titles . The arch @-@ rivals were at full strength as no international matches were held during the season .
Coming in at 7 / 173 , Meckiff top @-@ scored with 55 — his only first @-@ class 50 — as Victoria batted first and made a late recovery to end with 244 . Meckiff took 3 / 65 , including the wickets of Test players Bill Watson and Richie Benaud as New South Wales responded with 281 . In the Victorian second innings Meckiff managed only 8 as Victoria left their opponents a target of 161 runs for victory . The paceman took 4 / 56 and claimed the final wicket , removing Test opener Jim Burke caught for 8 as New South Wales mustered 160 , causing the match to end in the first tie in Shield history . Burke had returned to bat after being injured earlier in the innings , while New South Wales captain Ian Craig , who had been ill , hauled himself out of bed in an attempt to salvage the match after his team had fallen to 7 / 70 . Meckiff 's other victims in the final innings included Test players Alan Davidson and Johnny Martin .
Strong showings for Victoria earned Meckiff selection in Neil Harvey 's XI for the one @-@ off match against Ray Lindwall 's XI at the start of January 1957 . These annual fixtures were used as trials for the leading players vying for national selection . Lindwall 's men batted first and made 428 ; Meckiff was the most successful bowler , taking 6 / 75 while his fellow @-@ bowlers struggled to make inroads into the opposition batsmen . His first wicket was Test batsman Ken Mackay for 99 , and he followed this by removing Bob Simpson , Norm O 'Neill and Graeme Hole in the middle @-@ order . Meckiff followed his productive bowling with 47 runs in a tail @-@ wagging performance , adding 71 for the eighth wicket with Wally Grout as Harvey 's men responded with 419 . The Victorian took 0 / 18 in the second innings as Lindwall 's team fell for 188 to leave Harvey 's XI with a victory target of 198 , which was achieved with seven wickets in hand .
Meckiff had performed strongly in his debut first @-@ class season , ending with 27 wickets at an average of 23 @.@ 66 . He was the ninth @-@ highest wicket @-@ taker for the Australian summer and his average was superior to all eight bowlers who took more wickets . At season 's end , he was rewarded with selection for Australia 's non @-@ Test tour of New Zealand in February and March 1957 . The hosts had Test status at the time , but Australia refused to ratify games against their trans @-@ Tasman neighbours as Test matches , citing the weakness of the New Zealand team .
The tour represented a changing of the guard in Australian cricket following the tour of England and the Indian subcontinent in 1956 , with the bowling line @-@ up heavily overhauled due to advancing age , injury and loss of form . Australia had lost three Ashes series in a row , and captain Ian Johnson and his deputy Keith Miller retired upon their return home . Johnson was Australia 's first @-@ choice spinner while Miller and the 35 @-@ year @-@ old Ray Lindwall had formed Australia 's new ball pairing for the previous decade . In addition , the fast bowling all rounder Ron Archer suffered a long @-@ term knee injury during the 1956 tour , while paceman Pat Crawford played only one first @-@ class match in 1956 – 57 after his marriage broke down . In the wake of Australia 's decline in the past five years , the selectors turned to youth in an attempt to rebuild the side , resting several established Test representatives from the side . Ian Craig was installed as the nation 's youngest ever captain at the age of 22 , having previously played only six Tests without securing a regular position in the team .
The New Zealand campaign was a chance for the younger players to establish themselves in the national team . Meckiff took 2 / 46 and 3 / 25 in his first @-@ class debut for Australia , an innings win over Otago . He played in the first match against New Zealand , but after taking 0 / 41 in a drawn encounter , he was dropped for the second game . The paceman forced his way back into the team for the third match after claiming 4 / 12 and 5 / 48 to help to set up an innings victory over Auckland .
In the final match , New Zealand batted first and Meckiff played a leading role in Australia 's victory , taking 4 / 28 from 27 @.@ 2 overs to help dismiss the hosts for 198 . The fast bowler was not required to bat as the tourists replied with 8 / 350 declared . He took 2 / 17 in the second innings as the home team fell for 161 before Craig 's men sealed the series with a 10 @-@ wicket win . Meckiff ended the tour with 20 first @-@ class wickets at 10 @.@ 85 , placing him top of the tour bowling averages .
= = Test debut = =
The following season , when the team for the 1957 – 58 South African tour was announced , Lindwall 's name was omitted , despite his 212 Test wickets , second only to Clarrie Grimmett among Australian bowlers . Meckiff was selected for the tour as part of Australia 's generational change , after a single season in first @-@ class cricket , and the squad departed for South Africa in October . On the tour , in five first @-@ class matches ahead of the Tests he took 12 wickets , at 26 @.@ 25 .
Meckiff was one of four Australians to make their debuts in the First Test , which was played on a batsman @-@ friendly surface in Johannesburg over the Christmas holiday period . Under some pressure due to Australia 's decision to discard Lindwall and invest in new talent , he opened the bowling alongside Alan Davidson , who up to that point had taken only 16 wickets at 34 @.@ 06 in 12 Tests . The match began badly for Australia 's inexperienced attack as the South African openers Jackie McGlew and Trevor Goddard put on an opening stand of 176 . Meckiff claimed his maiden Test wicket , and Australia 's first breakthrough , when he bowled Goddard for 90 . He then removed McGlew for 108 and later dismissed Russell Endean and Roy McLean for 50 apiece . South Africa amassed 470 , and Meckiff had the best figures , taking 5 / 125 in the hosts ' first innings , all five being specialist batsmen . When the tourists batted , Meckiff came in at 8 / 313 and held up his end as centurion Richie Benaud did the majority of the scoring in their 42 @-@ run partnership . The debutant ended with 11 in his first Test outing with the bat as Craig 's team ended on 368 . Meckiff took 3 / 52 in the South African second innings , including McGlew for the second time , as the match ended in a draw . This fine start to the Victorian 's international career was halted in the Second Test at Cape Town , where he broke down with injury early in the first innings and took no further part in an Australian innings victory . He did not take a wicket .
Meckiff missed the Third Test in Durban and spent a month on the sidelines , before returning against a combined team from Orange Free State and Border at the end of January . He took 6 / 29 in the first innings , his best return of the tour , and earned a recall for the final two Tests of the five @-@ match series . He was not as effective as he was on debut , taking two and one wickets for the matches respectively , and scoring 26 runs in his only innings of the Fourth Test . Overall , the Victorian paceman had made a steady start to his international career , with 11 Test wickets at an average of 32 @.@ 09 , and 56 runs at 18 @.@ 66 . In the entire tour , he took 33 first @-@ class wickets at 23 @.@ 09 . However , there was a hint of the controversy that was to end his career six years later . A year after the series , the South African Test umpire Bill Marais said he was prepared to no @-@ ball Meckiff and his team @-@ mate Jim Burke for throwing . There were reports that Craig had been tipped off about Marais 's intentions and therefore operated the two bowlers exclusively from the end at which Marais was not officiating .
= = Career peak and start of throwing controversy = =
The Victorian paceman 's international career peaked in 1958 – 59 during the English tour of Australia . He started the season with a match for Victoria against the tourists , taking 4 / 69 and 1 / 16 in a losing effort . His wickets included English Test batsmen Peter Richardson ( twice ) , Arthur Milton and Raman Subba Row .
The Test team was now under the leadership of Benaud — Craig had been forced to withdraw from cricket due to hepatitis ; Meckiff retained his place in the side . Prior to the Tests , English all @-@ rounder Trevor Bailey privately described Meckiff as " the worst bowler ever to represent Australia " , and felt he posed little threat to the visitors . However this proved to be questionable . The Benaud era started well for Australia and Meckiff , with a comfortable eight @-@ wicket victory in the First Test in Brisbane . The paceman took 3
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a month of cricket before returning for the final Test in Melbourne in mid February , where he removed specialist batsmen May and Ted Dexter . On the field it had been a successful series for the Victorian ; he had taken 17 wickets at 17 @.@ 17 , as Australia claimed the series 4 – 0 . These efforts placed him top of the Test bowling averages for the series . When Lindwall was recalled for the Fourth Test in place of the injured Meckiff he was reported to have said " I 'm the last of the straight @-@ arm bowlers " . The veteran paceman played alongside Meckiff in later matches , including the Fifth Test . Meckiff was also prominent in the two Shield matches against New South Wales , when both teams were at full strength . In the first contest he had match figures of 5 / 129 , his victims including Test teammates Burke , O 'Neill and Davidson ( twice ) , but his efforts were unable to prevent defeat . In the return fixture , Meckiff took a total of 7 / 162 ; five of his victims were Australian Test batsmen . Victoria held the upper hand , and were 45 runs short of victory in the second innings when time ran out .
Within the wider cricket community there was a steady crescendo of comment condemning the prevalence of bowlers with suspect actions . Prior to the alteration of the bowling law by the Imperial Cricket Conference in 1960 , the law stated :
For a delivery to be fair , the ball must be bowled , not thrown or jerked ; if either umpire be not entirely satisfied of the absolute fairness of a delivery in this respect , he shall call and signal no @-@ ball instantly upon delivery .
= = = Reaction by players and officials = = =
In contrast to the heated debate in the media , players and administrators refrained from publicly questioning or condemning Meckiff . Neither the England captain May nor manager Freddie Brown raised any concerns about Meckiff 's action after the Test . However , it was later revealed that Brown had wanted to lodge an official complaint with the Australian Board of Control , but May had refused , fearing accusations of sour grapes . Years later , Richardson and some of his fellow batsmen accused the Australian fast bowler of throwing them out , while England paceman Fred Trueman said : " Meckiff 's action was totally illegal and that he should never have been allowed to play " . Richardson 's off spinning team @-@ mate Jim Laker likened Meckiff 's and Burke 's arm actions to those of dart @-@ throwers .
Benaud said he was " completely satisfied that [ Meckiff 's ] delivery was fair and legitimate " , while the selection panel of Don Bradman , Dudley Seddon and Jack Ryder continued to pick the paceman , implying that they regarded his action as legal . Bill Dowling , the chairman of the Australian Board of Control , denounced the media attention on suspect bowling actions as excessive and " magnified out of all proportion " .
Off the field , the throwing controversy was beginning to affect Meckiff adversely . In his 1961 autobiography , prophetically titled Thrown Out , he said the accusations took a deep personal toll on him and his family , and prompted him to shun the public . He became known by the derisive nickname " Chucker " and was credited on the front cover of his autobiography as " Ian ' Chucker ' Meckiff " . Meckiff reported that from the Melbourne Test onwards , his son was verbally abused by classmates ; Meckiff 's parents were persistently told their son bowled illegally . He added that doctors believed his anxiety was contributing to stomach ailments . At the time , players were not allowed to talk to the media during the season , and Meckiff was upset because he could not rebut his accusers while they were free to attack him . He denied ever throwing , but admitted he may have been open to suspicion after bowling 15 to 20 overs in a day 's play , as his body would begin to fall away in the delivery stride due to fatigue . He had a permanently bent bowling arm ; he generated his pace from his wrist action , and asserted that his thin wrists gave the impression that his whole arm was bending .
= = Subcontinent tour = =
In 1959 – 60 , the season started with a Test trial between the XIs of Lindwall and Benaud . Meckiff claimed a match total of 4 / 90 for Lindwall 's men and was selected for the Test tour of Pakistan and India . Before the team departed , Meckiff demonstrated his new bowling action , which used a rigid left arm during the run @-@ up , before swinging the arm over during the delivery stride . Over the next two years , sceptics and sporting opponents mostly regarded his action as fair , and said so in public . He was not called for throwing in either India or Pakistan , meaning that he had played in five nations without being sanctioned .
Meckiff was wicketless in Australia 's win in the First Test against Pakistan on a matting wicket in Dacca ( now in Bangladesh ) . In the first innings of the Second Test in Lahore , he took three wickets , including that of opposition captain Hanif Mohammad ; the match was Australia 's last Test win on Pakistani soil for 39 years . Before the Third Test , he helped the tourists beat the President 's XI in a low @-@ scoring game in which none of the four innings totalled over 140 . Meckiff claimed four wickets in the match , and was batting ( he scored two not out ) when Australia reached their victory target with three wickets in hand . He missed the drawn Third Test in Karachi .
In the next leg of the tour , Meckiff returned to the Australian side for the First Test against India in Delhi . After claiming 1 / 52 in the first innings , he compiled his Test best score of 45 not out . He came in to bat with his team 's score at 8 / 402 and helped Lindsay Kline and Rorke push Australia 's score to 468 , a first innings lead of 333 . Meckiff was unable to capture a wicket in the Indian second innings as Benaud 's men won by an innings and 117 runs . He bowled with little success in the Second Test in Kanpur , taking 1 / 52 in a spin @-@ dominated match in which Jasu Patel claimed 14 wickets to bowl India to their first @-@ ever Test win over Australia . Meckiff was unbeaten on 14 when India secured the final wicket . In his first two Tests on Indian soil , Meckiff 's only victim had been Chandu Borde , whom he dismissed twice .
Meckiff 's most successful Test during the Indian tour was the drawn third match at Brabourne Stadium in Bombay , where he captured 4 / 79 and 3 / 67 . In the Indian first innings , after removing opener Nari Contractor for 108 , Meckiff captured four of the next five wickets as India collapsed from 3 / 199 to 8 / 246 — they were eventually all out for 289 . In the second innings he secured three quick wickets as the hosts slumped from 0 / 99 to 4 / 116 before a recovery which prevented their defeat . Meckiff continued to hold the upper hand over Borde , dismissing him in both innings . The Victorian bowler had little success in the final two Tests , taking only three wickets as Australia won the series 2 – 1 . He ended the subcontinental tour with 15 wickets at 35 @.@ 73 , and scored 70 runs at 23 @.@ 33 . He had particular success against Borde , dismissing him five times in as many Tests . Meckiff returned to Australia in time to play his solitary Sheffield Shield match for the 1959 – 60 season , taking the only ten @-@ wicket match haul of his career . He took 5 / 41 and 5 / 84 to set up an easy win over Western Australia . His first innings effort helped dismiss Western Australia for 141 , and Victoria replied with 431 to move into a match @-@ winning position . He also helped South Melbourne to another district title , taking 9 / 51 — including a hat @-@ trick — in the last match of the regular season against Fitzroy . This victory allowed South Melbourne to climb from seventh to fourth in the table and become the last qualifier for the semi @-@ finals . They subsequently won their semi @-@ final and the grand final to secure the title .
= = Alterations to the throwing law = =
In 1960 , at a meeting of the Imperial Cricket Conference in London , cricket 's " throwing law " was changed to forbid the straightening of the arm at the instant of the ball 's delivery . The Australian Board of Control were so concerned about the controversy and its possible impact on the Australian game that they sent Board chairman Dowling and Board member Sir Donald Bradman to the meeting , rather than the customary Britain @-@ based representative . Despite the agreed change in the law , because of conflicting interpretations in different countries a compromise was agreed , which specified an amnesty during the forthcoming 1961 Australian tour to England . It was agreed that on the tour , umpires would privately report any concerns about bowling actions to the teams concerned , for them to remedy . After the tour , umpires would " call " bowlers whenever they felt the new law to have been breached .
On his return to Australia Dowling angrily accused the English cricket community of pre @-@ judging Meckiff . Dowling said the strident press attacks on Meckiff had amounted to intimidation of umpires through the media , and claimed that some administrators had privately told him that the Australian paceman would be called if he toured England . The president of the Marylebone Cricket Club , Sir Hubert Ashton , said he hoped Australia would not choose Meckiff for their 1961 tour .
= = Tied Test against the West Indies , 1960 – 61 = =
The Victorian was not called during the 1960 – 61 Australian season , but his performances were ineffective and he was repeatedly hampered by injuries . In particular , a strained achilles tendon restricted his speed and penetration , particularly in the lead @-@ up to the opening Test . Meckiff played in the First and the Third Tests , taking two wickets at 117 @.@ 00 and scoring 12 runs at 6 @.@ 00 ; he was unable to complete either match , sustaining injuries during the second innings of both fixtures . These fitness problems resulted in his omission for the three other Tests . During the summer , Meckiff 's bowling was passed by Col Egar , who later ended his career . He noted that the umpire had told him there was little point in changing his action .
Meckiff took match figures of 4 / 90 as Victoria started the season with a nine @-@ wicket win over South Australia , but he managed only 2 / 122 as his state lost by an innings to the touring West Indies in the next fixture . The paceman removed Rohan Kanhai , who made 252 of the visitors ' 493 , and captain Frank Worrell , who contributed 82 . During the heavy defeat , Meckiff equal top @-@ scored with 24 not out in the first innings , as the hosts struggled against the mysterious spin of Sonny Ramadhin . Despite his unpenetrative performance with the ball , the paceman was retained for the First Test in Brisbane . The Caribbean team batted first and attacked Meckiff , taking more than seven runs per over from his bowling . The paceman ended with 1 / 129 from 18 overs as the visitors amassed 453 ; his only wicket was that of Gary Sobers for 132 . The West Indian batsman had been particularly severe on Meckiff and was ironically dismissed by " the day 's worst ball " — a leg side full toss that he hit to mid @-@ on . In the second innings , Meckiff broke down after only four overs , but came out to bat on 14 December , late in Australia 's climactic run @-@ chase , for which he was often remembered . At the end of a dramatic final day , Australia needed seven runs from the final over for victory , and they had three wickets in hand . The home side had seemed destined for a win after Davidson and Benaud had fought back with a century stand for the seventh wicket in the final session . Both were well set and had passed 50 , but the tourists halted Australia 's momentum by running out Davidson with a direct hit from the last ball of the previous over . Benaud was caught behind on the second ball of the final over attempting a hook and Meckiff came to the crease to join Wally Grout . Five runs were needed from six balls with two wickets in hand .
The injured paceman blocked the first ball he faced — the third of the over — and ran a bye after missing the next . The West Indian wicket @-@ keeper tried to run Meckiff out , but missed the stumps at the non @-@ striker 's end with the batsman many metres out of his ground . Grout top @-@ edged the following ball straight up into the air , but the two fielders who converged beneath it collided and dropped the catch , allowing the Australians to take another run . The hosts thus needed three runs from the last three balls . Meckiff faced the sixth ball ; it was a half volley and he lofted it over square leg . The ball looked as though it would reach the boundary for a match @-@ winning four runs ; however , after landing close to the fence , it stopped rolling a metre short on the slow outfield . Grout attempted a third run , which would have won the match , but an accurate long throw saw him run out . The last man Lindsay Kline came in for the final two balls , with scores level , and the Australian pair agreed to run under all circumstances . Meckiff backed up significantly in anticipation of a quick single , and set off for the winning run after his partner hit the ball to square leg . However , he was run out by roughly a metre when Joe Solomon directly hit the stumps from side on , causing the first tie in Test history . Umpire Col Hoy said of his decision to give Meckiff out : " God , it was easy . He was miles out . " The entire stadium — players and spectators alike — invaded the ground in excitement , but nobody was sure of the exact scores . It was only later that they realised the match was the first Tied Test ; Meckiff initially thought Australia had lost and blamed himself for the result .
After missing the Australian victory in the Second Test due to injury , Meckiff returned for the Third Test and he was again attacked , taking 1 / 74 from 13 overs in the first innings , his sole victim being Conrad Hunte . He then broke down after five overs in the second innings . Davidson also left the field with injury and the tourists took advantage ; they attacked the remaining bowlers , levelling the series 1 – 1 . The Victorian did not recover in time for the rest of the Tests .
Persistently hampered by ankle and back injuries , Meckiff aggregated only 19 first @-@ class wickets at 40 for the summer . His best innings performance was 4 / 39 against Queensland and he was unable to claim more than five wickets in any single match . In one match against arch @-@ rivals New South Wales , the Victorian took a total of 5 / 155 , all of his wickets being Test batsmen . Meckiff was not selected for the Ashes tour . His lack of form saved the Australian selectors the difficult choice of whether to omit him because of his action and avoid a potential run @-@ in with umpires in England . Critics claimed that his new bowling action adopted in 1959 – 60 had made him legitimate but reduced his pace and effectiveness .
= = No @-@ balled in the Sheffield Shield , 1962 – 63 = =
The throwing controversy subsided during the 1961 English season , and the 1961 – 62 Australian season was purely domestic , with no touring international teams . As a result , there were no pressing diplomacy imperatives involving throwing . Meckiff was Victoria 's leading bowler with 28 wickets at 27 @.@ 14 in eight matches and was not called . His best performance was 5 / 53 in the first innings of the match against Queensland at the MCG , which ended in defeat for the home team . Despite healthy results for the season overall , the paceman struggled and took match figures of 2 / 136 and 3 / 112 as Victoria lost both their matches against the dominant New South Wales XI , who won their ninth successive Shield . At the end of the season , Meckiff was part of an International XI that toured New Zealand and played against the hosts ' national team and against teams from India and Pakistan . He had little success , taking four wickets at 53 @.@ 00 in three matches .
In 1962 – 63 , Meckiff was again under the spotlight when Ted Dexter 's Englishmen toured Australia . He topped the bowling averages for the Australian first @-@ class season with 58 wickets at 19 @.@ 86 from ten matches , as Victoria won the Sheffield Shield , ending New South Wales ' run of titles . Meckiff and Alan Connolly formed an effective pace pairing , helping Victoria to win four of its eight Shield games , and take first innings points in two others .
Meckiff was hoping to regain his Test place , and started his 1962 – 63 campaign in a Sheffield Shield match against South Australia . After Victoria made 174 , the paceman took 4 / 65 to dismiss South Australia for 141 in the first innings . In the second innings he took 3 / 76 to help seal a win . He continued his early season form in taking match figures of 7 / 179 against Western Australia , but was unable to prevent defeat . Despite these performances , Meckiff was overlooked for the First Test . He had another chance to vie for national selection when Victoria played England after the opening Test , and took match figures of 4 / 90 as the tourists completed a five @-@ wicket victory . He dismissed Ray Illingworth , Geoff Pullar and Alan Smith as Victoria took a four @-@ run first innings lead , but the hosts collapsed in their second innings and Dexter 's men reached their target of 180 with five wickets in hand .
Victoria then played the first of their two matches for the season against their arch @-@ rivals New South Wales , just before the Second Test . Meckiff took 3 / 33 , removing Grahame Thomas , Benaud and Martin as Victoria dismissed the reigning champions for 132 . He contributed 32 runs at the end of the Victorian first innings reply , helping to extend his team 's first @-@ innings lead to 135 runs . In the New South Wales second innings Meckiff took 3 / 73 , removing Test players Simpson , Davidson and Benaud , to leave his team with a target of 95 runs to win , which they reached with eight wickets in hand .
Despite this effort , he was not selected for the Second Test . His season was then marred when he was called for throwing for the first time in any competition . In January 1963 , Victoria played South Australia at the Adelaide Oval . After Victoria had made 218 , Meckiff removed both openers — Les Favell and Ken Cunningham — for the cost of 19 runs before Jack Kierse no @-@ balled the fourth ball of his fourth over . He continued to bowl ; his remaining deliveries were deemed legal by the umpires , and he ended with 5 / 84 in South Australia 's reply of 8 / 408 declared . The hosts had a target of only 108 in the second innings for victory , but Meckiff removed Favell , Cunningham and Neil Dansie with the new ball to destabilise the run @-@ chase . He ended with 3 / 25 as the South Australians stumbled to 7 / 86 and
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Schlumbergera microsphaerica ( K.Schum. ) Hoevel
syn . Cereus microsphaerica K.Schum. , Epiphyllanthus microsphaericus ( K.Schum. ) Britton & Rose , Cereus obtusangulus K.Schum. , Epiphyllanthus obtusangulus ( K.Schum. ) A.Berger , Zygocactus obtusangulus ( K.Schum. ) Loefgr . , S. obtusangula ( K.Schum. ) D.R.Hunt
Schlumbergera opuntioides ( Loefgr . & Dusén ) D.R.Hunt
syn . Epiphyllum opuntioides Loefgr . & Dusén , Zygocactus opuntioides ( Loefgr . & Dusén ) Loefgr . , Epiphyllanthus opuntioides ( Loefgr . & Dusén ) Moran
Schlumbergera orssichiana Barthlott & McMillan
Schlumbergera russelliana ( Hook . ) Britton & Rose
syn . Epiphyllum russellianum Hook . , S. epiphylloides Lemaire , nom. illeg .
Schlumbergera truncata ( Haw . ) Moran
syn . Epiphyllum truncatum Haw . , Zygocactus truncatus ( Haw . ) K.Schum. , nom. illeg .
Four hybrids have been named , all made in cultivation ( although the first may possibly occur in the wild ) . The International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants recommends that cultivated plants should be named under its rules , not those appropriate for natural species and hybrids . The Group names given below were provided by McMillan and Horobin .
Schlumbergera × buckleyi ( T.Moore ) Tjaden
= S. russelliana × S. truncata ; S. Buckleyi Group
syn . Epiphyllum buckleyi T.Moore , E. rollissonii T.Moore , S. bridgesii ( Lemaire ) Loefgr .
Schlumbergera × eprica Süpplie =
S. orssichiana × S. russelliana
Schlumbergera × exotica Barthlott & Rauh
= S. truncata × S. opuntioides ; S. Exotica Group
Schlumbergera × reginae McMillan =
S. truncata × S. orssichiana ; S. Reginae Group
The Easter Cactus was at one time placed in Schlumbergera , but has flowers which are different in structure . See Hatiora gaertneri : Taxonomy .
= = Distribution , habitat and ecology = =
Schlumbergera occurs only in the coastal mountains of south @-@ east Brazil , in the states of São Paulo , Rio de Janeiro , Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo . Sites where it has been found range from close to the Tropic of Capricorn northwards to 20 ° S , i.e. in the southernmost part of the tropics . Plants grow at altitudes from 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) in the case of S. truncata to 2 @,@ 780 metres ( 9 @,@ 120 ft ) in the case of S. microsphaerica , either in the coastal moist forests or in rocky areas . The natural distribution of Schlumbergera species has become confused because European cultivars were deliberately introduced into some areas , including the Serra dos Órgãos National Park , by the Brazilian Agricultural Department , to compensate for over @-@ collecting of wild plants .
Because of their height and proximity to the Atlantic Ocean , the coastal mountains produce high altitude moist forests – warm moist air is forced upwards into higher , colder locations where it condenses . Schlumbergera species grow in habitats which are generally relatively cool , shaded and of high humidity . David Hunt describes collecting specimens in conditions of cloud , drizzle and overnight temperatures down to − 4 ° C ( 25 ° F ) . Plants are epiphytic or lithophytic , growing on moss @-@ covered tree branches or in rock crevices , often in small pockets of substrate formed from decayed leaves and other vegetation . S. microsphaerica is found at higher altitudes , above 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) , in barren rocky habitats , and tolerates higher light levels .
The flowers of Schlumbergera have adaptations for pollination by hummingbirds : tubular flowers with abundant nectar , and colours towards the red end of the spectrum . Most species require cross @-@ pollination to set seed . The exceptions are S. kautskyi and S. microsphaerica ; as noted above , the latter is found at higher altitudes where humming birds may be absent or less common .
The fruits of Schlumbergera do not open spontaneously when ripe , and appear to be adapted for distribution by birds , which eat the seeds and pulp contained in the fruit . Birds have been observed removing seeds which had stuck to their beaks by rubbing them on tree branches , where the seeds might be able to germinate . Segments may also break off from the stems and take root , thus enabling plants to propagate vegetatively .
= = Cultivation = =
= = = History = = =
Schlumbergera truncata was in cultivation in Europe by 1818 , and S. russelliana was introduced in 1839 . The two species were deliberately crossed in England by W. Buckley resulting in the hybrid now called S. × buckleyi , first recorded in 1852 . By the 1860s , a substantial number of cultivars ( cultivated varieties ) were available in a range of colours and habits , and were used as ornamental plants in " stoves " ( heated greenhouses ) and in houses , where they were popular for their autumn and winter flowering . Many cultivars were selected seedlings of S. truncata , but at least three S. × buckleyi hybrids were available , of which one , now called S. ' Buckleyi ' , is thought to be the original Christmas Cactus . By the early part of the 20th century , the genus had become less popular , and many of the early cultivars were lost .
From around the 1950s onwards , breeding resumed in Europe , North America , Australia and New Zealand . New plants were produced by crossing among the species and existing cultivars of S. truncata , S. russelliana and the hybrid S. × buckleyi . Treatments which induced mutations were also used . The result was a wide range of flower colours which had not been available before , including the first true yellow to be sold commercially , S. ' Gold Charm ' ( which was a sterile triploid ) . Breeders aimed for plants which grew strongly , were upright at the point of sale rather than pendulous , had many flowers or buds , and were adapted to living as house plants .
In the 1980s the species S. orssichiana was also used in crosses . The hybrid of S. truncata and S. orssichiana has been named S. × reginae or S. Reginae Group ; one of the first cultivars was S. ' Bristol Queen ' . S. opuntioides crosses have also been made , but have not resulted in commercially available cultivars .
= = = Modern cultivars = = =
McMillan and Horobin have listed hundreds of modern European , North American and Australian cultivars , which they put into a number of cultivar groups :
The Truncata Group contains all cultivars with mainly S. truncata characteristics : stem segments with pointed teeth ( dentate ) ; zygomorphic flowers held more or less horizontally , usually above the horizontal ; and pollen which is yellow .
The Buckleyi Group contains all cultivars with at least some features clearly showing inheritance from S. russelliana : stem segments with rounded , more symmetrical teeth ( crenate ) ; more regular flowers which hang down , below the horizontal ; and pollen which is pink . There is considerable variation within this Group ; McMillan and Horobin introduced subcategories : " TB " for those more like S. truncata and " BT " for those more like the classic S. × buckleyi , with " B " reserved for the first generation ( F1 ) S. × buckleyi hybrids .
The Reginae Group contains cultivars known to be derived from hybrids with S. orssichiana .
The Exotica Group is used for the small number of hybrids involving S. opuntioides .
Attempts have also been made to classify cultivars by colour . A difficulty is that the flowers of many cultivars exhibit different colours depending on the temperature during bud formation and growth . In particular , temperatures below 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) produce pink tones in otherwise white and yellow cultivars , and deepen the colour in pink and red cultivars . The availability of iron to the plant has also been suggested to affect flower colour .
In the United States , cultivars are propagated in large numbers for sale before Thanksgiving Day ( the fourth Thursday in November ) . In Europe , plants are mainly sold later in the year , in the period before Christmas . A single Dutch grower ( de Vries of Aalsmeer , the Netherlands ) was reported in 1989 as producing 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 plants per year .
= = = Common names = = =
Plants are offered for sale under a variety of common names . The earliest English common name was " Christmas Cactus " . In Europe , where plants are largely produced for sale in the period before Christmas , this remains the most widely used common name in many languages for cultivars of all groups ( e.g. Weihnachtskaktus in German , Cactus de Noël in French , and Cacto de Navidad in Spanish ) . This is also the name used in Canada . In the United States , where plants are produced for the Thanksgiving holiday in November , the name " Thanksgiving Cactus " is used ; " Christmas Cactus " may then be restricted to cultivars of the Buckleyi Group , particularly the very old cultivars such as ' Buckleyi ' . The name " Crab Cactus " ( referring to the clawed ends of the stems ) is also used for the Truncata Group . " Link Cactus " is another common name , describing the way that the stems of the genus as a whole are made up of linked segments . The name " Chain Cactus " is common in New Zealand , and may also refer to Hatiora species .
The Easter Cactus or Whitsun Cactus is now placed in the genus Hatiora , but was at one time included in Schlumbergera ( or one of its synonyms ) . The name " Holiday Cactus " has been used to include both Schlumbergera and Hatiora cultivars .
= = = Care of cultivars = = =
When grown as house plants , Schlumbergera cultivars are said to be relatively easy to care for . McMillan and Horobin describe in detail their cultivation in both commercial and domestic conditions . Their specific recommendations include :
Growing medium - Free @-@ draining , humus @-@ rich , somewhat acid growing media are used for commercial production , such as a mixture of peat or leafmould and an inert material such as grit , sharp sand or polystyrene beads . It is recommended that plants should be grown in relatively small pots ; half @-@ height pots are suitable .
Watering - They are more tolerant of drought than many house plants , but can be damaged by both under- and over @-@ watering . Keeping the growing medium just moist throughout the year avoids either extreme .
Light - They can be damaged by exposure to more than small amounts of sunlight . Members of the Buckleyi Group , such as the old @-@ fashioned Christmas Cactus with pendant flowers , are more tolerant of high light levels than members of the Truncata Group , such as most of the modern cultivars . Too much light causes stems to take on a reddish colouration ; however , very low light levels will prevent flowering . Day length is important in controlling flowering ; continuous darkness for at least 12 hours is necessary to induce bud formation . A period of about 8 days with 16 hours of darkness at 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) has been shown to cause flower buds to form . Lower temperatures slow this process . The advice sometimes given to withhold water to produce flower buds has been shown to be incorrect .
Propagation - Both commercially and in the home , propagation can be achieved by using short pieces of stem , one to three segments long , twisted off rather than cut . Cuttings are allowed to dry for 1 – 7 days , forming a callus at the broken end , and then rooted in an open growing medium . Temperatures above 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) and up to 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) in long day / short night conditions speed rooting .
= = = Pests and diseases = = =
In cultivation , these plants have been described as " remarkably free from pests and diseases " . Two significant insect pests are aphids on young shoots , buds and flowers , and root mealybugs which attack below soil level . Stems and roots can be rotted by diseases caused by fungi and similar organisms ; these include infections by species of Fusarium ( a fungus ) , and Phytophthora and Pythium ( both water moulds ) . Approved chemical treatments can be used in the case of insect attack or these diseases .
Aphids , mealybugs and other invertebrate pests can spread viruses . Symptoms vary with the species , but a loss of vigour is usual . Cactus virus X has been isolated from S. truncata . There is no treatment for virus diseases ; it is recommended that infected plants be destroyed .
= Got the Life =
" Got the Life " is a song written and recorded by American band Korn for their third studio album , Follow the Leader which was released as the album 's second single on November 23 , 1998 . It was recorded in April 1998 at NRG Recording Studios . The band decided they would release the song as a promotional single after each member found that there was something " special " about the song . The single had " phenomenal success " , and its music video was requested more than any other video on MTV 's TRL , making it the first officially " retired " music video .
" Got the Life " did not receive much attention in the music press ; however , the song was rewarded a gold certification in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association . It peaked at number one on the Canadian RPM Rock / Alternative Chart chart , as well as number fifteen on the US Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and number seventeen on the US Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart .
= = Background and release = =
" Got the Life " was recorded in April 1998 at NRG Recording Studios in North Hollywood , California . After recording the song , the group 's members each felt that there was something " special " about the song . Lead vocalist Jonathan Davis claimed that it reminded him of " something you might hear at raves " , which were very popular at the time . Even though they thought that many fans would not appreciate the song , they released it as a promotional single in early August 1998 , before the release of Follow the Leader . " Got the Life " was said by Leah Furman to be " revolved around the mixed blessings of fame . "
The single was sent to radio stations on July 24 , 1998 , and has been released five times . The single 's first release was on August 10 , 1998 , where it was released with two versions in the United States . The single contains different mixes of the song , including " Deejay Punk @-@ Roc Remix " and the instrumental " D.O.S.E. ' s Woollyback Remix . " The single also apprehends B @-@ sides and remixes to earlier songs . Stephen Thomas Erlewine reviewed the single , giving it two out of five stars , and noting that " the ' Deejay Punk @-@ Roc Remix ' is pretty good , but the instrumental is of negligible worth . The second part of the single is backed with ' I Can Remember ' plus ' Good God ( OOMPH ! vs. Such A Surge Remix ) ' . The single was also released in Australia , and in the United Kingdom twice . The single was considered to have had " phenomenal success " .
= = Music video = =
Korn decided to shoot a music video for " Got the Life " after the reception from fans and employees at NRG Recording Studios was very positive . The music video 's concept was by the band 's bassist Reginald " Fieldy " Arvizu . Their managers advised them to request Joseph Kahn to direct the video . Kahn also was the director for " A.D.I.D.A.S. " music video in 1997 . After asking Kahn to direct their video , he responded saying " That 's the stupidest idea I 've ever heard . "
Offended by and against his response , Korn hired McG , director of the band 's music videos from their self @-@ titled debut album — " Blind " , " Shoots and Ladders " , " Clown " , and " Faget " . On January 12 , 1999 , music video was the first video that is considered to be " retired " from MTV 's daily top ten countdown , Total Request Live . MTV 's Total Request Live said the song was the most requested music video " for too long so they had to stop airing it so other artists would have a chance at the coveted number one spot . " The video , however , never actually reached number one ; it peaked at number two . ( In fact , for the majority of its run , it was stuck at third behind videos by N 'Sync and Britney Spears ; at the time , Daly jokingly called the # 3 position on the countdown " The Korn Spot " . ) Deuce , the video album where " Got the Life " ' s music video appears on , was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . California rapper WC makes a cameo appearance in the video dancing , along with Fred Durst , Sam Rivers , and Wes Borland of Limp bizkit can be seen in the end of the video .. In an interview with Scuzz in 2013 , Munky confirms that a young Eminem had in fact been an extra on the video and had offered him a demo .
= = Reception = =
Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave it two out of five stars , although he stated " it rivaled such previous masterworks as ' A.D.I.D.A.S. ' and ' Shoots and Ladders ' . Their fusion of metal and rap was stronger than ever , boasting their best rhythm tracks to date . Which is good , since the B @-@ sides of the ' Got the Life ' singles were devoted to remixes . "
" Got the Life " became Korn 's first entry on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock Songs and Alternative Songs charts , peaking at number fifteen and number seventeen , respectively . The song peaked at number twenty @-@ six in Australia , and shipments of a CD single have surpassed 35 @,@ 000 units . " Got the Life " ' s music video debuted at number eight on MTV 's Total Request Live , on September 17 , 1998 .
= = Composition = =
" Got the Life " is three minutes and forty @-@ five seconds long . It is the shortest song on Follow the Leader , and like the album the single was produced by Steve Thompson and Toby Wright , and was mixed by Brendan O 'Brien . " Got the Life ( Deejay Punk @-@ Roc remix ) " was mixed by Deejay Punk @-@ Roc and Jonathan Davis , and was recorded at Airdog Funk Research Department and Liverpool , England . The D.O.S.E. ' s Woollyback remix was mixed by D.O.S.E. in courtesy of Mercury Records .
The song starts off with a single percussion beat , leading into the refrain riff , with a triple guitar overdub . When the verses emerge , lead singer Jonathan Davis begins singing with the lyrical line " Hate , something , sometime , someway , something kicked on the front floor . " Korn performed the song with the following members : Jonathan Davis performing vocals , Brian " Head " Welch and James " Munky " Shaffer performing guitars , Reginald " Fieldy " Arvizu , performing on the bass guitar , and David Silveria on the drum kit . They produced a sound described by employees of Allmusic as having a style of alternative metal , heavy metal , and rap – metal genres .
In a 2013 interview with Scuzz , Jonathan Davis revealed that " Got The Life " originally contained an audio sample at the very beginning - a piece of dialogue spoken by actor Dom DeLuise in the 1974 film Blazing Saddles . Warner Brothers would not allow its usage , however , so it was removed prior to the song 's release .
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart performance = =
= Svalbard Rocket Range =
The Svalbard Rocket Range ( Norwegian : Svalbard Rakettskytefelt ) or SvalRak is a launch site for sounding rockets at Ny @-@ Ålesund in Svalbard , Norway . The site has been in use since 1997 and is owned by Andøya Rocket Range , which is again owned by the Norwegian Space Centre and the Kongsberg Group . SvalRak 's location at the 79th parallel north makes it well @-@ suited for launching rockets to investigate Earth 's magnetic field . It is used mostly by American , Japanese and Norwegian researchers . It is the world 's northernmost launch site .
= = History = =
Planning of a launch site in Ny @-@ Ålesund started in 1993 , a location chosen because of its ideal location to study the polar cusp . Construction of the site started in the summer of 1997 . The Norwegian Institute for Air Research , which conducts air measurements in Ny @-@ Ålesund , was concerned that the rockets could pollute their measurements . A test rocket was launched on 15 November . The first proper launch was a Norwegian rocket , Isbjørn 1 , which contained instruments from University Centre in Svalbard , the University of Tromsø and the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment . The 510 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 120 lb ) rocket had a payload of 70 kilograms ( 150 lb ) and reached 120 kilometers ( 75 mi ) altitude . It was followed by two Black Brant rockets for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration which reached an altitude of 500 kilometers ( 310 mi ) .
SvalRak originally held permission to fire four rockets every four years . Forty @-@ one rockets had been launched by 2004 , with a peak altitude of 1 @,@ 108 kilometers ( 688 mi ) . The site was upgraded in 2008 .
= = Use = =
SvalRak is the world 's northern @-@ most rocket launch site , and is located at the 79th parallel north . This makes it an ideal location for sending instruments into Earth 's magnetic field and the polar cups , cleft and cup . It is also used for studying the Magnetopause and aurora borealis , for which Ny @-@ Ålesund is the most convenient location because of its ease of access . It is owned by Andøya Rocket Range , which is owned by the Norwegian Space Center ( 90 percent ) and the Kongsberg Group ( 10 percent ) . SvalRak has no permanent staff in Ny @-@ Ålesund . The main users are American and Japanese and to a less extent Norwegian .
= Proposition Infinity =
" Proposition Infinity " ( " Proposition ∞ " ) is the fourth episode of the sixth season of the animated sitcom Futurama , and originally aired July 8 , 2010 on Comedy Central . In the episode , Amy Wong and Bender fall in love and begin a culturally taboo " robosexual " relationship . After facing anti @-@ robosexual sentiments from society , they elect to get married and advocate to legalize robosexual marriage through " Proposition Infinity . "
The episode was written by Michael Rowe and directed by Crystal Chesney @-@ Thompson . " Proposition Infinity " served as a satire of the controversy over same @-@ sex marriage and California Proposition 8 ( generally referred to as " Proposition 8 " ) , which banned same @-@ sex marriage in California in November 2008 . The title of the episode is derived from Proposition 8 , turning the 8 sideways to create the symbol for infinity ( ∞ ) , hence " Proposition ∞ " . Though the episode satirizes arguments for same @-@ sex marriage , it leans favorably toward the idea of allowing same @-@ sex marriage . The theme of the episode revisits the social taboo of robosexual relationships presented in earlier episodes " Space Pilot 3000 " and " I Dated a Robot " . Openly gay actor George Takei of Star Trek fame , who married his partner in California during the debate over Proposition 8 , returns as a guest star in the series .
" Proposition Infinity " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Co @-@ creator David X. Cohen named it as one of his favorite episodes of the sixth season .
= = Plot = =
While bailing Bender out of jail after he was arrested for vandalism , Amy flirts with several inmates . Infuriated at her obsession with " bad boys " , Kif breaks up with her . The break @-@ up severely upsets Amy , and to make her feel better , Leela , Fry , and Bender take her to Forbidden Planet Hollywood . Bender mocks Amy all night , insulting and infuriating her , but this leads the two to have sex because of her interest in " bad boys " . After this , Amy and Bender discover a mutual attraction for each other and enter into a " robosexual " relationship , which is taboo in the 31st century . Because it is frowned upon , they keep quiet about their relationship , even to their friends and co @-@ workers . The co @-@ workers grow suspicious , but think little of it .
However , during a mission , Amy and Bender are discovered cuddling together . Professor Farnsworth immediately disapproves of this , but the rest of the crew accepts Bender and Amy 's relationship . The couple is thankful , since Amy knows that her family would disapprove . However , the Professor immediately informs Amy 's parents and then calls Reverend Preacherbot to deal with Bender , who is sent to a robosexual rehabilitation camp . While at her parent 's ranch , where her parents continuously introduce her to non @-@ robot suitors , Amy is saved by Fry , who poses as her new non @-@ robot beau to get her parents off her back . The crew then rescues Bender from the rehabilitation camp . At the Planet Express building , Bender proposes to Amy . The Professor reminds them that robosexual marriage is illegal in New New York . To fight against this , Bender and Amy launch a campaign for the legalization of robosexual marriage .
They launch " Proposition Infinity " ( " Proposition ∞ " ) which , in days before the election , slumps in the polls . Amy loses hope , but Bender says that they will win due to his upcoming debate against Professor Farnsworth , the leader of the Proposition Infinity opposition . At the debate ( moderated by the head of George Takei ) Bender gives a heartfelt speech , which the audience applauds . The Professor follows with his rebuttal , relaying a story from his past where he was in love with a fellow scientist named Eunice whom he later discovered in bed with a robot , breaking his heart . Because of this , the Professor hates robosexuals . This does not impress the audience . Frustrated by the audience 's lack of sympathy for his cause , he accidentally admits that Eunice was actually a robot . Having suppressed the truth for so long , Farnsworth reveals that the robot 's name was actually Unit and that he caught her in bed with another robot . With his heart broken , he takes his anger out on other robosexuals . After admitting the truth , the Professor withdraws his argument , now fully in support of Proposition Infinity . The next day the proposition is approved . Amy is ecstatic , but Bender quickly dumps her when he realizes marriage means that he must be monogamous . Amy is dejected , but Kif wins back her heart by adopting a bad boy persona and the two ride off together on a motorcycle .
= = Production = =
The episode was inspired by the controversy that arose from California Proposition 8 in the United States during 2008 and was written by Michael Rowe . The episode was directed by Crystal Chesney @-@ Thompson . George Takei returns as a guest star , voicing himself .
According to Cohen , the writing team 's approach when using pop culture references as an episode 's main subject is to modify them into futuristic versions to avoid being dated , noting that being a science fiction show , " some topics are probably not going to be around by the time the show airs . " In particular , with " Proposition Infinity " , they paid specific attention to developing the plot in a way that would " history @-@ proof " the episode and avoid being over @-@ politicized or " preachy . " When taking on " real " social issues in the show , Cohen stated that one of their methods of keeping controversy from overwhelming the episode is to " futurize " issues until the audience is unlikely to have developed a strong opinion one way or another about the presented conflict . This was the method used for " Proposition Infinity " , as the team felt that most viewers would not have a strong opinion for or against robot and human intermarriage , thus lightening the potentially polarizing nature of the source material .
= = Theme and cultural references = =
" Proposition Infinity " was inspired by the political battle over California Proposition 8 in the United States and heavily satirizes the controversy over same @-@ sex marriage . The title is a reference to California Proposition 8 with the " 8 " sideways , thus becoming the symbol of infinity ( ∞ ) . The camp where Bender is being reprogrammed parodies conversion therapy camps for homosexuals . The episode also satirizes the people against same @-@ sex marriage , and in particular , the National Organization for Marriage ( NOM ) ; the episode depicts an anti @-@ Proposition Infinity advertisement ( " No on Infinity " ) , which is a direct parody of NOM 's 2009 " Gathering Storm " campaign . Many of the jokes in the episode were inspired by the actual vote regarding Proposition 8 and similar legislative debates over same @-@ sex marriage throughout the United States , with several critics noting that the episode was favorable toward same @-@ sex marriage .
Openly gay actor George Takei guest stars in this episode , moderating the Proposition Infinity debate . Takei , a frequent guest star in the series , is an outspoken LGBT activist and marriage equality spokesperson . Takei married his partner , Brad Altman , on June 17 , 2008 when same @-@ sex marriage was legal in California . Despite the passing of Proposition 8 in November of that same year , which banned same @-@ sex marriage in California , the California Supreme Court ruled that it did not affect same @-@ sex marriages entered into before its passing , leaving Takei and Altman 's marriage still legal and valid .
The episode revisits the concept of robosexuality as a social taboo in the future society depicted in Futurama and is more explicit in its analogy to prejudice and stigma surrounding homosexuality . The stigmatization of robosexuality and the term " robosexual " were first mentioned in the series pilot " Space Pilot 3000 " . The issue is expanded upon in more detail in the season 3 episode " I Dated a Robot " in which Fry dates a robot Lucy Liu , to the disapproval of the other characters . Co @-@ producer David X. Cohen noted that the writing team had tried to maintain robosexual relationships as a taboo throughout the series .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Proposition Infinity " originally aired July 8 , 2010 on Comedy Central . In its original American broadcast , " Proposition Infinity " was viewed by an estimated 2 @.@ 013 million households with a 1 @.@ 3 rating / 2 % share in the Nielsen ratings and a 1 @.@ 0 rating / 3 % share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , going down one tenth of a point from the previous week 's episode " Attack of the Killer App " . In interviews leading up to the premiere of season six , David X. Cohen stated that he considers this one of his favorite episodes of Futurama 's sixth season .
" Proposition Infinity " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club wrote : " This is the series I 've been missing for years . It was goofy , spastic , over @-@ stuffed , occasionally cruel , and bizarrely sincere . " He graded the episode A- , praising the " No on Infinity " ad parody and reappearances of George Takei and Hedonismbot in particular . Sean Gandert of Paste wrote : " I ’ d like to see them lay off the contemporary commentary episodes for a bit , but other than that it was exactly what any fan of the show would hope for . " Danny Gallagher of TVSquad stated that the episode 's " robotic take on the needless hysteria and blatant hypocricy [ sic ] of gay marriage was not only steeped in satiric goodness , but it was downright hilarious . " He felt that the episode 's writing was an improvement over the previous episodes in the season and that it " really used the storied and rich history of the characters to its advantage . " In particular , Gallagher praised Takei 's cameo as one of the episode 's funniest , even stating it to be one of the series ' best . Alasdair Wilkins of io9 also praised the episode , calling it " a triumph for the new Futurama , and just the sort of episode that leaves me convinced that the show 's revival was completely worthwhile . " Michelle Castillo of Television on Today enjoyed the attack on California Proposition 8 , stating that the episode " poked fun at the issues in the unique way that only ' Futurama ' can pull off . "
Robert Canning of IGN gave the episode a more mixed review , stating that he felt the relationship between Bender and Amy was only used to serve the purposes of the story and felt unnatural compared to the relationship between Fry and the Lucy Liu @-@ bot in the similarly themed season 3 episode " I Dated a Robot " . He found the jokes funny , stating that they " delivered plenty of hilarious observations regarding gay marriage and the movements surrounding it , but the story was incredibly hollow . "
= 2015 Vuelta a España =
The 2015 Vuelta a España was a three @-@ week Grand Tour cycling race . The race was the 70th edition of the Vuelta a España and took place principally in Spain , although two stages took place partly or wholly in Andorra , and was the 22nd race in the 2015 UCI World Tour . The 3 @,@ 358 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @,@ 086 @.@ 6 mi ) race included 21 stages , beginning in Marbella on 22 August 2015 and finishing in Madrid on 13 September . It was won by Fabio Aru ( Astana Pro Team ) , with Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) second and Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) third .
The early leaders of the race were Esteban Chaves ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) and Tom Dumoulin ( Giant – Alpecin ) , who exchanged the leader 's red jersey several times during the first ten days of racing , with both riders winning summit finishes in the first week . Aru took over the race lead following the mountainous Stage 11 , which took place entirely within Andorra . He kept his lead for five stages as the race entered the mountains of northern Spain , but lost it to Rodríguez on Stage 16 . Dumoulin took the lead back on Stage 17 – the race 's only individual time trial – with Aru three seconds behind in second place . Aru attacked throughout the final stages and , on the penultimate day , finally dropped Dumoulin , who fell to sixth place overall . Aru therefore took the first Grand Tour victory of his career .
The points classification was decided during the final stage and was won by Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) , while Rodriguez won the combination classification . The mountains classification was won by Omar Fraile ( Caja Rural – Seguros RGA ) . Dumoulin won the combativity award , while Movistar won the team prize .
= = Teams = =
The seventeen UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited and obliged to attend the race . The organiser of the Vuelta , Unipublic , was also able to invite five UCI Professional Continental teams – the second tier of professional cycling teams – as wildcards . These were announced on
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the episode fall flat , but when it hits , it hits . " Ultimately , he found that " ' Finale ' is not a great piece of television " but that it was the finale that " The Office needed " because it was " the right point to jump off ... the circular track " , due to the series idea of thematic reoccurrence . Tom Gliatto of People magazine , however , gave the episode a negative review , and wrote that " this episode was poorly conceived and clumsily structured . It really wasn 't worthy of all the years of affectionate humor that had gone before it . "
Steve Carell 's cameo received glowing reviews from critics . Campbell noted that he was " glad [ Carell 's ] return was still uncertain [ before the episode aired ] because the reveal was made that much sweeter . " Sepinwall noted that Carell 's return managed to not " overshadow the stories of the people who remained after he left , but which made sense for the characters , and the end of the series . " Adams noted that " Carell doesn ’ t get a lot to say — he ’ s already had his chance to say goodbye — but that just makes each of his lines count more " . Cornet felt that the cameo 's " brevity " was " the perfect amount of Michael for this particular episode " . Poniewozik described it as " a way that as best as possible walked the line between overplaying and underplaying Steve Carell ’ s cameo . " Lowry called it a " perfectly orchestrated cameo " . Basis wrote that the appearance was " pretty great " and that " the notion of Michael finally getting the family he ’ s always wanted was enough to melt the heart of even the nit @-@ pickiest fan . "
= = = Accolades = = =
This episode received three Primetime Emmy Award nominations for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards . Greg Daniels was nominated for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series and Ben Patrick , John W. Cook , and Rob Carr were nominated for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation . David Rogers and Claire Scanlon won for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series , marking the fifth win for The Office at the Emmys overall and the series ' first win since 2009 . Rogers and Scanlon also won an ACE Eddie award for Best Edited Half @-@ Hour Series for Television .
= Dermotherium =
Dermotherium is a genus of fossil mammals closely related to the living colugos , a small group of gliding mammals from Southeast Asia . Two species are recognized : D. major from the Late Eocene of Thailand , based on a single fragment of the lower jaw , and D. chimaera from the Late Oligocene of Thailand , known from three fragments of the lower jaw and two isolated upper molars . In addition , a single isolated upper molar from the Early Oligocene of Pakistan has been tentatively assigned to D. chimaera . All sites where fossils of Dermotherium have been found probably developed in forested environments and the fossil species probably were forest dwellers like living colugos , but whether they already had the gliding adaptations of the living species is unknown .
Some features of the teeth differentiate Dermotherium from both living colugo species , but other features are shared with only one of the two . The third lower incisor , lower canine , and third lower premolar at least are pectinate or comblike , bearing longitudinal rows of tines or cusps , an unusual feature of colugos ( the first two lower incisors are unknown in Dermotherium ) . The fourth lower premolar instead resembles the lower molars . The front part of these teeth , the trigonid , is broader in D. chimaera than in D. major , which is known only from the second and third lower molars . The two species also differ in the configuration of the inner back corner of the lower molars . The upper molars are triangular teeth bearing a number of distinct small cusps , particularly on the second upper molar , and with wrinkled enamel .
= = Taxonomy = =
Colugos are a small group of Southeast Asian gliding mammals closely related to the primates . Their fossil record is exceptionally poor . Although Paleogene groups such as the Plagiomenidae are considered by some to be closely related to colugos , no fossils undoubtedly referable to the living colugo family , Cynocephalidae , had been reported until 1992 . In that year , Stéphane Ducrocq and colleagues described a jaw fragment from the Eocene of Thailand as a new genus and species of colugo , Dermotherium major . In 2000 , however , Brian Stafford and Frederick Szalay argued that Dermotherium might not be a colugo , since the fossil is so poorly preserved that few traits can be unambiguously recognized and some purported dermopteran features of the fossil are in fact also seen in other placental groups . Mary Silcox and colleagues reaffirmed the colugo affinities of Dermotherium in 2005 on the basis of detailed similarities in molar morphology .
In 2006 , Laurent Marivaux and colleagues described a second species of Dermotherium , D. chimaera , from material from the Oligocene of Thailand . They gave it the specific name chimaera ( Latin for " chimera " ) because it shares characters with both the Philippine colugo ( Cynocephalus volans ) and Sunda colugo ( Galeopterus variegatus ) , the two living colugo species . In addition , they tentatively identified a fossil from the Oligocene of Pakistan as Dermotherium chimaera and regarded some fossils from the Eocene of Myanmar as indeterminate dermopterans . According to a phylogenetic analysis carried out by Marivaux and colleagues , D. chimaera , D. major , and the Myanmar dermopteran are successive sister groups of the two living colugos .
= = Description = =
Known material of Dermotherium includes a handful of jaw fragments and isolated teeth . Dermotherium major is known only from a fragment of the left lower jaw bearing the third lower molar ( m3 ) and a poorly preserved second lower molar ( m2 ) . The holotype of Dermotherium chimaera is a lower jaw fragment in which remnants of the deciduous third lower premolar are visible . X @-@ ray microtomography reveals the unerupted lower third incisor ( i3 ) , canine ( c1 ) , third premolar ( p3 ) , and fourth premolar ( p4 ) still inside the jaw . In addition , this species is known from two other jaw fragments , one bearing m1 and m2 and the other bearing m2 and m3 , and two isolated molars , an upper first and second molar ( M1 and M2 ) . The tentatively referred material of this species from Pakistan includes a single M2 .
The two species of Dermotherium were about as large as the Philippine colugo and larger than the Sunda colugo and differed from both in a number of characteristics of the dentition . Not enough is known of the skeleton of Dermotherium to assess whether the animal already possessed the gliding adaptations of living colugos . The two species are similar in size , but again differ in details of the dentition . In two specimens of D. chimaera , the length and width of the m2 are 5 and 4 @.@ 3 mm and 5 @.@ 4 and 4 @.@ 8 mm respectively ; this tooth is 5 @.@ 4 mm long and 4 @.@ 9 mm wide in the only known specimen of Dermotherium major . The Pakistani M2 of Dermotherium is 4 @.@ 3 mm long and 6 mm wide , compared to 4 @.@ 7 and 6 @.@ 6 mm in the only known M2 of D. chimaera from Thailand .
The lower jaw of Dermotherium major resembles that of living colugos in the presence of a strong angular process ( a projecting piece of bone at the lower side of the back of the jawbone ) and a retromolar space ( a flat space behind the last molars ) . The coronoid process ( a projecting piece of bone directly behind the molars ) rises steeply , with its front wall virtually vertical .
= = = Lower dentition = = =
The i3 of Dermotherium chimaera is an elongate tooth bearing six tines ( narrow , high " fingers " as in a comb ) arranged from front to back . The frontmost is larger , the next four are about equal in size , and the sixth is smaller . The number of tines resembles that seen in the Sunda colugo , which has four to seven ; the Philippine colugo has three to five . The c1 is also an elongate , narrow tooth ; at the front , it is slightly curved towards the midline of the jaw . On the buccal ( outer ) side of this tooth are six cusps , of which the third ( counting from the front ) is the largest . The p3 is similarly elongate and rounded at the front , but it is broader at the back , forming a talonid ( a " heel " of cusps at the back of a tribosphenic tooth ) . There are six cusps on the narrow anterior part of the tooth , and the fifth ( identified as the protoconid ) is by far the largest . On the buccal side of the talonid is a strong cusp , the hypoconid , with a crest , the cristid obliqua , descending from it towards the front . A second , smaller cusp , the hypoconulid , is present on the lingual side of the talonid , connected to the hypoconid by a postcristid . The pectinate ( comb @-@ like ) shape of the anterior teeth is a shared characteristic of the colugos and highly unusual among mammals . Dermotherium chimaera resembles the Sunda colugo in that the c1 and p3 are also pectinate ; in the Philippine colugo , these teeth are not pectinate .
In Dermotherium chimaera , the p4 and m1 through m3 are similar to each other ( and unlike the i3 , canine , and p3 ) and appear to form a series of decreasing size from front to back . In D. major , only m2 and m3 are known , but they are similar in morphology and m3 is smaller than m2 . In the Sunda colugo , however , the teeth get larger from p4 to m3 . The p4 and molars have a distinct trigonid ( a triangular group of cusps at the front of a tribosphenic tooth ) and talonid . The trigonid contains strong protoconid and metaconid cusps . The metaconid is stronger than the protoconid in the molars , but it is not clear whether this is the case in the p4 . In the living colugos , the protoconid is higher than the metaconid in both p4 and m1 . The trigonid is longer in the p4 than in the molars . In D. chimaera , the trigonid is broader than in D. major . A low crest , the paracristid , descends from the protoconid lingually and towards the front , forming the front margin of the trigonid ; there is no distinct cusp ( a paraconid ) at the front of the trigonid on the p4 , but this cusp is present in the molars .
The talonid contains a hypoconid , hypoconulid , and entoconid and is much wider than the trigonid because the hypoconid is displaced buccally . A cristid obliqua descends from the hypoconid and reaches the protoconid . Although a crest , the postmetacristid , descends from the back side of the metaconid , ending in a small cusp , the metastylid , it is separated from the entoconid by a notch . The living colugos lack such a strong postmetacristid . The hypoconulid is near the back lingual margin of the tooth , behind the entoconid . In D. major , this cusp is further to the back than in both D. chimaera and the Sunda colugo , while the two cusps are merged in the Philippine colugo . In D. chimaera , a low crest , the post @-@ hypoconulid cristid , reaches from the hypoconulid to the back lingual corner of the tooth , where a small cuspule , the distocuspid , is located . A long crest , the postcristid , connects the distocuspid to the hypoconid along the posterior side of the tooth . The Philippine colugo is similar , but in D. major , both the distocuspid and the post @-@ hypoconulid cristid are absent , and the Sunda colugo has a weaker distocuspid and a postcristid that does not reach further lingually than the hypoconulid .
= = = Upper dentition = = =
The upper molars of Dermotherium chimaera are triangular in overall shape and much broader than long , with the narrow end of the triangle pointing lingually . The M2 from Pakistan that was tentatively placed in D. chimaera is slightly smaller than Thai fossils of the species , but otherwise very similar . The crest in front of and behind the major cusps on the buccal side of the tooth , the paracone and metacone , are well @-@ developed , together forming a long W @-@ shaped ridge . D. chimaera resembles the Philippine colugo in that the crests behind the paracone and in front of the metacone form an acute angle with each other , so that together they form a V ; their shape rather resembles an U in the Sunda colugo . A cingulum ( shelf ) is present on the buccal margin of the tooth , but this cingulum is rather weak in the Pakistani fossil . On the M2 , smaller cusps , the paraconule and metaconule , are present on the lingual sides of the paracone and metacone , but on the M1 the paraconule is missing and the metaconule is small and ridgelike . The small cusps are better developed in the Pakistani M2 . A third major cusp , the protocone , is present on the lingual side of both upper molars . This crest is displaced towards the front in the living colugos , but less so in D. chimaera . Two strong crests descend from the front and back faces of the protocone in a buccal direction . These crests end in small cusps ( protoconules ) that are directly lingual to the paracone and metacone . The living colugos lack these protoconules . The enamel is wrinkled on the flanks of the paracone and metacone and , in the Thai but not the Pakistani specimens , on the lingual side of the protocone . Enamel wrinkling is also seen in some Philippine colugos .
= = Range and ecology = =
Dermotherium major was found in a lignite pit known as Wai Lek in Krabi Province , southwestern Thailand . It is part of the Krabi Basin fauna , which contains at least 40 mammalian genera , mostly artiodactyls but also including some primates , such as Siamopithecus , Wailekia , and Muangthanhinius . This fauna has been dated to about 33 to 35 million years ago , during the Late Eocene .
Fossils of Dermotherium chimaera come from Phetchaburi Province , further to the north in Thailand . The fossil deposits , located in the Cha Prong pit in a coal mine called Nong Ya Plong , are dated to the Late Oligocene . Other mammals found here include the rodent Fallomus ladakhensis , the rhinoceros Diceratherium sp. cf . D. lamilloquense , the carnivoran Chaprongictis phetchaburiensis , the lipotyphlan Siamosorex debonisi , and a pteropodid bat .
Paali Nala , where the M2 tentatively assigned to Dermotherium chimaera was found , is in the Bugti Hills of Balochistan , western Pakistan . The fossil locality , placed stratigraphically in the Bugti Member of the Chitarwata Formation , is thought to be Early Oligocene in age . The Paali Nala fauna also contains a diverse array of mammals , including many rodents , some primates , and rhinos .
The specializations of dermopterans are such that they are dependent on a forested habitat , and reconstructions of the paleoenvironments at Krabi , Nong Ya Plong , and Paali Nala suggest that all three fossil deposits developed in a humid , tropical forest environment . Their extinction in the Indian subcontinent may have been caused by the development of a drier climate there during the Late Oligocene .
= Can I Have It Like That =
" Can I Have It Like That " is a song performed by rapper Pharrell Williams featuring Gwen Stefani . It was written and produced by Williams for his 2006 debut album In My Mind , and the song is the opening track . The song 's hook comes from a one @-@ line contribution from Stefani , used as part of a call and response in the chorus . The song received generally negative reviews from music critics . It was later put as one of the songs in NBA 2K15 .
" Can I Have It Like That " was released as the album 's lead single in October 2005 ( see 2005 in music ) . It was commercially unsuccessful in the United States , but fared somewhat better worldwide . A rock remix of the song featured Travis Barker playing the drums and Pharrell playing the guitar .
= = Background and composition = =
P. Diddy was originally designated to use the track that Williams created . Several other artists were also interested in using it , but Williams changed his mind and decided to use the song himself . In mid @-@ 2005 , he worked with Stefani in Miami , Florida on her second solo album The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) . While she was in the booth recording " Breakin ' Up " , he told her that he had a song he thought would be his first single . Stefani asked to hear it , and he said that he wanted to record her for the track after the two finished working on " Breakin ' Up " . Stefani , however , insisted that they work on " Can I Have It Like That " then , and Williams recorded her performing the song 's hook . She contributed one line , which she performed twice , to the song .
Williams ' rap is in a throaty baritone , described as a " honey @-@ coated version " of the styles of Snoop Dogg and Dr. Dre . He raps about his current lifestyle as well as his life and achievements . The rap is set over a rhythm section consisting of an irregular beat and a grinding bass . The track reflects Williams ' minimalist style , and it is inflected with jazz music , including a trumpet part during the bridge .
= = Critical reception = =
" Can I Have It Like That " received generally negative reviews from music critics . Josh Tyrangiel of Entertainment Weekly called it an " odd opener " to In My Mind and remarked that Williams " never commits to putting his hips into it " , leaving the track without any climax . The Observer 's Luke Bainbridge , however , referred to the song as " a grinding instant smash " . For IGN , Spence Abbott described Williams ' rapping as " a little sticky , but … ruggedly appealing in a manner of speaking " , and commented that " it 's the shuffling and infectious beat … that will have you swerving and slinking like a cobra with epilepsy . " In his review for Slant Magazine , Preston Jones characterized the song as " curiously inert " , adding that it sounded better as a sample on Girl Talk 's 2006 mashup album Night Ripper .
Stefani 's presence as a featured artist on the song received negative reviews from music critics . About.com 's Ivan Rott commented that the song 's funk @-@ influenced sound " definitely knocks " , but was disappointed in Stefani 's contribution , finding its repetition tedious . Evan McGarvey of Stylus Magazine also found it repetitive , and described " Can I Have It Like That " as " a brief distillation of everything calamitous about [ Williams ' ] and Chad Hugo 's production style " . The Guardian stated that Stefani 's part was the only catchy hook on In My Mind , but added that it " seems to be built around a one @-@ line cast @-@ off found on the Love . Angel . Music . Baby. factory floor . " Finding " Can I Have It Like That " a " slow burner " that offered a " promising hint at what else is to come " on In My Mind , Claire Simpson stated in her musicOMH review that Stefani 's contribution was " purely cosmetic and clearly a transparent means of getting her name on the single to not only boost her own credentials but to help draw Pharrell to the attention of her increasingly mainstream following . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Can I Have It Like That " was commercially unsuccessful in the United States . It debuted at number 97 on the Billboard Hot 100 and peaked at number 49 three weeks later . It exited the chart after eight weeks . It was somewhat more successful in urban contemporary and rhythmic contemporary markets , reaching number 20 on the Hot Rap Tracks , number 31 on the Rhythmic Top 40 , and number 32 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . It had some crossover success in mainstream music and reached number 51 on the Billboard Pop 100 .
The single was more successful in Europe , where it reached number 11 on the Billboard European Hot 100 Singles chart . In the United Kingdom , " Can I Have It Like That " debuted and peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart , behind Arctic Monkeys ' " I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor " and Westlife 's cover of You Raise Me Up . It left the chart after 11 weeks . The single remained Williams ' highest @-@ charting release in Britain until 2013 when he topped the charts three times with Robin Thicke 's " Blurred Lines " , Daft Punk 's " Get Lucky " , and as the solo artist in " Happy " . The song was less successful throughout the rest of Europe and reached the top 20 in Finland , Ireland , and Norway ; the top 40 in Belgium , Germany , the Netherlands , and Switzerland ; and the top 80 in Austria and France .
" Can I Have It Like That " was somewhat successful elsewhere . It debuted at number 21 on the ARIA Singles Chart and after gradually descending the chart , reached a second peak at number 31 seven weeks later . It remained on the chart for a total of 12 weeks . After debuting at number 20 , the song peaked at number 18 on the New Zealand Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was directed by Paul Hunter . It depicts Williams being watched by a secret organization . Aware that he is being watched , he talks to a woman , revealed to be Stefani , on the phone . He makes appearances at an exclusive boat party and at another party in his penthouse . There are intercut sequences of people including Williams and Stefani dancing in front of a large equalizer , Williams standing in front of explosions , and people skateboarding . And the video also shows Pharrell 's Enzo Ferrari .
The music video was filmed in late September 2005 . The cinematography is designed so that the music video becomes the secret organization 's surveillance of Williams . It uses shifting camera angles to create tension . The scenes in front of the equalizer were filmed in front of a greenscreen , and the explosion sequences were shot live on the streets of Los Angeles , California . In the penthouse scene , he is accompanied by two naked women with leopard @-@ pattern body paint and a baby cougar . Hunter came up with the idea of showing body @-@ painted women , and Williams suggested sitting with the cougar because he " wanted to exude power . "
The video had little success on video chart programs . To date , it is Williams ' only video as a main artist to debut on MTV 's Total Request Live . It was on the program 's countdown for three days , reaching number nine .
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= = Early scientific history of crystals and X @-@ rays = = =
Crystals , though long admired for their regularity and symmetry , were not investigated scientifically until the 17th century . Johannes Kepler hypothesized in his work Strena seu de Nive Sexangula ( A New Year 's Gift of Hexagonal Snow ) ( 1611 ) that the hexagonal symmetry of snowflake crystals was due to a regular packing of spherical water particles .
The Danish scientist Nicolas Steno ( 1669 ) pioneered experimental investigations of crystal symmetry . Steno showed that the angles between the faces are the same in every exemplar of a particular type of crystal , and René Just Haüy ( 1784 ) discovered that every face of a crystal can be described by simple stacking patterns of blocks of the same shape and size . Hence , William Hallowes Miller in 1839 was able to give each face a unique label of three small integers , the Miller indices which remain in use today for identifying crystal faces . Haüy 's study led to the correct idea that crystals are a regular three @-@ dimensional array ( a Bravais lattice ) of atoms and molecules ; a single unit cell is repeated indefinitely along three principal directions that are not necessarily perpendicular . In the 19th century , a complete catalog of the possible symmetries of a crystal was worked out by Johan Hessel , Auguste Bravais , Evgraf Fedorov , Arthur Schönflies and ( belatedly ) William Barlow ( 1894 ) . From the available data and physical reasoning , Barlow proposed several crystal structures in the 1880s that were validated later by X @-@ ray crystallography ; however , the available data were too scarce in the 1880s to accept his models as conclusive .
Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X @-@ rays in 1895 , just as the studies of crystal symmetry were being concluded . Physicists were initially uncertain of the nature of X @-@ rays , but soon suspected ( correctly ) that they were waves of electromagnetic radiation , in other words , another form of light . At that time , the wave model of light — specifically , the Maxwell theory of electromagnetic radiation — was well accepted among scientists , and experiments by Charles Glover Barkla showed that X @-@ rays exhibited phenomena associated with electromagnetic waves , including transverse polarization and spectral lines akin to those observed in the visible wavelengths . Single @-@ slit experiments in the laboratory of Arnold Sommerfeld suggested that X @-@ rays had a wavelength of about 1 angstrom . However , X @-@ rays are composed of photons , and thus are not only waves of electromagnetic radiation but also exhibit particle @-@ like properties . Albert Einstein introduced the photon concept in 1905 , but it was not broadly accepted until 1922 , when Arthur Compton confirmed it by the scattering of X @-@ rays from electrons . Therefore , these particle @-@ like properties of X @-@ rays , such as their ionization of gases , caused William Henry Bragg to argue in 1907 that X @-@ rays were not electromagnetic radiation . Nevertheless , Bragg 's view was not broadly accepted and the observation of X @-@ ray diffraction by Max von Laue in 1912 confirmed for most scientists that X @-@ rays were a form of electromagnetic radiation .
= = = X @-@ ray diffraction = = =
Crystals are regular arrays of atoms , and X @-@ rays can be considered waves of electromagnetic radiation . Atoms scatter X @-@ ray waves , primarily through the atoms ' electrons . Just as an ocean wave striking a lighthouse produces secondary circular waves emanating from the lighthouse , so an X @-@ ray striking an electron produces secondary spherical waves emanating from the electron . This phenomenon is known as elastic scattering , and the electron ( or lighthouse ) is known as the scatterer . A regular array of scatterers produces a regular array of spherical waves . Although these waves cancel one another out in most directions through destructive interference , they add constructively in a few specific directions , determined by Bragg 's law :
<formula>
Here d is the spacing between diffracting planes , <formula> is the incident angle , n is any integer , and λ is the wavelength of the beam . These specific directions appear as spots on the diffraction pattern called reflections . Thus , X @-@ ray diffraction results from an electromagnetic wave ( the X @-@ ray ) impinging on a regular array of scatterers ( the repeating arrangement of atoms within the crystal ) .
X @-@ rays are used to produce the diffraction pattern because their wavelength λ is typically the same order of magnitude ( 1 – 100 angstroms ) as the spacing d between planes in the crystal . In principle , any wave impinging on a regular array of scatterers produces diffraction , as predicted first by Francesco Maria Grimaldi in 1665 . To produce significant diffraction , the spacing between the scatterers and the wavelength of the impinging wave should be similar in size . For illustration , the diffraction of sunlight through a bird 's feather was first reported by James Gregory in the later 17th century . The first artificial diffraction gratings for visible light were constructed by David Rittenhouse in 1787 , and Joseph von Fraunhofer in 1821 . However , visible light has too long a wavelength ( typically , 5500 angstroms ) to observe diffraction from crystals . Prior to the first X @-@ ray diffraction experiments , the spacings between lattice planes in a crystal were not known with certainty .
The idea that crystals could be used as a diffraction grating for X @-@ rays arose in 1912 in a conversation between Paul Peter Ewald and Max von Laue in the English Garden in Munich . Ewald had proposed a resonator model of crystals for his thesis , but this model could not be validated using visible light , since the wavelength was much larger than the spacing between the resonators . Von Laue realized that electromagnetic radiation of a shorter wavelength was needed to observe such small spacings , and suggested that X @-@ rays might have a wavelength comparable to the unit @-@ cell spacing in crystals . Von Laue worked with two technicians , Walter Friedrich and his assistant Paul Knipping , to shine a beam of X @-@ rays through a copper sulfate crystal and record its diffraction on a photographic plate . After being developed , the plate showed a large number of well @-@ defined spots arranged in a pattern of intersecting circles around the spot produced by the central beam . Von Laue developed a law that connects the scattering angles and the size and orientation of the unit @-@ cell spacings in the crystal , for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1914 .
= = = Scattering = = =
As described in the mathematical derivation below , the X @-@ ray scattering is determined by the density of electrons within the crystal . Since the energy of an X @-@ ray is much greater than that of a valence electron , the scattering may be modeled as Thomson scattering , the interaction of an electromagnetic ray with a free electron . This model is generally adopted to describe the polarization of the scattered radiation .
The intensity of Thomson scattering for one particle with mass m and charge q is :
<formula>
Hence the atomic nuclei , which are much heavier than an electron , contribute negligibly to the scattered X @-@ rays .
= = = Development from 1912 to 1920 = = =
After Von Laue 's pioneering research , the field developed rapidly , most notably by physicists William Lawrence Bragg and his father William Henry Bragg . In 1912 – 1913 , the younger Bragg developed Bragg 's law , which connects the observed scattering with reflections from evenly spaced planes within the crystal . The Braggs , father and son , shared the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work in crystallography . The earliest structures were generally simple and marked by one @-@ dimensional symmetry . However , as computational and experimental methods improved over the next decades , it became feasible to deduce reliable atomic positions for more complicated two- and three @-@ dimensional arrangements of atoms in the unit @-@ cell .
The potential of X @-@ ray crystallography for determining the structure of molecules and minerals — then only known vaguely from chemical and hydrodynamic experiments — was realized immediately . The earliest structures were simple inorganic crystals and minerals , but even these revealed fundamental laws of physics and chemistry . The first atomic @-@ resolution structure to be " solved " ( i.e. , determined ) in 1914 was that of table salt . The distribution of electrons in the table @-@ salt structure showed that crystals are not necessarily composed of covalently bonded molecules , and proved the existence of ionic compounds . The structure of diamond was solved in the same year , proving the tetrahedral arrangement of its chemical bonds and showing that the length of C – C single bond was 1 @.@ 52 angstroms . Other early structures included copper , calcium fluoride ( CaF2 , also known as fluorite ) , calcite ( CaCO3 ) and pyrite ( FeS2 ) in 1914 ; spinel ( MgAl2O4 ) in 1915 ; the rutile and anatase forms of titanium dioxide ( TiO2 ) in 1916 ; pyrochroite Mn ( OH ) 2 and , by extension , brucite Mg ( OH ) 2 in 1919 ; . Also in 1919 sodium nitrate ( NaNO3 ) and caesium dichloroiodide ( CsICl2 ) were determined by Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff , and the wurtzite ( hexagonal ZnS ) structure became known in 1920 .
The structure of graphite was solved in 1916 by the related method of powder diffraction , which was developed by Peter Debye and Paul Scherrer and , independently , by Albert Hull in 1917 . The structure of graphite was determined from single @-@ crystal diffraction in 1924 by two groups independently . Hull also used the powder method to determine the structures of various metals , such as iron and magnesium .
= = = Cultural and aesthetic importance of X @-@ ray crystallography = = =
In what has been called his scientific autobiography , The Development of X @-@ ray Analysis , Sir William Lawrence Bragg mentioned that he believed the field of crystallography was particularly welcoming to women because the techno @-@ aesthetics of the molecular structures resembled textiles and household objects . Bragg was known to compare crystal formation to " curtains , wallpapers , mosaics , and roses . "
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In 1951 , the Festival Pattern Group at the Festival of Britain hosted a collaborative group of textile manufacturers and experienced crystallographers to design lace and prints based on the X @-@ ray crystallography of insulin , china clay , and hemoglobin . One of the leading scientists of the project was Dr. Helen Megaw ( 1907 – 2002 ) , the Assistant Director of Research at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge at the time . Megaw is credited as one of the central figures who took inspiration from crystal diagrams and saw their potential in design . In 2008 , the Wellcome Collection in London curated an exhibition on the Festival Pattern Group called " From Atom to Patterns . "
= = Contributions to chemistry and material science = =
X @-@ ray crystallography has led to a better understanding of chemical bonds and non @-@ covalent interactions . The initial studies revealed the typical radii of atoms , and confirmed many theoretical models of chemical bonding , such as the tetrahedral bonding of carbon in the diamond structure , the octahedral bonding of metals observed in ammonium hexachloroplatinate ( IV ) , and the resonance observed in the planar carbonate group and in aromatic molecules . Kathleen Lonsdale 's 1928 structure of hexamethylbenzene established the hexagonal symmetry of benzene and showed a clear difference in bond length between the aliphatic C – C bonds and aromatic C – C bonds ; this finding led to the idea of resonance between chemical bonds , which had profound consequences for the development of chemistry . Her conclusions were anticipated by William Henry Bragg , who published models of naphthalene and anthracene in 1921 based on other molecules , an early form of molecular replacement .
Also in the 1920s , Victor Moritz Goldschmidt and later Linus Pauling developed rules for eliminating chemically unlikely structures and for determining the relative sizes of atoms . These rules led to the structure of brookite ( 1928 ) and an understanding of the relative stability of the rutile , brookite and anatase forms of titanium dioxide .
The distance between two bonded atoms is a sensitive measure of the bond strength and its bond order ; thus , X @-@ ray crystallographic studies have led to the discovery of even more exotic types of bonding in inorganic chemistry , such as metal @-@ metal double bonds , metal @-@ metal quadruple bonds , and three @-@ center , two @-@ electron bonds . X @-@ ray crystallography — or , strictly speaking , an inelastic Compton scattering experiment — has also provided evidence for the partly covalent character of hydrogen bonds . In the field of organometallic chemistry , the X @-@ ray structure of ferrocene initiated scientific studies of sandwich compounds , while that of Zeise 's salt stimulated research into " back bonding " and metal @-@ pi complexes . Finally , X @-@ ray crystallography had a pioneering role in the development of supramolecular chemistry , particularly in clarifying the structures of the crown ethers and the principles of host @-@ guest chemistry .
In material sciences , many complicated inorganic and organometallic systems have been analyzed using single @-@ crystal methods , such as fullerenes , metalloporphyrins , and other complicated compounds . Single @-@ crystal diffraction is also used in the pharmaceutical industry , due to recent problems with polymorphs . The major factors affecting the quality of single @-@ crystal structures are the crystal 's size and regularity ; recrystallization is a commonly used technique to improve these factors in small @-@ molecule crystals . The Cambridge Structural Database contains over 500 @,@ 000 structures ; over 99 % of these structures were determined by X @-@ ray diffraction .
= = = Mineralogy and metallurgy = = =
Since the 1920s , X @-@ ray diffraction has been the principal method for determining the arrangement of atoms in minerals and metals . The application of X @-@ ray crystallography to mineralogy began with the structure of garnet , which was determined in 1924 by Menzer . A systematic X @-@ ray crystallographic study of the silicates was undertaken in the 1920s . This study showed that , as the Si / O ratio is altered , the silicate crystals exhibit significant changes in their atomic arrangements . Machatschki extended these insights to minerals in which aluminium substitutes for the silicon atoms of the silicates . The first application of X @-@ ray crystallography to metallurgy likewise occurred in the mid @-@ 1920s . Most notably , Linus Pauling 's structure of the alloy Mg2Sn led to his theory of the stability and structure of complex ionic crystals .
On October 17 , 2012 , the Curiosity rover on the planet Mars at " Rocknest " performed the first X @-@ ray diffraction analysis of Martian soil . The results from the rover 's CheMin analyzer revealed the presence of several minerals , including feldspar , pyroxenes and olivine , and suggested that the Martian soil in the sample was similar to the " weathered basaltic soils " of Hawaiian volcanoes .
= = = Early organic and small biological molecules = = =
The first structure of an organic compound , hexamethylenetetramine , was solved in 1923 . This was followed by several studies of long @-@ chain fatty acids , which are an important component of biological membranes . In the 1930s , the structures of much larger molecules with two @-@ dimensional complexity began to be solved . A significant advance was the structure of phthalocyanine , a large planar molecule that is closely related to porphyrin molecules important in biology , such as heme , corrin and chlorophyll .
X @-@ ray crystallography of biological molecules took off with Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin , who solved the structures of cholesterol ( 1937 ) , penicillin ( 1946 ) and vitamin B12 ( 1956 ) , for which she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964 . In 1969 , she succeeded in solving the structure of insulin , on which she worked for over thirty years .
= = = Biological macromolecular crystallography = = =
Crystal structures of proteins ( which are irregular and hundreds of times larger than cholesterol ) began to be solved in the late 1950s , beginning with the structure of sperm whale myoglobin by Sir John Cowdery Kendrew , for which he shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Max Perutz in 1962 . Since that success , over 86817 X @-@ ray crystal structures of proteins , nucleic acids and other biological molecules have been determined . For comparison , the nearest competing method in terms of structures analyzed is nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) spectroscopy , which has resolved 9561 chemical structures . Moreover , crystallography can solve structures of arbitrarily large molecules , whereas solution @-@ state NMR is restricted to relatively small ones ( less than 70 kDa ) . X @-@ ray crystallography is now used routinely by scientists to determine how a pharmaceutical drug interacts with its protein target and what changes might improve it . However , intrinsic membrane proteins remain challenging to crystallize because they require detergents or other means to solubilize them in isolation , and such detergents often interfere with crystallization . Such membrane proteins are a large component of the genome , and include many proteins of great physiological importance , such as ion channels and receptors . Helium cryogenics are used to prevent radiation damage in protein crystals .
On the other end of the size scale , relative small molecules are able to lure the resolving power of X @-@ ray crystallography . The structure assigned in 1991 to the antibiotic isolated from a marina organism , diazonamide A - C40H34Cl2N6O6 with M = 765 @.@ 65 - proved to be incorrect by the classical proof of structure : a synthetic sample was not identical to the natural product . The mistake was possible because of the inability of X @-@ ray crystallography to distinguish between the correct -OH / > NH and the interchanged -NH2 / -O- groups in the incorrect structure .
= = Relationship to other scattering techniques = =
= = = Elastic vs. inelastic scattering = = =
X @-@ ray crystallography is a form of elastic scattering ; the outgoing X @-@ rays have the same energy , and thus same wavelength , as the incoming X @-@ rays , only with altered direction . By contrast , inelastic scattering occurs when energy is transferred from the incoming X @-@ ray to the crystal , e.g. , by exciting an inner @-@ shell electron to a higher energy level . Such inelastic scattering reduces the energy ( or increases the wavelength ) of the outgoing beam . Inelastic scattering is useful for probing such excitations of matter , but not in determining the distribution of scatterers within the matter , which is the goal of X @-@ ray crystallography .
X @-@ rays range in wavelength from 10 to 0 @.@ 01 nanometers ; a typical wavelength used for crystallography is 1 Å ( 0 @.@ 1 nm ) , which is on the scale of covalent chemical bonds and the radius of a single atom . Longer @-@ wavelength photons ( such as ultraviolet radiation ) would not have sufficient resolution to determine the atomic positions . At the other extreme , shorter @-@ wavelength photons such as gamma rays are difficult to produce in large numbers , difficult to focus , and interact too strongly with matter , producing particle @-@ antiparticle pairs . Therefore , X @-@ rays are the " sweetspot " for wavelength when determining atomic @-@ resolution structures from the scattering of electromagnetic radiation .
= = = Other X @-@ ray techniques = = =
Other forms of elastic X @-@ ray scattering include powder diffraction , Small @-@ Angle X @-@ ray Scattering ( SAXS ) and several types of X @-@ ray fiber diffraction , which was used by Rosalind Franklin in determining the double @-@ helix structure of DNA . In general , single @-@ crystal X @-@ ray diffraction offers more structural information than these other techniques ; however , it requires a sufficiently large and regular crystal , which is not always available .
These scattering methods generally use monochromatic X @-@ rays , which are restricted to a single wavelength with minor deviations . A broad spectrum of X @-@ rays ( that is , a blend of X @-@ rays with different wavelengths ) can also be used to carry out X @-@ ray diffraction , a technique known as the Laue method . This is the method used in the original discovery of X @-@ ray diffraction . Laue scattering provides much structural information with only a short exposure to the X @-@ ray beam , and is therefore used in structural studies of very rapid events ( Time resolved crystallography ) . However , it is not as well @-@ suited as monochromatic scattering for determining the full atomic structure of a crystal and therefore works better with crystals with relatively simple atomic arrangements .
The Laue back reflection mode records X @-@ rays scattered backwards from a broad spectrum source . This is useful if the sample is too thick for X @-@ rays to transmit through it . The diffracting planes in the crystal are determined by knowing that the normal to the diffracting plane bisects the angle between the incident beam and the diffracted beam . A Greninger chart can be used to interpret the back reflection Laue photograph .
= = = Electron and neutron diffraction = = =
Other particles , such as electrons and neutrons , may be used to produce a diffraction pattern . Although electron , neutron , and X @-@ ray scattering are based on different physical processes , the resulting diffraction patterns are analyzed using the same coherent diffraction imaging techniques .
As derived below , the electron density within the crystal and the diffraction patterns are related by a simple mathematical method , the Fourier transform , which allows the density to be calculated relatively easily from the patterns . However , this works only if the scattering is weak , i.e. , if the scattered beams are much less intense than the incoming beam . Weakly scattered beams pass through the remainder of the crystal without undergoing a second scattering event . Such re @-@ scattered waves are called " secondary scattering " and hinder the analysis . Any sufficiently thick crystal will produce secondary scattering , but since X @-@ rays interact relatively weakly with the electrons , this is generally not a significant concern . By contrast , electron beams may produce strong secondary scattering even for relatively thin crystals ( > 100 nm ) . Since this thickness corresponds to the diameter of many viruses , a promising direction is the electron diffraction of isolated macromolecular assemblies , such as viral capsids and molecular machines , which may be carried out with a cryo @-@ electron microscope . Moreover , the strong interaction of electrons with matter ( about 1000 times stronger than for X @-@ rays ) allows determination of the atomic structure of extremely small volumes . The field of applications for electron crystallography ranges from bio molecules like membrane proteins over organic thin films to the complex structures of ( nanocrystalline ) intermetallic compounds and zeolites .
Neutron diffraction is an excellent method for structure determination , although it has been difficult to obtain intense , monochromatic beams of neutrons in sufficient quantities . Traditionally , nuclear reactors have been used , although sources producing neutrons by spallation are becoming increasingly available . Being uncharged , neutrons scatter much more readily from the atomic nuclei rather than from the electrons . Therefore , neutron scattering is very useful for observing the positions of light atoms with few electrons , especially hydrogen , which is essentially invisible in the X @-@ ray diffraction . Neutron scattering also has the remarkable property that the solvent can be made invisible by adjusting the ratio of normal water , H2O , and heavy water , D2O .
= = Methods = =
= = = Overview of single @-@ crystal X @-@ ray diffraction = = =
The oldest and most precise method of X @-@ ray crystallography is single @-@ crystal X @-@ ray diffraction , in which a beam of X @-@ rays strikes a single crystal , producing scattered beams . When they land on a piece of film or other detector , these beams make a diffraction pattern of spots ; the strengths and angles of these beams are recorded as the crystal is gradually rotated . Each spot is called a reflection , since it corresponds to the reflection of the X @-@ rays from one set of evenly spaced planes within the crystal . For single crystals of sufficient purity and regularity , X @-@ ray diffraction data can determine the mean chemical bond lengths and angles to within a few thousandths of an angstrom and to within a few tenths of a degree , respectively . The atoms in a crystal are not static , but oscillate about their mean positions , usually by less than a few tenths of an angstrom . X @-@ ray crystallography allows measuring the size of these oscillations .
= = = = Procedure = = = =
The technique of single @-@ crystal X @-@ ray crystallography has three basic steps . The first — and often most difficult — step is to obtain an adequate crystal of the material under study . The crystal should be sufficiently large ( typically larger than 0 @.@ 1 mm in all dimensions ) , pure in composition and regular in structure , with no significant internal imperfections such as cracks or twinning .
In the second step , the crystal is placed in an intense beam of X @-@ rays , usually of a single wavelength ( monochromatic X @-@ rays ) , producing the regular pattern of reflections . As the crystal is gradually rotated , previous reflections disappear and new ones appear ; the intensity of every spot is recorded at every orientation of the crystal . Multiple data sets may have to be collected , with each set covering slightly more than half a full rotation of the crystal and typically containing tens of thousands of reflections .
In the third step , these data are combined computationally with complementary chemical information to produce and refine a model of the arrangement of atoms within the crystal . The final , refined model of the atomic arrangement — now called a crystal structure — is usually stored in a public database .
= = = = Limitations = = = =
As the crystal 's repeating unit , its unit cell , becomes larger and more complex , the atomic @-@ level picture provided by X @-@ ray crystallography becomes less well @-@ resolved ( more " fuzzy " ) for a given number of observed reflections . Two limiting cases of X @-@ ray crystallography — " small @-@ molecule " and " macromolecular " crystallography — are often discerned . Small @-@ molecule crystallography typically involves crystals with fewer than 100 atoms in their asymmetric unit ; such crystal structures are usually so well resolved that the atoms can be discerned as isolated " blobs " of electron density . By contrast , macromolecular crystallography often involves tens of thousands of atoms in the unit cell . Such crystal structures are generally less well @-@ resolved ( more " smeared out " ) ; the atoms and chemical bonds appear as tubes of electron density , rather than as isolated atoms . In general , small molecules are also easier to crystallize than macromolecules ; however , X @-@ ray crystallography has proven possible even for viruses with hundreds of thousands of atoms . Though normally x @-@ ray crystallography can only be performed if the sample is in crystal form , new research has been done into sampling non @-@ crystalline forms of samples .
= = = Crystallization = = =
Although crystallography can be used to characterize the disorder in an impure or irregular crystal , crystallography generally requires a pure crystal of high regularity to solve the structure of a complicated arrangement of atoms . Pure , regular crystals can sometimes be obtained from natural or synthetic materials , such as samples of metals , minerals or other macroscopic materials . The regularity of such crystals can sometimes be improved with macromolecular crystal annealing and other methods . However , in many cases , obtaining a diffraction @-@ quality crystal is the chief barrier to solving its atomic @-@ resolution structure .
Small @-@ molecule and macromolecular crystallography differ in the range of possible techniques used to produce diffraction @-@ quality crystals . Small molecules generally have few degrees of conformational freedom , and may be crystallized by a wide range of methods , such as chemical vapor deposition and recrystallization . By contrast , macromolecules generally have many degrees of freedom and their crystallization must be carried out to maintain a stable structure . For example , proteins and larger RNA molecules cannot be crystallized if their tertiary structure has been unfolded ; therefore , the range of crystallization conditions is restricted to solution conditions in which such molecules remain folded .
Protein crystals are almost always grown in solution . The most common approach is to lower the solubility of its component molecules very gradually ; if this is done too quickly , the molecules will precipitate from solution , forming a useless dust or amorphous gel on the bottom of the container . Crystal growth in solution is characterized by two steps : nucleation of a microscopic crystallite ( possibly having only 100 molecules ) , followed by growth of that crystallite , ideally to a diffraction @-@ quality crystal . The solution conditions that favor the first step ( nucleation ) are not always the same conditions that favor the second step ( subsequent growth ) . The crystallographer 's goal is to identify solution conditions that favor the development of a single , large crystal , since larger crystals offer improved resolution of the molecule . Consequently , the solution conditions should disfavor the first step ( nucleation ) but favor the second ( growth ) , so that only one large crystal forms per droplet . If nucleation is favored too much , a shower of small crystallites will form in the droplet , rather than one large crystal ; if favored too little , no crystal will form whatsoever . Other approaches involves , crystallizing proteins under oil , where aqueous protein solutions are dispensed under liquid oil , and water evaporates through the layer of oil . Different oils have different evaporation permeabilities , therefore yielding changes in concentration rates from different percipient / protein mixture . The technique relies on bringing the protein directly into the nucleation zone by mixing protein with the appropriate amount of percipient to prevent the diffusion of water out of the drop .
It is extremely difficult to predict good conditions for nucleation or growth of well @-@ ordered crystals . In practice , favorable conditions are identified by screening ; a very large batch of the molecules is prepared , and a wide variety of crystallization solutions are tested . Hundreds , even thousands , of solution conditions are generally tried before finding the successful one . The various conditions can use one or more physical mechanisms to lower the solubility of the molecule ; for example , some may change the pH , some contain salts of the Hofmeister series or chemicals that lower the dielectric constant of the solution , and still others contain large polymers such as polyethylene glycol that drive the molecule out of solution by entropic effects . It is also common to try several temperatures for encouraging crystallization , or to gradually lower the temperature so that the solution becomes supersaturated . These methods require large amounts of the target molecule , as they use high concentration of the molecule ( s ) to be crystallized . Due to the difficulty in obtaining such large quantities ( milligrams ) of crystallization @-@ grade protein , robots have been developed that are capable of accurately dispensing crystallization trial drops that are in the order of 100 nanoliters in volume . This means that 10 @-@ fold less protein is used per experiment when compared to crystallization trials set up by hand ( in the order of 1 microliter ) .
Several factors are known to inhibit or mar crystallization . The growing crystals are generally held at a constant temperature and protected from shocks or vibrations that might disturb their crystallization . Impurities in the molecules or in the crystallization solutions are often inimical to crystallization . Conformational flexibility in the molecule also tends to make crystallization less likely , due to entropy . Ironically , molecules that tend to self @-@ assemble into regular helices are often unwilling to assemble into crystals . Crystals can be marred by twinning , which can occur when a unit cell can pack equally favorably in multiple orientations ; although recent advances in computational methods may allow solving the structure of some twinned crystals . Having failed to crystallize a target molecule , a crystallographer may try again with a slightly modified version of the molecule ; even small changes in molecular properties can lead to large differences in crystallization behavior .
= = = Data collection = = =
= = = = Mounting the crystal = = = =
The crystal is mounted for measurements so that it may be held in the X @-@ ray beam and rotated . There are several methods of mounting . In the past , crystals were loaded into glass capillaries with the crystallization solution ( the mother liquor ) . Nowadays , crystals of small molecules are typically attached with oil or glue to a glass fiber or a loop , which is made of nylon or plastic and attached to a solid rod . Protein crystals are scooped up by a loop , then flash @-@ frozen with liquid nitrogen . This freezing reduces the radiation damage of the X @-@ rays , as well as the noise in the Bragg peaks due to thermal motion ( the Debye @-@ Waller effect ) . However , untreated protein crystals often crack if flash @-@ frozen ; therefore , they are generally pre @-@ soaked in a cryoprotectant solution before freezing . Unfortunately , this pre @-@ soak may itself cause the crystal to crack , ruining it for crystallography . Generally , successful cryo @-@ conditions are identified by trial and error .
The capillary or loop is mounted on a goniometer , which allows it to be positioned accurately within the X @-@ ray beam and rotated . Since both the crystal and the beam are often very small , the crystal must be centered within the beam to within ~ 25 micrometers accuracy , which is
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aided by a camera focused on the crystal . The most common type of goniometer is the " kappa goniometer " , which offers three angles of rotation : the ω angle , which rotates about an axis perpendicular to the beam ; the κ angle , about an axis at ~ 50 ° to the ω axis ; and , finally , the φ angle about the loop / capillary axis . When the κ angle is zero , the ω and φ axes are aligned . The κ rotation allows for convenient mounting of the crystal , since the arm in which the crystal is mounted may be swung out towards the crystallographer . The oscillations carried out during data collection ( mentioned below ) involve the ω axis only . An older type of goniometer is the four @-@ circle goniometer , and its relatives such as the six @-@ circle goniometer .
= = = = = Rotating Anode = = = = =
Small scale can be done on a local X @-@ ray tube source , typically coupled with an image plate detector . These have the advantage of being ( relatively ) inexpensive and easy to maintain , and allow for quick screening and collection of samples . However , the wavelength light produced is limited by anode material , typically copper . Further , intensity is limited by the power applied and cooling capacity available to avoid melting the anode . In such systems , electrons are boiled off of a cathode and accelerated through a strong electric potential of ~ 50 kV ; having reached a high speed , the electrons collide with a metal plate , emitting bremsstrahlung and some strong spectral lines corresponding to the excitation of inner @-@ shell electrons of the metal . The most common metal used is copper , which can be kept cool easily , due to its high thermal conductivity , and which produces strong Kα and Kβ lines . The Kβ line is sometimes suppressed with a thin ( ~ 10 µm ) nickel foil . The simplest and cheapest variety of sealed X @-@ ray tube has a stationary anode ( the Crookes tube ) and run with ~ 2 kW of electron beam power . The more expensive variety has a rotating @-@ anode type source that run with ~ 14 kW of e @-@ beam power .
X @-@ rays are generally filtered ( by use of X @-@ Ray Filters ) to a single wavelength ( made monochromatic ) and collimated to a single direction before they are allowed to strike the crystal . The filtering not only simplifies the data analysis , but also removes radiation that degrades the crystal without contributing useful information . Collimation is done either with a collimator ( basically , a long tube ) or with a clever arrangement of gently curved mirrors . Mirror systems are preferred for small crystals ( under 0 @.@ 3 mm ) or with large unit cells ( over 150 Å )
= = = = = Synchrotron Radiation = = = = =
Synchrotron radiation are some of the brightest lights on earth . It is the single most powerful tool available to X @-@ ray crystallographers . It is made of X @-@ ray beams generated in large machines called synchrotrons . These machines accelerate electrically charged particles , often electrons , to nearly the speed of light and confine them in a ( roughly ) circular loop using magnetic fields .
Synchrotrons are generally national facilities , each with several dedicated beamlines where data is collected without interruption . Synchrotrons were originally designed for use by high @-@ energy physicists studying subatomic particles and cosmic phenomena . The largest component of each synchrotron is its electron storage ring . This ring is actually not a perfect circle , but a many @-@ sided polygon . At each corner of the polygon , or sector , precisely aligned magnets bend the electron stream . As the electrons ’ path is bent , they emit bursts of energy in the form of X @-@ rays .
Using synchrotron radiation frequently has specific requirements for X @-@ ray crystallography . The intense ionizing radiation can cause radiation damage to samples , particularly macromolecular crystals . Cryo crystallography protects the sample from radiation damage , by freezing the crystal at liquid nitrogen temperatures ( ~ 100 K ) . However , synchrotron radiation frequently has the advantage of user selectable wavelengths , allowing for anomalous scattering experiments which maximizes anomalous signal . This is critical in experiments such as SAD and MAD .
= = = = = Free Electron Laser = = = = =
Recently , free electron lasers have been developed for use in X @-@ ray crystallography . These are the brightest X @-@ ray sources currently available ; with the X @-@ rays coming in femtosecond bursts . The intensity of the source is such that atomic resolution diffraction patterns can be resolved for crystals otherwise too small for collection . However , the intense light source also destroys the sample , requiring multiple crystals to be shot . As each crystal is randomly oriented in the beam , hundreds of thousands of individual diffraction images must be collected in order to get a complete data @-@ set . This method , serial femtosecond crystallography , has been used in solving the structure of a number of protein crystal structures , sometimes noting differences with equivalent structures collected from synchrotron sources .
= = = = Recording the reflections = = = =
When a crystal is mounted and exposed to an intense beam of X @-@ rays , it scatters the X @-@ rays into a pattern of spots or reflections that can be observed on a screen behind the crystal . A similar pattern may be seen by shining a laser pointer at a compact disc . The relative intensities of these spots provide the information to determine the arrangement of molecules within the crystal in atomic detail . The intensities of these reflections may be recorded with photographic film , an area detector or with a charge @-@ coupled device ( CCD ) image sensor . The peaks at small angles correspond to low @-@ resolution data , whereas those at high angles represent high @-@ resolution data ; thus , an upper limit on the eventual resolution of the structure can be determined from the first few images . Some measures of diffraction quality can be determined at this point , such as the mosaicity of the crystal and its overall disorder , as observed in the peak widths . Some pathologies of the crystal that would render it unfit for solving the structure can also be diagnosed quickly at this point .
One image of spots is insufficient to reconstruct the whole crystal ; it represents only a small slice of the full Fourier transform . To collect all the necessary information , the crystal must be rotated step @-@ by @-@ step through 180 ° , with an image recorded at every step ; actually , slightly more than 180 ° is required to cover reciprocal space , due to the curvature of the Ewald sphere . However , if the crystal has a higher symmetry , a smaller angular range such as 90 ° or 45 ° may be recorded . The rotation axis should be changed at least once , to avoid developing a " blind spot " in reciprocal space close to the rotation axis . It is customary to rock the crystal slightly ( by 0 @.@ 5 – 2 ° ) to catch a broader region of reciprocal space .
Multiple data sets may be necessary for certain phasing methods . For example , MAD phasing requires that the scattering be recorded at least three ( and usually four , for redundancy ) wavelengths of the incoming X @-@ ray radiation . A single crystal may degrade too much during the collection of one data set , owing to radiation damage ; in such cases , data sets on multiple crystals must be taken .
= = = Data analysis = = =
= = = = Crystal symmetry , unit cell , and image scaling = = = =
The recorded series of two @-@ dimensional diffraction patterns , each corresponding to a different crystal orientation , is converted into a three @-@ dimensional model of the electron density ; the conversion uses the mathematical technique of Fourier transforms , which is explained below . Each spot corresponds to a different type of variation in the electron density ; the crystallographer must determine which variation corresponds to which spot ( indexing ) , the relative strengths of the spots in different images ( merging and scaling ) and how the variations should be combined to yield the total electron density ( phasing ) .
Data processing begins with indexing the reflections . This means identifying the dimensions of the unit cell and which image peak corresponds to which position in reciprocal space . A byproduct of indexing is to determine the symmetry of the crystal , i.e. , its space group . Some space groups can be eliminated from the beginning . For example , reflection symmetries cannot be observed in chiral molecules ; thus , only 65 space groups of 230 possible are allowed for protein molecules which are almost always chiral . Indexing is generally accomplished using an autoindexing routine . Having assigned symmetry , the data is then integrated . This converts the hundreds of images containing the thousands of reflections into a single file , consisting of ( at the very least ) records of the Miller index of each reflection , and an intensity for each reflection ( at this state the file often also includes error estimates and measures of partiality ( what part of a given reflection was recorded on that image ) ) .
A full data set may consist of hundreds of separate images taken at different orientations of the crystal . The first step is to merge and scale these various images , that is , to identify which peaks appear in two or more images ( merging ) and to scale the relative images so that they have a consistent intensity scale . Optimizing the intensity scale is critical because the relative intensity of the peaks is the key information from which the structure is determined . The repetitive technique of crystallographic data collection and the often high symmetry of crystalline materials cause the diffractometer to record many symmetry @-@ equivalent reflections multiple times . This allows calculating the symmetry @-@ related R @-@ factor , a reliability index based upon how similar are the measured intensities of symmetry @-@ equivalent reflections , thus assessing the quality of the data .
= = = = Initial phasing = = = =
The data collected from a diffraction experiment is a reciprocal space representation of the crystal lattice . The position of each diffraction ' spot ' is governed by the size and shape of the unit cell , and the inherent symmetry within the crystal . The intensity of each diffraction ' spot ' is recorded , and this intensity is proportional to the square of the structure factor amplitude . The structure factor is a complex number containing information relating to both the amplitude and phase of a wave . In order to obtain an interpretable electron density map , both amplitude and phase must be known ( an electron density map allows a crystallographer to build a starting model of the molecule ) . The phase cannot be directly recorded during a diffraction experiment : this is known as the phase problem . Initial phase estimates can be obtained in a variety of ways :
Ab initio phasing or direct methods – This is usually the method of choice for small molecules ( < 1000 non @-@ hydrogen atoms ) , and has been used successfully to solve the phase problems for small proteins . If the resolution of the data is better than 1 @.@ 4 Å ( 140 pm ) , direct methods can be used to obtain phase information , by exploiting known phase relationships between certain groups of reflections .
Molecular replacement – if a related structure is known , it can be used as a search model in molecular replacement to determine the orientation and position of the molecules within the unit cell . The phases obtained this way can be used to generate electron density maps .
Anomalous X @-@ ray scattering ( MAD or SAD phasing ) – the X @-@ ray wavelength may be scanned past an absorption edge of an atom , which changes the scattering in a known way . By recording full sets of reflections at three different wavelengths ( far below , far above and in the middle of the absorption edge ) one can solve for the substructure of the anomalously diffracting atoms and hence the structure of the whole molecule . The most popular method of incorporating anomalous scattering atoms into proteins is to express the protein in a methionine auxotroph ( a host incapable of synthesizing methionine ) in a media rich in seleno @-@ methionine , which contains selenium atoms . A MAD experiment can then be conducted around the absorption edge , which should then yield the position of any methionine residues within the protein , providing initial phases .
Heavy atom methods ( multiple isomorphous replacement ) – If electron @-@ dense metal atoms can be introduced into the crystal , direct methods or Patterson @-@ space methods can be used to determine their location and to obtain initial phases . Such heavy atoms can be introduced either by soaking the crystal in a heavy atom @-@ containing solution , or by co @-@ crystallization ( growing the crystals in the presence of a heavy atom ) . As in MAD phasing , the changes in the scattering amplitudes can be interpreted to yield the phases . Although this is the original method by which protein crystal structures were solved , it has largely been superseded by MAD phasing with selenomethionine .
= = = = Model building and phase refinement = = = =
Having obtained initial phases , an initial model can be built . This model can be used to refine the phases , leading to an improved model , and so on . Given a model of some atomic positions , these positions and their respective Debye @-@ Waller factors ( or B @-@ factors , accounting for the thermal motion of the atom ) can be refined to fit the observed diffraction data , ideally yielding a better set of phases . A new model can then be fit to the new electron density map and a further round of refinement is carried out . This continues until the correlation between the diffraction data and the model is maximized . The agreement is measured by an R @-@ factor defined as
<formula>
where F is the structure factor . A similar quality criterion is Rfree , which is calculated from a subset ( ~ 10 % ) of reflections that were not included in the structure refinement . Both R factors depend on the resolution of the data . As a rule of thumb , Rfree should be approximately the resolution in angstroms divided by 10 ; thus , a data @-@ set with 2 Å resolution should yield a final Rfree ~ 0 @.@ 2 . Chemical bonding features such as stereochemistry , hydrogen bonding and distribution of bond lengths and angles are complementary measures of the model quality . Phase bias is a serious problem in such iterative model building . Omit maps are a common technique used to check for this .
It may not be possible to observe every atom of the crystallized molecule – it must be remembered that the resulting electron density is an average of all the molecules within the crystal . In some cases , there is too much residual disorder in those atoms , and the resulting electron density for atoms existing in many conformations is smeared to such an extent that it is no longer detectable in the electron density map . Weakly scattering atoms such as hydrogen are routinely invisible . It is also possible for a single atom to appear multiple times in an electron density map , e.g. , if a protein sidechain has multiple ( < 4 ) allowed conformations . In still other cases , the crystallographer may detect that the covalent structure deduced for the molecule was incorrect , or changed . For example , proteins may be cleaved or undergo post @-@ translational modifications that were not detected prior to the crystallization .
= = = Deposition of the structure = = =
Once the model of a molecule 's structure has been finalized , it is often deposited in a crystallographic database such as the Cambridge Structural Database ( for small molecules ) , the Inorganic Crystal Structure Database ( ICSD ) ( for inorganic compounds ) or the Protein Data Bank ( for protein structures ) . Many structures obtained in private commercial ventures to crystallize medicinally relevant proteins are not deposited in public crystallographic databases .
= = Diffraction theory = =
The main goal of X @-@ ray crystallography is to determine the density of electrons f ( r ) throughout the crystal , where r represents the three @-@ dimensional position vector within the crystal . To do this , X @-@ ray scattering is used to collect data about its Fourier transform F ( q ) , which is inverted mathematically to obtain the density defined in real space , using the formula
<formula>
where the integral is taken over all values of q . The three @-@ dimensional real vector q represents a point in reciprocal space , that is , to a particular oscillation in the electron density as one moves in the direction in which q points . The length of q corresponds to 2 <formula> divided by the wavelength of the oscillation . The corresponding formula for a Fourier transform will be used below
<formula>
where the integral is summed over all possible values of the position vector r within the crystal .
The Fourier transform F ( q ) is generally a complex number , and therefore has a magnitude | F ( q ) | and a phase φ ( q ) related by the equation
<formula>
The intensities of the reflections observed in X @-@ ray diffraction give us the magnitudes | F ( q ) | but not the phases φ ( q ) . To obtain the phases , full sets of reflections are collected with known alterations to the scattering , either by modulating the wavelength past a certain absorption edge or by adding strongly scattering ( i.e. , electron @-@ dense ) metal atoms such as mercury . Combining the magnitudes and phases yields the full Fourier transform F ( q ) , which may be inverted to obtain the electron density f ( r ) .
Crystals are often idealized as being perfectly periodic . In that ideal case , the atoms are positioned on a perfect lattice , the electron density is perfectly periodic , and the Fourier transform F ( q ) is zero except when q belongs to the reciprocal lattice ( the so @-@ called Bragg peaks ) . In reality , however , crystals are not perfectly periodic ; atoms vibrate about their mean position , and there may be disorder of various types , such as mosaicity , dislocations , various point defects , and heterogeneity in the conformation of crystallized molecules . Therefore , the Bragg peaks have a finite width and there may be significant diffuse scattering , a continuum of scattered X @-@ rays that fall between the Bragg peaks .
= = = Intuitive understanding by Bragg 's law = = =
An intuitive understanding of X @-@ ray diffraction can be obtained from the Bragg model of diffraction . In this model , a given reflection is associated with a set of evenly spaced sheets running through the crystal , usually passing through the centers of the atoms of the crystal lattice . The orientation of a particular set of sheets is identified by its three Miller indices ( h , k , l ) , and let their spacing be noted by d . William Lawrence Bragg proposed a model in which the incoming X @-@ rays are scattered specularly ( mirror @-@ like ) from each plane ; from that assumption , X @-@ rays scattered from adjacent planes will combine constructively ( constructive interference ) when the angle θ between the plane and the X @-@ ray results in a path @-@ length difference that is an integer multiple n of the X @-@ ray wavelength λ .
<formula>
A reflection is said to be indexed when its Miller indices ( or , more correctly , its reciprocal lattice vector components ) have been identified from the known wavelength and the scattering angle 2θ . Such indexing gives the unit @-@ cell parameters , the lengths and angles of the unit @-@ cell , as well as its space group . Since Bragg 's law does not interpret the relative intensities of the reflections , however , it is generally inadequate to solve for the arrangement of atoms within the unit @-@ cell ; for that , a Fourier transform method must be carried out .
= = = Scattering as a Fourier transform = = =
The incoming X @-@ ray beam has a polarization and should be represented as a vector wave ; however , for simplicity , let it be represented here as a scalar wave . We also ignore the complication of the time dependence of the wave and just concentrate on the wave 's spatial dependence . Plane waves can be represented by a wave vector kin , and so the strength of the incoming wave at time t = 0 is given by
<formula>
At position r within the sample , let there be a density of scatterers f ( r ) ; these scatterers should produce a scattered spherical wave of amplitude proportional to the local amplitude of the incoming wave times the number of scatterers in a small volume dV about r
<formula>
where S is the proportionality constant .
Let 's consider the fraction of scattered waves that leave with an outgoing wave @-@ vector of kout and strike the screen at rscreen . Since no energy is lost ( elastic , not inelastic scattering ) , the wavelengths are the same as are the magnitudes of the wave @-@ vectors | kin | = | kout | . From the time that the photon is scattered at r until it is absorbed at rscreen , the photon undergoes a change in phase
<formula>
The net radiation arriving at rscreen is the sum of all the scattered waves throughout the crystal
<formula>
which may be written as a Fourier transform
<formula>
where q = kout – kin . The measured intensity of the reflection will be square of this amplitude
<formula>
= = = Friedel and Bijvoet mates = = =
For every reflection corresponding to a point q in the reciprocal space , there is another reflection of the same intensity at the opposite point -q . This opposite reflection is known as the Friedel mate of the original reflection . This symmetry results from the mathematical fact that the density of electrons f ( r ) at a position r is always a real number . As noted above , f ( r ) is the inverse transform of its Fourier transform F ( q ) ; however , such an inverse transform is a complex number in general . To ensure that f ( r ) is real , the Fourier transform F ( q ) must be such that the Friedel mates F ( − q ) and F ( q ) are complex conjugates of one another . Thus , F ( − q ) has the same magnitude as F ( q ) but they have the opposite phase , i.e. , φ ( q )
= − φ ( q )
<formula>
The equality of their magnitudes ensures that the Friedel mates have the same intensity | F | 2 . This symmetry allows one to measure the full Fourier transform from only half the reciprocal space , e.g. , by rotating the crystal slightly more than 180 ° instead of a full 360 ° revolution . In crystals with significant symmetry , even more reflections may have the same intensity ( Bijvoet mates ) ; in such cases , even less of the reciprocal space may need to be measured . In favorable cases of high symmetry , sometimes only 90 ° or even only 45 ° of data are required to completely explore the reciprocal space .
The Friedel @-@ mate constraint can be derived from the definition of the inverse Fourier transform
<formula>
Since Euler 's formula states that eix =
cos ( x ) + i sin ( x ) , the inverse Fourier transform can be separated into a sum of a purely real part and a purely imaginary part
<formula>
The function f ( r ) is real if and only if the second integral Isin is zero for all values of r . In turn , this is true if and only if the above constraint is satisfied
<formula>
since Isin = − Isin implies that Isin = 0 .
= = = Ewald 's sphere = = =
Each X @-@ ray diffraction image represents only a slice , a spherical slice of reciprocal space , as may be seen by the Ewald sphere construction . Both kout and kin have the same length , due to the elastic scattering , since the wavelength has not changed . Therefore , they may be represented as two radial vectors in a sphere in reciprocal space , which shows the values of q that are sampled in a given diffraction image . Since there is a slight spread in the incoming wavelengths of the incoming X @-@ ray beam , the values of | F ( q ) | can be measured only for q vectors located between the two spheres corresponding to those radii . Therefore , to obtain a full set of Fourier transform data , it is necessary to rotate the crystal through slightly more than 180 ° , or sometimes less if sufficient symmetry is present . A full 360 ° rotation is not needed because of a symmetry intrinsic to the Fourier transforms of real functions ( such as the electron density ) , but " slightly more " than 180 ° is needed to cover all of reciprocal space within a given resolution because of the curvature of the Ewald sphere . In practice , the crystal is rocked by a small amount ( 0 @.@ 25 @-@ 1 ° ) to incorporate reflections near the boundaries of the spherical Ewald 's shells .
= = = Patterson function = = =
A well @-@ known result of Fourier transforms is the autocorrelation theorem , which states that the autocorrelation c ( r ) of a function f ( r )
<formula>
has a Fourier transform C ( q ) that is the squared magnitude of F ( q )
<formula>
Therefore , the autocorrelation function c ( r ) of the electron density ( also known as the Patterson function ) can be computed directly from the reflection intensities , without computing the phases . In principle , this could be used to determine the crystal structure directly ; however , it is difficult to realize in practice . The autocorrelation function corresponds to the distribution of vectors between atoms in the crystal ; thus , a crystal of N atoms in its unit cell may have N ( N @-@ 1 ) peaks in its Patterson function . Given the inevitable errors in measuring the intensities , and the mathematical difficulties of reconstructing atomic positions from the interatomic vectors , this technique is rarely used to solve structures , except for the simplest crystals .
= = = Advantages of a crystal = = =
In principle , an atomic structure could be determined from applying X @-@ ray scattering to non @-@ crystalline samples , even to a single molecule . However , crystals offer a much stronger signal due to their periodicity . A crystalline sample is by definition periodic ; a crystal is composed of many unit cells repeated indefinitely in three independent directions . Such periodic systems have a Fourier transform that is concentrated at periodically repeating points in reciprocal space known as Bragg peaks ; the Bragg peaks correspond to the reflection spots observed in the diffraction image . Since the amplitude at these reflections grows linearly with the number N of scatterers , the observed intensity of these spots should grow quadratically , like N2 . In other words , using a crystal concentrates the weak scattering of the individual unit cells into a much more powerful , coherent reflection that can be observed above the noise . This is an example of constructive interference .
In a liquid , powder or amorphous sample , molecules within that sample are in random orientations . Such samples have a continuous Fourier spectrum that uniformly spreads its amplitude thereby reducing the measured signal intensity , as is observed in SAXS . More importantly , the orientational information is lost . Although theoretically possible , it is experimentally difficult to obtain atomic @-@ resolution structures of complicated , asymmetric molecules from such rotationally averaged data . An intermediate case is fiber diffraction in which the subunits are arranged periodically in at least one dimension .
= = Nobel Prizes for X @-@ ray Crystallography = =
= = = International Tables for Crystallography = = =
Theo Hahn , ed . ( 2002 ) . International Tables for Crystallography . Volume A , Space @-@ group Symmetry ( 5th ed . ) . Dordrecht : Kluwer Academic Publishers , for the International Union of Crystallography . ISBN 0 @-@ 7923 @-@ 6590 @-@ 9 .
Michael G. Rossmann ; Eddy Arnold , eds . ( 2001 ) . International Tables for Crystallography . Volume F , Crystallography of biological molecules . Dordrecht : Kluwer Academic Publishers , for the International Union of Crystallography . ISBN 0 @-@ 7923 @-@ 6857 @-@ 6 .
Theo Hahn , ed . ( 1996 ) . International Tables for Crystallography . Brief Teaching Edition of Volume A , Space @-@ group Symmetry ( 4th ed . ) . Dordrecht : Kluwer Academic Publishers , for the International Union of Crystallography . ISBN 0 @-@ 7923 @-@ 4252 @-@ 6 .
= = = Bound collections of articles = = =
Charles W. Carter ; Robert M. Sweet . , eds . ( 1997 ) . Macromolecular Crystallography , Part A ( Methods in Enzymology , v. 276 ) . San Diego : Academic Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 182177 @-@ 3 .
Charles W. Carter Jr . ; Robert M. Sweet . , eds . ( 1997 ) . Macromolecular Crystallography , Part B ( Methods in Enzymology , v. 277 ) . San Diego : Academic Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 182178 @-@ 1 .
A. Ducruix ; R. Giegé , eds . ( 1999 ) . Crystallization of Nucleic Acids and Proteins : A Practical Approach ( 2nd ed . ) . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 963678 @-@ 8 .
= = = Textbooks = = =
B.E. Warren ( 1969 ) . X @-@ ray Diffraction . New York . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 66317 @-@ 5 .
Blow D ( 2002 ) . Outline of Crystallography for Biologists . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 851051 @-@ 9 .
Burns G. ; Glazer A M ( 1990 ) . Space Groups for Scientists and Engineers ( 2nd ed . ) . Boston : Academic Press , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 145761 @-@ 3 .
Clegg W ( 1998 ) . Crystal Structure Determination ( Oxford Chemistry Primer ) . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 855901 @-@ 1 .
Cullity B.D. ( 1978 ) . Elements of X @-@ Ray Diffraction ( 2nd ed . ) . Reading , Massachusetts : Addison @-@ Wesley Publishing Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 534 @-@ 55396 @-@ 6 .
Drenth J ( 1999 ) . Principles of Protein X @-@ Ray Crystallography . New York : Springer @-@ Verlag . ISBN 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 98587 @-@ 5 .
Giacovazzo C ( 1992 ) . Fundamentals of Crystallography . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 855578 @-@ 4 .
Glusker JP ; Lewis M ; Rossi M ( 1994 ) . Crystal Structure Analysis for Chemists and Biologists . New York : VCH Publishers . ISBN 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 18543 @-@ 4 .
Massa W ( 2004 ) . Crystal Structure Determination . Berlin : Springer . ISBN 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 20644 @-@ 2 .
McPherson A ( 1999 ) . Crystallization of Biological Macromolecules . Cold Spring Harbor , NY : Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87969 @-@ 617 @-@ 6 .
McPherson A ( 2003 ) . Introduction to Macromolecular Crystallography . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 25122 @-@ 4 .
McRee DE ( 1993 ) . Practical Protein Crystallography . San Diego : Academic Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 486050 @-@ 8 .
O 'Keeffe M ; Hyde B G ( 1996 ) . Crystal Structures ; I. Patterns and Symmetry . Washington , DC : Mineralogical Society of America , Monograph Series . ISBN 0 @-@ 939950 @-@ 40 @-@ 5 .
Rhodes G ( 2000 ) . Crystallography Made Crystal Clear . San Diego : Academic Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 587072 @-@ 8 . , PDF copy of select chapters
Rupp B ( 2009 ) . Biomolecular Crystallography : Principles , Practice and Application to Structural Biology . New York : Garland Science . ISBN 0 @-@ 8153 @-@ 4081 @-@ 8 .
Zachariasen WH ( 1945 ) . Theory of X @-@ ray Diffraction in Crystals . New York : Dover Publications . LCCN 67026967 .
= = = Applied computational data analysis = = =
Young , R.A. , ed . ( 1993 ) . The Rietveld Method . Oxford : Oxford University Press & International Union of Crystallography . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 855577 @-@ 6 .
= = = Historical = = =
Bijvoet JM , Burgers WG , Hägg G , eds . ( 1969 ) . Early Papers on Diffraction of X @-@ rays by Crystals I. Utrecht : published for the International Union of Crystallography by A. Oosthoek 's Uitgeversmaatschappij N.V.
Bijvoet JM ; Burgers WG ; Hägg G , eds . ( 1972 ) . Early Papers on Diffraction of X @-@ rays by Crystals II . Utrecht : published for the International Union of Crystallography by A. Oosthoek 's Uitgeversmaatschappij N.V.
Bragg W L ; Phillips D C & Lipson H ( 1992 ) . The Development of X @-@ ray Analysis . New York : Dover . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 67316 @-@ 2 .
Ewald , PP , and numerous crystallographers , eds . ( 1962 ) . Fifty Years of X @-@ ray Diffraction . Utrecht : published for the International Union of Crystallography by A. Oosthoek 's Uitgeversmaatschappij N.V. doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4615 @-@ 9961 @-@ 6 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4615 @-@ 9963 @-@ 0 .
Ewald , P. P. , editor 50 Years of X @-@ Ray Diffraction ( Reprinted in pdf format for the IUCr XVIII Congress , Glasgow , Scotland , International Union of Crystallography ) .
Friedrich W ( 1922 ) . " Die Geschichte der Auffindung der Röntgenstrahlinterferenzen " . Die Naturwissenschaften 10 ( 16 ) : 363 . Bibcode : 1922NW ..... 10 .. 363F. doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01565289 .
Lonsdale , K ( 1949 ) . Crystals and X @-@ rays . New York : D. van Nostrand .
" The Structures of Life " . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . 2007 .
= = = Tutorials = = =
Learning Crystallography
Simple , non technical introduction
The Crystallography Collection , video series from the Royal Institution
" Small Molecule Crystalization " ( PDF ) at Illinois Institute of Technology website
International Union of Crystallography
Crystallography 101
Interactive structure factor tutorial , demonstrating properties of the diffraction pattern of a 2D crystal .
Picturebook of Fourier Transforms , illustrating the relationship between crystal and diffraction pattern in 2D .
Lecture notes on X @-@ ray crystallography and structure determination
Online lecture on Modern X @-@ ray Scattering Methods for Nanoscale Materials Analysis by Richard J. Matyi
Interactive Crystallography Timeline from the Royal Institution
= = = Primary databases = = =
Crystallography Open Database ( COD )
Protein Data Bank ( PDB )
Nucleic Acid Databank ( NDB )
Cambridge Structural Database ( CSD )
Inorganic Crystal Structure Database ( ICSD )
Biological Macromolecule Crystallization Database ( BMCD )
= = = Derivative databases = = =
PDBsum
Proteopedia – the collaborative , 3D encyclopedia of proteins and other molecules
RNABase
HIC @-@ Up database
|
Medium
|
wikitext-103-excerpt
|
of PDB ligands
Structural Classification of Proteins database
CATH Protein Structure Classification
List of transmembrane proteins with known 3D structure
Orientations of Proteins in Membranes database
= = = Structural validation = = =
MolProbity structural validation suite
ProSA @-@ web
NQ @-@ Flipper ( check for unfavorable rotamers of Asn and Gln residues )
DALI server ( identifies proteins similar to a given protein )
= Friedrich Foertsch =
Friedrich Albert Foertsch ( 19 May 1900 – 14 December 1976 ) was a German general serving during World War II and from 1961 to 1963 the second Inspector General of the Bundeswehr ( Generalinspekteur der Bundeswehr ) .
Foertsch was born in 1900 and joined the military service in the Imperial German Army in 1918 . Serving in the infantry in the final battles of World War I , Foertsch earned the Iron Cross second class before the end of hostilities . He joined the Freikorps after the war , and later was accepted into the Reichswehr in 1920 . During World War II , he held several senior staff positions , including chief of the general staff of the 18 . Armee . Foertsch was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 5 September 1944 for his leadership in the defensive battles at the Leningrad Front . He was taken prisoner of war in the Courland Pocket by the Soviet Army . At a post @-@ war trial he initially received a death sentence , which was later commuted to 25 years of hard labor . The intervention of Bundeskanzler Konrad Adenauer , caused his release , in 1955 and Foertsch joined the newly formed Bundeswehr of the Federal Republic of Germany . He again served in many senior positions , including an assignment to the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe ( SHAPE ) of Nato in Paris . In 1961 he was appointed Inspector General of the Bundeswehr , a position he held until his retirement in 1963 . Friedrich Foertsch died on 14 December 1976 in Goslar .
= = Biography = =
Friedrich Foertsch born 19 May 1900 in Drahnow in the district Deutsch @-@ Krone in West Prussia . His father was a government employee for the Prussian Settlement Commission in Posen and West Prussia ( Staatliche Verwaltung der Preußischen Ansiedlungskommission für Posen und Westpreußen ) . Foertsch attended the Gymnasium ( secondary school ) in Hohensalza and Graudenz and received his Abitur in May 1918 . He then volunteered for the military service in the Imperial German Army on 21 May 1918 . He was assigned to the 8 . Westpreußisches Infanterie @-@ Regiment Nr. 175 in Graudenz . Foertsch military career thus took the same path as his older brother 's , the later General der Infanterie Hermann Foertsch . Shortly before the end of World War I he participated in the battles of the Schelde at the Wotan- und Hermann positions northeast of Lille and was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd class .
With his brother , Foertsch joined the Freikorps " Feldmarschall Hindenburg " after the war and was accepted by the Reichswehr at the end of 1920 , serving as a Fähnrich ( ensign ) in the 17 . Infanterie @-@ Regiment . He was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 April 1922 and to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) on 1 February 1927 . He became adjutant of the III . ( Jäger ) Bataillon ( 3rd light infantry battalion ) of the 17 . Infanterie Regiment ( 17th infantry regiment ) on 1 October 1927 . In 1932 he served with the 12 . ( MG ) Kompanie ( 12th machine gun company ) of the regiment . Transferred to the Kriegsakademie ( war academy ) in the fall of 1932 he was promoted to Hauptmann on 1 April 1934 .
The treaty of Versailles had imposed severe restrictions on Germany 's military strength . The Weimar Republic largely obeyed the Versailles restrictions , but with Adolf Hitler 's rise to power the remilitarisation began . The Reichswehr , renamed the Wehrmacht , expanded . Foertsch at this time served in the military headquarters in Königsberg . He was appointed company chief in the Infanterie @-@ Regiment 81 on 12 October 1937 and was promoted to Major on 1 August 1938 . He was transferred to the Generalstab ( General Staff ) of the III . Armeekorps ( 3rd Army Corps ) on 10 November 1938 , a position he held at the outbreak of World War II . In the fall of 1939 he became the first officer of the general staff ( Ia ) of the 60 . Infanterie @-@ Division ( 60th infantry division ) and participated in the Battle of France .
After the invasion of France he was relieved of his position and was transferred to the chief of staff of the Heeresrüstung and Ersatzheer ( Army Equipment and Replacement Army ) and attained the rank of Oberstleutnant on 1 November 1940 . On 1 June 1942 he was promoted to Oberst im Generalstab and at the same time appointed first officer of the general staff of the 18 . Armee ( 18th Army ) . Foertsch earned the German Cross in Gold on 10 May 1943 for his support in the heavy fighting in the northern sector of the eastern front . He was appointed chief of the general staff of 18 . Armee on 1 December 1943 and promoted to Generalmajor on 1 June 1944 . Three months later he received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) . He was appointed chief of the general staff of the Heeresgruppe Kurland at the end of January 1945 . His promotion to Generalleutnant followed on 1 March 1945 . After the capitulation of all German forces he was taken prisoner of war by the Red Army of the Soviet Union . He was sentenced to 25 years imprisonment for war crime charges against the destruction of cities and art on 29 June 1950 . According to the court , Foertsch permitted the destruction of cities of Pskow , Novgorod and Leningrad by his troops , and the destruction of historical art and memorials in Gatschina , Petergof , Pavlovsk and Puschkin .
Friedrich Foertsch was released from captivity on 9 October 1955 . Bundeskanzler Konrad Adenauer had helped secure the release of the last German prisoners of war in 1955 , a decade after the end of the war . He joined the Bundeswehr after the remilitarisation of the Federal Republic of Germany holding the rank of Generalmajor . His initial task was the leadership of the II . Korps and he was appointed commanding officer of the 2 . Grenadier @-@ Division in April 1957 . He was then posted to the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe ( SHAPE ) of Nato in Paris as deputy chief of the fundamental planning office . He succeeded Adolf Heusinger as the second Generalinspekteur der Bundeswehr on 1 April 1961 . Under his command the compulsory military service in the Bundeswehr was extended from 12 to 18 months . He was also in command during the political Spiegel scandal , which led to the resignation of Federal Ministry of Defence Franz Josef Strauß . Der Spiegel , a widely read German periodical , had published the article " Bedingt abwehrbereit " ( " Conditionally prepared for defense " ) about a NATO maneuver called Fallex 62 , Fall Exercise 1962 , in which the NATO forces were to demonstrate their preparedness to resist possible attack by the Soviet Union and / or other Eastern Block forces . The maneuvers themselves had demonstrated the Bundeswehr 's incapacity to repel attack , and the article exposed the sorry state of Bundeswehr preparedness .
He retired as a four @-@ star general on 31 December 1963 . After his retirement he and his wife , together with their four children , lived in Goslar . Friedrich Foertsch died there on 14 December 1976 .
= = Awards = =
Iron Cross ( 1914 ) 2nd Class
Clasp to the Iron Cross ( 1939 ) 2nd Class
Iron Cross ( 1939 ) 1st Class
German Cross in Gold ( 10 May 1943 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 5 September 1944 as Generalmajor and chief of the general staff of the 18 . Armee
Grand Officer of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Grand Merit Cross with Star and Sash of the Federal Republic of Germany
Sudetenland Medal
Wehrmacht Long Service Award , 4th to 1st class
Kurland Cuffband
Commander 's Cross of the Order of the Crown of Romania
Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour ( France )
Legion of Merit ( USA )
= Zoloti Vorota ( Kiev Metro ) =
Zoloti Vorota ( Ukrainian : Золотi ворота ) is the 29th station of the Kiev Metro system that serves the Ukrainian capital Kiev . The station was opened as part of the first segment of the Syretsko @-@ Pecherska Line on 31 December 1989 . It serves as a transfer station to the Teatralna station of the Sviatoshynsko @-@ Brovarska Line . It is located near the city 's Golden Gate , from which the station takes its name .
The original design plans for the station called for a clean utilitarian structure typical of metro stations of that period . Due to the efforts of the city 's chief architect Mykola Zharikov , the design was scrapped in favor of one that resembles an ancient Kievan Rus ' temple by Borys Zhezherin , Vadym Zhezherin , and Zharikov himself . Such a design was a particularly risky feat , since Ukraine was a part of the secular Soviet Union at the time of the station 's construction . Vadym Zhezherin and Mykola Zharikov , among the other artists and architects of the station , were bestowed the State Prize of Ukraine in the Field of Architecture for their work in 1991 .
The Zoloti Vorota features 80 distinct mosaic pieces and images depicting the history of Kievan Rus ' . In 2011 , the station 's mosaics were listed as " newly discovered objects of cultural heritage " by the city 's Department of Cultural Heritage . The station is regarded as one of the most impressive metro stations in Europe , being placed on a list compiled by The Daily Telegraph in 2013 .
= = Construction = =
The initial plans for the future Syretsko @-@ Pecherska Line called for a transfer station ( named " Kominternivska " ) to connect with the Sviatoshynsko @-@ Brovarska Line at Universytet station . However , the short central hall at Universytet was inadequate for the high volume of passengers that a transfer station would be subject to , thus the station 's future location was moved a few city blocks to coincide with a newly proposed station of the Sviatoshynsko @-@ Brovarska Line . This new station , called Teatralna , would be located in between the Khreshchatyk and Universytet stations , and would serve as a transfer to the future Zoloti Vorota station . Although the Kominternivska station was never built , some of its architectural designs were preserved and used in the creation of the Teatralna station .
Construction for the Syretsko @-@ Pecherska Line , the Kiev Metro system 's third line , began on 23 February 1983 . It had a projected date of completion in 1986 , although the line 's opening was delayed until the end of 1989 due to the economic state of the Soviet Union at the time . The line 's first segment was officially opened on 31 December 1989 , and consisted of three stations ; Zoloti Vorota – Palats Sportu – Mechnikova ( named Klovska today ) .
Since its entrance is located on a hillside , two separate escalator tunnels had to be created , connected by an underground station vestibule . The upper tunnel is 35 m ( 115 ft ) long , while the lower tunnel is 56 m ( 184 ft ) long . The vestibule was built in the same way as with other stations of the Kiev Metro system ; it was first completed at ground level , and then lowered to its final location underground . The vestibule is a 20 m ( 66 ft ) tall monolithic dome with an approximately similar diameter .
The installation began in November 1987 and was completed by 1988 , lowered at a pace of half a meter a day . Since the construction took place in water @-@ saturated soils , over 200 frozen wells had to be formed so it could be lowered to its proper location . In addition , over 250 m2 ( 300 sq yd ) of rock had to be removed to make way for the vestibule . After it was finally installed , construction work began on the lower escalator tunnel . Due to a difficult hydrogeology , the tunnel was not completed by the station 's grand opening and until 1 May 1990 , it could only be reached with a transfer from the Teatralna station .
For several years , the Zoloti Vorota station served as the line 's northern terminus . Continued construction extended the line northwards to the Lukianivska station . In between the two stations , the Lvivska Brama station was built during the late 1990s ; however , it has not been completed to this day .
= = Design = =
From an engineering standpoint , Zoloti Vorota was built as a deep column station , at a depth of 96 @.@ 5 m ( 317 ft ) underground . It consists of three distinct vaulted halls , featuring one central hall , and two side platform halls , each separated by a row of columns . The central hall is connected to the only above @-@ ground vestibule through two escalator tunnels , separated by an underground vestibule , which was needed because of the depth at which the station is located . Its design and formation is nearly similar to the Maidan Nezalezhnosti station of the system 's Kurenivsko @-@ Chervonoarmiyska Line .
The station 's original plans were designed by a team of Moscow architects from Metrogiprotrans ; their design was strictly utilitarian , architecturally similar to the other metro stations of that period . However , due to the socio @-@ economic changes taking place in the country at the time , the original design was scrapped because it was considered " too weak " for one of the city 's main metro stations in a historically significant location .
The city 's chief architect Mykola Zharikov approached Vadym Zhezherin to create a new design for the station . Zhezherin enlisted the help of his father , Borys in completing the design . Vadym previously worked on the reconstruction of the city 's Leo Tolstoy Square and similarly named metro station , while his father , who was awarded the title of Distinguished Architect of Ukraine , was responsible for the reconstruction of the nearby National Opera House .
They were supported by architects Anatoliy Krushynskyi , Tamara Tselikovska , and Fedir Zaremba , who were responsible for designing the underground vestibule . While the redesign was taking place , construction on the station 's original utilitarian design continued . The new design was based on the form of a Kievan Rus ' temple , featuring unique mosaics situated throughout the station . The central hall 's height was increased , and the original design 's pylons were replaced with much lower columns , finished off with white marble and matte polish . In particular , the white ceiling was divided with diametrical mosaic stripes with brick grouting on the sides , completed by artists Hryhoriy Korin and Volodymyr Fedko .
The station is illuminated by two @-@ tierd bronze chandeliers , each featuring 12 distinct lighting groups holding candle @-@ like bulbs . The chandeliers , designed by Stanislav Adamenko and Mariya Ralko , were installed between the mosaic stripes . Both the station halls and the underground vestibule feature similar light fixtures , although they are significantly smaller than the main chandeliers . The redesign also called for a gold smalt @-@ covered ceiling , although this was rejected as it was too expensive . To finish it off , gray granite was used on the floor .
= = Mosaics = =
The Zoloti Vorota station features a number of distinct mosaic decorations , which were completed by artists Hryhoriy Korin and Volodymyr Fedko . There are a total of 80 large mosaic pieces ; they run in a clockwise direction around the station , depicting the history of Kievan Rus . The two artists , accompanied by the station 's lead architect Vadym Zhezherin , concluded that the station should be decorated with mosaic pieces of historical significance of the period leading up to the Mongol invasion of Rus ' . Korin completed the mosaics in either ends of the station and the large ceiling arches , while Fedko was completed the unique images relating to Kievan Rus ' and the smaller arches in between each of the station 's pillars .
Four large mosaic panels are installed on either ends of the station hall and the two escalator tunnels . On the side that leads to the exit to the city , a panel was installed depicting the patron saint of Kiev , Michael the Archangel . Meanwhile , at the very end of the station , Saint George is depicted , symbolizing Moscow , the Soviet Union 's capital at the time . One of the mosaic panels at the end of the station near the escalators includes an inscription featuring a Ukrainian nationalist slogan , stating СЛАВА УКРАЇНІ , which is translated as Glory to Ukraine .
A large portion of the station 's mosaics depict the various Grand Princes of Kievan Rus ' , of which 27 are depicted . The mosaic pieces themselves incorporate the princes ' years of reigning and their names :
The station also has nine mosaics depicting various other important personalities of the Kievan Rus ' era featuring Anthony , Theodosius , Anne , Hilarion , Agapetus , Alypius , Nestor the Chronicler , Petro Mylonig , and Sylvester . Eight of the mosaic pieces depict Kiev 's ancient Rus ' churches including the Church of the Tithes , the Saint Sophia Cathedral , Iryninska Church , St. Michael 's Golden @-@ Domed Cathedral , Church of the Saviour at Berestove , Dormition Cathedral , Church of the Mother of God Pyrohoshchya , and the St. Cyril 's Monastery . Lastly , there are 32 mosaic pieces featuring simargls , which are mythical creatures in East Slavic mythology , often depicted as a winged lion or dog .
= = Service = =
The Zoloti Vorota station has only two street entrances , one of which is located on Volodymyrska Street , and the other on Zoloti Vorota Passage . Each of the entrances are connected by a single vestibule in the city center near the Golden Gate , and Ukraine 's National Opera building . As of 2008 , the Zoloti Vorota station has a daily ridership of 20 @,@ 000 . The station itself is operational every day from 05 : 39 to 00 : 06 , while the transfer tunnel which connects Zoloti Vorota to Teatralna is open from 05 : 45 to 00 : 32 . The station features six escalators , with the upper and lower vestibules both having two operating escalators , with an additional backup escalator .
The commute from Zoloti Vorota to the line 's terminus at Syrets takes approximately 9 minutes and 5 seconds , while it takes 30 minutes and 55 seconds to commute to the Chervony Khutir terminus . The train frequencies vary throughout the day , but generally operate every 2 – 13 minutes in either direction . The morning 's first eastbound train departs from the station at 05 : 48 , while the westbound train departs at 06 : 01 . The evening 's last eastbound departs at 00 : 15 , while the westbound train departs at 00 : 30 .
The entire Kiev Metro system uses the same methods of payment for transit via each station ; plastic tokens , temporary paper contactless cards , and reloadable plastic contactless cards . In June 2015 , the station was outfitted with Paypass functionality , a contactless payment service from MasterCard . It is one of seventeen strategic stations of the metro system to use this technology , making Kiev the fifth rapid transit system in the world to incorporate this technology .
= New Jersey Devils =
The New Jersey Devils are a professional ice hockey team based in Newark , New Jersey , that competes in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The team is a member of the league 's Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference . The club was founded as the Kansas City Scouts in Kansas City , Missouri , in 1974 . The Scouts moved to Denver , Colorado in 1976 and became the Colorado Rockies . In 1982 , they moved to East Rutherford , New Jersey and took their current name . For their first 25 seasons in New Jersey , the Devils were based at the Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford and played their home games at Brendan Byrne Arena ( later renamed to Continental Airlines Arena ) . Beginning with the 2007 – 08 season , the Devils relocated to Newark and now play their home games at the Prudential Center .
The franchise was poor to mediocre in the eight years before moving to New Jersey , a pattern that continued during the first five years in New Jersey as they failed to make the Stanley Cup playoffs and never finished higher than fifth in their division . Their fortunes began to turn around following the hiring of president and general manager Lou Lamoriello in 1987 . Under Lamoriello 's stewardship , the Devils made the playoffs all but three times between 1988 and 2012 , including 13 berths in a row from 1997 to 2010 , and finished with a winning record every season from 1992 – 93 to 2009 – 10 . They have won the Atlantic Division regular season title nine times , most recently in 2009 – 10 , before transferring to the newly created Metropolitan Division as part of the NHL 's realignment in 2013 . The Devils have reached the Stanley Cup Finals five times , winning in 1994 – 95 , 1999 – 00 and 2002 – 03 . The Devils were known for their defense @-@ first approach throughout their years of Cup contention , but have since moved towards a more offensive style .
The Devils have a rivalry with their cross @-@ Hudson River neighbor , the New York Rangers , as well as a rivalry with the Philadelphia Flyers . The Devils are one of three NHL teams in the New York metropolitan area ; the other two teams are the New York Islanders and New York Rangers . The franchise is the only major league team in any sport that explicitly identifies itself as a New Jersey team .
= = History = =
= = = Kansas City and Colorado = = =
In 1972 , the NHL announced plans to add two expansion teams , including one in Kansas City , Missouri . Edwin G. Thompson led the group that purchased ownership of the team , which was nicknamed the Scouts in reference to " a statue in a Kansas City park that was represented in their final logo . " In the team 's inaugural season , 1974 – 75 , the Scouts were forced to wait until the ninth game to play in Kansas City 's Kemper Arena , and did not post a win until beating the Washington Capitals , their expansion brethren , in their tenth contest . With 41 points in their inaugural season , the Scouts finished last in the Smythe Division ; only the Capitals had fewer points in the NHL . Kansas City fell to 36 points the following season , and had a 27 @-@ game losing streak . The Scouts had difficulty drawing fans to home games , and National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) leader Alan Eagleson publicly expressed concerns about whether Scouts players would be paid .
After two seasons in Kansas City , the franchise moved to Denver and was renamed the Colorado Rockies it played at the McNichols Sports Arena . The team won its first game as the Rockies , 4 – 2 , against the Toronto Maple Leafs . The Rockies were in position to qualify for the playoffs 60 games into the 1976 – 77 season , but a streak of 18 games without a win caused them to fall from contention . The Rockies ended the campaign last in the division with a 20 – 46 – 14 record and 54 points , and improved to 59 points the next season . Despite having the sixth @-@ worst record in the League , the Rockies beat @-@ out the Vancouver Canucks for second in the Division by two points and gained a playoff berth . The Philadelphia Flyers eliminated the Rockies from the playoffs in the preliminary rounds .
A lack of stability continually plagued the team . The franchise never won more than 22 games and did not return to the playoffs after 1977 – 78 in its six seasons in Colorado . Prior to the 1978 – 79 season , the team was sold to New Jersey trucking tycoon Arthur Imperatore , who intended to move the team to his home state . The plan was criticized due to the existence of three other NHL teams in the region , and the proposed New Jersey arena was still under construction ; the franchise ultimately stayed in Denver . In 1979 , the team hired Don Cherry as head coach and featured forward Lanny McDonald . The Rockies still posted the worst record in the NHL , and Cherry was subsequently fired after the season . After two more years in Denver , the Rockies were sold to a group headed by John McMullen ( who also owned Major League Baseball 's Houston Astros ) on May 27 , 1982 , and the franchise moved to New Jersey . As part of the relocation deal , the Devils had to compensate the three existing teams in the region – the New York Islanders , New York Rangers and Flyers – for encroaching on their territory .
= = = New Jersey = = =
= = = = 1982 – 1993 : Building the foundation = = = =
On June 30 , 1982 , the team was renamed the New Jersey Devils , after the legend of the Jersey Devil , a creature that allegedly inhabited the Pine Barrens of South Jersey . Over 10 @,@ 000 people voted in a contest held to select the name . The team began play in East Rutherford , New Jersey at the Brendan Byrne Arena , later renamed the Continental Airlines Arena and then the Izod Center , where they called home through the 2006 – 07 season . The Devils were initially placed in the Patrick Division . Their first game ended in a 3 – 3 tie against the Pittsburgh Penguins , with their first goal scored by Don Lever . Their first win , a 3 – 2 victory , came in New Jersey at the expense of the Rangers . The team finished with a 17 – 49 – 14 record , putting them three points above last place in the Patrick Division .
In the following season , the Devils were criticized by Wayne Gretzky after a 13 – 4 loss to the Edmonton Oilers . In a post @-@ game interview , Gretzky said that the Devils were " putting a Mickey Mouse operation on the ice . " Later , Gretzky said that his comment was " blown out of proportion . " In response , many Devils fans wore Mickey Mouse apparel when the Oilers returned to New Jersey . Also in the 1983 – 84 season , the Devils hosted the annual NHL All @-@ Star Game . New Jersey 's Chico Resch was the winning goaltender , and Devils defenseman Joe Cirella tallied a goal as the Wales Conference beat the Campbell Conference 7 – 6 . Overall , the team did not achieve much success . Head Coach Bill MacMillan was fired 20 games into the season , whereupon Tom McVie was named the new coach . The Devils won only 17 games and after the season , Doug Carpenter succeeded McVie .
The Devils assembled a core of players that included John MacLean , Bruce Driver , Ken Daneyko , Kirk Muller and Pat Verbeek , with Resch as their goaltender . Their record improved each season between 1983 – 84 and 1986 – 87 . However , they were unable to reach the playoffs . Despite their improvement , the Devils remained last in the Patrick Division in 1985 – 86 and 1986 – 87 . McMullen hired Providence College athletic director Lou Lamoriello as team president in April 1987 . To gain greater control over franchise operations , Lamoriello appointed himself general manager before the 1987 – 88 season .
The 1987 – 88 Devils garnered the franchise 's first winning record . On the final day of the regular season , they were tied with their rivals , the Rangers , for the final playoff spot in the Patrick Division . After New York defeated the Quebec Nordiques 3 – 0 , the Devils needed to defeat the Chicago Blackhawks for a post @-@ season berth . The Devils were trailing 3 – 2 midway through the third period when John MacLean tied the game , and with 2 : 39 left in overtime , he added the winning goal . Although the Rangers and Devils both finished with 82 points , the Devils had two more wins , sending them to the playoffs for the first time in franchise history as the New Jersey Devils . The team made it all the way to the Wales Conference Finals in the 1988 Stanley Cup playoffs , but lost to the Boston Bruins in seven games . In that series , Head Coach Jim Schoenfeld verbally abused referee Don Koharski after the third game , screaming at him . During the exchange , Koharski fell and Schoenfeld said to him " Have another doughnut , you fat pig ! " Schoenfeld was given a suspension by the NHL , but due to a favorable court order , he was able to coach in the fourth game of the series . In protest , referee Dave Newell and linesmen Gord Broseker and Ray Scapinello refused to work the game . Three off @-@ ice officials – Paul McInnis , Jim Sullivan and Vin Godleski – were tracked down to work the game .
The next season , the Devils once again slipped below .500 and missed the playoffs . Among the post @-@ season player changes Lamoriello made in the off @-@ season was the signing of two Soviet stars – Viacheslav Fetisov and Sergei Starikov . The Devils drafted Fetisov years earlier in the 1983 Entry Draft , but the Soviet Government did not allow Fetisov , who was a member of the national team , to leave the country . Shortly after , the Devils signed Fetisov 's defense partner , Alexei Kasatonov .
The team changed coaches midway through each of the next two seasons . Schoenfeld was replaced with John Cunniff in 1989 – 90 , and Tom McVie was hired midway through the 1990 – 91 season and helmed the team through its third @-@ straight first @-@ round elimination in 1991 – 92 . Herb Brooks , who coached the 1980 U.S. Olympic " Miracle on Ice " team , was brought in for the 1992 – 93 season , but when the team yet again was eliminated in the first round , he was fired and replaced by former Montreal Canadiens Head Coach Jacques Lemaire .
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( Catharine and Mary ) , were born between 1866 and 1874 . Adams continued to maintain his medical practice during his baseball career , but was forced to abandon it in 1865 after he began suffering health issues . After relocating to Ridgefield , Connecticut , he went on to become " one of the leading citizens of the Connecticut village , " according to author William J. Ryczek . Adams served as a Republican legislator in the Connecticut House of Representatives for the town in 1870 . He contributed to the creation of the Ridgefield Land Improvement Association , and to a committee overseeing construction of a town house . In 1871 , he accepted a job with the Ridgefield Savings Bank ( later renamed the Fairfield County Bank ) as the company 's first president . After working there until 1879 , Adams took a break from his duties ; during this time , he helped found Ridgefield 's library and served as its treasurer . In 1884 , he returned to the Ridgefield National Bank and remained president there until mid @-@ 1886 . Adams and his family relocated to a house in New Haven , Connecticut , in 1888 .
Along with baseball , playing music was among Adams ' favorite activities . Occasionally , he and Henry Ward Beecher performed flute duets . Although no longer actively involved in baseball , Adams was still a follower of the sport . He played in an exhibition as late as 1875 , and stories exist that he played recreationally into the following decade . Late in his life , he said of the growth of baseball , " We pioneers never expected to see the game so universal as it has now become . " Adams contracted pneumonia following a bout of influenza , and died on January 3 , 1899 , at the age of 84 . He was buried at New Haven 's Evergreen Cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
For decades after Adams ' death , his role in codifying baseball 's early rules was largely unremembered . Thorn included Adams among a group of " powerfully influential figures " from the period — also including Louis F. Wadsworth and Wheaton — who he writes " went unrecognized in their lifetimes and became mysteries to future generations . " Alexander Cartwright was more widely recognized as a pioneering figure for the sport . The Baseball Hall of Fame has claimed that Cartwright was the inventor of 90 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) baselines and the nine @-@ inning game . However , by the time conventions led by Adams had enacted those rules in the late 1850s , Cartwright had traveled to California and was no longer a member of the Knickerbockers . Adams is said to have avoided " campaigning for credit " for rules changes after he left the Knickerbockers ; researcher Gary O 'Maxfield said of him that he " didn 't like to brag . " Several of the rules approved at the conventions survived to modern baseball , including the 90 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) baseline distance . The 45 @-@ foot ( 14 m ) distance from home plate to the pitching mound , however , did not last through the 19th century ; it was pushed back 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in 1880 . The shortstop position , which for Adams was located between the infielders and outfielders , was later played in the infield , between second and third base . Dickey Pearce was the first player to field in that area , and his ability to prevent base hits in the formerly unoccupied territory convinced other teams to employ similar tactics .
The Hartford Courant points to 1980 as a year when Adams started to gain greater attention for his achievements . A share of the New York Mets was purchased by a publishing company led by Nelson Doubleday , Jr. that year , and claims that Abner Doubleday invented baseball in 1839 , which are considered flawed by modern researchers , were reported by the media . After the Doubleday reports in 1980 , The New York Times received a letter from the great @-@ grandson of Adams that the Courant said attempted " to try to set the record straight . " The newspaper ran the letter in its April 13 issue , and added a 1939 piece by Roger Adams . In 1993 , Thorn published research on Adams ' contributions in the encyclopedia Total Baseball . The New York Times published an article on Adams on September 23 , 2015 .
Various historians have given Adams recognition as an important figure from the early years of baseball . Thorn has written that he " may be counted as first among the Fathers of Baseball . " O 'Maxfield said of Adams : " Without [ him ] , we wouldn 't have the game we know and love as baseball today . " The " father " label was rejected by Ryczek ; he wrote that Adams did not conceive the sport , but called him a " collaborator " in its development . On July 31 , 2014 , the Society for American Baseball Research announced that it had chosen Adams as its 2014 " Overlooked 19th Century Baseball Legend " . Eric Miklich has called him worthy of induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame for his role as a pioneer . He says of Adams , " Should he be in the Hall of Fame ? Absolutely . You ask anyone who knows about 19th century baseball . They 'll laugh at Cartwright ; Abner Doubleday , they won 't even talk about ; but they all know Doc Adams . He was the glue that held things together in the early part of baseball . " Adams did not appear on a Baseball Hall of Fame ballot until 2016 , when he was up for consideration on the Hall 's Pre @-@ Integration Era Committee ballot . Ten of the 16 committee members supported him , two fewer than the number needed for induction .
While Adams ' contributions had received notice from historians , Associated Press writer Andrew Dalton called such reports " somewhat speculative " in nature before 2016 . That year , the 1857 " Laws of Base Ball " authored by Adams were sold at an auction . The documents were included in a batch of historical papers that brought $ 12 @,@ 000 in a 1999 sale . Adams ' authorship of the papers was unknown at the time , but was confirmed after the owner brought the documents to the attention of an auction house in 2015 . An anonymous buyer purchased the " Laws of Base Ball " in April 2016 for $ 3 @.@ 26 million , the most a series of baseball documents had ever sold for .
= The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr . =
The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr . , often referred to as just Brisco or Brisco County , is an American Western / science fiction television series created by Jeffrey Boam and Carlton Cuse . It ran for 27 episodes on the Fox network starting in the 1993 – 94 season . Set in the American West of 1893 , the series follows its title character , a Harvard @-@ educated lawyer @-@ turned @-@ bounty hunter hired by a group of wealthy industrialists to track and capture outlaw John Bly and his gang . Bruce Campbell plays Brisco , who is joined by a colorful group of supporting characters , including Julius Carry as fellow bounty hunter Lord Bowler and Christian Clemenson as stick @-@ in @-@ the @-@ mud lawyer Socrates Poole .
While ostensibly a Western , the series routinely includes elements of the science fiction and steampunk genres . Humor is a large part of the show ; the writers attempted to keep the jokes and situations " just under over @-@ the @-@ top " . A large number of episodes involve the Orb , a powerful device from the future . John Astin plays Professor Wickwire , an inventor who assists Brisco with anachronistic technology including diving suits , motorcycles , rockets , and airships . The search for new technology and progressive ideas , what the writers of the show called " The Coming Thing " , is a central theme throughout the series .
Brisco was developed by Boam and Cuse at the request of Fox executive Bob Greenblatt . Impressed by the duo 's work on the script for Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , Greenblatt suggested they develop a series that bore the tone and style of vintage movie serials . The initial ideas and proposals from the show 's writers were more often suited for film than television and had to be scaled down . Brisco was one of the last television shows to be filmed on the Warner Bros. Western backlot . Randy Edelman composed the distinctive theme music , which has been reused by the National Broadcasting Company during its coverage of the Olympic Games .
During its broadcast run , The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr . , garnered a small but dedicated following and was well received by critics . The series earned high ratings at the beginning of its season , but later episodes failed to attract a substantial number of viewers . Fox canceled the show at the end of its first and only season . In 2006 , Warner Home Video released a DVD set containing all 27 episodes . The series has been remembered fondly by critics , who praise its humor and unique blend of genres .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr . , is set in a fictional American Old West of 1893 . Robber barons control the financial and industrial interests of the West from the boardrooms of San Francisco 's Westerfield Club . The famous U.S. Marshal Brisco County , Sr. ( R. Lee Ermey ) has apprehended a gang of outlaws and its leader , the notorious John Bly . While transporting them to stand trial , County is murdered and the gang escapes . Meanwhile , in a nearby mine , a group of shackled Chinese workers unearths " The Orb , " a large golden globe studded with rods . A worker draws one of the rods from out of the Orb , then touches several of his co @-@ workers with it . As each worker is touched with the rod he is imbued with superhuman strength which they use to break the iron chains binding them , thus freeing themselves . The murder of Brisco County , Sr. , and the discovery of the Orb set into motion the major plots of the series .
= = = Synopsis = = =
Members of the Westerfield Club hire Brisco County , Jr . ( Bruce Campbell ) , the son of the slain U.S. Marshal , to track and re @-@ capture Bly ( Billy Drago ) and his gang . The Westerfield Club 's timid lawyer , Socrates Poole ( Christian Clemenson ) relays instructions and financial support to Brisco . Another bounty hunter , Lord Bowler ( Julius Carry ) , who is known for his expert tracking skills , also hopes to capture Bly . Bitter over the elder County 's fame , Bowler treats Brisco as a rival . The two men often find themselves reluctantly joining forces to achieve a common goal . Later in the series , Brisco and Bowler work together as partners and friends .
In the pilot episode , Brisco tracks John Bly 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Big Smith ( M.C. Gainey ) . In a battle on a train car , Brisco knocks Smith off the train and into a river ; he is assumed dead until he reappears later in the series . Brisco , Bowler and Socrates hunt the rest of Bly 's gang in subsequent episodes . All ten of the gang members are captured or killed , and Brisco 's pursuit of Bly , who is seeking the Orb for its supernatural power , frequently puts him into contact with the object . Each encounter with the Orb reveals a fantastic effect on people who use it . In the episode " The Orb Scholar " , Bly shoots Brisco and leaves him to die . Professor Ogden Coles , a scientist who studies the Orb , heals Brisco with the device . In the episode " Bye Bly " , it is revealed that Bly is a fugitive from the distant future who has traveled to 1893 to steal the Orb . Bly plans to use the Orb to travel back to his time and rule the world . Instead , Brisco uses the Orb to travel through time to save Bowler 's life . Brisco eventually kills Bly by stabbing him with a rod from the Orb . Series creator and executive producer Carlton Cuse said that the Orb represents faith and that depending on the intentions of those who use it , the object rewards or punishes them accordingly .
The pilot episode introduces several characters who make recurring appearances throughout the series . Big Smith 's moll Dixie Cousins ( Kelly Rutherford ) is a saloon singer and con artist who has a brief romantic encounter with Brisco . In later episodes , Dixie becomes Brisco 's primary love interest . In his first mission , Brisco also meets Professor Albert Wickwire ( John Astin ) , an eccentric scientist who returns to help many times during the series . Wickwire 's ideas and inventions play into Brisco 's interest in technology and the future , something Brisco calls " The Coming Thing " . Pete Hutter ( John Pyper @-@ Ferguson ) is a hapless mercenary working for Bly . He has a compulsive attachment to his " piece " ( pistol ) , and given any opportunity will pontificate about topics such as art and philosophy . Pete appears throughout the series as a comic foil to trade barbs with the heroes . He appears to be killed three times during the series , but returns each time with a comic excuse for why he didn 't die . The second half of the series includes many episodes with Whip Morgan ( Jeff Phillips ) , a young cardsharp whose attempts to assist Brisco and Bowler often end up causing trouble .
= = = Signature show elements = = =
The show features classic Western motifs such as train robberies and gunfighter showdowns , in combination with atypical elements . Much of the series is devoted to the science fiction plot surrounding the Orb , and it is this mix of the Western genre with fantasy that has helped Brisco maintain its cult status . In almost every episode , the characters discover or are confronted by fantastic technology . In the pilot episode , Brisco and Professor Wickwire modify a rocket to run on train tracks . In the episode " Brisco For the Defense " , Brisco uses a slide projector to show a trial jury fingerprint evidence . Professor Wickwire returns many times in the series to assist with technology , including tinkering with motorcycles and rescuing the heroes with a helium @-@ filled zeppelin . Campbell told Starlog magazine , " It 's kind of Jules Verne meets The Wild Wild West . " The presence of futuristic technology in a Victorian era Western places the series in the steampunk genre ; it is one of the few such shows to have aired on prime @-@ time television . At least one @-@ third of the show 's episodes contain steampunk or Weird West elements . Though " technology @-@ out @-@ of @-@ time " frequently intrudes into the plots of Brisco , the fantastic machines or methods rarely appear again . Some of these out @-@ of @-@ time technologies were archaic imaginations of those prevalent in the 20th century , and two film researchers , Cynthia Miller and A. Bowdoin Van Riper , suggest that followers of the show may be puzzled that such inventions , so useful in their own lives , are not exploited further .
According to Cuse , the show was purposefully set in 1893 , exactly 100 years before the series premiered in 1993 . Brisco is meant to be aware of the imminent changes in society and technology and actively looks for them . The writers of the show , and also the character of Brisco , refer to this concept as " The Coming Thing " . Elaborating on this theme , Campbell said , " Basically this show is about the turn of the century , when the Old West met the Industrial Era . Cowboys still chew tobacco and ride the range and states are still territories but , over the horizon , is the onset of electricity , the first autos and telephones . Brisco is in the middle of a transition from the past to the future . " The collision of cowboy characters with puzzling technology and other anachronisms generates humor throughout the series . The writers made it a point to insert scenes mirroring the pop culture of the 20th century , from the apparent invention of the term " UFO " in the pilot episode to the appearance of a sheriff who looks and acts like Elvis Presley . Speaking about the humor of the show , Campbell said , " I would say 30 percent of each episode is being played for laughs . But it 's not a winking at the camera , Airplane @-@ type of humor . We 're funny like Indiana Jones is funny ; the laughs come primarily from the wide variety of ridiculous , colorful characters that come in and out of this series . "
= = Cast = =
Bruce Campbell went through five auditions for the role of Brisco before he was hired . In his first audition with the casting director , Campbell spontaneously did a standing flip . The stunt impressed the casting director so much that during each subsequent audition , Campbell was asked to do the flip again . In his final audition , Campbell assured the network executives that if hired for the role , he would work hard to make the show a success . In an interview , Campbell said , " It 's every actor 's dream to play a cowboy , so when this opportunity came up , I mean , yeah , where do I sign ? " He added that working on Brisco provided him with acting opportunities he would not have otherwise had . Cuse said getting Campbell " was just one of those collisions between an actor and a script that was just perfect ... I can 't imagine Brisco having ever existed without him . " Writing in Auxiliary Magazine , Luke Copping claimed that Brisco was Campbell 's " last great " role before the actor fell into " a period of self @-@ parody and overt camp that he did not redeem himself from until joining the cast of Burn Notice " .
Christian Clemenson went to Harvard with Cuse but still went through the normal audition channels to get the part of Poole . Clemenson was apprehensive about pursuing one of the lead roles in a television show because of the long time commitments involved . He later said , " The similarities between this show and The Wild Wild West , and my character to that show 's Artemus Gordon , was an important hook for me . It was one of my favorite shows growing up , and as soon as I saw that Brisco County was based on the same kind of material and attitude as that show , I called my agent and said , ' I 'll do anything I have to do to get this . ' " Clemenson applied his experiences at Ivy League schools to play the uptight Poole . Praising Clemenson 's work on Brisco , Cuse said , " You can 't give him anything he 's not capable of doing . He adds the voice of intelligence and caution to balance our cast " .
Julius Carry saw great potential in the character of Bowler . He had researched black cowboys for a project in college and used that knowledge in his portrayal of Bowler . Carry said that Bowler was similar to the real @-@ life black deputy U.S. Marshal Bass Reeves , in that " Reeves always got his man and would often pull off incredible tricks to bring people in . " Carry knew Clemenson from the time they worked together on the Western television pilot Independence . He had no knowledge of Campbell , but approved of the choice for the leading man after watching Army of Darkness . He later told Starlog , " I saw that he would be very good with the physical stuff and that he could deliver a one @-@ liner . I knew the situation would be good . " The original direction for Bowler was to have him constantly oppose Brisco , but as the series progressed the writers saw the good @-@ natured chemistry between the actors and decided to make Brisco and Bowler a team . Bowler 's race was never an issue in the show . According to Cary Darling , a television critic , this attitude is different from serious Westerns and " may hew more to the truth than one might think " . He said historians have noted that black cowboys were common and that conflicts with white cowboys were rare .
Kelly Rutherford 's portrayal of Dixie Cousins , with her emphasis on innuendo and subtext , has been described as " less Miss Kitty ( Gunsmoke ) than Mae West " . Rutherford said that playing Dixie allowed her to fulfill her " fantasy of being Madeline Kahn in Blazing Saddles . " When John Astin was cast he was best known for his portrayal of Gomez Addams in The Addams Family . Cuse said that he and the writers enjoyed paying homage to the television star of their childhoods : " For us , it was like , ' Oh wow , we get to meet John Astin in the guise of employing him on this show ! ' "
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and development = = =
In 1989 , Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade was released in the cinemas . It was a commercial success , earning its producers US $ 115 million from domestic screenings . The action @-@ packed story , unfolding in a manner reminiscent of Saturday matinee movie serials , about the adventures of an archaeologist was written by Jeffrey Boam , with development and story help from Carlton Cuse ; this film was their third collaboration , after Lethal Weapon 2 and 3 . According to Cuse , Bob Greenblatt , an executive at Fox Broadcasting Company , engaged him and Boam to develop a television series " because of Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade " . Greenblatt wanted a show that had a style similar to the Indiana Jones movies . Cuse started watching old serials and noticed that many fell into two genres : Westerns and science fiction . This gave Boam and Cuse the idea to combine the genres . They decided to emulate the serials ' style ; for example , each act within an episode begins with a title , usually a pun , and ends with a cliffhanger .
Boam and Cuse did not intend for the series to be historically accurate . Their aim was to create an action @-@ adventure with a modern feel . Cuse told USA Today , " We 're not approaching this show as if we were doing a period piece . We see it as a contemporary program . Our characters just happen to be living in the West with 1990s sensibilities . The Indiana Jones movies were period pieces too , but you never thought of them that way . " Anachronisms and pop culture references were intentionally inserted into the series . The show was intended to be family friendly , so violence was minimized in favor of having Brisco think his way out of dangerous situations . Boam said , " In the two @-@ hour pilot Brisco doesn 't even once have to shoot his gun . Our violence is cartoonish . There is no pain and suffering . " Bruce Campbell was prominently featured in advertisements , billboards , and even a trailer shown in movie theaters . When the series was being promoted in the summer of 1993 , Fox Entertainment chief Sandy Grushow said that if Campbell " isn 't the next big television star , I 'll eat my desk . "
= = = Writing = = =
Cuse served as show runner and head writer . Boam , who served as executive producer , also contributed scripts for the show . The writing staff included John Wirth , Brad Kern , Tom Chehak , David Simkins , and John McNamara . They followed Cuse 's informal instruction that the tone of the show remain " just under over @-@ the @-@ top " : the series would be humorous but not too campy . Every member of the staff participated in breaking down and analyzing the stories they conceived . Worth commented , " there was a very high percentage of ideas that worked in the room and got translated to paper that worked when you put them on film . That doesn 't always happen . " Cuse described long hours writing the show , including several overnight sessions . Each episode of Brisco was filmed in seven days , so the turn @-@ around time for scripts was one week . McNamara said that he became a " student of TV history " while writing for Brisco , reviewing old episodes of Maverick for inspiration on using humor in the Western genre . He said the writing team felt the television audience was ready for a " trans @-@ genre form " , because much of the audience grew up with Lethal Weapon , Star Trek , and The Wild Wild West . Researchers Lynnette Porter and Barry Porter acknowledge the writer 's familiarity with Mark Twain 's novel Pudd 'nhead Wilson . Porter and Porter describe the novel as an " ancestor text " , because the characters of Brisco and Bly both refer to it , and say that this type of literary device is used again by Cuse in Lost .
One of the challenges the writers faced was scaling down their ideas to make them feasible for production . Cuse said that he let such ideas flourish because of his relative inexperience with writing for television series . An example given by the writers was Boam 's idea for a full @-@ sized " pirate ship on wheels " . The writers quickly realized they needed to scale the idea down to something the production designers could create . They settled on putting a full pirate crew on a stagecoach with cannons . Kern said it was better to " shoot past the mark , and come back to it , rather than start below it . " He elaborated on this , saying , " if you envision the 40 @-@ foot galleon and go back from that , you 'll always end up with more than if you start out with a pirate on a horse . "
As the series progressed during its broadcast season , the writers received frequent notes and directives from Fox network executives calling for increases and decreases in the science @-@ fiction , comedy and traditional Western elements . Cuse said , " I think we did a particularly good job of maintaining continuity with all the schizophrenic notes we were getting from the network . " However , midway through the first season , the writers made a thematic shift from science @-@ fiction to more comedy and adventure . Cuse said , " We were biting off more than we could chew ... we were trying to do a comedic action adventure Western , with tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor , genuine drama , plus science fiction . All these things added too many elements to serve simultaneously . " By the final third of the series , the writers had wrapped up the science @-@ fiction plot with the Orb and focused more on traditional Western motifs .
= = = Production design = = =
The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr . , was filmed primarily on the Warner Bros. soundstages . Town and street scenes were staged on the Western backlot , known as Laramie Street . It was one of the last Western shows to use the backlot . Cuse said that logistics were a problem because so many of the Hollywood Western sets and towns had been torn down by the 1990s . Outdoor scenes were shot on the Warner Bros. ranch in Valencia , California ; Bronson Canyon in Los Angeles ; and the Valuze Ranch in Santa Clarita , California . Some of the locomotive scenes from Brisco were filmed on location at Railtown 1897 State Historic Park in Jamestown , California . A painting used in the show as a backdrop to create illusions of greater depth perspectives is exhibited at the park .
Comet was portrayed by five horses , each with a different talent . The main horse was Copper , chosen by veteran wrangler Gordon Spencer because it was calm and gentle . Campbell nicknamed the horse " Leadbelly " due to its ability to remain calm during action or dialogue scenes . Another horse , Boss , was used for long @-@ range shots , chase scenes , and elaborate stunts , such as leaps through windows . Ace was called in when the crew had to shoot scenes in which the horse reared . Near the end of the season , a horse named Comet was trained , its name chosen so that the horse would get used to hearing it on set . The " true show horse " was Strip , which was adept at doing tricks , such as lip movements , head nods , and hoof stamping . According to Spencer , all those stunts " as well as tying the knots and opening the door and going into rooms and all of that " were done by Strip . For these scenes , Spencer would stand off @-@ camera and use a stick to signal Strip . Campbell had a special pocket sewn into his costume and filled it with grain to reward Strip after every take . No other horse had more scenes than Strip and Copper . With white colorings on his nose and legs , Strip 's appearance was chosen for Brisco 's steed ; Copper and the other horses were touched up with " clown white " greasepaint to match Strip 's markings .
Foley artist Casey Crabtree provided sounds for horse hoof movements , work that was praised by sounds effects industry expert David Yewdall . He said of Crabtree 's work on Brisco , " Her horses sounded so natural and real – their hooves , the sound of their hooves on the texture of the ground , the sound of saddle movement , bridle jingles – it was as good as anything I would want for a feature film , and this was episodic television . " The make @-@ up on many of Brisco 's episodes was done by veteran artist Mel Berns , Jr .
Two props of the Orb were made . One of the prop Orbs was used for stunts and had retractable rods . A second version was manufactured from cast bronze , making it heavy : " You really didn 't want to have to handle it , " Campbell said . The rocket car seen in the pilot episode was built by special effects coordinator Kam Cooney and was a working vehicle with an internal combustion engine and throttle controls . Some items used in the show had been repurposed from older productions , and some would later be used in other shows . For example , the steam locomotive seen in the pilot episode was the same as the one used in Back to the Future Part III . Two of Carry 's prop guns – rifles whose barrels were sawed @-@
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England in 1130 . As bishop , he was often appointed a judge by the papacy , and was known for the care he took of his diocese .
After Henry 's death in 1135 , Bethune first supported King Stephen , who seized the throne from Henry 's heiress the Empress Matilda , but when Matilda 's forces captured Stephen , Bethune switched sides to support Matilda . When Matilda did not secure the throne , Bethune once more switched back to supporting Stephen . Construction of Hereford Cathedral was completed under Bethune 's episcopate , and consecrated in 1142 and 1148 . Stephen appointed Bethune as one of the English bishops that the king allowed to attend the Council of Rheims in 1148 , and Bethune died there in April 1148 . A hagiography is the only surviving evidence of Bethune 's cathedral chapter 's attempts to promote him as a saint .
= = Early life = =
Bethune was the youngest son of a knight , and was at first educated by his eldest brother , who was named Gunfrid and was a schoolmaster . Although the medieval chronicler Robert de Torigni describes Bethune as Flemish , Bethune 's medieval biographer , William Wyncombe says that he and Bethune grew up in neighbouring villages in Buckinghamshire . It thus is likely that Bethune was born near Wingrave , Buckinghamshire , to a family descended from Flemish settlers . He was a schoolmaster in England , teaching elementary subjects , before he went to study theology under William of Champeaux and Anselm of Laon . He was a canon of Llanthony Priory before 1115 , and was elected prior of that house in the middle 1120s . Before becoming prior , he was entrusted with establishing a cell of the priory at Weobley , which had been established by Hugh de Lacy shortly before Lacy 's death around 1115 .
= = Bishop of Hereford = =
The see of Hereford had been vacant since 1127 , and in 1130 , King Henry I of England took the advice of the local magnates and nominated Bethune to the see . Bethune 's diocesan bishop as prior , Urban , the Bishop of Llandaff , at first refused permission for Bethune 's elevation . However , the archbishop of Canterbury , William of Corbeil , advised that the matter be referred to the papacy . Pope Innocent II ordered that Bethune be allowed to accept the see of Hereford in 1131 . He was consecrated on 28 June 1131 at Rochester . In nominating Bethune , the king is said to have felt that he needed one " godly bishop " around . Most of Henry 's bishops were given their sees as rewards for royal service , and were not particularly noted for piety .
Bethune was known as a strict Augustinian canon , a priest living a monastic life but not a monk . Bethune was often appointed a judge delegate by the papacy to try cases and disputes , which had been referred back to England by the popes . The historian David Knowles said of Bethune that he was a man of wide outlook , with a great desire for reform . He was praised by contemporaries for the care with which he selected men to serve as clergy in his diocese . He also held synods in his diocese , including two during the first year of his episcopate .
= = Stephen 's reign = =
After the accession of King Stephen of England , Bethune supported Stephen and was often at his court . Stephen had seized the throne at King Henry 's death , depriving Henry 's surviving legitimate daughter and heiress , Matilda , of the throne . Matilda is usually known as the " Empress " because of her first marriage to the German Emperor Henry V , who died in 1125 . Bethune accompanied Thurstan , the Archbishop of York , when Thurstan secured a truce between Stephen and the King of Scots , David shortly after the Battle of the Standard in 1138 . When the Empress Matilda landed in England in September 1139 in pursuit of the throne , one of the local magnates of Hereford , Miles of Gloucester supported Matilda , while Bethune continued to support Stephen . Miles ' hostility drove Bethune from his diocese , and Miles was in control of Hereford in 1140 , leaving Bethune to perform his episcopal duties in Shropshire . During this time , Bethune assisted Theobald of Bec , the new Archbishop of Canterbury , in consecrating Maurice as Bishop of Bangor . Bethune had earlier persuaded the bishop @-@ elect to swear fealty to King Stephen , after Maurice had originally refused . Bethune 's standing as a bishop known for his piety and independence of the king helped persuade Maurice that the homage was canonical .
Sometime after Stephen was captured by the Empress ' forces in 1141 , Bethune switched sides , and he was with the Empress Matilda at Winchester on 4 March 1141 , when Matilda claimed the throne of England . He also was present at the council that proclaimed Matilda " lady of the English " shortly thereafter . His diocese of Hereford was in the center of the lands that Matilda controlled , and he was one of the few bishops who was often in Matilda 's court . However , Matilda was never crowned , being driven from London before her planned coronation could take place . One of her chief supporters was captured in late 1141 , and to secure his release , Matilda released Stephen from captivity , thus prolonging the conflict . Between 1142 and 1148 , England was in a state of civil war , with parts of the country supporting Matilda and parts supporting Stephen .
Welsh raids at the beginning of Stephen 's reign had driven Bethune 's former canons from Llanthony and the bishop gave them refuge at Hereford before establishing them at a new site near Gloucester . The land the canons were settled on had belonged to the diocese , and this led Bethune into conflict with his cathedral chapter , led by their dean , Ralph . Bethune was forced to travel to Pisa to secure an order from Innocent II declaring that the chapter obey their bishop .
Around 1142 , Bethune was involved with a conflict with Miles of Gloucester , who was now the Earl of Hereford , which led to the bishop excomunicating Miles and all the inhabitants of the city of Hereford , and " had the doors of the church blocked with thorns and the crosses taken down and placed on the ground " . This dispute arose over an attempt by Miles to tax the churches in his earldom , which Bethune regarded as unlawful . Miles died in 1143 which ended the dispute over the taxes . Also after his death Bethune was free to leave Empress ' faction and thus returned to supporting Stephen . In 1142 , Hereford Cathedral , which had begun under Robert de Losinga around 1079 , was finally ready for consecration . The work was finally completed in 1148 , and it was once consecrated in that year . The year 1148 also saw the departure of Matilda from England , as her support had dwindled over the previous few years and Stephen was able to secure control of most of England . He was never able to completely remove Matilda 's supporters , however .
King Stephen gave permission for some of England 's bishops , including Bethune , to attend the Council of Rheims in 1148 . Stephen had expelled the papal legates , or representatives , who arrived in England to summon the bishops to Rheims , and after that appointed three of the bishops as representatives of the English Church . These three , Bethune , Hilary of Chichester , and William de Turbeville , were allowed to attend the council . Theobald of Bec was expressly forbidden to attend , but he managed to evade those watching him and arrived in Rheims along with his clerk , Thomas Becket .
= = Death and legacy = =
Bethune died on 16 April 1148 at Rheims just after the close of the Council of Rheims . As his corpse returned to Hereford , miracles were alleged to have taken place along its route . He was buried in Hereford Cathedral .
Bethune 's episcopal acta , or his decisions and other documents relating to his episcopal career , have been published in the English Episcopal Acta series , in the volume relating to the diocese of Hereford . A medieval catalogue of works at Llanthony Priory also recorded that they owned a collection of letters by Bethune , but this has not survived .
A Life , or hagiography , giving his life and miracles , was written about him , by one of the Bethune 's canons , William Wyncombe . It contains few details of Bethune 's life itself . Instead , it is an attempt by his canons to secure sainthood for Bethune . Although the life describes miracles that took place at Bethune 's tomb , no evidence survives of a formal cult being developed , and he was never canonised . The historian Avram Saltman called him " the model bishop of his time " , because of his care for his diocese and his abilities .
= Orfeo ed Euridice =
Orfeo ed Euridice ( French version : Orphée et Eurydice ; English : Orpheus and Eurydice ) is an opera composed by Christoph Willibald Gluck based on the myth of Orpheus , set to a libretto by Ranieri de ' Calzabigi . It belongs to the genre of the azione teatrale , meaning an opera on a mythological subject with choruses and dancing . The piece was first performed at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 5 October 1762 in the presence of Empress Maria Theresa . Orfeo ed Euridice is the first of Gluck 's " reform " operas , in which he attempted to replace the abstruse plots and overly complex music of opera seria with a " noble simplicity " in both the music and the drama .
The opera is the most popular of Gluck 's works , and one of the most influential on subsequent German opera . Variations on its plot – the underground rescue @-@ mission in which the hero must control , or conceal , his emotions – include Mozart 's The Magic Flute , Beethoven 's Fidelio and Wagner 's Das Rheingold .
Though originally set to an Italian libretto , Orfeo ed Euridice owes much to the genre of French opera , particularly in its use of accompanied recitative and a general absence of vocal virtuosity . Indeed , twelve years after the 1762 premiere , Gluck re @-@ adapted the opera to suit the tastes of a Parisian audience at the Académie Royale de Musique with a libretto by Pierre @-@ Louis Moline . This reworking was given the title Orphée et Eurydice , and several alterations were made in vocal casting and orchestration to suit French tastes .
= = Background = =
Francesco Algarotti 's Essay on the Opera ( 1755 ) was a major influence in the development of Gluck 's reformist ideology . Algarotti proposed a heavily simplified model of opera seria , with the drama pre @-@ eminent , instead of the music or ballet or staging . The drama itself should " delight the eyes and ears , to rouse up and to affect the hearts of an audience , without the risk of sinning against reason or common sense " . Algarotti 's ideas influenced both Gluck and his librettist , Calzabigi . Calzabigi was himself a prominent advocate of reform , and he stated : " If Mr Gluck was the creator of dramatic music , he did not create it from nothing . I provided him with the material or the chaos , if you like . We therefore share the honour of that creation . "
Other influences included the composer Niccolò Jommelli and his maître de ballet at Stuttgart , Jean @-@ Georges Noverre . Noverre 's Lettres sur la danse ( 1760 ) called for dramatic effect over acrobatic ostentation ; Noverre was himself influenced by the operas of Rameau and the acting style of David Garrick . The considerable quantity of ballet in Orfeo ed Euridice is thought to be due to his influence . Jommelli himself was noted for his blending of all aspects of the production : ballet , staging , and audience .
= = Roles = =
= = Synopsis = =
The first lines of arias , choruses , etc . , are given in Italian ( 1762 version ) and French ( 1774 version ) .
= = = Act 1 = = =
A chorus of nymphs and shepherds join Orfeo around the tomb of his wife Euridice in a solemn chorus of mourning ; Orfeo is only able to utter Euridice 's name ( Chorus and Orfeo : " Ah , se intorno " / " Ah ! Dans ce bois " ) . Orfeo sends the others away and sings of his grief in the aria " Chiamo il mio ben " / " Objet de mon amour " , the three verses of which are preceded by expressive recitatives . This technique was extremely radical at the time and indeed proved overly so for those who came after Gluck : Mozart chose to retain the unity of the aria . Amore ( Cupid ) appears , telling Orfeo that he may go to the Underworld and return with his wife on the condition that he not look at her until they are back on earth ( 1774 only : aria by Amour , " Si les doux accords " ) . As encouragement , Amore informs Orfeo that his present suffering shall be short @-@ lived with the aria " Gli sguardi trattieni " / " Soumis au silence " . Orfeo resolves to take on the quest . In the 1774 version only he delivers an ariette ( " L 'espoir renaît dans mon âme " ) in the older , showier , Italian style , originally composed for an occasional entertainment , Il Parnaso confuso ( 1765 ) , and subsequently re @-@ used in another one , Le feste d 'Apollo ( 1769 ) .
= = = Act 2 = = =
In a rocky landscape , the Furies refuse to admit Orfeo to the Underworld , and sing of Cerberus , its canine guardian ( " Chi mai dell ’ Erebo " / " Quel est l 'audacieux " ) . When Orfeo , accompanied by his lyre ( represented in the opera by a harp ) , begs for pity in the aria " Deh placatevi con me " / " Laissez @-@ vous toucher " , he is at first interrupted by cries of " No ! " / " Non ! " from the Furies , but they are eventually softened by the sweetness of his singing in the arias " Mille pene " / " Ah ! La flamme " and " Men tiranne " / " La tendresse " , and let him in ( " Ah , quale incognito affetto " / " Quels chants doux " ) . In the 1774 version , the scene ends with the " Dance of the Furies " ( No. 28 ) .
The second scene opens in Elysium . The brief ballet of 1762 became the four @-@ movement " Dance of the Blessed Spirits " ( with a prominent part for solo flute ) in 1774 . This is followed ( 1774 only ) by a solo which celebrates happiness in eternal bliss ( " Cet asile " ) , sung by either an unnamed Spirit or Euridice , and repeated by the chorus . Orfeo arrives and marvels at the purity of the air in an arioso ( " Che puro ciel " / " Quel nouveau ciel " ) . But he finds no solace in the beauty of the surroundings , for Euridice is not yet with him . He implores the spirits to bring her to him , which they do ( Chorus : " Torna , o bella " / " Près du tendre objet " ) .
= = = Act 3 = = =
On the way out of Hades , Euridice is delighted to be returning to earth , but Orfeo , remembering the condition related by Amore in act 1 , lets go of her hand and refusing to look at her , does not explain anything to her . She does not understand his action and reproaches him , but he must suffer in silence ( Duet : " Vieni , appaga il tuo consorte " / " Viens , suis un époux " ) . Euridice takes this to be a sign that he no longer loves her , and refuses to continue , concluding that death would be preferable . She sings of her grief at Orfeo 's supposed infidelity in the aria " Che fiero momento " / " Fortune ennemie " ( in 1774 , there is a brief duet before the reprise ) . Unable to take any more , Orfeo turns and looks at Euridice ; again , she dies . Orfeo sings of his grief in the famous aria " Che farò senza Euridice ? " / " J ’ ai perdu mon Eurydice " ( " What shall I do without Euridice ? " / " I have lost my Euridice " ) Orfeo decides he will kill himself to join Euridice in Hades , but Amore returns to stop him ( 1774 only : Trio : " Tendre Amour " ) . In reward for Orfeo 's continued love , Amore returns Euridice to life , and she and Orfeo are reunited . After a four @-@ movement ballet , all sing in praise of Amore ( " Trionfi Amore " ) . In the 1774 version , the chorus ( " L ’ Amour triomphe " ) precedes the ballet , to which Gluck had added three extra movements .
= = Performance history = =
The opera was first performed in Vienna at the Burgtheater on 5 October 1762 , for the name @-@ day celebrations of the Emperor Francis I. The production was supervised by the reformist theatre administrator , Count Giacomo Durazzo . Choreography was by Gasparo Angiolini , and set designs were by Giovanni Maria Quaglio the Elder , both leading members of their fields . The first Orfeo was the famous castrato Gaetano Guadagni . Orfeo was revived in Vienna during the following year , but then not performed until 1769 . For the performances that took place in London in 1770 , Guadagni sang the role of Orpheus , but little of the music bore any relation to Gluck 's original , with J. C. Bach – " the English Bach " – providing most of the new music . Haydn conducted a performance of the Italian version at Eszterháza in 1776 . During the early 19th century , Adolphe Nourrit became particularly well known for his performances of Orpheus at the Paris Opera . In 1854 Franz Liszt conducted the work at Weimar , composing a symphonic poem of his own to replace Gluck 's original overture . Typically during the 19th century and for most of the 20th century , the role of Orfeo was sung by a female contralto , and noted interpreters of the role from this time include Dame Clara Butt and Kathleen Ferrier , and the mezzo @-@ sopranos Rita Gorr , Marilyn Horne , Dame Janet Baker , Susanne Marsee , and Risë Stevens ( at the Metropolitan Opera ) . Among conductors , Arturo Toscanini was a notable proponent of the opera . His November 1952 radio broadcast of act 2 was eventually released on LP and CD .
= = Revised versions = =
In 1769 for Le feste d 'Apollo at Parma which was conducted by the composer , Gluck transposed part of the role of Orfeo up for the soprano castrato Giuseppe Millico , maintaining a libretto in Italian . This version has not been performed in modern times .
= = = Gluck 's 1774 Paris Opera version = = =
Gluck revised the score again for a production by the Paris Opera , which premiered on 2 August 1774 at the second Salle du Palais @-@ Royal . This version , named Orphée et Eurydice , had a French libretto by Pierre @-@ Louis Moline , which was both a translation of and an expansion upon Calzabigi 's original text . Gluck expanded and rewrote parts of the opera , and changed the role of Orpheus from a part for a castrato to one for high tenor or the so @-@ called haute @-@ contre – the usual voice in French opera for heroic characters – as the French almost never used castrati . This version of the work also had additional ballet sequences , conforming to the tastes that were prevalent at the time in Paris , and included the long " Dance of the Furies " , originally from Gluck 's ballet Don Juan , and the famous " Dance of the Blessed Spirits " for flute and strings . By 1825 operatic castrati themselves had virtually vanished , and performances of the original version for castrato became increasingly rare . The modern practice of approximating castrati by using countertenors as replacements only dates to 1950 .
= = = Berlioz 's 1859 version for contralto = = =
From 1784 to 1859 the Parisian diapason ( concert pitch ) rose steadily from 820 to 896 cycles per second , thus Gluck 's French version for haute @-@ contre became increasingly impractical . When Adolphe Nourrit sang the role at the Opéra in 1824 his music was altered . Giacomo Meyerbeer suggested to the French contralto Pauline Viardot that she should perform the role of Orfeo . The composer Hector Berlioz was a close friend of Viardot and the leading expert in France on the music of Gluck . He knew the score of " the largely forgotten Italian original as thoroughly as he knew the French " , and agreed to prepare a version of the opera – in four acts – with Viardot 's voice in mind , adapting the role of Orphée for a female alto . In his adaptation , Berlioz used the key scheme of the 1762 Vienna score while incorporating much of the additional music of the 1774 Paris score . He returned to the Italian version only when he considered it to be superior either in terms of music or in terms of the drama . He also restored some of the more subtle orchestration from the Italian version and resisted proposals by Viardot and the theatre 's director Léon Carvalho to modernize the orchestration . In the end Camille Saint @-@ Saëns , who was acting as Berlioz 's assistant on the project , did some of the minor rewriting which Berlioz had declined to do .
The Berlioz version was first presented at the Théâtre Lyrique on 18 November 1859 with Viardot as Orphée , Marie Sasse as Eurydice , Marie Ernestine Marimon as L 'Amour , Mlle Moreau as L 'Ombre , and Adolphe Deloffre as the conductor . The sets were designed by Charles @-@ Antoine Cambon and Joseph Thierry , and the choreography was by Lucien Petipa . ( The seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Jules Massenet was the orchestra 's timpanist . During the rehearsals Berlioz had complimented the young player on the accuracy of his tuning . ) The production was a popular and critical success , filling the house every night , and was given a total of 138 times by the company .
= = = Subsequent versions = = =
By 1860 most theaters in Paris had lowered concert pitch to diapason normal . This was not as low as in Gluck 's time : " a Commission had lately recommended that the pitch in France should be lowered from an A of 896 to 870 vibrations . " Still this was apparently enough that later in the 19th century the role of Orpheus came to be sung almost as frequently by a tenor as by a contralto .
Berlioz 's version is one of many which combine the Italian and French scores , although it is the most influential and well regarded . Since about 1870 three @-@ act adaptations of the Berlioz score , translating it back into Italian and restoring much of the music from the 1774 French version which Berlioz had left out , were common . An 1889 edition for contralto , published by Ricordi , became the most popular . On occasion the role of Orfeo has even been transposed down an octave for a baritone to sing . Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau and Hermann Prey are two notable baritones who have performed the role in Germany . Fischer @-@ Dieskau recorded the opera several times ; his recordings are still available commercially .
= = Orfeo and the reform = =
The opera was the first by Gluck showing signs of his ambition to reform opera seria . Self @-@ contained arias and choruses make way for shorter pieces strung together to make larger structural units . Da capo arias are notable by their absence ; Gluck instead uses strophic form , notably in act one 's " Chiamo il mio ben così " , where each verse is interposed with dramatic recitative , – that is , stromentato , where the voice is accompanied by part or all of the orchestra – and rondo form , such as in act three 's famous " Che farò senza Euridice ? " . Also absent is traditional secco recitative , where the voice is accompanied only by the basso continuo . On the whole , old Italian operatic conventions are disregarded in favour of giving the action dramatic impetus . The complexity of the storyline is greatly reduced by eliminating subplots . Gluck was influenced by the example of French tragédies en musique , particularly those of Rameau . Like them , the opera contains a large number of expressive dances , extensive use of the chorus and accompanied recitative . The coup de théâtre of opening the drama with a chorus mourning one of the main characters is very similar to that used in Rameau 's Castor et Pollux ( 1737 ) . Other elements do not follow Gluck 's subsequent reforms ; for instance , the brisk , cheerful overture does not reflect the action to come . The role of Orfeo calls for an especially gifted actor , so that the strophic " Chiamo il mio ben così " does not become dull , and so that tragic import can be given both to this aria and to " Che farò senza Euridice ? " , both of which are based on harmonies that are not obviously mournful in nature . The first Orfeo , Gaetano Guadagni , was reputedly a fine actor who had certainly taken lessons while in London from the renowned Shakespearian actor David Garrick . Guadagni was apparently also able to project a moving and emotive tone without raising his voice . Indeed , Gluck faced criticism of " Che farò senza Euridice ? " on the grounds that it was emotionally uninvolved ; he responded by pointing out the absolute necessity of fine execution of the aria : " make the slightest change , either in the movement or in the turn of expression , and it will become a saltarello for marionettes " .
Gluck 's reforms , which began with Orfeo ed Euridice , have had significant influence throughout operatic history . Gluck 's ideals heavily influenced the popular works of Mozart , Wagner , and Weber , with Wagner 's Gesamtkunstwerk vision especially influenced by that of Gluck . Old @-@ style opera seria and the domination of embellishment @-@ orientated singers came to be increasingly unpopular after the success of Gluck 's operas as a whole and Orfeo in particular . In Orfeo ed Euridice the orchestra is far more predominant than in earlier opera , most notably in Orfeo 's arioso " Che puro ciel " . Here the voice is reduced to the comparatively minor role of recitative @-@ style declamation , while the oboe carries the main melody , supported by solos from the flute , cello , bassoon , and horn . There is also accompaniment from the strings ( playing in triplets ) and the continuo in the most complex orchestration that Gluck ever wrote .
= = Orchestration = =
Gluck made a number of changes to the orchestration of Orfeo when adapting it from the original Italian version to the French version of 1774 . Cornetts and chalumeaux are replaced by more common and modern oboes and clarinets , while the part played by trombones considerably decreases , possibly due to a lack of technical ability on the part of the French trombonists . Cornetts were instruments that were typically used for church music , and chalumeaux were predominant only in chamber music : both cornetts and chalumeaux were unpopular in France in 1774 . In many ways the change from chalumeau to oboe corresponds to that from castrato to high tenor . Neither castrato nor chalumeau were to survive .
In both the Italian and French version Orfeo 's lyre is represented by the harp , and it was this use of the instrument in 1774 that it is usually thought introduced
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the episode 's opening credits is the person that came up with the idea for the episode and wrote the first draft , even if he or she only contributed to a small part of the final script . Jean has stated that Lisa Simpson is one of his favorite characters to write for . She is the character he relates to the most because of their similar childhoods and the fact that he has a daughter .
Jean became show runner of The Simpsons at the start of the third season ( 1991 ) together with Reiss . A show runner has the ultimate responsibility of all the processes that an episode goes through before completion , including the writing , the animation , the voice acting , and the music . When Jean began his tenure as show runner , the only thing he thought to himself every day was " Don 't blow it and screw up this thing everyone loves . " The first episode Jean and Reiss ran was " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " ( aired September 19 , 1991 ) , and they felt a lot of pressure on them to make it good . They were so pressured that they did six to seven rewrites of the script in order to improve its humor . Jean said he " kept thinking ' It 's not good enough . It 's not good enough . ' " Reiss added that " we were definitely scared . We had never run anything before , and they dumped us on this . "
Jean and Reiss served as show runners until the end of the fourth season in 1993 . Since the show had already established itself in the first two seasons , they were able to give it more depth during their tenure . Jean believes this is one of the reasons that many fans and critics regard season three and four as the best seasons of The Simpsons . Bill Oakley , another writer on The Simpsons , has commented that " Mike and Al are responsible for the best thing that ever appeared on television , which was the third season of The Simpsons . " Comedy writer Jay Kogen has said that " those years with Al Jean and Mike Reiss running it were pretty darn good . And then the ones after that maybe not so much . Some people ran it better than others . "
= = = The Critic and Disney = = =
Jean and Reiss left The Simpsons after its fourth season in order to create The Critic , an animated show about film critic Jay Sherman ( voiced by Jon Lovitz ) ; the show was executive produced by Brooks . It was first broadcast on ABC in January 1994 and was well received by critics , but did not catch on with viewers and was put on hiatus after six weeks . It returned in June 1994 and completed airing its initial production run . The Critic was moved to the Fox network for its second season . Since The Simpsons also aired on that network , Brooks was able to create a crossover between it and The Critic .
This crossover occurred through the Simpsons episode " A Star Is Burns " ( 1995 ) . Groening was not fond of the crossover , publicly citing it as a thirty @-@ minute advertisement for The Critic . Brooks said , " for years , Al and Mike were two guys who worked their hearts out on this show , staying up until 4 in the morning to get it right . The point is , Matt 's name has been on Mike 's and Al 's scripts and he has taken plenty of credit for a lot of their great work . In fact , he is the direct beneficiary of their work . The Critic is their shot and he should be giving them his support . " Reiss stated that he was a " little upset " by Groening 's actions and that " this taints everything at the last minute . [ ... ] This episode doesn 't say ' Watch The Critic ' all over it . " Jean added " What bothers me about all of this , is that now people may get the impression that this Simpsons episode is less than good . It stands on its own even if The Critic never existed . " On Fox , The Critic was again short @-@ lived , broadcasting ten episodes before its cancellation . A total of only 23 episodes were produced , and it returned briefly in 2000 with a series of ten Internet broadcast webisodes . The series has since developed a cult following thanks to reruns on Comedy Central and its complete series release on DVD .
In 1994 , Jean and Reiss signed a three @-@ year deal with The Walt Disney Company to produce other television shows for ABC . The duo created and executive produced Teen Angel , which was canceled in its first season . Reiss said " It was so compromised and overworked . I had 11 executives full @-@ time telling me how to do my job . " The pair periodically returned to work on The Simpsons — for example , while under contract at Disney they were allowed to write and produce four episodes of the show , including season eight 's " Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala ( Annoyed Grunt ) cious " ( 1997 ) .
= = = Further work on The Simpsons = = =
Jean returned full @-@ time to The Simpsons during the tenth season ( 1998 ) . He once again became show runner with the start of the thirteenth season in 2001 , this time without Reiss . Jean called it " a great job with a lot of responsibility , " and cited " the fact that people love it so much " as " great . " He adds , however , that " the hardest thing at this point is just thinking of fresh ideas . People are so on top of things that we 've done before , so the challenge now is to think of an idea that 's good , but hasn 't been seen . " Jean 's return was initially welcomed , with MSNBC 's Jon Bonné stating : " Jean , who took the show 's helm from executive producer Mike Scully in 2001 , has guided the show away from its gag @-@ heavy , Homer @-@ centric incarnation ... these are certainly brighter days for the show 's long @-@ time fans . " However , some critics have argued that the quality of the show has declined in recent years during Jean 's tenure . Jean has responded to this criticism by saying : " Well , it 's possible that we 've declined . But honestly , I 've been here the whole time and I do remember in season two people saying , ' It 's gone downhill . ' If we 'd listened to that then we would have stopped after episode 13 . I 'm glad we didn 't . "
Jean was one of the writers and producers who worked on The Simpsons Movie , a feature @-@ length film that was released in 2007 . The show 's voice cast was signed on to do the film in 2001 , and work then began on the script . The producers of The Simpsons were initially worried that creating a film would have a negative effect on the show , as they did not have enough crew to focus their attention on both projects . As the show progressed , additional writers and animators were hired so that both the show and the film could be produced at the same time . Groening and Brooks were therefore able to invite Jean ( who continued to work as show runner on the television show ) to produce the film with them .
Jean frequently appears on the Simpsons DVD audio commentaries for episodes which he has collaborated on . He told IGN that he enjoys doing them because he has not seen some of the episodes in ten to fifteen years , and " it 's kind of like a reunion to see some of the people that I worked with before , so it 's a really pleasant experience . "
= = Awards = =
Jean has received eight Emmy Awards and a Peabody Award for his work on The Simpsons . In 1997 , he and Reiss won an Annie Award in the " Best Producing in a TV Production " category for the Simpsons episode " The Springfield Files " . In 1991 they shared the Writing A Comedy Series CableAce Award for the It 's Garry Shandling 's Show Episode " My Mother The Wife " . In 2006 , the duo was given the Animation Writers Caucus Animation Award which is given by the Writers Guild of America to writers that " advanced the literature of animation in film and / or television through the years and who has made outstanding contributions to the profession of the animation writer . "
= Maryland Route 32 =
Maryland Route 32 ( MD 32 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The road runs 51 @.@ 79 miles ( 83 @.@ 35 km ) from Interstate 97 ( I @-@ 97 ) and MD 3 in Millersville west and north to Washington Road in Westminster . The east – west portion of MD 32 is the Patuxent Freeway , a four- to six @-@ lane freeway between I @-@ 97 and MD 108 in Clarksville . The freeway passes through Odenton and Fort Meade , the site of Fort George G. Meade and the National Security Agency ( NSA ) , in western Anne Arundel County and along the southern part of Columbia in Howard County . Via I @-@ 97 , MD 32 connects those communities with U.S. Route 50 and US 301 in Annapolis . The state highway also intersects the four primary highways connecting Baltimore and Washington : the Baltimore – Washington Parkway , US 1 , I @-@ 95 , and US 29 . MD 32 's north – south section , Sykesville Road , connects Clarksville and Westminster by way of Sykesville and Eldersburg in southern Carroll County .
MD 32 was constructed as the original state road from West Friendship north to Westminster and from Westminster west to Taneytown in the early 1910s . The state highway was extended northwest to the Pennsylvania state line near Emmitsburg in the late 1910s . The portion of MD 32 from Glenelg to US 1 in Savage was built as MD 106 in the 1920s and early 1930s . MD 32 was extended south from West Friendship and assumed all of MD 106 in the mid @-@ 1940s . In the mid @-@ 1950s , the section of MD 32 from Westminster west to Emmitsburg was renumbered as an extension of MD 97 . MD 32 would later be restored to its old route through Westminster and west toward Taneytown when MD 97 , which is now MD 140 west of Westminster , was relocated in the early 1960s . MD 32 was truncated to Westminster in the late 1970s and rolled back to its present northern terminus in 2001 .
Along its present course , MD 32 bypassed Sykesville and was relocated from Clarksville to Glenelg in the early 1960s . The state highway was also extended east from Savage to Fort Meade in the late 1960s . A disjoint segment of MD 32 was constructed on a new alignment from MD 175 in Odenton to MD 178 in Crownsville in the early 1970s . The Patuxent Freeway was built from Fort Meade to Columbia in the mid @-@ 1980s and from Fort Meade to Millersville in the late 1980s and early 1990s . The freeway was completed from Columbia to Clarksville in the mid @-@ 1990s and through Fort George G. Meade in 2005 . Future plans call for MD 32 to be upgraded to a freeway from Clarksville to West Friendship .
= = Route description = =
MD 32 is maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) for its entire length except for the section between Samford Road and Canine Road in Fort Meade , which is maintained by the U.S. government . The highway is a part of the main National Highway System from its eastern terminus in Millersville to I @-@ 70 and US 40 in West Friendship ; the highway is also a National Highway System principal arterial from the Howard – Carroll county line to MD 91 at Gamber .
= = = Millersville to Fort Meade = = =
MD 32 begins at a partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 97 and MD 3 ( Robert Crain Highway ) in Millersville . MD 32 starts as a pair of two @-@ lane flyover ramps that split west from northbound I @-@ 97 and join southbound I @-@ 97 ; the MD 32 ramps head northwest while I @-@ 97 curves to the northeast and settles into the wide median of the northern end of MD 3 . After passing through its interchange with MD 3 , MD 32 heads northwest as the Patuxent Freeway , a four @-@ lane freeway that passes to the north of the community of Gambrills . The state highway 's first interchange is with Sappington Station Road , a spur from the westbound ramps of MD 32 that is unsigned MD 32AA . The eastbound ramps connect with county @-@ maintained Burns Crossing Road . MD 32 continues northwest along the northern edge of Odenton , where the freeway gradually curves to the southwest , has a diamond interchange with MD 170 ( Telegraph Road ) and a partial cloverleaf interchange with MD 175 ( Annapolis Road ) , and crosses over the Amtrak Northeast Corridor and MARC 's Penn Line between the interchanges .
MD 32 heads west from Odenton along the southern edge of Fort George G. Meade . The freeway has a dumbbell interchange with MD 198 ( Laurel Fort Meade Road ) just north of Tipton Airport . MD 32 curves northwest and has an interchange with Samford Road , which is one of two interchanges that provide access to the NSA . The median of MD 32 widens at the interchange as the eastbound ramps enter and exit on the left to a roundabout , from which Samford Road crosses the westbound lanes of MD 32 . Immediately to the north of a trumpet interchange with Canine Road , which provides access to the NSA , the National Vigilance Park , and the National Cryptologic Museum , the freeway has a cloverleaf interchange with the Baltimore – Washington Parkway .
= = = Fort Meade to Clarksville = = =
MD 32 traverses Dorsey Run into the industrial community of Annapolis Junction , where westbound MD 32 has an interchange with Guilford Road , which leads to National Business Parkway and the historic home Grassland . The state highway crosses over CSX 's Capital Subdivision into Howard County and immediately has a partial cloverleaf interchange with Dorsey Run Road . Dorsey Run Road , which is unsigned MD 732R , provides access to the Savage station on MARC 's Camden Line and several industrial parks in Annapolis Junction . MD 32 continues northwest into Savage , where the highway has a cloverleaf interchange with US 1 ( Washington Boulevard ) that includes collector @-@ distributor lanes in both directions . North of Savage , the freeway has a partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 95 that has a pair of left @-@ exiting ramps from westbound MD 32 to southbound I @-@ 95 and from eastbound MD 32 to northbound I @-@ 95 .
MD 32 continues west as a six @-@ lane freeway through the expansive new town of Columbia . The freeway passes south and north of the villages of King 's Contrivance and Owen Brown , respectively , where the highway has a partial cloverleaf interchange with Broken Land Parkway and a four @-@ loop interchange with Eden Brook Drive and Shaker Drive . MD 32 crosses the Little Patuxent River between the two interchanges . Just south of Simpsonville , the state highway has a cloverleaf interchange with US 29 ( Columbia Pike ) , which provides access to Columbia Town Center . The freeway reduces to four lanes and crosses the Middle Patuxent River just east of its diamond interchange with Sanner Road and Cedar Lane . MD 32 continues along the southern edge of the village of River Hill , where the highway has a half @-@ interchange with Great Star Drive , which is unsigned MD 732V , allowing access to and from the east . The state highway continues northwest to Clarksville , where the highway has a diamond interchange with MD 108 ( Clarksville Pike ) .
= = = Clarksville to Westminster = = =
West of its interchange with MD 108 , MD 32 's name changes to Sykesville Road and becomes a north @-@ south highway , which continues as a partially controlled @-@ access two @-@ lane highway through a mix of farmland and large @-@ plot residential subdivisions . The state highway is paralleled to the west by its old alignment , Ten Oaks Road . East of the community of Dayton , the state highway passes by MDSHA 's Dayton shops . In Glenelg , MD 32 passes under Triadelphia Road and expands to a two @-@ lane divided highway for its dumbbell interchange with Burnt Woods Road , which also provides access to the northern end of Ten Oaks Road and Pfefferkorn Road . The state highway becomes undivided again and veers northeast and north toward West Friendship . MD 32 crosses the Middle Patuxent River and Terrapin Branch before its intersection with MD 144 ( Frederick Road ) , where the highway expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway . The state highway has a diamond interchange with I @-@ 70 and US 40 ( Baltimore National Pike ) before reducing to a four @-@ lane undivided highway that continues north to MD 32 's intersection with MD 99 ( Old Frederick Road ) .
MD 32 continues north as a two @-@ lane road to Sykesville . Just south of the town , the state highway intersects West Friendship Road , the old alignment of MD 32 that is now unsigned MD 851 . MD 32 veers northeast and crosses the Patapsco River and CSX 's Old Main Line Subdivision into Carroll County ; immediately to the east of MD 32 's crossing is the highway 's old aluminum bridge . The state highway passes to the west of Springfield Hospital Center , whose original buildings are preserved as the Warfield Complex , Hubner , and T Buildings . MD 32 temporarily expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway at its intersection with Springfield Avenue , which is the northern end of MD 851 , and continues north into the suburban community of Eldersburg . The state highway expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway at Piney Ridge Parkway and maintains that form through its intersection with MD 26 ( Liberty Road ) . MD 32 continues through the suburban area as a four @-@ lane undivided highway with two lanes northbound , one lane southbound , and a center turn lane . The state highway passes to the east of Liberty High School and reduces to two lanes north of Bennett Road .
MD 32 heads into a forested area and crosses the Morgan Run arm of Liberty Reservoir . The state highway passes through an S @-@ curve before heading through the communities of Louisville and Gamber , where the highway meets the southern end of MD 91 ( Gamber Road ) . MD 32 continues northwest through a mix of farmland and residential subdivisions toward Fenby , where the highway intersects MD 97 ( New Washington Road ) . Just north of MD 97 adjacent to Carroll Community College , the state highway meets MD 97 's old alignment , Old Washington Road , which is unsigned MD 854B . MD 32 continues north as Washington Road through a suburban area ; the highway parallels MD 97 and passes to the east of the historic Friendship Valley Farm and Carroll County Almshouse and Farm , which is now the Carroll County Farm Museum . Just north of Bennett Avenue , MD 32 reaches its northern terminus at the southern city limit of Westminster . The roadway continues north as a municipal street to Main Street , which heads northwest through the Westminster Historic District .
= = History = =
= = = Original construction = = =
When the Maryland State Roads Commission ( MDSRC ) , the predecessor of MDSHA , laid out its original state road system in 1909 , the commission included the roads from Westminster to Taneytown and from West Friendship to Westminster via Eldersburg . These highways already contained several stretches of improved highway ; Main Street in Westminster and the highways for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) on either side of Gamber and for 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) on either side of Sykesville were paved by 1910 . In addition , the designated state roads included two turnpikes : the Westminster and Meadow Branch Turnpike operated from the western city limit of Westminster northwest to Fountain Valley on the road to Taneytown ; and the Westminster and Fenby Turnpike operated from the southern city limit of Westminster to Fenby .
In 1911 , the whole highway from West Friendship to Eldersburg was completed after the addition of 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide macadam sections on either side of the existing paved road through Sykesville . That same year , construction began on the state road between Eldersburg and Fenby . The roads from Eldersburg to the existing paved road through Gamber and from Gamber to Fenby were completed with a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide macadam surface in 1912 and 1913 , respectively . The road from Fountain Valley to Taneytown was paved as a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide concrete road from Fountain Valley through Frizzelburg in 1914 and from there to Taneytown in 1915 . The former turnpikes still remained to be improved in 1915 ; those roads were resurfaced with macadam by 1919 to complete the original state road from West Friendship to Taneytown .
The next portion of what was to become MD 32 to be constructed was an extension of the Taneytown road northwest through Emmitsburg , which was planned by 1915 . The sections from Taneytown to the Monocacy River and from the river 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west toward Emmitsburg were completed as a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide concrete road by 1919 . The remaining 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to Emmitsburg were underway by 1920 and built as a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide concrete road by 1921 . The highway was completed from Emmitsburg northwest to the Pennsylvania state line by 1923 . When MDSRC started assigning numbers to its state roads in 1927 , the highway from US 40 in West Friendship to the Pennsylvania state line northwest of Emmitsburg was designated MD 32 .
The portion of MD 32 from Glenelg to Savage was originally designated MD 106 . This highway was paved in concrete from Dayton to Clarksville and from Clarksville to about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of the Middle Patuxent River near Simpsonville by 1923 . That same year , a concrete road was added south from West Friendship to the Middle Patuxent River . The concrete road from Clarksville was extended to the Middle Patuxent River opposite Simpsonville in 1925 . A macadam road was built from Atholton to Oakland Mills Road in Guilford between 1924 and 1926 . Guilford was connected to US 1 near Savage with a gravel road by 1927 . The gap in MD 106 through Simpsonville was filled with a concrete road in 1929 and 1930 . MD 32 was extended southwest from the Middle Patuxent River to north of Glenelg around 1933 . MD 106 was extended north from Dayton to Glenelg as a macadam road in 1934 . The gap in the highway north of
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apley – Folkman lemma in finite @-@ dimensional space can be found in the book by Bertsekas together with applications in estimating the duality gap in separable optimization problems and zero @-@ sum games .
= = Applications = =
The Shapley – Folkman lemma enables researchers to extend results for Minkowski sums of convex sets to sums of general sets , which need not be convex . Such sums of sets arise in economics , in mathematical optimization , and in probability theory ; in each of these three mathematical sciences , non @-@ convexity is an important feature of applications .
= = = Economics = = =
In economics , a consumer 's preferences are defined over all " baskets " of goods . Each basket is represented as a non @-@ negative vector , whose coordinates represent the quantities of the goods . On this set of baskets , an indifference curve is defined for each consumer ; a consumer 's indifference curve contains all the baskets of commodities that the consumer regards as equivalent : That is , for every pair of baskets on the same indifference curve , the consumer does not prefer one basket over another . Through each basket of commodities passes one indifference curve . A consumer 's preference set ( relative to an indifference curve ) is the union of the indifference curve and all the commodity baskets that the consumer prefers over the indifference curve . A consumer 's preferences are convex if all such preference sets are convex .
An optimal basket of goods occurs where the budget @-@ line supports a consumer 's preference set , as shown in the diagram . This means that an optimal basket is on the highest possible indifference curve given the budget @-@ line , which is defined in terms of a price vector and the consumer 's income ( endowment vector ) . Thus , the set of optimal baskets is a function of the prices , and this function is called the consumer 's demand . If the preference set is convex , then at every price the consumer 's demand is a convex set , for example , a unique optimal basket or a line @-@ segment of baskets .
= = = = Non @-@ convex preferences = = = =
However , if a preference set is non @-@ convex , then some prices determine a budget @-@ line that supports two separate optimal @-@ baskets . For example , we can imagine that , for zoos , a lion costs as much as an eagle , and further that a zoo 's budget suffices for one eagle or one lion . We can suppose also that a zoo @-@ keeper views either animal as equally valuable . In this case , the zoo would purchase either one lion or one eagle . Of course , a contemporary zoo @-@ keeper does not want to purchase half of an eagle and half of a lion ( or a griffin ) ! Thus , the zoo @-@ keeper 's preferences are non @-@ convex : The zoo @-@ keeper prefers having either animal to having any strictly convex combination of both .
When the consumer 's preference set is non @-@ convex , then ( for some prices ) the consumer 's demand is not connected ; a disconnected demand implies some discontinuous behavior by the consumer , as discussed by Harold Hotelling :
If indifference curves for purchases be thought of as possessing a wavy character , convex to the origin in some regions and concave in others , we are forced to the conclusion that it is only the portions convex to the origin that can be regarded as possessing any importance , since the others are essentially unobservable . They can be detected only by the discontinuities that may occur in demand with variation in price @-@ ratios , leading to an abrupt jumping of a point of tangency across a chasm when the straight line is rotated . But , while such discontinuities may reveal the existence of chasms , they can never measure their depth . The concave portions of the indifference curves and their many @-@ dimensional generalizations , if they exist , must forever remain in unmeasurable obscurity .
The difficulties of studying non @-@ convex preferences were emphasized by Herman Wold and again by Paul Samuelson , who wrote that non @-@ convexities are " shrouded in eternal darkness ... " , according to Diewert .
Nonetheless , non @-@ convex preferences were illuminated from 1959 to 1961 by a sequence of papers in The Journal of Political Economy ( JPE ) . The main contributors were Farrell , Bator , Koopmans , and Rothenberg . In particular , Rothenberg 's paper discussed the approximate convexity of sums of non @-@ convex sets . These JPE @-@ papers stimulated a paper by Lloyd Shapley and Martin Shubik , which considered convexified consumer @-@ preferences and introduced the concept of an " approximate equilibrium " . The JPE @-@ papers and the Shapley – Shubik paper influenced another notion of " quasi @-@ equilibria " , due to Robert Aumann .
= = = = Starr 's 1969 paper and contemporary economics = = = =
Previous publications on non @-@ convexity and economics were collected in an annotated bibliography by Kenneth Arrow . He gave the bibliography to Starr , who was then an undergraduate enrolled in Arrow 's ( graduate ) advanced mathematical @-@ economics course . In his term @-@ paper , Starr studied the general equilibria of an artificial economy in which non @-@ convex preferences were replaced by their convex hulls . In the convexified economy , at each price , the aggregate demand was the sum of convex hulls of the consumers ' demands . Starr 's ideas interested the mathematicians Lloyd Shapley and Jon Folkman , who proved their eponymous lemma and theorem in " private correspondence " , which was reported by Starr 's published paper of 1969 .
In his 1969 publication , Starr applied the Shapley – Folkman – Starr theorem . Starr proved that the " convexified " economy has general equilibria that can be closely approximated by " quasi @-@ equilibria " of the original economy , when the number of agents exceeds the dimension of the goods : Concretely , Starr proved that there exists at least one quasi @-@ equilibrium of prices popt with the following properties :
For each quasi @-@ equilibrium 's prices popt , all consumers can choose optimal baskets ( maximally preferred and meeting their budget constraints ) .
At quasi @-@ equilibrium prices popt in the convexified economy , every good 's market is in equilibrium : Its supply equals its demand .
For each quasi @-@ equilibrium , the prices " nearly clear " the markets for the original economy : an upper bound on the distance between the set of equilibria of the " convexified " economy and the set of quasi @-@ equilibria of the original economy followed from Starr 's corollary to the Shapley – Folkman theorem .
Starr established that
" in the aggregate , the discrepancy between an allocation in the fictitious economy generated by [ taking the convex hulls of all of the consumption and production sets ] and some allocation in the real economy is bounded in a way that is independent of the number of economic agents . Therefore , the average agent experiences a deviation from intended actions that vanishes in significance as the number of agents goes to infinity " .
Following Starr 's 1969 paper , the Shapley – Folkman – Starr results have been widely used in economic theory . Roger Guesnerie summarized their economic implications : " Some key results obtained under the convexity assumption remain ( approximately ) relevant in circumstances where convexity fails . For example , in economies with a large consumption side , preference nonconvexities do not destroy the standard results " . " The derivation of these results in general form has been one of the major achievements of postwar economic theory " , wrote Guesnerie . The topic of non @-@ convex sets in economics has been studied by many Nobel laureates : Arrow ( 1972 ) , Robert Aumann ( 2005 ) , Gérard Debreu ( 1983 ) , Tjalling Koopmans ( 1975 ) , Paul Krugman ( 2008 ) , and Paul Samuelson ( 1970 ) ; the complementary topic of convex sets in economics has been emphasized by these laureates , along with Leonid Hurwicz , Leonid Kantorovich ( 1975 ) , and Robert Solow ( 1987 ) . The Shapley – Folkman – Starr results have been featured in the economics literature : in microeconomics , in general @-@ equilibrium theory , in public economics ( including market failures ) , as well as in game theory , in mathematical economics , and in applied mathematics ( for economists ) . The Shapley – Folkman – Starr results have also influenced economics research using measure and integration theory .
= = = Mathematical optimization = = =
The Shapley – Folkman lemma has been used to explain why large minimization problems with non @-@ convexities can be nearly solved ( with iterative methods whose convergence proofs are stated for only convex problems ) . The Shapley – Folkman lemma has encouraged the use of methods of convex minimization on other applications with sums of many functions .
= = = = Preliminaries of optimization theory = = = =
Nonlinear optimization relies on the following definitions for functions :
The graph of a function f is the set of the pairs of arguments x and function evaluations f ( x )
Graph ( f )
= { ( x , f ( x ) ) }
The epigraph of a real @-@ valued function f is the set of points above the graph
Epi ( f ) =
{ ( x , u ) : f ( x ) ≤ u } .
A real @-@ valued function is defined to be a convex function if its epigraph is a convex set .
For example , the quadratic function f ( x )
= x2 is convex , as is the absolute value function g ( x ) =
| x | . However , the sine function ( pictured ) is non @-@ convex on the interval ( 0 , π ) .
= = = = Additive optimization problems = = = =
In many optimization problems , the objective function f is separable : that is , f is the sum of many summand @-@ functions , each of which has its own argument :
f ( x )
= f ( ( x1 , ... , xN ) ) =
∑ fn ( xn ) .
For example , problems of linear optimization are separable . Given a separable problem with an optimal solution , we fix an optimal solution
xmin = ( x1 , ... , xN ) min
with the minimum value f ( xmin ) . For this separable problem , we also consider an optimal solution ( xmin , f ( xmin ) ) to the " convexified problem " , where convex hulls are taken of the graphs of the summand functions . Such an optimal solution is the limit of a sequence of points in the convexified problem
( xj , f ( xj ) ) ∈ ∑ Conv ( Graph ( fn ) ) .
Of course , the given optimal @-@ point is a sum of points in the graphs of the original summands and of a small number of convexified summands , by the Shapley – Folkman lemma .
This analysis was published by Ivar Ekeland in 1974 to explain the apparent convexity of separable problems with many summands , despite the non @-@ convexity of the summand problems . In 1973 , the young mathematician Claude Lemaréchal was surprised by his success with convex minimization methods on problems that were known to be non @-@ convex ; for minimizing nonlinear problems , a solution of the dual problem problem need not provide useful information for solving the primal problem , unless the primal problem be convex and satisfy a constraint qualification . Lemaréchal 's problem was additively separable , and each summand function was non @-@ convex ; nonetheless , a solution to the dual problem provided a close approximation to the primal problem 's optimal value . Ekeland 's analysis explained the success of methods of convex minimization on large and separable problems , despite the non @-@ convexities of the summand functions . Ekeland and later authors argued that additive separability produced an approximately convex aggregate problem , even though the summand functions were non @-@ convex . The crucial step in these publications is the use of the Shapley – Folkman lemma . The Shapley – Folkman lemma has encouraged the use of methods of convex minimization on other applications with sums of many functions .
= = = Probability and measure theory = = =
Convex sets are often studied with probability theory . Each point in the convex hull of a ( non @-@ empty ) subset Q of a finite @-@ dimensional space is the expected value of a simple random vector that takes its values in Q , as a consequence of Carathéodory 's lemma . Thus , for a non @-@ empty set Q , the collection of the expected values of the simple , Q @-@ valued random vectors equals Q 's convex hull ; this equality implies that the Shapley – Folkman – Starr results are useful in probability theory . In the other direction , probability theory provides tools to examine convex sets generally and the Shapley – Folkman – Starr results specifically . The Shapley – Folkman – Starr results have been widely used in the probabilistic theory of random sets , for example , to prove a law of large numbers , a central limit theorem , and a large @-@ deviations principle . These proofs of probabilistic limit theorems used the Shapley – Folkman – Starr results to avoid the assumption that all the random sets be convex .
A probability measure is a finite measure , and the Shapley – Folkman lemma has applications in non @-@ probabilistic measure theory , such as the theories of volume and of vector measures . The Shapley – Folkman lemma enables a refinement of the Brunn – Minkowski inequality , which bounds the volume of sums in terms of the volumes of their summand @-@ sets . The volume of a set is defined in terms of the Lebesgue measure , which is defined on subsets of Euclidean space . In advanced measure @-@ theory , the Shapley – Folkman lemma has been used to prove Lyapunov 's theorem , which states that the range of a vector measure is convex . Here , the traditional term " range " ( alternatively , " image " ) is the set of values produced by the function . A vector measure is a vector @-@ valued generalization of a measure ; for example , if p1 and p2 are probability measures defined on the same measurable space , then the product function p1 p2 is a vector measure , where p1 p2 is defined for every event ω by
( p1 p2 ) ( ω ) = ( p1 ( ω ) , p2 ( ω ) ) .
Lyapunov 's theorem has been used in economics , in ( " bang @-@ bang " ) control theory , and in statistical theory . Lyapunov 's theorem has been called a continuous counterpart of the Shapley – Folkman lemma , which has itself been called a discrete analogue of Lyapunov 's theorem .
= David W. Mullins , Jr . =
David Wiley Mullins , Jr . ( born April 28 , 1946 ) is an American economist and former vice @-@ chairman of the Federal Reserve . He also served as an assistant Secretary of the Treasury for domestic finance in the administration of United States President George H. W. Bush . Mullins left the Federal Reserve in 1994 to join the hedge fund Long Term Capital Management and remained in private finance following its collapse in 1998 .
= = Early life = =
David Mullins was born on April 28 , 1946 to David Wiley Mullins and his wife Eula in Memphis , Tennessee . His father worked for Auburn University until 1960 , when he became the president of the University of Arkansas . David Jr. was raised in Fayetteville , Arkansas , along with his brother Gary and sister Carolyn . Mullins left Arkansas for Yale and went on to study finance at the MIT Sloan School of Management . In 1974 he earned his Ph.D. from MIT and accepted a position in the faculty of Harvard Business School as an expert in financial crises .
= = Career = =
Immediately after the market crash in 1987 , President Reagan tapped Nicholas F. Brady , a former United States senator and then chairman of Dillon , Read , to chair the Presidential Task Force on Market Mechanisms , later known as the Brady Commission . Brady recruited Harvard Business School professor Robert R. Glauber as the commission 's executive director , and Glauber in turn enlisted Mullins , a Harvard faculty colleague , as associate director . < Report of the Presidential Task Force on Market Mechanisms , p. ii > The commission was to be an inquiry into the stock market crash of October 19 , 1987 , known as Black Monday . In two months , Mullins helped assemble nearly 50 people to produce the report , which provided the first official record of what caused the crash and offered recommendations on how to fix the deficiencies in the market . The Brady Report laid some of the blame on derivatives trading and portfolio insurance mechanisms , with much of that focus being generated by Mullins .
Brady went on to serve as Secretary of the Treasury . As the savings and loan crisis deepened , he turned to Mullins , now an assistant Secretary of the Treasury , to develop a plan to resolve the crisis . The plan was enacted by Congress on August 8 , 1989 as FIRREA ( The Financial Institutions Reform Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1989 ) which created the RTC to dispose of failed thrift assets . The RTC ultimately sold $ 394 billion in assets of 747 failed thrifts . This approach became a model for banking resolution plans in Sweden , Thailand and elsewhere . Mullins remained popular with Congress and the President . In 1989 , Mullins was appointed by President Bush as assistant Secretary of the Treasury for domestic finance . While at the Treasury , Mullins co @-@ wrote a paper on high @-@ yield debt defaults which received the inaugural Smith Breeden Prize .
On May 21 , 1990 , Bush nominated Mullins to a 14 @-@ year term on the Federal Reserve Board of Governors to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of H. Robert Heller . Mullins was seen as the Fed 's " resident intellectual " due to his background as a professor in finance and economics . In 1994 , Mullins resigned to join John Meriwether 's new hedge fund , Long Term Capital Management ( LTCM ) . Although his term was to come to a close , the resignation was viewed as unexpected .
At LTCM , Mullins joined what Business Week termed a " dream team " of financial experts and academics , including Nobel laureates Myron Scholes and Robert C. Merton . Roger Lowenstein , author of When Genius Failed : The Rise and Fall of Long @-@ Term Capital Management , argued that some prospective investors in LTCM were swayed by the presence of Mullins . Just as the celebrity of Scholes and Merton caused investors and trading partners to exercise less diligence , Mullins ' addition as a " marquee " name added gravitas to the firm . Following that fund 's collapse in 1998 and dissolution in 2000 , Mullins left LTCM and worked for financial services companies . Mullins ' career in government was effectively ended by the collapse . In 2008 he was chief economist of the hedge fund Vega Asset Management .
= Brill railway station =
Brill railway station was the terminus of a small railway line in Buckinghamshire , England , known as the Brill Tramway . Built and owned by the 3rd Duke of Buckingham , it was later operated by London 's Metropolitan Railway , and in 1933 briefly became one of the two north @-@ western termini of the London Underground , despite being 45 miles ( 72 km ) and over two hours ' travelling time from the City of London .
Approximately 3 ⁄ 4 of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) north of Brill , the station was opened in March 1872 as the result of lobbying from local residents and businesses . As the line was cheaply built and ungraded and the locomotives were of poor quality , services were very slow , initially taking 1 hour 45 minutes to traverse the six miles ( 10 km ) from Brill to the junction station with main line services at Quainton Road . Although serving a lightly populated area and little @-@ used by passengers , the station was a significant point for freight traffic , particularly as a carrier of milk from the dairy farms of Buckinghamshire to Aylesbury and London . A brickworks was also attached to the station , but it proved unable to compete with nearby rivals and closed within a few years of opening .
During the 1890s , plans were made to extend the tramway to Oxford , but the scheme was abandoned . Instead , the operation of the line was taken over by the Metropolitan Railway in 1899 , and the line became one of the railway 's two north @-@ western termini . It was upgraded and better @-@ quality locomotives were introduced making the journey time three times faster .
In 1933 the Metropolitan Railway was taken into public ownership and became the Metropolitan line of London Transport . The management of London Transport aimed to reduce goods services , and it was felt that there was little chance of the more distant parts of the former Metropolitan Railway ever becoming viable passenger routes . The line was closed on 30 November 1935 , and all buildings and infrastructure at Brill associated with the line were sold at auction . Most of the infrastructure was subsequently demolished , though three station cottages survive .
= = Wotton Tramway = =
On 23 September 1868 the small Aylesbury
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and power lines , leaving about 42 @,@ 000 people without electricity in the country . Two deaths were reported in the country , and damage in Costa Rica was estimated at about ₡ 20 billion colónes ( $ 35 million 2008 USD ) .
In León near where it moved ashore in Nicaragua , the passage of Alma left the city without power . Several buildings were destroyed in the city , and some roads were damaged . Much of the departments of León and Chinandega experienced power outages , due to the strong winds . One person died from electrocution , due to a downed high @-@ tension cable , and another person died in a similar manner . Offshore , one person drowned when he rode out the storm in his boat . In Tegucigalpa , TACA Flight 390 skidded off a runway sodden by torrential rain , killing three passengers ( plus two more on the ground ) and injuring over eighty . One other fatality was reported in Honduras when a young girl was swept away in a raging stream .
= = Records and retirement = =
Forming at 86.5ºW , Alma developed farther east than any other Pacific tropical cyclone on record . Excluding systems crossing in from the Atlantic , only seven other systems , Francesca in 1970 , Bridget and Priscilla in 1971 , Jimena in 1979 , Paul in 1982 , Cristina in 1996 , and Rosa in 2000 , developed east of 90ºW . Alma made landfall farther east than any other Pacific tropical cyclone , and it was the only to do so on the Pacific coast of Nicaragua . When the storm formed on May 29 , it marked the ninth year in a row when a Pacific tropical cyclone formed in May , which was the most consecutive years in which storms formed in May . Alma 's remnants contributed to the formation of Tropical Storm Arthur in the Atlantic ; although not strictly speaking the same cyclone due to the circulation of Alma dissipating ,
Despite its low death toll and low damage , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Alma from the list of Pacific hurricane names and replaced it with Amanda for the 2014 Pacific hurricane season . This makes Alma the first tropical storm to be retired in the Eastern Pacific since Hazel in 1965 .
= Types of volcanic eruptions =
Several types of volcanic eruptions — during which lava , tephra ( ash , lapilli , volcanic bombs and blocks ) , and assorted gases are expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure — have been distinguished by volcanologists . These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of behavior has been observed . Some volcanoes may exhibit only one characteristic type of eruption during a period of activity , while others may display an entire sequence of types all in one eruptive series .
There are three different types of eruptions . The most well @-@ observed are magmatic eruptions , which involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it forward . Phreatomagmatic eruptions are another type of volcanic eruption , driven by the compression of gas within magma , the direct opposite of the process powering magmatic activity . The third eruptive type is the phreatic eruption , which is driven by the superheating of steam via contact with magma ; these eruptive types often exhibit no magmatic release , instead causing the granulation of existing rock .
Within these wide @-@ defining eruptive types are several subtypes . The weakest are Hawaiian and submarine , then Strombolian , followed by Vulcanian and Surtseyan . The stronger eruptive types are Pelean eruptions , followed by Plinian eruptions ; the strongest eruptions are called " Ultra @-@ Plinian . " Subglacial and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive mechanism , and vary in strength . An important measure of eruptive strength is Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) , an order of magnitude scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often correlates to eruptive types .
= = Eruption mechanisms = =
Volcanic eruptions arise through three main mechanisms :
Gas release under decompression causing magmatic eruptions
Thermal contraction from chilling on contact with water causing phreatomagmatic eruptions
Ejection of entrained particles during steam eruptions causing phreatic eruptions
There are two types of eruptions in terms of activity , explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions . Explosive eruptions are characterized by gas @-@ driven explosions that propels magma and tephra . Effusive eruptions , meanwhile , are characterized by the outpouring of lava without significant explosive eruption .
Volcanic eruptions vary widely in strength . On the one extreme there are effusive Hawaiian eruptions , which are characterized by lava fountains and fluid lava flows , which are typically not very dangerous . On the other extreme , Plinian eruptions are large , violent , and highly dangerous explosive events . Volcanoes are not bound to one eruptive style , and frequently display many different types , both passive and explosive , even the span of a single eruptive cycle . Volcanoes do not always erupt vertically from a single crater near their peak , either . Some volcanoes exhibit lateral and fissure eruptions . Notably , many Hawaiian eruptions start from rift zones , and some of the strongest Surtseyan eruptions develop along fracture zones . Scientists believed that pulses of magma mixed together in the chamber before climbing upward — a process estimated to take several thousands of years . But Columbia University volcanologists found that the eruption of Costa Rica ’ s Irazú Volcano in 1963 was likely triggered by magma that took a nonstop route from the mantle over just a few months .
= = = Volcano explosivity index = = =
The volcanic explosivity index ( commonly shortened to VEI ) is a scale , from 0 to 8 , for measuring the strength of eruptions . It is used by the Smithsonian Institution 's Global Volcanism Program in assessing the impact of historic and prehistoric lava flows . It operates in a way similar to the Richter scale for earthquakes , in that each interval in value represents a tenfold increasing in magnitude ( it is logarithmic ) . The vast majority of volcanic eruptions are of VEIs between 0 and 2 .
Volcanic eruptions by VEI index
= = Magmatic eruptions = =
Magmatic eruptions produce juvenile clasts during explosive decompression from gas release . They range in intensity from the relatively small lava fountains on Hawaii to catastrophic Ultra @-@ Plinian eruption columns more than 30 km ( 19 mi ) high , bigger than the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 that buried Pompeii .
= = = Hawaiian = = =
Hawaiian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption , named after the Hawaiian volcanoes with which this eruptive type is hallmark . Hawaiian eruptions are the calmest types of volcanic events , characterized by the effusive eruption of very fluid basalt @-@ type lavas with low gaseous content . The volume of ejected material from Hawaiian eruptions is less than half of that found in other eruptive types . Steady production of small amounts of lava builds up the large , broad form of a shield volcano . Eruptions are not centralized at the main summit as with other volcanic types , and often occur at vents around the summit and from fissure vents radiating out of the center .
Hawaiian eruptions often begin as a line of vent eruptions along a fissure vent , a so @-@ called " curtain of fire . " These die down as the lava begins to concentrate at a few of the vents . Central @-@ vent eruptions , meanwhile , often take the form of large lava fountains ( both continuous and sporadic ) , which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more . The particles from lava fountains usually cool in the air before hitting the ground , resulting in the accumulation of cindery scoria fragments ; however , when the air is especially thick with clasts , they cannot cool off fast enough due to the surrounding heat , and hit the ground still hot , the accumulation of which forms spatter cones . If eruptive rates are high enough , they may even form splatter @-@ fed lava flows . Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long lived ; Puʻu ʻŌʻō , a cinder cone of Kilauea , has been erupting continuously since 1983 . Another Hawaiian volcanic feature is the formation of active lava lakes , self @-@ maintaining pools of raw lava with a thin crust of semi @-@ cooled rock ; there are currently only 5 such lakes in the world , and the one at Kīlauea 's Kupaianaha vent is one of them .
Flows from Hawaiian eruptions are basaltic , and can be divided into two types by their structural characteristics . Pahoehoe lava is a relatively smooth lava flow that can be billowy or ropey . They can move as one sheet , by the advancement of " toes , " or as a snaking lava column . A 'a lava flows are denser and more viscous then pahoehoe , and tend to move slower . Flows can measure 2 to 20 m ( 7 to 66 ft ) thick . A 'a flows are so thick that the outside layers cools into a rubble @-@ like mass , insulating the still @-@ hot interior and preventing it from cooling . A 'a lava moves in a peculiar way — the front of the flow steepens due to pressure from behind until it breaks off , after which the general mass behind it moves forward . Pahoehoe lava can sometimes become A 'a lava due to increasing viscosity or increasing rate of shear , but A 'a lava never turns into pahoehoe flow .
Hawaiian eruptions are responsible for several unique volcanological objects . Small volcanic particles are carried and formed by the wind , chilling quickly into teardrop @-@ shaped glassy fragments known as Pele 's tears ( after Pele , the Hawaiian volcano deity ) . During especially high winds these chunks may even take the form of long drawn @-@ out strands , known as Pele 's hair . Sometimes basalt aerates into reticulite , the lowest density rock type on earth .
Although Hawaiian eruptions are named after the volcanoes of Hawaii , they are not necessarily restricted to them ; the largest lava fountain ever recorded formed on the island of Izu Ōshima ( on Mount Mihara ) in 1986 , a 1 @,@ 600 m ( 5 @,@ 249 ft ) gusher that was more than twice as high as the mountain itself ( which stands at 764 m ( 2 @,@ 507 ft ) ) .
Volcanoes known to have Hawaiian activity include :
Puʻu ʻŌʻō , a parasitic cinder cone located on Kilauea on the island of Hawaiʻi which has been erupting continuously since 1983 . The eruptions began with a 6 km ( 4 mi ) -long fissure @-@ based " curtain of fire " on 3 January . These gave way to centralized eruptions on the site of Kilauea 's east rift , eventually building up the still active cone .
For a list of all of the volcanoes of Hawaii , see List of volcanoes in the Hawaiian - Emperor seamount chain .
Mount Etna , Italy .
Mount Mihara in 1986 ( see above paragraph )
= = = Strombolian = = =
Strombolian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption , named after the volcano Stromboli , which has been erupting continuously for centuries . Strombolian eruptions are driven by the bursting of gas bubbles within the magma . These gas bubbles within the magma accumulate and coalesce into large bubbles , called gas slugs . These grow large enough to rise through the lava column . Upon reaching the surface , the difference in air pressure causes the bubble to burst with a loud pop , throwing magma in the air in a way similar to a soap bubble . Because of the high gas pressures associated with the lavas , continued activity is generally in the form of episodic explosive eruptions accompanied by the distinctive loud blasts . During eruptions , these blasts occur as often as every few minutes .
The term " Strombolian " has been used indiscriminately to describe a wide variety of volcanic eruptions , varying from small volcanic blasts to large eruptive columns . In reality , true Strombolian eruptions are characterized by short @-@ lived and explosive eruptions of lavas with intermediate viscosity , often ejected high into the air . Columns can measure hundreds of meters in height . The lavas formed by Strombolian eruptions are a form of relatively viscous basaltic lava , and its end product is mostly scoria . The relative passivity of Strombolian eruptions , and its non @-@ damaging nature to its source vent allow Strombolian eruptions to continue unabated for thousands of years , and also makes it one of the least dangerous eruptive types .
Strombolian eruptions eject volcanic bombs and lapilli fragments that travel in parabolic paths before landing around their source vent . The steady accumulation of small fragments builds cinder cones composed completely of basaltic pyroclasts . This form of accumulation tends to result in well @-@ ordered rings of tephra .
Strombolian eruptions are similar to Hawaiian eruptions , but there are differences . Strombolian eruptions are noisier , produce no sustained eruptive columns , do not produce some volcanic products associated with Hawaiian volcanism ( specifically Pele 's tears and Pele 's hair ) , and produce fewer molten lava flows ( although the eruptive material does tend to form small rivulets ) .
Volcanoes known to have Strombolian activity include :
Parícutin , Mexico , which erupted from a fissure in a cornfield in 1943 . Two years into its life , pyroclastic activity began to wane , and the outpouring of lava from its base became its primary mode of activity . Eruptions ceased in 1952 , and the final height was 424 m ( 1 @,@ 391 ft ) . This was the first time that scientists are able to observe the complete life cycle of a volcano .
Mount Etna , Italy , which has displayed Strombolian activity in recent eruptions , for example in 1981 , 1999 , 2002 @-@ 2003 , and 2009 .
Mount Erebus in Antarctica , the southernmost active volcano in the world , having been observed erupting since 1972 . Eruptive activity at Erebus consists of frequent Strombolian activity .
Stromboli itself . The namesake of the mild explosive activity that it possesses has been active throughout historical time ; essentially continuous Strombolian eruptions , occasionally accompanied by lava flows , have been recorded at Stromboli for more than a millennium .
= = = Vulcanian = = =
Vulcanian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption , named after the volcano Vulcano . It was named so following Giuseppe Mercalli 's observations of its 1888 @-@ 1890 eruptions . In Vulcanian eruptions , highly viscous magma within the volcano make it difficult for vesiculate gases to escape . Similar to Strombolian eruptions , this leads to the buildup of high gas pressure , eventually popping the cap holding the magma down and resulting in an explosive eruption . However , unlike Strombolian eruptions , ejected lava fragments are not aerodynamic ; this is due to the higher viscosity of Vulcanian magma and the greater incorporation of crystalline material broken off from the former cap . They are also more explosive than their Strombolian counterparts , with eruptive columns often reaching between 5 and 10 km ( 3 and 6 mi ) high . Lastly , Vulcanian deposits are andesitic to dacitic rather than basaltic .
Initial Vulcanian activity is characterized by a series of short @-@ lived explosions , lasting a few minutes to a few hours and typified by the ejection of volcanic bombs and blocks . These eruptions wear down the lava dome holding the magma down , and it disintegrates , leading to much more quiet and continuous eruptions . Thus an early sign of future Vulcanian activity is lava dome growth , and its collapse generates an outpouring of pyroclastic material down the volcano 's slope .
Deposits near the source vent consist of large volcanic blocks and bombs , with so @-@ called " bread @-@ crust bombs " being especially common . These deeply cracked volcanic chunks form when the exterior of ejected lava cools quickly into a glassy or fine @-@ grained shell , but the inside continues to cool and vesiculate . The center of the fragment expands , cracking the exterior . However the bulk of Vulcanian deposits are fine grained ash . The ash is only moderately dispersed , and its abundance indicates a high degree of fragmentation , the result of high gas contents within the magma . In some cases these have been found to be the result of interaction with meteoric water , suggesting that Vulcanian eruptions are partially hydrovolcanic .
Volcanoes that have exhibited Vulcanian activity include :
Sakurajima , Japan has been the site of Vulcanian activity near @-@ continuously since 1955 .
Tavurvur , Papua New Guinea , one of several volcanoes in the Rabaul Caldera .
Irazú Volcano in Costa Rica exhibited Vulcanian activity in its 1965 eruption .
= = = Peléan = = =
Peléan eruptions ( or nuée ardente ) are a type of volcanic eruption , named after the volcano Mount Pelée in Martinique , the site of a massive Peléan eruption in 1902 that is one of the worst natural disasters in history . In Peléan eruptions , a large amount of gas , dust , ash , and lava fragments are blown out the volcano 's central crater , driven by the collapse of rhyolite , dacite , and andesite lava dome collapses that often create large eruptive columns . An early sign of a coming eruption is the growth of a so @-@ called Peléan or lava spine , a bulge in the volcano 's summit preempting its total collapse . The material collapses upon itself , forming a fast @-@ moving pyroclastic flow ( known as a block @-@ and @-@ ash flow ) that moves down the side of the mountain at tremendous speeds , often over 150 km ( 93 mi ) per hour . These massive landslides make Peléan eruptions one of the most dangerous in the world , capable of tearing through populated areas and causing massive loss of life . The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée caused tremendous destruction , killing more than 30 @,@ 000 people and competely destroying the town of St. Pierre , the worst volcanic event in the 20th century .
Peléan eruptions are characterized most prominently by the incandescent pyroclastic flows that they drive . The mechanics of a Peléan eruption are very similar to that of a Vulcanian eruption , except that in Peléan eruptions the volcano 's structure is able to withstand more pressure , hence the eruption occurs as one large explosion rather than several smaller ones .
Volcanoes known to have Peléan activity include :
Mount Pelée , Martinique . The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée completely devastated the island , destroying the town of St. Pierre and leaving only 3 survivors . The eruption was directly preceded by lava dome growth .
Mayon Volcano , the Philippines most active volcano . It has been the site of many different types of eruptions , Peléan included . Approximately 40 ravines radiate from the summit and provide pathways for frequent pyroclastic flows and mudslides to the lowlands below . Mayon 's most violent eruption occurred in 1814 and was responsible for over 1200 deaths .
The 1951 Peléan eruption of Mount Lamington . Prior to this eruption the peak had not even been recognized as a volcano . Over 3 @,@ 000 people were killed , and it has become a benchmark for studying large Peléan eruptions .
= = = Plinian = = =
Plinian eruptions ( or Vesuvian ) are a type of volcanic eruption , named for the historical eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 of Mount Vesuvius that buried the Roman towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and , specifically , for its chronicler Pliny the Younger . The process powering Plinian eruptions starts in the magma chamber , where dissolved volatile gases are stored in the magma . The gases vesiculate and accumulate as they rise through the magma conduit . These bubbles agglutinate and once they reach a certain size ( about 75 % of the total volume of the magma conduit ) they explode . The narrow confines of the conduit force the gases and associated magma up , forming an eruptive column . Eruption velocity is controlled by the gas contents of the column , and low @-@ strength surface rocks commonly crack under the pressure of the eruption , forming a flared outgoing structure that pushes the gases even faster .
These massive eruptive columns are the distinctive feature of a Plinian eruption , and reach up 2 to 45 km ( 1 to 28 mi ) into the atmosphere . The densest part of the plume , directly above the volcano , is driven internally by gas expansion . As it reaches higher into the air the plume expands and becomes less dense , convection and thermal expansion of volcanic ash drive it even further up into the stratosphere . At the top of the plume , powerful prevailing winds drive the plume in a direction away from the volcano .
These highly explosive eruptions are associated with volatile @-@ rich dacitic to rhyolitic lavas , and occur most typically at stratovolcanoes . Eruptions can last anywhere from hours to days , with longer eruptions being associated with more felsic volcanoes . Although they are associated with felsic magma , Plinian eruptions can just as well occur at basaltic volcanoes , given that the magma chamber differentiates and has a structure rich in silicon dioxide .
Plinian eruptions are similar to both Vulcanian and Strombolian eruptions , except that rather than creating discrete explosive events , Plinian eruptions form sustained eruptive columns . They are also similar to Hawaiian lava fountains in that both eruptive types produce sustained eruption columns maintained by the growth of bubbles that move up at about the same speed as the magma surrounding them .
Regions affected by Plinian eruptions are subjected to heavy pumice airfall affecting an area 0 @.@ 5 to 50 km3 ( 0 to 12 cu mi ) in size . The material in the ash plume eventually finds its way back to the ground , covering the landscape in a thick layer of many cubic kilometers of ash .
However the most dangerous eruptive feature are the pyroclastic flows generated by material collapse , which move down the side of the mountain at extreme speeds of up to 700 km ( 435 mi ) per hour and with the ability to extend the reach of the eruption hundreds of kilometers . The ejection of hot material from the volcano 's summit melts snowbanks and ice deposits on the volcano , which mixes with tephra to form lahars , fast moving mudslides with the consistency of wet concrete that move at the speed of a river rapid .
Major Plinian eruptive events include :
The AD 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius buried the Roman towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum under a layer of ash and tephra . It is the model Plinian eruption . Mount Vesuvius has erupted several times since then . Its last eruption was in 1944 and caused problems for the allied armies as they advanced through Italy . It was the report by Pliny that Younger that lead scientists to refer to vesuvian eruptions as " Plinian " .
The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington , which ripped apart the volcano 's summit , was a Plinian eruption of Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) 5 .
The strongest types of eruptions , with a VEI of 8 , are so @-@ called " Ultra @-@ Plinian " eruptions , such as the most recent one at Lake Toba 74 thousand years ago , which put out 2800 times the material erupted by Mount St. Helens in 1980 .
Hekla in Iceland , an example of basaltic Plinian volcanism being its 1947 @-@ 48 eruption . The past 800 years have been a pattern of violent initial eruptions of pumice followed by prolonged extrusion of basaltic lava from the lower part of the volcano .
Pinatubo in the Philippines on 15 June 1991 , which produced 5 km3 ( 1 cu mi ) of dacitic magma , a 40 km ( 25 mi ) high eruption column , and released 17 megatons of sulfur dioxide .
= = Phreatomagmatic eruptions = =
Phreatomagmatic eruptions are eruptions that arise from interactions between water and magma . They are driven from thermal contraction ( as opposed to magmatic eruptions , which are driven by thermal expansion ) of magma when it comes in contact with water . This temperature difference between the two causes violent water @-@ lava interactions that make up the eruption . The products of phreatomagmatic eruptions are believed to be more regular in shape and finer grained than the products of magmatic eruptions because of the differences in eruptive mechanisms .
There is debate about the exact nature of phreatomagmatic eruptions , and some scientists believe that fuel @-@ coolant reactions may be more critical to the explosive nature than thermal contraction . Fuel coolant reactions may fragment the volcanic material by propagating stress waves , widening cracks and increasing surface area that ultimetly lead to rapid cooling and explosive contraction @-@ driven eruptions .
= = = Surtseyan = = =
A Surtseyan eruption ( or hydrovolcanic ) is a type of volcanic eruption caused by shallow @-@ water interactions between water and lava , named so after its most famous example , the eruption and formation of the island of Surtsey off the coast of Iceland in 1963 . Surtseyan eruptions are the " wet " equivalent of ground @-@ based Strombolian eruptions , but because of where they are taking place they are much more explosive . This is because as water is heated by lava , it flashes in steam and expands violently , fragmenting the magma it is in contact with into fine @-@ grained ash . Surtseyan eruptions are the hallmark of shallow @-@ water volcanic oceanic islands , however they are not specifically confined to them . Surtseyan eruptions can happen on land as well , and are caused by rising magma that comes into contact with an aquifer ( water @-@ bearing rock formation ) at shallow levels under the volcano . The products of Surtseyan eruptions are generally oxidized palagonite basalts ( though andesitic eruptions do occur , albeit rarely ) , and like Strombolian eruptions Surtseyan eruptions are generally continuous or otherwise rhythmic .
A distinct defining feature of a Surtseyan eruption is the formation of a pyroclastic surge ( or base surge ) , a ground hugging radial cloud that develops along with the eruption column . Base surges are caused by the gravitational collapse of a vaporous eruptive column , one that is denser overall then a regular volcanic column . The densest part of the cloud is nearest to the vent , resulting a wedge shape . Associated with these laterally moving rings are dune @-@ shaped depositions of rock left behind by the lateral movement . These are occasionally disrupted by bomb sags , rock that was flung out by the explosive eruption and followed a ballistic path to the ground . Accumulations of wet , spherical ash known as accretionary lapilli is another common surge indicator .
Over time Surtseyan eruptions tend to form maars , broad low @-@ relief volcanic craters dug into the ground , and tuff rings , circular structures built of rapidly quenched lava . These structures are associated with a single vent eruption , however if eruptions arise along fracture zones a rift zone may be dug out ; these eruptions tend to be more violent then the ones forming a tuff ring or maars , an example being the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera . Littoral cones are another hydrovolcanic feature , generated by the explosive deposition of basaltic tephra ( although they are not truly volcanic vents ) . They form when lava accumulates within cracks in lava , superheats and explodes in a steam explosion , breaking the rock apart and depositing it on the volcano 's flank . Consecutive explosions of this type eventually generate the cone .
Volcanoes known to have Surtseyan activity include :
Surtsey , Iceland . The volcano built itself up from depth and emerged above the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Iceland in 1963 . Initial hydrovolcanics were highly explosive , but as the volcano grew out rising lava started to interact less with the water and more with the air , until finally Surtseyan activity waned and became more Strombolian in character .
Ukinrek Maars in Alaska , 1977 , and Capelinhos in the Azores , 1957 , both examples of above @-@ water Surtseyan activity .
Mount Tarawera in New Zealand erupted along a rift zone in 1886 , killing 150 people .
Ferdinandea , a seamount in the Mediterranean Sea , breached sea level in July 1831 and was the source of a dispute over sovereignty between Italy , France , and Great Britain . The volcano did not build tuff cones strongly enough to withstand erosion , and disappeared back below the waves soon after it appeared .
The underwater volcano Hunga Tonga in Tonga breached sea level in 2009 . Both of its vents exhibited Surtseyan activity for much of the time . It was also the site of an earlier eruption in May 1988 .
= = = Submarine = = =
Submarine eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption that occurs underwater . An estimated 75 % of the total volcanic eruptive volume is generated by submarine eruptions near mid ocean ridges alone , however because of the problems associated with detecting deep sea volcanics , they remained virtually unknown until advances in the 1990s made it possible to observe them .
Submarine eruptions may produce seamounts which may break the surface to form volcanic islands and island chains .
Submarine volcanism is driven by various processes . Volcanoes near plate boundaries and mid @-@ ocean ridges are built by the decompression melting of mantle rock that rises on an upwelling portion of a convection cell to the crustal surface . Eruptions associated with subducting zones , meanwhile , are driven by subducting plates that add volatiles to the rising plate , lowering its melting point . Each process generates different rock ; mid @-@ ocean ridge volcanics are primarily basaltic , whereas subduction flows are mostly calc @-@ alkaline , and more explosive and viscous .
Spreading rates along mid @-@ ocean ridges vary widely , from 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) per year at the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge , to up to 16 cm ( 6 in ) along the East Pacific Rise . Higher spreading rates are a probably cause for higher levels of volcanism . The technology for studying seamount eruptions did not exist until advancements in hydrophone technology made it possible to " listen " to acoustic waves , known as T @-@ waves , released by submarine earthquakes associated with submarine volcanic eruptions . The reason for this is that land @-@ based seismometers cannot detect sea @-@ based earthquakes below a magnitude of 4 , but acoustic waves travel well in water and long periods of time . A system in the North Pacific , maintained by the United States Navy and originally intended for the detection of submarines , has detected an event on average every 2 to 3 years .
The most common underwater flow is pillow lava , a circular lava flow named after its unusual shape . Less common are glassy , marginal sheet flows , indicative of larger @-@ scale flows . Volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks are common in shallow @-@ water environments . As plate movement starts to carry the volcanoes away from their eruptive source , eruption rates start to die down , and water erosion grinds the volcano down . The final stages of eruption caps the seamount in alkalic flows . There are about 100 @,@ 000 deepwater volcanoes in the world , although most are beyond the active stage of their life . Some exemplary seamounts are Loihi Seamount , Bowie Seamount , Davidson Seamount , and Axial Seamount .
= = = Subglacial = = =
Subglacial eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption characterized by interactions between lava and ice , often under a glacier . The nature of glaciovolcanism dictates that it occurs at areas of high latitude and high altitude . It has been suggested that subglacial volcanoes that are not actively erupting often dump heat into the ice covering them , producing meltwater . This meltwater mix means that subglacial eruptions often generate dangerous jökulhlaups ( floods ) and lahars .
The study of glaciovolcanism is still a relatively new field . Early accounts described the unusual flat @-@ topped steep @-@ sided volcanoes ( called tuyas ) in Iceland that were suggested to have formed from eruptions below ice . The first English @-@ language paper on the subject was published in 1947 by William Henry Mathews , describing the Tuya Butte field in northwest British Columbia , Canada . The eruptive process that builds these structures , originally inferred in the paper , begins with volcanic growth below the glacier . At first the eruptions resemble those that occur in the deep sea , forming piles of pillow lava at the base of the volcanic structure . Some of the lava shatters when it comes in contact with the cold ice , forming a glassy breccia called hyaloclastite . After a while the ice finally melts into a lake , and the more explosive eruptions of Surtseyan activity begins , building up flanks made up of mostly hyaloclastite . Eventually the lake boils off from continued volcanism , and the lava flows become more effusive and thicken as the lava cools much more slowly , often forming columnar jointing . Well @-@ preserved tuyas show all of these stages , for example Hjorleifshofdi in Iceland .
Products of volcano @-@ ice interactions stand as various structures , whose shape is dependent on complex eruptive and environmental interactions . Glacial volcan
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ism is a good indicator of past ice distribution , making it an important climatic marker . Since they are imbedded in ice , as ice retracts worldwide there are concerns that tuyas and other structures may destabalize , resulting in mass landslides . Evidence of volcanic @-@ glacial interactions are evident in Iceland and parts of British Columbia , and it is even possible that they play a role in deglaciation .
Glaciovolcanic products have been identified in Iceland , the Canadian province of British Columbia , the U.S. states of Hawaii and Alaska , the Cascade Range of western North America , South America and even on the planet Mars . Volcanoes known to have subglacial activity include :
Mauna Kea in tropical Hawaii . There is evidence of past subglacial eruptive activity on the volcano in the form of a subglacial deposit on its summit . The eruptions originated about 10 @,@ 000 years ago , during the last ice age , when the summit of Mauna Kea was covered in ice .
In 2008 , the British Antarctic Survey reported a volcanic eruption under the Antarctica ice sheet 2 @,@ 200 years ago . It is believed to be that this was the biggest eruption in Antarctica in the last 10 @,@ 000 years . Volcanic ash deposits from the volcano were identified through an airborne radar survey , buried under later snowfalls in the Hudson Mountains , close to Pine Island Glacier .
Iceland , well known for both glaciers and volcanoes , is often a site of subglacial eruptions . An example an eruption under the Vatnajökull ice cap in 1996 , which occurred under an estimated 2 @,@ 500 ft ( 762 m ) of ice .
As part of the search for life on Mars , scientists have suggested that there may be subglacial volcanoes on the red planet . Several potential sites of such volcanism have been reviewed , and compared extensively with similar features in Iceland :
Viable microbial communities have been found living in deep ( -2800 m ) geothermal groundwater at 349 K and pressures > 300 bar . Furthermore , microbes have been postulated to exist in basaltic rocks in rinds of altered volcanic glass . All of these conditions could exist in polar regions of Mars today where subglacial volcanism has occurred .
= = Phreatic eruptions = =
Phreatic eruptions ( or steam @-@ blast eruptions ) are a type of eruption driven by the expansion of steam . When cold ground or surface water come into contact with hot rock or magma it superheats and explodes , fracturing the surrounding rock and thrusting out a mixture of steam , water , ash , volcanic bombs , and volcanic blocks . The distinguishing feature of phreatic explosions is that they only blast out fragments of pre @-@ existing solid rock from the volcanic conduit ; no new magma is erupted . Because they are driven by the cracking of rock strata under pressure , phreatic activity does not always result in an eruption ; if the rock face is strong enough to withstand the explosive force , outright eruptions may not occur , although cracks in the rock will probably develop and weaken it , furthering future eruptions .
Often a precursor of future volcanic activity , phreatic eruptions are generally weak , although there have been exceptions . Some phreatic events may be triggered by earthquake activity , another volcanic precursor , and they may also travel along dike lines . Phreatic eruptions form base surges , lahars , avalanches , and volcanic block " rain . " They may also release deadly toxic gas able to suffocate anyone in range of the eruption .
Volcanoes known to exhibit phreatic activity include :
Mount St. Helens , which exhibited phreatic activity just prior to its catastrophic 1980 eruption ( which was itself Plinian ) .
Taal Volcano , Philippines , 1965 .
La Soufrière of Guadeloupe ( Lesser Antilles ) , 1975 @-@ 1976 activity .
Soufrière Hills volcano on Montserrat , West Indies , 1995 – 2012 .
Poás Volcano , has frequent geyser like phreatic eruptions from its crater lake .
Mount Bulusan , well known for its sudden phreatic eruptions .
Mount Ontake , all historical eruptions of this volcano have been phreatic including the deadly 2014 eruption .
= Erhard Heiden =
Erhard Heiden ( 23 February 1901 – c . April 1933 ) was an early member of the Nazi Party and the third commander of the paramilitary wing of Schutzstaffel ( SS ) , the Sturmabteilung ( " Storm Detachment ; SA " ) . He was appointed head of the SS , an elite subsection of the SA in 1927 . At that time the SS numbered less than a thousand men and found it difficult to cope under the much larger SA . Heiden was not a success in the post , and SS membership dropped significantly under his leadership . He was dismissed from his post in 1929 , officially for " family reasons " . He was arrested after the Nazis came to power in 1933 and is believed to have been executed in April , but not buried until September that same year .
= = Life = =
Erhard Heiden was born on 23 February 1901 in Weiler @-@ Simmerberg , a mostly Catholic city in Bavaria . In 1917 , he attended the NCO school in Fürstenfeldbruck . Little is known about his early life .
Following Germany 's defeat in World War I , hyperinflation , mass unemployment , poverty , crime and civil unrest plagued the country . During that time , Heiden served in a Freikorps unit . Also in 1919 , a small right @-@ wing political party known as the German Workers ' Party ( DAP ) was created and seated in Munich . In 1920 , it changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers ' Party ( Nazi Party ; NSDAP ) . It rejected the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and advocated antisemitism and anti @-@ Bolshevism .
In 1920 , Adolf Hitler , leader of the party , instructed Ernst Röhm , a war veteran and early associate , to organize an assault section to protect Nazi officials at rallies and disrupt those of their opponents . This was the Sturmabteilung ( " Storm Detachment " ; SA ) . Röhm took advantage of the high rate of unemployed young males and quickly expanded the organization into a paramilitary force . Heiden became an early member of the Nazi Party and the SA . In 1923 , Heiden joined a small bodyguard unit for Adolf Hitler named Stoßtrupp @-@ Hitler ( " Shock Troop @-@ Hitler " ) .
That same year , Hitler felt strong enough to try to seize power in Munich . Inspired by Benito Mussolini 's " March on Rome " the previous year , the Nazis aimed to first establish power in Munich and then challenge the government in Berlin . On 9 November 1923 the Stoßtrupp , along with the SA and several other paramilitary units , took part in the abortive coup d 'état , resulting in the death of sixteen Nazi supporters and four police officers , an event known as the Beer Hall Putsch . After the putsch , Hitler and other Nazi leaders were incarcerated at Landsberg Prison for high treason . The Nazi Party and all associated formations , including the Stoßtrupp , were officially disbanded .
= = Career in the SS = =
After Hitler 's release from prison in December 1924 , the Nazi Party was officially refounded . In 1925 , Hitler ordered the formation of a new bodyguard unit , the Schutzkommando ( " Protection Command ; SS " ) . It was formed by Julius Schreck and included old Stoßtrupp members such as Emil Maurice and Heiden . That same year , the Schutzkommando was expanded and renamed the Sturmstaffel ( " Storm Squadron " ) , and finally the Schutzstaffel ( " Protection Squadron " ; SS ) . Heiden , described by William Shirer as " a former police stool @-@ pigeon of unsavory reputation " , joined the SS in 1925 and was an early advocate of separating the unit from the SA , its parent organization .
On 1 March 1927 , Joseph Berchtold transferred leadership of the SS to Heiden , who was his acting deputy . Berchtold had become disillusioned by the SA 's authority over the SS . As head of the SS , Heiden also found it difficult to function under the larger and more powerful SA . Under Heiden 's leadership a stricter code of discipline was enforced than would have been tolerated in the SA ranks . Heiden further demanded that the men under his command were not to be involved in party matters which were none of their concern . His intention was to create a small elite unit and obtain higher quality recruits .
Except for the Munich area , the unit was unable to maintain any momentum . The membership of the SS declined from 1000 to 280 as the SS continued to struggle under the SA . As Heiden attempted to keep the small group from dissolving , Heinrich Himmler became his deputy in September 1927 . Himmler had a great enthusiasm and vision for the SS and displayed good organisational abilities which Heiden used . Himmler became the driving force within the SS and in time eclipsed Heiden .
Upon the dismissal of Heiden , Himmler assumed the position of Reichsführer @-@ SS with Hitler 's approval in January 1929 . There are differing accounts of the reason for this dismissal . The party merely announced that it was for " family reasons " . It was also suggested at the time that the dismissal was due to Heiden associating with Jews . Since 1928 , Heiden was co @-@ owner of a clothing supply business that sold uniforms to the SS . Another company in Munich supplied Heiden and his partner with the pants which were used for the SS uniforms . It was discovered that this other company was owned by a Jew . Further , it was alleged that Heiden had been making large profits on the clothing sales to the SS for uniforms . This led to Heiden having to resign as head of the SS . Historian Adrian Weale says that the dismissal was probably because he was ineffective in the job , but there also were rumors that he was a police informer . Himmler 's biographer Peter Longerich says that beyond the official announcement " we have no further clues to explain either Heiden 's dismissal or Himmler 's appointment " . Under Himmler the SS greatly expanded over time , with his ultimate aim being one to turn it into the most powerful organization in Germany .
= = Death = =
After Hitler and his party came to national power in 1933 , the SA numbered almost three million men and the SS about 52 @,@ 000 . As the Nazis had now achieved power , they began to swiftly eliminate all opposition . A death list was composed which included many Nazis who fell out of favor with Hitler and included names of men that other top Nazis wanted killed . In April 1933 Heiden was arrested and murdered on orders of Himmler and Heydrich by members of the Sicherheitsdienst ( " Security Service " ; SD ) , the intelligence and counterespionage department of the SS . His corpse was found in September 1933 and he was buried on 15 September 1933 .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= Speechless ( Ciara song ) =
" Speechless " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Ciara . The song was written by Ciara , The @-@ Dream , and Tricky Stewart , with the latter two producing the song as well . Taken from her fourth studio album Basic Instinct , the song serves as a promotional single from the album . It was released in the United States as a digital download on September 7 , 2010 , and in several European countries as the B @-@ Side of second single " Gimmie Dat . " Tricky Stewart originally confirmed the song as a Basic Instinct track in September 2009 . The @-@ Dream , who composed the track , was featured on the version that leaked in March 2010 . However , on the final cut , the song was performed by Ciara only , with background vocals performed by American songwriter , gospel singer and session artist Lauren Evans .
" Speechless " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B love song , which utilizes synthesized trumpets and horns as a backdrop . The lyrical content of the song centers around the protagonist saying they need more time to confess how perfect their significant other is . The song 's accompanying music video , directed by Colin Tilley , features Ciara in a menagerie of scenes . The single had no direct promotion , and reached seventy @-@ six on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs .
= = Background and composition = =
In September 2009 , Tricky Stewart , confirmed via Rap @-@ Up that he and The @-@ Dream had spent the entire summer with Ciara working on her upcoming fourth studio album . He also named " Speechless " as one of two songs he hoped would appear on the album . The album version of the song leaked in March 2010 , featuring vocals from The @-@ Dream . However , following the release of its single cover on August 18 , 2010 , it was confirmed that the song would feature only Ciara . It was also revealed that The @-@ Dream will not be featured on the album version of the song when the official track listing of Basic Instinct was revealed . On the final cut , American songwriter , gospel singer , and session vocalist Lauren Evans performs background vocals . The song was planned to be released as the second official single , how was never sent to radio or released as a CD single .
" Speechless " is a midtempo , R & B love song , featuring trumpet @-@ sounding synths . Andy Kellman of Allmusic said that the song works a " slow motion glide " and that Ciara 's voice " hovers in a love @-@ struck daze . " The lyrical content of the song consists of the protagonist confesses how perfect her significant other is , and that they need extra time to confess this , such as lines like " I 'd need an extra month on the year , one extra holiday just to kiss you all over your face . "
= = Reception = =
Praising the production of The @-@ Dream and Tricky Stewart on the album , Matthew Horton of BBC Music called the song " crisp " and said that it was a " trim , anthemic synth ballad . " Noting it as one of their choice picks from the album , Andy Kellman of Allmusic called the song " euphoric " and was the best of The @-@ Dream and Tricky 's seven songs on the album . A Rap @-@ Up writer noted the song as a standout track from the album . Ed Easton , Jr. of WXRK said the song " reminds all her fans that she can actually sing and be taken seriously as an actual artist rather than an over @-@ hyped dancer . " As one of the album 's " emotionally demanding cuts , " Ken Capobianco of Boston Globe said that the song " lacked conviction . " Becky Bain of Idolator was less than enthusiastic of the song , commenting , " basically , we ’ re speechless , too , but only because we can ’ t find much to rave about . " Bain also called the synth @-@ beat generic and " run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill , " comparing it to her " Love Sex Magic . "
" Speechless " debuted on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart at number ninety @-@ one on the week of September 18 , 2010 . It went on to peak at number seventy @-@ four . The song was featured as the one of the A @-@ sides for " Gimmie Dat " , in the UK , where the latter peaked at number 111 on the UK Singles chart .
= = Music video = =
The video was directed in Los Angeles , California on September 10 , 2010 by Colin Tilley . It chronicles Ciara in a menagerie of settings , in the mountains , a mansion , a reflection pool , and a warehouse . The minimalistic clip sees numerous wardrobe changes , and unlike typical Ciara videos , it does not highlight dance aspects . Several outfits she dons include low @-@ riding jeans and a shirt which reveals her abs . Becky Bain of Idolator compared Ciara to Janet Jackson in the clip , noting Ciara 's " oversized top and comfy jeans " to Jackson in " Again " and " Love Will Never Do . " Bain positively reviewed the clip , stating , " It 's a safe video , for sure , but oh @-@ so nice to look at . " A Rap @-@ Up writer stated " after watching the grown ' n ' [ sic ] sexy new Colin Tilley @-@ directed video from Ciara , you 're guaranteed to be left ' Speechless . ' " Although he appreciated Ciara for lowering down the sex appeal and relying on her vocals , Ed Easton , Jr. of WXRK gave the video seven of ten stars , and said that it was not enough to put Ciara " ahead of all the talented musical divas in the industry . " Easton went on to say that " the video is not meant to be over @-@ sexual but still gives us an intimate feel to the singer that , in the long run , may even garner better responses among all age demographics . " He also complimented the video as a whole saying , " The shots of Ciara are stunning and she is shown to be serious about her quest for love from a special someone . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Ciara Princess Harris , Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart
Production – The @-@ Dream , Tricky Stewart
Vocal recording and production – Kuk Harrell
Background vocals – Lauren Evans
Mixing – Jaycen Joshua
Engineering – Brian " B @-@ LUV " Thomas , Pat Thrall , Andrew Wuepper , assisted by Luis Navarro , Randy Urbanski , Zachariah Redding , Jason Sherwood , Steven Dennis .
Source
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Symphony No. 5 ( Nielsen ) =
Symphony No. 5 , Op. 50 , FS 97 is a symphony composed by Carl Nielsen in Denmark between 1920 and 1922 . It was first performed in Copenhagen on 24 January 1922 with the composer conducting . It is one of the two of Nielsen 's six symphonies lacking a subtitle .
The Fifth Symphony has a non @-@ customary structure , comprising two movements instead of the common three or four . Written in a modern musical language , it draws on the theme of contrast and opposition . The post @-@ World War I composition is also described as having elements of war .
= = Composition = =
There is no documentation of what inspired Nielsen to write his Fifth Symphony or when he started to write it , but it is generally understood that the first movement was composed in Humlebæk during the winter and spring of 1921 . He stayed at his summer house at Skagen in the early summer . At the end of July he moved to a friend 's home at Damgaard to compose the cantata Springtime on Funen , and was therefore only able to resume working on the second movement of the symphony in September , during his free time from his conducting work in Gothenburg .
The whole symphony was finished on 15 January 1922 , as dated on the score . He dedicated the new symphony to his friends Vera and Carl Johan Michaelsen . Having insufficient rehearsal time , the premiere took place only nine days later , conducted by the composer himself at the music society Musikforening in Copenhagen .
= = Score = =
A work from the early 20th century , the Fifth Symphony is regarded as a modernistic musical piece . The symphony draws on all of the " deformation procedures " suggested by James Hepokoski regarding musical modernism : breakthrough deformation , introduction @-@ coda frame , episodes within developmental space , various strophic / sonata hybrids and multi @-@ movement forms in a single movement . Its fragmented nature , unpredictable character and sudden synchronization at the ending also point towards a self @-@ conscious modernist aesthetic , though as in most of Nielsen ’ s early and middle works , non @-@ modernist devices , including organicism and diatonicism , play some essential roles .
As written in the original 1926 edition of the score , the Fifth Symphony is scored for 3 flutes ( third doubling piccolo ) , 2 oboes , 2 clarinets , 2 bassoons , 4 horns , 3 trumpets , 3 trombones , tuba , timpani , cymbals , triangle , tambourine , snare drum , celesta , and strings . Some optional doublings are added in the 1950 edition of the score revised by Emil Telmányi and Erik Tuxen ; these include the third flute doubling flute in G and the second bassoon doubling contrabassoon . These optional doublings are discarded in the latest 1998 Carl Nielsen Edition score , which was produced as a co @-@ operation between the Danish Royal Library and Edition Wilhelm Hansen .
The Fifth Symphony has two movements instead of the usual four , which is the only time Nielsen used this structure . Nielsen explained jokingly in an interview that it was not difficult to write the first three movements of a symphony but by the finale most composers had run out of ideas . The work has a craggy profile as " it is littered with false climaxes at every turn " . In summary , the first movement is a battle between the orchestra and a renegade snare @-@ drummer , who can only be silenced by the full forces of his colleagues in the final bars . The second movement continues the struggle with shivers of anxiety , building through repetitions and detours to the final victorious grand explosion .
= = = Tempo giusto — Adagio non troppo = = =
The first movement begins with violas softly oscillating between the C and A notes ; after four bars of the single , minimally @-@ inflected line , a pair of bassoons enters with the initial theme . The beginning has been described by Nielsen scholar Robert Simpson , in his own words , as like " in outer space " and the wave @-@ like line " appears from nowhere , as if one were suddenly made aware of time as a dimension " . The very first theme ends at b . 20 with a descending scale slide , followed by a fortissimo interruption from violas and a subsequent horn and flute dialogue . The prominent feature of instrumental pairing does not lead to any permanent thematic or textural stability , but contrarily grows into a persistent textural sparseness .
After an emotionless strings passage which encloses another brief warning from violas , woodwinds cry out amid a percussive background . While the monotonous rhythm of snare drum sustains , violins respond tortuously , only to be overwhelmed by the mood of the " savage and destructively egotistical " ( Simpson ’ s description ) clarinet and flute . The turmoil continues as the bass struggles up a dominant from C to G , invoking a new clash between snare drum and percussion ; the attempt at struggle fails as the bass is foiled at G flat when the ominous violin melody is distorted and disintegrates . The huge incongruity between harmonic and melodic parameters threatens the music with fracture and collapse . After gloomy phrases from various woodwinds , the music fades , leaving a feebly pulsing D with tiny hints of percussion sounds .
An oboe triplet figure then reveals the warm theme in G major of the Adagio non troppo section , a contrast to the prior cold landscape . The texture expands contrapuntally for the first time , culminates to a point where the tonality brightens to B major and , after a climax , wanes to G major again . The full strings are soon disturbed by an " evil " motif on woodwinds , playing the shivering element in Tempo giusto ; tension between wind and strings intensifies as tonality shifts within instrumental groups in their respective directions . With a further clash , the music is menaced by the snare drum at a tempo ( quarter note ♩ = 116 ) faster than that of the orchestra , and at its climax comes the instruction to the snare drummer by the composer to improvise " as if at all costs he wants to stop the progress of the orchestra " . ( This instruction is not included in the 1950 edition of the score , being replaced by a written rhythmic line and instruction " cad. ad lib . " after a few bars . ) The warm theme eventually triumphs in a sustaining grandeur , as is affirmed by the snare drum actually joining the orchestral fanfare . When all subsides , echoes in woodwinds are heard and a solitary clarinet is left to mourn in a tragic atmosphere , recapturing ideas from the whole movements : " Who would have thought that so much could have come out of a gently waving viola line in empty space ? "
= = = Allegro — Presto — Andante un poco tranquillo — Allegro = = =
The second movement in four sections consists of an " exposition " , a fast fugue , a slow fugue and a brief coda . The music bursts in in B major and continues with great conflicts between instruments , until a broad , calm theme is found in the slow fugue . At the closure it pivots on the dominant of E flat major key ; various parameters collide and “ fall together ” into an uplifting 23 @-
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20 January 1924 , under the baton of Georg Schnéevoigt , caused quite a scandal ; the Berlingske Tidende reported that some in the audience could not take the modernism of the work :
Midway through the first part with its rattling drums and ' cacophonous ' effects a genuine panic broke out . Around a quarter of the audience rushed for the exits with confusion and anger written over their faces , and those who remained tried to hiss down the ' spectacle ' , while the conductor Georg Schnéevoigt drove the orchestra to extremes of volume . This whole intermezzo underlined the humoristic @-@ burlesque element in the symphony in such a way that Carl Nielsen could certainly never have dreamed of . His representation of modern life with its confusion , brutality and struggle , all the uncontrolled shouts of pain and ignorance — and behind it all the side drum 's harsh rhythm as the only disciplining force — as the public fled , made a touch of almost diabolic humour .
For decades , Nielsen 's music did not win recognition outside Denmark . The first recording was in 1933 : Georg Høeberg with the Danish Radio Symphony Orchestra for Dancord . The first live recording was produced in 1950 with Erik Tuxen conducting the same orchestra at the Edinburgh Festival . An international breakthrough was made only when Leonard Bernstein recorded the symphony with the New York Philharmonic Orchestra in 1962 for CBS . This recording helped Nielsen 's music to achieve appreciation beyond his home country , and is considered one of the finest recorded accounts of the symphony .
= = = Books = = =
Fanning , David ( 1997 ) . Nielsen : Symphony No. 5 . New York : Cambridge University Press. p . 127 . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 44088 @-@ 2 .
Lawson , Jack ( 1997 ) . Carl Nielsen . London : Phaidon Press. p . 240 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7148 @-@ 3507 @-@ 2 .
Simpson , Robert ( 1952 ) . Carl Nielsen , Symphonist , 1865 – 1931 . London : J. M. Dent. p . 236 . ASIN B0000CIDKO . See pages 84 – 104 . First edition ( reprinted by Hyperion Press ISBN 0 @-@ 88355 @-@ 715 @-@ 0 ) .
Simpson , Robert ( 1979 ) . Carl Nielsen , Symphonist . London : Kahn & Averill. p . 260 . ISBN 0 @-@ 900707 @-@ 46 @-@ 1 . See pages 92 – 111 . Second edition completely revised with additional chapter .
= = = Articles = = =
Fjeldsøe , Michael ( 2003 ) . " Organicism and Construction in Nielsen 's Symphony No. 5 " . Carl Nielsen Studies ( Copenhagen : The Royal Library ) 1 : 18 – 26 . ISSN 1603 @-@ 3663 .
Grimley , Daniel M ( 2002 ) . " Modernism and Closure : Nielsen 's Fifth Symphony " . The Musical Quarterly ( United States : Oxford University Press ) 86 ( 1 ) : 149 – 173 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / musqtl / gdg004 . ISSN 0027 @-@ 4631 .
= = = Scores = = =
Nielsen , Carl ( 1950 ) . Telmányi , Emil ; Tuxen , Erik , eds . Symfoni no . V , op . 50 . Copenhagen : Skandinavisk Musikforlag .
Nielsen , Carl ( 1998 ) . Fjeldsøe , Michael , ed . Symfoni nr . 5 , opus 50 . The Carl Nielsen Edition ( Copenhagen : Hansen ) . ISBN 87 @-@ 598 @-@ 0915 @-@ 9 . Preface and sources of this edition of the score are available at the website of The Royal Library
Symphony No. 5 ( Nielsen ) : Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
= Crash of the Titans =
Crash of the Titans is a platform game published by Sierra Entertainment and developed by Vancouver @-@ based Radical Entertainment for the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation Portable ( ported by SuperVillain Studios ) , Wii and Xbox 360 . The Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS versions of the game were developed by Amaze Entertainment . The game was first released in North America on October 3 , 2007 , in Europe on October 12 , 2007 and in Australia on October 25 , 2007 . It is the first game in the Crash Bandicoot series not to have a Japanese release .
Crash of the Titans is the fourteenth installment in the Crash Bandicoot video game series and the sixth game in the main franchise , but it is the first in the Mutant series . The game 's story centers on the discovery of a substance known as " Mojo " , which the antagonist of the series , Doctor Neo Cortex , plans to use to turn the inhabitants of the Wumpa Islands into an army of loyal mutants known as " Titans " . The protagonist of the series , Crash Bandicoot , must stop Cortex by using the technique of " jacking " to take control of and destroy Cortex 's Titans while collecting the mojo .
The game received mixed reviews upon its release ; critics disparaged the game 's short length , and although the game 's variety was generally seen positively , reviewers noted little outstanding in the game . Despite this mediocre reception , the game was nominated for two awards .
= = Gameplay = =
Crash of the Titans is a platform game in which the player controls Crash Bandicoot , whose main objective is to rescue his sister , Coco , and save his home , the Wumpa Island , from being destroyed by the main antagonist 's gigantic robot . The player 's first goal is to rescue the sentient mask Aku Aku , who gives the player basic instructions , shields Crash from enemy attacks , and transforms into a skateboard to help Crash traverse slippery terrain . From there , each level ( known as an " episode " ) asks players to complete fights against large groups of enemies or simply progress through the episode .
Crash starts the game with four lives . The length of each of Crash 's lives is tied to his health meter , which decreases whenever Crash is damaged from enemy attacks or falls down a bottomless pit . The player can replenish Crash 's health meter by instructing Crash to eat Wumpa Fruit . Each time the health meter is fully depleted , Crash loses a life . However , the player can win an additional life for Crash by collecting 25 @,@ 000 units of the magical substance Mojo or by collecting a rare type of Golden Wumpa Fruit . After the last life is lost , the player can continue playing by restarting the current episode .
Each episode contains a portal leading to a simple mini @-@ game arena , where the player must accomplish a task in a set time . Generally the task involves collecting a specified quantity of Mojo , using an enemy animal 's attacks to snipe targets , or simply defeating a select number of enemies . At the end of each episode , the player earns a rank of a bronze , silver , or gold voodoo doll ; the rank can be improved by defeating a set number of minions , destroying three robotic toilets or inflicting a minimum number of consecutive hits in combat . All three tasks must be accomplished in an episode if a gold voodoo doll is to be obtained for that episode . Hidden voodoo dolls unlock concept art packages for each episode .
The Nintendo DS version of Crash of the Titans contains similar gameplay to that of previous Crash installments . The game takes place on four islands , each with two levels and a boss . When a boss is defeated , a new island is unlocked . Each island has its own " Pachinko board " where players can win " on @-@ demand items " ; items that can be used to restore health , provide temporary invincibility , and set off Nitro explosions among other things . Additional content can also be won at these Pachinko boards , such as gallery art , cheats and a large quantity of Mojo .
= = = Combat = = =
Whereas the previous games featured Crash spinning into or jumping on an enemy to attack , Crash of the Titans gives him more options for attack . Early in the game , Crash has a light @-@ powered attack and a heavy @-@ powered attack and can also block , dodge or break an enemy 's block . When he defeats an enemy or destroys an object , a magical substance known as Mojo is released . When Crash collects enough Mojo , he will earn either an ability upgrade or a new move , such as the Norris Roundhouse or the Triple Dragon . His classic spin attack , named " Old Skool " , is an unlockable move , along with an aerial variant that allows Crash to float over chasms .
While small minions require only a single combo attack for Crash to defeat , larger enemies , known as " Titans " , require more effort to subdue . Each of the fifteen unique Titans in the game possess a star meter that indicates how close they are to being stunned . The meter rises when Crash starts attacking a Titan , and depletes when he stops . When it is full , the Titan is stunned and susceptible to " jacking " , meaning Crash can mount the creature and control it . While controlled by the player , the Titan possesses a similar moveset to Crash , although some jacked Titans can shoot projectiles . Besides a greater health , the Titans controlled by Crash have a purple Titan Meter . When this meter is full , players can make the Titan unleash a special attack , which fully drains the meter in the process .
A Titan 's durability depends on its size ; larger Titans will take more effort to defeat than others and a few are immune to Crash 's attacks . To defeat them , Crash has to jack a smaller Titan to fight them . On defeating the larger Titan , he can dismount the Titan he previously jacked and directly jack the larger Titan . The dismounted Titan will then be destroyed .
= = = Co @-@ operative play = = =
A player using a second controller can join the game at any time in the form of a white @-@ furred version of Crash known as " Carbon Crash " . The second player appears in the first player 's backpack , and can usually enter or exit the pack . However , the second player has to stay in the backpack if the first player is in mid @-@ air or climbing a wall . This method of play is useful for overpowering enemies and collecting Mojo faster . There are two modes of co @-@ op play ; in " Leapfrog Mode " , the players swap control each time the front player jumps , swings , or slides , while in " Piggyback Mode " , each player is equipped with their own backpack and can hide in the other player 's backpack if the action becomes too intense , such as when jumping over a chasm .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The setting of Crash of the Titans features twenty levels . Each level is referred to as an " episode " , and each has a distinctive subtitle that is usually a reference to popular culture ( such as " The Blizzard of Claws " ) . Like the first Crash Bandicoot game , episodes must be played in order , although the player can replay any episode that has been completed . The game moves through five major themes taking place on Crash 's homeland , the Wumpa Islands . The story starts in the jungle near Crash 's residence and leads to an ancient temple . Later in the game , Crash travels through a wood @-@ cutting and mining area and a land flowing with lava that features giant steel mosquitoes sucking minerals out of the ground . The next few episodes take place on an artillery @-@ bombarded beach , where Crash infiltrates Doctor N. Gin 's missile factory , which resembles the Statue of Liberty . The penultimate area is a gigantic tree located in the middle of the island . This tree holds up an entire house owned by Uka Uka , one of the major antagonists of the series . The final moments of the game take place in the antagonist 's Liberace @-@ style lair , and finally inside the Doominator .
= = = Characters = = =
Nine characters from previous Crash Bandicoot titles star in the home console version of Crash of the Titans , all of them given a new modern " punk " style that is distinct from other and Japanese video game characters . The protagonist of the game , Crash Bandicoot , is a bandicoot who must defeat the main antagonist Doctor Neo Cortex and use the Titans against each other while collecting Mojo to upgrade his fighting techniques . Aiding Crash is Aku Aku , an ancient wooden mask who acts as a shield , a skateboard , and a weapon . Crash 's other two allies are his genius sister Coco Bandicoot and his muscular older brother , Crunch Bandicoot , who is absent in the Nintendo DS version .
Doctor Neo Cortex is a mad scientist who captures Coco and Aku Aku and wants to use stolen Mojo to create an army of mutants . Uka Uka , who is also absent in the Nintendo DS version , is behind Cortex 's plot for world domination ; after tiring of Cortex 's incompetence , Uka replaces him with his cyborg niece , Nina Cortex . Aiding the Cortexes are Doctor N. Gin , who is Cortex 's hysterical right @-@ hand man , and Tiny Tiger . Dingodile , another minion of Cortex , exclusively appears in the DS and Game Boy Advance versions of Crash of the Titans as a boss character . Aiding the villains are a number of small fodder enemies that attempt to hinder Crash in his journey . Each fodder is affiliated with a certain villain in the game . The first fodders encountered are Neo Cortex 's Ratnicians , which appear as bipedal , chihuahua @-@ like animals dressed as laboratory researchers . These characters appear in the first four episodes of the game , and are replaced by other enemies as the game progresses . The later enemies include Tiny Tiger 's Southern @-@ accented Koo @-@ alas , Doctor N. Gin 's monkey wrench @-@ wielding Doom Monkeys , Uka Uka 's spear @-@ chucking Voodoo Bunnies , and Nina Cortex 's Brat Girls . Radical Entertainment sought to give these minor characters personalities by giving them a large number of distinctive quotations .
= = = Story = = =
In the beginning of the game , Crash Bandicoot aids Coco with a butter @-@ recycling device . Doctor Neo Cortex arrives , captures Aku Aku and Coco and encases Crunch in ice . Crash throws Coco 's machine at Cortex 's airship , severing the chain holding Aku Aku 's cage , which causes the cage to fall into the nearby forest . After Crash rescues Aku Aku , they discover that Cortex and Uka Uka are stealing Mojo from a nearby temple and decide to stop them . On reaching the temple , Cortex reveals his plot to use the stolen Mojo to create an army of loyal mutants , which will be used to build a robot known as the Doominator , that will crush the Wumpa Islands and take over the world . After failing to defeat Crash with his Yuktopus cyborg , Cortex boasts that Crash will never find his base and flies off , leaving Crash and Aku Aku to follow him .
At Cortex 's base , Uka Uka derides Cortex for failing to destroy Crash and replaces Cortex with his niece , Nina Cortex , despite protests from Neo , N. Gin and Tiny Tiger . Nina has Coco brainwashed and makes her participate in the construction of the Doominator . Throughout the course of the game , Crash and Aku Aku interrogate Tiny Tiger , Doctor N. Gin and Uka Uka on the whereabouts of Coco . When they confront Nina Cortex inside the Doominator robot , Nina summons her Arachnina cyborg and fights Crash . Crash eventually destroys the robot , liberating Coco and disabling the Doominator . The Doominator collapses and barely misses the Bandicoot home ( and Crunch ) , sparing much of Wumpa Island . Escaping from the collapsed Doominator , Cortex praises Nina for betraying him , and promises to be more evil in the near future . The Bandicoots decide that it is time for celebration , leading Crash to shout his first word in the series and the object of their celebration : pancakes .
The DS version of the game largely follows the story of the home console versions , but with minor alterations such as Nina Cortex having a greater role and the inclusion of Dingodile . Near the end of the game , Nina teams up with Crash to stop Doctor Cortex and his dancing " CortexBot " . The Game Boy Advance version also includes Dingodile , some plot differences , such as the Arachnina ( referred to by its old name , " Spiderbot " ) not being the last boss , and Cortex being reinstated after Nina 's defeat in the N. Trapment Island .
= = Development = =
Development on Crash of the Titans began after the completion of Crash Tag Team Racing . The graphics of the Wii version of the game was one of Radical Entertainment 's main focuses in the game 's development , with Radical stating that the Wii has " a lot of horsepower under the hood " and expressing their desire to make full use of it . They also considered implementing a feature to connect the Wii to DS during gameplay , but stopped due to technical issues and time . The Xbox 360 version got a few extra months of development time to improve its graphics before setting a final release date .
While the game was being developed , the title 's main character , Crash Bandicoot , became the new mascot of the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society 's " School and Youth " programs in an effort to promote the battle against blood cancer . In a bid to further promote the game , a Hummer ( with a Wii inside ) was painted with imagery from the game and displayed at the Annual Balloon Fiesta in Bristol , United Kingdom . A " Monster Edition " of the game was released exclusively in Europe on October 12 , 2007 for the PlayStation 2 . This special edition of the game features " Making @-@ of " videos , water @-@ on tattoos , game hints , a cheat code list , and the game 's E3 and theatrical trailers in multiple languages . Due to its " mild cartoon violence and language " , the game received a PG rating from the BBFC .
= = = Music = = =
Unlike Crash Tag Team Racing , Radical did not hire the composer of the music in the previous Crash games , the a cappella band Spiralmouth whose members Rebecca Kneubuhl and Gabriel Mann left to compose musical pieces to The Legend of Spyro : The Eternal Night and The Legend of Spyro : Dawn of the Dragon from Crash 's companion franchise Spyro the Dragon , to write the music for Crash of the Titans . Instead , they assigned the job to their in @-@ house composer Marc Baril , who took Spiralmouth 's work on the previous games as references for Crash of the Titans . Radical Entertainment has expressed its pride with some of the music featured in the game , such as Doctor N. Gin 's polka theme . A 32 @-@ track soundtrack was made available on the iTunes Music Store on December 18 , 2007 . The music in the Nintendo DS version of the game was created by Nathaniel Papadakis .
= = = Voice cast = = =
To avoid repetitive audio , Crash of the Titans features more than 7 @,@ 000 lines of dialogue , many of which contain references to popular culture , such as the film Brokeback Mountain . To achieve a natural feel for their dialogue , the voice actors performed all their lines three times . Many of the voice actors from Crash Tag Team Racing reprised their roles , including Jess Harnell as Crash Bandicoot and Lex Lang as Doctor Neo Cortex . Characters who were regulars in the series but did not appear in Crash Tag Team Racing were given new voice actors for Crash of the Titans . These replacements include Greg Eagles as Aku Aku , Chris Williams as Tiny Tiger , and John DiMaggio as Uka Uka . The DS version features full voice acting for cutscenes and in @-@ game elements by some of the same voice actors from the home console version of the game , though some of the voice actors were substituted , such as Debi Derryberry in the role of Coco Bandicoot , and Nolan North in the role of N. Gin . Dingodile , who appears only in the DS and GBA versions , is voiced by Nolan North .
To make enemies memorable on their own ; Radical Entertainment scripted conversations between the enemy characters that can be overheard as the player approaches . Several voice actors provide the audio for the small enemies , including Tom Kenny from Nickelodeon 's SpongeBob SquarePants . Adding to the game 's numerous pop @-@ culture references , the voices and mannerisms of some of the characters are based upon those of real people , including Mike Tyson , Mr. T , Jerry Lewis , and Peter Lorre .
= = Reception = =
Crash of the Titans received mixed reviews upon its release . GameSpot credited it as a " fairly sturdy , combat @-@ heavy platformer with a good hook " , but concluded that it lacked the distinctive style of past Crash Bandicoot games . The DS version of the game was reviewed positively , with IGN naming it " one of the better handheld Crash games to hit the market " . Nintendo World Report gave the DS version a higher score than the home console version by half a point , but dismissed it as " a short game that has very little gameplay variety " . GameSpot proclaimed that " there 's plenty to do , and controlling the enemy is a neat twist " , but criticized the game 's small length of only six to eight hours .
The more negative reviews include those from Nintendo Power , who criticized the game for its " fixed and unforgiving " camera , which they felt made the platforming experience " frustrating " . GameSpy also criticized the game for its camera along with its unsteady framerate , but praised the game 's attractive graphics and offline co @-@ op mode . IGN described the game as " a good idea wrapped in a mediocre game " , dismissing the game 's music as " forgettable " , and hoping that the jacking concept would be refined for a possible sequel . Eurogamer was also critical of Crash of the Titans , deriding its graphics as " designed primarily with the PS2 and Wii in mind , with a fairly lazy high @-@ def makeover late in development " . The PSP version received less praise than its console counterparts , with IGN remarking that it " loses out to the consoles in a number of areas ; especially when it comes to multiplayer " .
Crash of the Titans was a nominee in the Writers Guild of America 's inaugural video game writing awards , competing against Dead Head Fred , The Simpsons Game , The Witcher and World in Conflict ; Dead Head Fred won the award . Crash of the Titans was also selected as a nominee in the " Best Sound Design " and " Best Character " categories of the Second Annual Elan Awards . It lost both awards to Skate and Mass Effect 's Commander Shepard respectively .
In Australia , Crash of the Titans was the second highest @-@ selling game in its first week below Halo 3 . The game was not as successful in the United Kingdom , where the PS2 version of the game debuted at # 32 in the sales charts . The game made £ 3 @.@ 35 million in the UK , by the end of 2007 . Despite the poor sales in the UK , the game was re @-@ released on Platinum for the PlayStation 2 and for the Xbox 360 Classics .
= SMS Weissenburg =
SMS Weissenburg was one of the first ocean @-@ going battleships of the Imperial German Navy . She was the third pre @-@ dreadnought of the Brandenburg class , along with her sister ships Brandenburg , Wörth , and Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm . She was laid down in 1890 in the AG Vulcan dockyard in Stettin , launched in 1891 , and completed in 1894 . The Brandenburg @-@ class battleships were unique for their era in that they carried six large @-@ caliber guns in three twin turrets , as opposed to four guns in two turrets , as was the standard in other navies . The British Royal Navy derisively referred to the ships as " whalers " .
Weissenburg saw limited active duty during her service career with the German fleet . She , along with her three sisters , saw one major overseas deployment , to China in 1900 – 01 , during the Boxer Rebellion . The ship underwent a major modernization in 1902 – 1904 . In 1910 , Weissenburg was sold to the Ottoman Empire and renamed Turgut Reis , after the famous 16th century Turkish admiral Turgut Reis . The ship saw heavy service during the Balkan Wars , primarily providing artillery support to Ottoman ground forces and taking part in two naval engagements with the Greek navy in December 1912 and January 1913 . She was largely inactive during World War I , due in part to her slow speed . In 1924 , Turgut Reis was used as a school ship , before eventually being scrapped in the mid @-@ 1950s .
= = Design = =
Weissenburg was 115 @.@ 7 m ( 379 ft 7 in ) long overall , had a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) which was increased to 19 @.@ 74 m ( 64 ft 9 in ) with the addition of torpedo nets , and had a draft of 7 @.@ 6 m ( 24 ft 11 in ) forward and 7 @.@ 9 m ( 25 ft 11 in ) aft . The ship displaced 10 @,@ 013 t ( 9 @,@ 855 long tons ) at its designed weight , and up to 10 @,@ 670 t ( 10 @,@ 500 long tons ) at full combat load . She was equipped with two sets of 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines that provided 10 @,@ 228 metric horsepower ( 10 @,@ 088 ihp ; 7 @,@ 523 kW ) and a top speed of 16 @.@ 9 knots ( 31 @.@ 3 km / h ; 19 @.@ 4 mph ) ; steam was provided by twelve coal @-@ fired , transverse cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . Weissenburg had a cruising range of 4 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 000 km ; 4 @,@ 900 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her crew numbered 38 officers and 530 enlisted men .
The ship was unusual for its time in that it possessed a broadside of six heavy guns in three twin gun turrets , rather than the four guns typical of contemporary battleships . The forward and after turrets carried 28 cm ( 11 inch ) SK L / 40 guns , while the amidships turret mounted a pair of 28 cm ( 11 inch ) with shorter L / 35 barrels . Her secondary armament consisted of eight 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing guns mounted in casemates and eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns , also casemate mounted . Weissenburg 's armament system was rounded out with six 45 cm torpedo tubes , all in above @-@ water swivel mounts . Although the main battery was heavier than other capital ships of the period , the secondary armament was considered weak in comparison to other battleships . Weissenburg was protected with nickel @-@ steel Krupp armor , a new type of stronger steel . Her main belt armor was 400 millimeters ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) thick in the central section that protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces . The deck was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . The main battery barbettes were protected with 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick armor .
= = Service history = =
Weissenburg was the third of four ships of the Brandenburg class . She was ordered as battleship C , and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1890 under construction number 199 . She was the third ship of the class to be launched , which she was on
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30 June 1891 . She was commissioned into the German fleet on 29 April 1894 , the same day as her sister Brandenburg . Upon her commissioning , Weissenburg was assigned to the I Division of the I Battle Squadron alongside her three sisters . The I Division was accompanied by the four older Sachsen @-@ class armored frigates in the II Division , though by the time the four Brandenburgs returned from China by 1901 – 2 , the Sachsens were replaced by the new Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class battleships .
= = = Boxer Rebellion = = =
The first major operation in which Weissenburg took part occurred in 1900 , when the I Division was deployed to China to assist in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion . The expeditionary force consisted of the four Brandenburgs , six cruisers , 10 supply ships , three torpedo boats , and six regiments of marines , under the command of Marshal Alfred von Waldersee . Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz opposed the plan , which he saw as unnecessary and costly . Although the naval force arrived in China after the siege of Peking had already been lifted , the task force suppressed local uprisings around Kiaochow . In the end , the operation cost the German government more than 100 million marks .
= = = Service with the Ottoman navy = = =
In 1902 , following the return from China , Weissenburg entered the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven for a significant reconstruction . After she emerged from her refit in 1904 , the ship rejoined the active fleet . However , she and her sisters were rapidly made obsolete by the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 . As a result , their service careers with the German navy were limited . On 12 September 1910 , Weissenburg and Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm , the more advanced ships of the class , were sold to the Ottoman Empire and renamed Turgut Reis and Barbaros Hayreddin , respectively ( after the famous 16th @-@ century Ottoman admirals , Turgut Reis and Hayreddin Barbarossa ) . A year later , in September 1911 , when Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire . Turgut Reis , along with Barbaros Hayreddin and the obsolete central battery ironclad Mesûdiye had been on a summer training cruise since July , and so were prepared for the conflict . Despite this , the ships spent the war in harbor .
= = = = Balkan wars = = = =
The Balkan League declared war on the Ottoman Empire in October 1912 . In the First Balkan War Turgut Reis , as with most ships of the Ottoman fleet , were in a state of disrepair . During the war , Turgut Reis conducted gunnery training along with the other capital ships of the Ottoman navy , escorted troop convoys , and bombarded coastal installations . On 17 November 1912 , Turgut Reis supported the Ottoman III Corps by bombarding the attacking Bulgarian forces . The ship was aided by artillery observers ashore . The battleship 's gunnery was largely ineffective , though it provided a morale boost for the besieged Ottoman army dug in at Çatalca . By 17 : 00 , the Bulgarian infantry had largely been forced back to their starting positions , in part due to the psychological effect of the battleships ' bombardment .
Late in 1912 , the Ottoman fleet attacked the Greek navy , in an attempt to disrupt the naval blockade surrounding the Dardanelles . Two engagements took place , the Naval Battle of Elli on 16 December 1912 , followed by the Naval Battle of Lemnos on 18 January 1913 . The first action was supported by Ottoman coastal batteries ; both Greek and Ottoman forces suffered minor damage during the engagement , but the Ottomans were unable to break through the Greek fleet and retired back into the Dardanelles . The Ottoman fleet , which included Turgut Reis , her sister Barbaros Hayreddin — the flagship of the fleet — two outdated ironclad battleships , nine destroyers and six torpedo boats , sortied from the Dardanelles at 9 : 30 . The smaller ships remained at the mouth of the straits while the battleships sailed north , while remaining near to the coast . The Greek flotilla , which included the armored cruiser Georgios Averof and three Hydra @-@ class battleships , had been sailing from the island of Imbros to the patrol line outside the straits . When the Ottomans were sighted , the Greeks altered course to the northeast , in order to block the advance of their opponents . The Ottoman ships opened fire first , at 9 : 50 , from a range of about 15 @,@ 000 yards ; the Greeks returned fire ten minutes later , by which time the range had decreased significantly to 8 @,@ 500 yards . At 10 : 04 , the Ottoman ships completed a 16 @-@ point turn , which reversed their course , and steamed for the safety of the straits in a disorganized withdrawal . Within an hour , the routed Ottoman ships had withdrawn into the Dardanelles .
The Naval Battle of Lemnos resulted from an Ottoman plan to lure the faster Georgios Averof away from the Dardanelles . The protected cruiser Hamidiye evaded the Greek blockade and broke out into the Aegean Sea ; the assumption was that the Greeks would dispatch Georgios Averof to hunt down Hamidiye . Despite the threat to Greek lines of communication posed by the cruiser , the Greek commander refused to detach Georgios Averof from its position . However , presuming that the plan had worked , Turgut Reis , Barbaros Hayreddin , and other units of the Ottoman fleet departed the Dardanelles on the morning of 18 January , and sailed towards the island of Lemnos . Georgios Averof appeared approximately 12 miles from Lemnos ; when the powerful Greek ship was spotted , the Ottomans turned to retreat . Georgios Averof 's superior speed allowed the ship to close the distance between her and the fleeing Ottoman ships . A long range artillery duel that lasted for two hours began at around 11 : 25 ; towards the end of the engagement , Georgios Averof closed to within 5 @,@ 000 yards and scored several hits on the fleeing Ottoman ships . Between Turgut Reis and Barbaros Hayreddin , the ships fired some 800 rounds , mostly of their main battery 28 cm guns but without success . During the battle , barbettes on both Turgut Reis and her sister were disabled by gunfire , and both ships caught fire .
On 8 February 1913 , the Ottoman navy supported an amphibious assault at Şarköy . Turgut Reis and Barbaros Hayreddin , along with two small cruisers provided artillery support to the right flank of the invading force once it went ashore . The ships were positioned about a kilometer off shore ; Turgut Reis was the second ship in the line , behind her sister Barbaros Hayreddin . The Bulgarian army resisted fiercely , which ultimately forced the Ottoman army to retreat , though the withdrawal was successful in large part due to the gunfire support from Turgut Reis and the rest of the fleet . During the battle , Turgut Reis fired 225 rounds from her 10 @.@ 5 cm guns and 202 shells from her 8 @.@ 8 cm guns .
In March 1913 , the ship returned to the Black Sea to resume support of the Çatalca garrison , which was under renewed attacks by the Bulgarian army . On 26 March , the barrage of 28 and 10 @.@ 5 cm shells fired by Turgut Reis and Barbaros Hayreddin assisted in the repelling of advance of the 2nd Brigade of the Bulgarian 1st Infantry Division . On 30 March , the left wing of the Ottoman line turned to pursue the retreating Bulgarians . Their advance was supported by both field artillery and the heavy guns of Turgut Reis and the other warships positioned off the coast ; the assault gained the Ottomans about 1 @,@ 500 meters by nightfall . In response , the Bulgarians brought the 1st Brigade to the front , which beat the Ottoman advance back to its starting position .
= = = = World War I = = = =
In the summer of 1914 , when World War I broke out in Europe , the Ottomans initially remained neutral . In early November , the actions of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben , which had been transferred to the Ottoman navy and renamed Yavûz Sultân Selîm , resulted in declarations of war by Russia , France , and Great Britain . Between 1914 – 15 , some of Turgut Reis 's guns were removed and employed as coastal guns to shore up the defenses protecting the Dardanelles . On 19 January 1918 , Yavûz and the light cruiser SMS Breslau , which had also been transferred to Ottoman service under the name Midilli , sailed from the Dardanelles to attack several British monitors stationed outside . The ships quickly sank HMS Raglan and HMS M28 before turning back to the safety of the Dardanelles . While en route , Midilli struck five mines and sank , while Yavûz hit three mines and began to list to port . The ship 's captain gave an incorrect order to the helmsman , which caused the ship to run aground . Yavûz remained there for almost a week , until Turgut Reis arrived on the scene on 25 January ; the old battleship took Yavûz under tow and managed to free her from the sandbank by that afternoon .
Turgut Reis was removed from active service after the end of World War I. By 1924 , the ship was transferred to the role of a training ship . At the time , she retained only two of her originally six 28 cm guns . Turgut Reis was converted into a hulk and stationed in the Dardanelles until 1938 . She remained afloat until she was finally broken up for scrap , between 1956 – 57 .
= William Sudell =
Major William Sudell ( 1851 – 1911 ) was an English association football player and administrator , who was the first chairman of Preston North End . He joined the Preston Nelson sports club on 3 August 1867 , aged 16 . Initially a player of several sports , by his mid @-@ twenties he had become chairman of the club . In 1880 the club decided to play football exclusively , and from the following year Sudell managed the team .
To aid the performances of his team , Sudell recruited several Scottish players , giving them nominal jobs in the cotton mill he managed . After a dispute arising from payments to players resulted in Preston 's withdrawal from the 1884 FA Cup , Sudell became an outspoken proponent of professionalism . His actions resulted in the acceptance of professionalism by the Football Association ( FA ) , and led to Preston becoming the leading team of the early professional era . Under Sudell 's leadership , Preston North End became founder members of the Football League , and won a league and cup double , going unbeaten for the entire season .
Sudell 's career as a football administrator ended in disgrace , when in 1895 he was found guilty of fraudulently redirecting funds from the mill to the football club . Sudell was sentenced to three years ' imprisonment . Upon his release , he emigrated to South Africa , where he died in 1911 .
= = Football career = =
Born in Preston in 1850 , descended from an old Preston family that included a Preston Guild Mayor , Sudell joined the Preston Nelson sports club in August 1867 , aged 17 . During this period the club were recruiting many young sportsmen from the area to play new sports , in order to relieve financial pressures . Sudell proved adept at several sports including swimming , cycling , cricket and rugby . The club played its first game of association football in 1878 , against Eagley , with Sudell a member of the team . However , Sudell did not go on to play on a regular basis ; only two other football matches featuring him as a player are known .
Sudell became the chairman of the sports club , which by then was known as Preston North End , in 1874 or 1875 , while still in his mid @-@ twenties . In 1880 the club voted to play football exclusively , and the following year Sudell took responsibility for the management of the team . From 1883 the club fielded several Scottish players , after Sudell went on a recruitment expedition to Scotland . The club arranged jobs for the players , and supplemented their income with off @-@ balance sheet payments . At this time professionalism was not permitted , but such payments were common among Lancashire clubs .
After Preston won an FA Cup match against Upton Park in 1884 , the Londoners protested , seeking the result to be overturned due to professionalism in the Preston ranks . This sparked a series of events which threatened to split the FA . Under Sudell 's instruction , Preston withdrew from the competition . Fellow Lancashire clubs Burnley and Great Lever followed suit . The protest gathered momentum , to the point where more than 30 clubs , predominantly from the north , announced that they would set up a rival British Football Association if the FA did not permit professionalism . At the FA conference called to discuss the issue , Sudell was a member of the committee . He argued passionately for the acceptance of professionalism , but met opposition from southern @-@ based amateur clubs , who viewed sport solely as a pastime . Backed by figures such as the more moderate but influential William McGregor of Aston Villa , the advocates of professionalism won the day and secured its acceptance . However , each club was permitted to only pay players who had been born or who had lived within six miles of the home stadium for at least two years .
With professionalism legalised , Preston flourished . Keen to make use of tactics , Sudell was the first person to use a blackboard to dictate positions and strategy to his players . In 1887 , Preston recorded the biggest win in the history of the FA Cup , beating Hyde 26 – 0 in the first round . The club progressed to the final having amassed a run of 42 consecutive wins in all competitions , but were beaten in the FA Cup Final by West Bromwich Albion .
During this time moves were afoot to prevent cancellation of matches by creating a new competition with a " fixity of fixtures " . The brainchild of Aston Villa 's William McGregor , the competition became known as The Football League . Sudell himself suggested the name " Football League " , as an alternative to McGregor 's suggestion , " Association Football Union " . Plans to create the competition had been ongoing for a period of months without Preston 's involvement , but as the most skilful team McGregor was keen to interest them . Once involved , Sudell was eager for the embryonic League to assert primacy in relation to other competitions , joining with J. J. Bentley to propose that " The clubs forming the League shall support each other and bind themselves to carry out in the strictest sense the arrangements for matches between them , and not allow them to be cancelled on account of any cup competition or other matches " . Sudell was more financially minded than the egalitarian McGregor , and urged the League to dispense with proposals for equal sharing of gate money and residential requirements for players .
The League kicked off in September 1888 , with Preston one of the 12 founder members . North End proved superior to their opponents , winning the title with several matches to spare . This allowed the club to concentrate on the FA Cup , which they duly won by defeating Wolverhampton Wanderers . In completing the League and Cup double Preston remained unbeaten for the entire season . The team , nicknamed the Invincibles , contained ten Scots , tempted south by the money on offer as professionalism was still banned in Scotland . Wishing for a grander gesture to celebrate his team 's success than the League committee 's suggestion of a flag bearing the club 's name , Sudell convinced the League to spend 50 guineas on a trophy . However , despite being responsible for the creation of the trophy , Preston North End have not won it since .
For the first four years of the League 's existence , Sudell acted as honorary treasurer . In 1892 , with his health declining , Sudell relinquished his position , and was succeeded by Stoke 's Harry Lockett . He left Preston North End the following year . In 1894 the League gave him £ 50 for a testimonial .
= = Outside football = =
Sudell worked in a cotton mill , where thanks to his numeracy he quickly worked his way up the ranks ; eventually he became manager . His military title came from service in the local Volunteer Force rifle unit , a precursor of the Territorial Army . He was initially commissioned as quartermaster in the 11th Lancashire Rifle Volunteer Corps in August 1874 , he resigned that commission in February 1879 , to take a commission as lieutenant in the same unit . He was promoted captain on 23 June 1886 , and was granted the honorary rank of major on 19 October 1889 ; the unit had now become part of the 1st Volunteer Battalion of the Loyal North Lancashire Regiment . He retired on 30 July 1892 , and was permitted to retain his rank , and continue wearing the battalion 's uniform .
= = = Embezzlement = = =
After his time as Preston chairman , in 1895 , Sudell was convicted of embezzling thousands of pounds from the cotton mill at which he worked , in order to fund players ' wages and expenses , though he did not gain personally . The fraud , totalling £ 5 @,@ 326 , resulted in a three @-@ year prison sentence . Upon his release , Sudell emigrated to South Africa . In Cape Town Sudell enjoyed a successful second career as a popular sports writer and footballing missionary . A member of the editorial staff of the South African News , he became one of the foremost sporting experts in the colony . < ref . David Hunt , History of Preston North End Football Club Sudell rebuilt his life . According to this account Sudell became a successful rugby journalist , dying from pneumonia on 5 August 1911 in Cape Town .
= Hillsgrove Covered Bridge =
The Hillsgrove Covered Bridge is a Burr arch truss covered bridge over Loyalsock Creek in Hillsgrove Township , Sullivan County , in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . It was built c . 1850 and is 186 feet ( 56 @.@ 7 m ) long . In 1973 , it became the first covered bridge in the county to be placed on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) . The bridge is named for the township and nearby unincorporated village of Hillsgrove , and is also known as Rinkers Covered Bridge for an adjoining farm .
Pennsylvania had the first covered bridge in the United States , and has had the most such bridges since the 19th century . They were a transition between stone and metal bridges , with the roof and sides protecting the wooden structure from the weather . The Hillsgrove bridge has load @-@ bearing Burr arches sandwiching multiple vertical king posts on each side , for strength and rigidity . It was built by Sadler Rodgers , who also constructed the nearby Forksville Covered Bridge in the same year , with a similar design .
The Hillsgrove bridge is the longest of three covered bridges remaining in Sullivan County , and served as a landing site for lumber rafts on the creek between 1870 and 1890 . Nineteenth @-@ century regulations restricting speed , number of animals , and fire are still posted on the bridge . Restoration work was carried out in 1963 , 1968 , 2010 , and again in 2012 after serious flood damage . The bridge is still in use , with average daily traffic of 54 vehicles in 2012 . Despite these restorations , it had a " structurally deficient " rating in the 2012 National Bridge Inventory , with a 16 @.@ 5 percent structural sufficiency rating .
= = Overview = =
The covered bridge is in Hillsgrove Township on Covered Bridge Road ( Township Road 357 ) , which is 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) north of Pennsylvania Route 87 via Splash Dam Road ( TR 359 ) .
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The bridge crosses Loyalsock Creek 2 @.@ 6 miles ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) northeast and upstream of the unincorporated village of Hillsgrove , and is just south of Elkland Township . Its official name on the NRHP is Hillsgrove Covered Bridge . It is also known as Rinkers Covered Bridge for the Rinker farm , which is located at the east end of the bridge . Sullivan County is located in north central Pennsylvania , about 123 miles ( 198 km ) northwest of Philadelphia and 195 miles ( 314 km ) east @-@ northeast of Pittsburgh .
The village of Hillsgrove is where Daniel Ogden became the first settler in what is now Sullivan County , c . 1786 . John Hill , who founded and named the village of Hill 's Grove ( later just Hillsgrove ) , came to the area in 1789 and bought Ogden 's land about 1794 . Sullivan County was formed from part of Lycoming County on March 14 , 1847 , and the bridge was built in 1850 . The division of Lycoming County ran through Plunketts Creek Township , so there were initially townships of this name in each of the adjoining counties . To avoid confusion , the name of the Sullivan County township was changed to Hillsgrove Township in 1856 ; the new township name was taken from the village of Hillsgrove , which was ( and is ) its largest settlement . Hillsgrove Covered Bridge is named for its township and the nearby village , and gave its name to a nearby one @-@ room school known as the Bridge View School .
The name Hillsgrove Covered Bridge can also refer to a now vanished covered bridge , also over Loyalsock Creek , but in the village of Hillsgrove . This stood from 1876 until 1934 , when it was condemned and replaced by a steel and concrete structure . It was the third covered bridge on the site : the first fell into the creek , and the second was torn down to make way for the third bridge .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The first covered bridge in the United States was built in 1800 over the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . According to Susan M. Zacher , author of The Covered Bridges of Pennsylvania : A Guide , the first covered bridges of the Burr arch truss design were also built in the state . Pennsylvania is estimated to have once had at least 1 @,@ 500 covered bridges and is believed to have had the most in the country between 1830 and 1875 . In 2001 , Pennsylvania had more surviving historic covered bridges than any other state ; 221 remained in 40 of its 67 counties .
Covered bridges were a transition between stone and metal bridges , the latter made of cast @-@ iron or steel . In 19th @-@ century Pennsylvania , lumber was an abundant resource for bridge construction , but did not last long when exposed to the elements . The roof and enclosed sides of covered bridges protected the structural elements , allowing some of these bridges to survive for well over a century . A Burr arch truss consists of a load @-@ bearing arch sandwiching multiple king posts , resulting in a stronger and more rigid structure than one made of either element alone . Although there were 30 covered bridges in Sullivan County in 1890 , only five were left by 1954 , and as of 2015 only three remain : Forksville , Hillsgrove , and Sonestown .
= = = Construction and description = = =
All three Sullivan County covered bridges were built c . 1850 with Burr arch trusses . The Hillsgrove bridge was built for Sullivan County by Sadler Rogers ( or Rodgers ) , a native of Forksville who was only 18 years old at the time . He built the Forksville bridge the same year . The Forksville and Hillsgrove bridges both cross Loyalsock Creek , with the latter about 5 miles ( 8 km ) further downstream . Although most sources do not list the builder of the Sonestown bridge , two newspaper articles on the remaining Sullivan County covered bridges reported that Rodgers had designed or possibly built it as well .
On July 2 , 1973 , the Hillsgrove bridge was the first covered bridge in Sullivan County to be added to the NRHP , and on July 24 , 1980 it was again included on the NRHP in a Multiple Property Submission of seven Covered Bridges of Bradford , Sullivan and Lycoming Counties . The Hillsgrove bridge is on the 2013 National Bridge Inventory ( NBI ) , which lists the covered bridge as 186 feet ( 56 @.@ 7 m ) long , with a maximum load of 5 @.@ 0 short tons ( 4 @.@ 5 t ) . However , the maximum load posted on the approaches to bridge itself is only 3 @.@ 0 short tons ( 2 @.@ 7 t ) . The 2006 NBI listed the bridge 's roadway as 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide , while according to the NRHP , the bridge 's " road surface width " is 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) , which is only sufficient for a single lane of traffic .
As of 2015 , each portal has a sign with the posted clearance height of 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) . A sign posted on the east portal above the clearance preserves the following 19th @-@ century limits on its use : " Notice : All persons are forbidden to ride drive or lead any animal over this bridge faster than a walk or to drive more than 15 head of cattle horses or mules thereon at one time or to carry fire thereon except in a safe vessel under a penalty of not less than $ .30 for each offence . " Prior to the 2010 restoration , the west portal had a " No Trucks Allowed " sign hanging below the clearance sign .
The covered bridge rests on abutments of stone and mortar , which have been reinforced with concrete . There are no parapets . The bridge beams are reinforced in places with steel beams . The bridge deck is made of crosswise " narrow width laid flooring " . Wheel guards on the deck separate the roadway from the pedestrian walkways on either side and protect the sides , which are covered with " vertical board and batten siding " almost to the eaves . The interior and exterior are painted red . The bridge has long , narrow windows with wooden shutters : the south side has three windows , and the north side has two . An opening between the eaves and the siding runs the length of the bridge on both sides . The gable roof is wooden shake shingles . The bridge is supported by a Burr arch truss , and is similar in design and construction to the one in Forksville . The western end of the Hillsgrove bridge lies against a steep hillside , and those approaching the bridge from the west must make a sharp right turn to enter it . Prior to the 2010 restoration , the sides were unpainted , but the portals were painted red , while the gable roof was sheet metal which had been installed over the original wooden shake shingles .
Attitudes towards covered bridges in Sullivan County changed considerably in the last half of the 20th century . Two of the five bridges that remained in 1954 were razed by 1970 , when the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation considered tearing down the Forksville bridge ( but renovated it because of its historic nature and appeal to tourists ) . The Hillsgrove Covered Bridge was added to the NRHP in 1973 and the two other bridges were added in 1980 . The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission now forbids the destruction of any covered bridge on the NRHP in the state and has to approve any renovation work .
= = = Use and restoration = = =
In the 19th century the Hillsgrove Covered Bridge survived major floods on March 1 , 1865 , and June 1 , 1889 , that destroyed other bridges in the West Branch Susquehanna River valley . Between about 1870 and 1890 , logging in the Loyalsock Creek watershed produced lumber rafts that floated beneath the bridge . The bridge was the site of " Uncle Ben 's Landing " for lumber rafts , which did not travel at night . These rafts , each containing 5 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 board feet ( 11 @.@ 8 – 70 @.@ 8 m ³ ) of lumber , were carried down the Loyalsock to its mouth at Montoursville . The raft era ended when the eastern hemlock were all clearcut .
An April , 1963 article on covered bridges in Sullivan and Lycoming counties noted that the Hillsgrove Bridge 's deck was " a bit swaybacked " , and according to the NBI data , the bridge was " reconstructed " in 1963 . T. Corbin Lewis , a retired electrical contractor from Hillsgrove Township , restored the bridge in 1968 . The concrete reinforcement on the southwest abutment of the Hillsgrove bridge is dated 1968 , but the other work done in this restoration is not documented . Lewis also restored the Forksville Covered Bridge in 1970 , with what its NRHP nomination form describes as " all kinds of odd repairs " . Lewis ' restoration work at Forksville involved cutting windows into the sides of the bridge for the first time , with four windows on the south side and three on the north . While the Hillsgrove bridge does have more windows on the south side ( three ) than the north ( two ) , it is not known when they were added . A 1936 photograph of the bridge shows no windows on the south side , and no concrete reinforcement of the eastern abutment .
Covered Bridge Road north of Loyalsock Creek is accessed only by the Hillsgrove Covered Bridge at the eastern end , and a bridge over Elk Creek at the western end . Sullivan County replaced the bridge over Elk Creek between March 21 and July 21 , 1989 . Without the Elk Creek bridge , access for five families , a business , and a Little League Baseball camp with 110 children was limited to the covered bridge . County officials noted that despite the covered bridge 's posted weight limit of 2 @.@ 0 short tons ( 1 @.@ 8 t ) , it could still support 5 @.@ 0 short tons ( 4 @.@ 5 t ) , sufficient for small fire trucks and ambulances . In an emergency , larger emergency vehicles could ford the creek if needed . In any case , the limited access did not cause any problems for the four @-@ month period while the Elk Creek bridge was replaced .
The Evans ' book describes repairs to the bridge 's northeast siding , done between 1991 and 2000 . In 2001 , the US Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration awarded $ 360 @,@ 000 for 80 percent of the restoration costs of the Hillsgrove bridge under the Historic Covered Bridge Preservation Program . It was one of two bridges in Pennsylvania and 43 nationwide selected for the program that year . In 2010 , the bridge was rehabilitated for the first time since the 1960s . Sullivan County solicited bids in February , expecting the project to cost between $ 200 @,@ 000 and $ 500 @,@ 000 . The metal roof was replaced with cedar shake shingles , repairs were made to the wooden structure , portals , and siding , the bridge and deck were cleaned , and the bridge was painted red . The rehabilitation cost $ 150 @,@ 516 , and the bridge reopened in the autumn of 2010 .
In 2011 , the bridge was badly damaged by historic flooding from Hurricane Irene in late August and Tropical Storm Lee in early September . Loyalsock Creek 's flood waters swept debris into the bridge , removing much of the siding on the south side , washing out the approaches , damaging the structural beams , and leaving " two trees lodged between the timber low chord and timber deck " on the north side . While the Forksville covered bridge escaped serious damage , Hillsgrove and Sonestown were both closed , and Preservation Pennsylvania issued a report that questioned whether either bridge could be restored .
Sullivan County applied for and received Federal Emergency Management Agency funding for repairs to both bridges . The Hillsgrove bridge was restored first , as it was the main route to a restaurant and heavily used by hunters . Repairs included replacement of broken structural beams , sections of the deck , and siding . Because Loyalsock Creek is an " Exceptional Value Stream " , the scaffolding that supported the structure on the creek bed during the $ 250 @,@ 000 @-@ restoration had to be approved by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection . The bridge was reopened on November 21 , 2012 , just in time for deer hunting season , by one of the Sullivan County Commissioners ; the county commissioner had been married on the bridge exactly 25 years before .
Despite the 2010 restoration , the 2012 Federal Highway Administration National Bridge Inventory found the bridge to be " Structurally Deficient " . In addition , the sufficiency rating of the bridge structure was 16 @.@ 5 percent , and the bridge railings and approach guardrails did not meet " currently acceptable standards " .
As of 2015 , the bridge is still used ; its average daily traffic was 54 vehicles in 2012 . The bridge 's 2012 post @-@ flood restoration received an award for Emergency Response . A 2014 book , America 's Covered Bridges - Practical Crossings - Nostalgic Icons , included two photos of the Hillsgrove Covered Bridge ( and the nearby Forksville Covered Bridge on the book 's cover ) . According to Zacher , the " Sullivan County bridges , because of their settings , are some of the most attractive in the state " .
= = Bridge dimensions = =
The following table is a comparison of published measurements of length , width and load recorded in different sources using different methods , as well as the name or names cited . The NBI measures bridge length between the " backwalls of abutments " or pavement grooves and the roadway width as " the most restrictive minimum distance between curbs or rails " . The NRHP form was prepared by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission ( PHMC ) , which surveyed county engineers , historical and covered bridge societies , and others for all the covered bridges in the commonwealth . The Evans visited every covered bridge in Pennsylvania in 2001 and measured each bridge 's length ( portal to portal ) and width ( at the portal ) for their book . The data in Zacher 's book was based on a 1991 survey of all covered bridges in Pennsylvania by the PHMC and the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation , aided by local government and private agencies . The article uses primarily the NBI and NRHP data , as they are national programs .
= U.S. Route 46 =
U.S. Route 46 ( US 46 ) is an east – west U.S. Highway completely within the state of New Jersey , running for 75 @.@ 34 mi ( 121 @.@ 25 km ) , making it the shortest signed , non @-@ spur U.S. Highway . The west end is at an interchange with Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) and Route 94 in Columbia , Warren County on the Delaware River . The east end is in the middle of the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River in Fort Lee , Bergen County while the route is concurrent with I @-@ 95 and US 1 @-@ 9 . Throughout much of its length , US 46 is closely paralleled by I @-@ 80 . US 46 is a major local and suburban route , with some sections built to or near freeway standards and many other sections arterials with jughandles . The route runs through several communities in the northern part of New Jersey , including Hackettstown , Netcong , Dover , Parsippany @-@ Troy Hills , Wayne , Clifton , Ridgefield Park , Palisades Park , and Fort Lee . The road has been ceremonially named the United Spanish – American War Veterans Memorial Highway .
What is now US 46 was originally designated as three separate routes . Pre @-@ 1927 Route 5 was created in 1916 to follow the road from Delaware to Denville , pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 in 1917 to follow the route between Hackettstown and Paterson , and pre @-@ 1927 Route 10 in 1917 to run between Paterson and Edgewater . In 1927 , Route 6 was legislated to run from Delaware east to the George Washington Bridge , replacing portions of Routes 5 and 12 and paralleling the former Route 10 , which itself became Route 5 and Route 10N , the latter being shortly removed from the state highway system . In 1936 , US 46 was designated to run from US 611 in Portland , Pennsylvania east to the George Washington Bridge . The route replaced Pennsylvania Route 987 to the Delaware Bridge over the Delaware , and from there followed Route 6 across New Jersey . In 1953 , the Route 6 designation was removed from US 46 in New Jersey , and later that year , the route was realigned to end at US 611 in Columbia , New Jersey , replacing a part of Route 94 . US 611 had been brought into New Jersey by two new bridges over the Delaware River , following a freeway between them that became a part of I @-@ 80 . By 1969 , US 611 was aligned back into Pennsylvania , and US 46 ’ s western terminus remained as an interchange with I @-@ 80 and Route 94 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Warren County = = =
US 46 begins at a large interchange with I @-@ 80 and Route 94 near the Portland @-@ Columbia Toll Bridge leading to Pennsylvania Route 611 in the community of Columbia in Knowlton Township , Warren County . From this interchange , the route heads southeast along the east bank of the Delaware River as a four @-@ lane divided highway briefly before narrowing into a two @-@ lane undivided road . The road passes through wooded mountainous areas before reaching the community of Delaware . In Delaware , US 46 intersects Route 163 , the approach to the former Delaware Bridge , before passing a few commercial establishments . From here , the route continues alongside the river , passing more rural areas of woods and farms with occasional development as it enters White Township . US 46 makes a sharp turn to the east away from the Delaware River , widening into a four @-@ lane divided highway again as it bypasses the town of Belvidere and has a few businesses on it . The road turns back into a two @-@ lane undivided road and comes to a crossroads with CR 519 . Past this intersection , US 46 continues through rural sectors with some business before coming to the northern terminus of Route 31 .
From this point , the route continues east through dense woods prior to turning northeast into Liberty Township . The road passes through the community of Townsbury before crossing into Independence Township . Here , US 46 enters more agricultural areas and turns east again , with development increasing along the road as it passes through Great Meadows @-@ Vienna . It continues southeast before entering Hackettstown , where the road becomes Main Street . In Hackettstown , the route crosses New Jersey Transit ’ s Morristown Line and Montclair @-@ Boonton Line before coming to an intersection with CR 517 . Here , CR 517 forms a concurrency with US 46 , and the two routes continue southeast through the downtown area . At the intersection with the northern terminus of Route 182 , CR 517 splits from US 46 by heading south on that route while US 46 continues to the east .
= = = Morris and Essex counties = = =
Shortly after the Route 182 intersection , the route crosses the Musconetcong River into Washington Township , Morris County , where it heads back into rural surroundings . About a mile into Morris County , US 46 divides and becomes a four @-@ lane highway , turning north and crossing over a mountain . It continues into Mount Olive Township , taking a sharp turn to the east before the road becomes undivided while remaining four lanes . The road passes rural areas and development as it goes through Budd Lake . In this community , the route passes to the south of the namesake lake as it begins to turn northeast and then north . The road heads northeast again before it enters Netcong and becomes a divided highway as it comes to an interchange with I @-@ 80 / US 206 . Within this interchange , the lanes of US 46 split . From this point , the route narrows back into a two @-@ lane undivided road and runs through developed areas of Netcong a short distance to the south of New Jersey Transit ’ s Morristown Line / Montclair @-@ Boonton Line . US 46 meets Route 183 at an intersection ( formerly Netcong Circle ) before widening into a four @-@ lane undivided road and leaving Netcong for Roxbury Township . Here , the road passes through wooded areas , meeting I @-@ 80 at another interchange and briefly becoming a divided highway at the crossing under I @-@ 80 and again at the actual interchange . US 46 remains a divided highway with jughandles past this point , continuing southeast into the Ledgewood area .
At a three @-@ way intersection which was formerly Ledgewood Circle , Route 10 begins straight while US 46 turns left to continue east as a two @-@ lane undivided road through more development . Upon passing through Kenvil , the road enters Mine Hill Township , where the road becomes three lanes with two westbound lanes and one eastbound lane . The route passes through Wharton at its southern tip before continuing into Dover . US 46 narrows back into two lanes , becoming Blackwell Street as it passes St. Clare 's Dover General Hospital.The road widens to four lanes as Blackwell Street splits from it at an eastbound exit and westbound entrance prior to a bridge over the Rockaway River and a New Jersey Transit line . A short distance later , US 46 passes over Route 15 , with a ramp from westbound US 46 to northbound Route 15 . From here , the route continues on McFarlan Street , intersecting the southern beginning of Route 15 , which heads south from US 46 to loop back to the north . US 46 continues east , entering Rockaway Township , where there is an intersection with CR 513 . Past CR 513 , the road narrows to two lanes as it heads northeast through Rockaway Borough before turning east and crossing the Rockaway River . The route continues northeast , entering wooded residential areas as it heads into Denville and has a limited interchange with I @-@ 80 , where it can only be entered to and from the westbound lane and where US 46 east can only be entered from the eastbound lane and to the eastbound lane . As it crosses under I @-@ 80 , US 46 becomes a six @-@ lane divided highway .
The road is lined with a moderate amounts of businesses , most with right @-@ in / right @-@ out ( RIRO ) access , as it continues southeast through Denville , narrowing to four lanes before coming to an interchange with Route 53 . From this interchange , the route continues east before curving southeast and entering Mountain Lakes . In Mountain Lakes , US 46 crosses under the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line before continuing into Parsippany @-@ Troy Hills . Here , the road comes to US 202 / CR 511 before passing under I @-@ 287 . At this point , the westbound direction of US 46 has a ramp to northbound I @-@ 287 , with access to and from southbound I @-@ 287 provided by US 202 . Past the I @-@ 287 crossing , the road comes to another partial interchange with I @-@ 80 near the western terminus of I @-@ 280 . Past this interchange , US 46 widens to six lanes and enters Montville . In Montville , the route narrows back to four lanes , and has traffic light @-@ controlled intersections with New Road and Hook Mountain Road / Chapin Road . It then has an interchange with Route 159 and makes a turn to the northeast . Upon crossing the Passaic River , US 46 enters Essex County into Fairfield Township . A short distance into Essex County , US 46 has another interchange with Route 159 ( Clinton Road ) , providing access to that route and to its continuation as CR 627 ( Plymouth Street ) . Shortly farther along US 46 , Route 159 and CR 627 meet it at a traffic light @-@ controlled intersection , providing cross @-@ traffic and turns onto US 46 . Past this point , US 46 remains a surface road with RIRO @-@ accessed driveways , but has several intersections controlled by interchanges . Within Fairfield , US 46 has interchanges with Hollywood Avenue and Passaic Avenue as well as two trumpet interchanges providing access to Fairfield Road , which runs a short distance to the south of US 46 .
= = = Passaic County = = =
The route crosses the Passaic River again into Wayne in Passaic County . The median splits as the road passes to the north of the Willowbrook Mall , with an exit serving the mall , before reaching the Spaghetti Bowl interchange with partial access to I @-@ 80 and full access to Route 23 . Within this interchange , US 46 passes under the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line again . From here , it passes businesses and many shopping centers with RIRO access as a six @-@ lane highway , heading into Totowa . In this area , the route has interchanges with CR 640 and Route 62 / CR 646 . The road turns southeast , crossing the Passaic River a third time into Little Falls . At this point , US 46 runs along the Little Falls / Woodland Park border , interchanging CR 639 and Browertown Road . After the exit for Lower Notch Road , the route enters more wooded surroundings , interchanging with Notch Road / Rifle Camp Road before entering Clifton . Upon reaching Clifton , US 46 has an interchange with the western terminus of Route 3 and Valley Road ( CR 621 ) , with the Valley Road exit stitched into the Route 3 side of the highway fork . Prior to reconstruction of the interchanges , the Valley Road ramp exited before Route 3 began , and Route 3 branched off immediately after Valley Road .
Past Route 3 , the highway narrows to four lanes , continuing east @-@ northeast as a limited @-@ access divided highway with some RIRO @-@ accessed businesses still on it , though many roads are accessed through over and underpasses . US 46 has an exit for Van Houten Avenue / Grove Street before coming to a large interchange with Route 19 / CR 509 and the Garden State Parkway . After this , the road passes over the New Jersey Transit Main Line and has an exit for Hazel Street / Paulison Avenue . After the exit , US 46 begins a brief concurrence with Piaget Avenue in Clifton with a series of connector streets and three intersections controlled by stoplights . After the third , at Day Street near Christopher Columbus Middle School , the two roads split at a fork , marked as an exit , with US 46 continuing eastbound to the left and Piaget Avenue continuing to the right . Vehicles traveling west on Piaget Avenue have access to US 46 West through use of a one way underpass that carries US 46 East over it , and also have access to US 46 East by a right @-@ turn only lane near the intersection of Piaget Avenue and Fourth Street .
After the split , US 46 turns into a limited @-@ access road again and passes under Main Avenue / CR 601 and former Erie Railway tracks before coming to an interchange with the northern terminus of Route 21 . From this interchange , the route turns north along the west bank of the Passaic River , crossing the Garden State Parkway again before widening to six lanes and meeting the southern terminus of Route 20 at an interchange near the border of Paterson .
= = = Bergen County = = =
US 46 turns east and crosses the Passaic River a fourth and final time , entering Bergen County in Elmwood Park . Immediately after the river , the route has an interchange for CR 507 . Passing through more RIRO @-@ accessed business areas , the road narrows to four lanes and has a partial interchange with the Garden State Parkway . Past the parkway , US 46 continues as a road with some jughandles and other traffic light @-@ controlled intersections ( but still largely maintaining RIRO access to driveways and side streets ) , passing through a small corner of Garfield before crossing into Saddle Brook . Within Saddle Brook , the road turns more to the southeast and crosses over New Jersey Transit ’ s Bergen County Line . Continuing east , US 46 has an exit for with Outwater Lane and crosses into Lodi . Through this area , there is no access across the median of US 46 , as it interchanges with Main Street . The route continues into Hasbrouck Heights , where it turns more south @-@ southeast , interchanging with Boulevard . A short distance later , US 46 reaches an interchange with Route 17 and crosses New Jersey Transit ’ s Pascack Valley Line near the Teterboro station .
From here , US 46 enters Teterboro and interchanges with Green Street before continuing southeast as a six @-@ lane highway through industrial areas , passing to the north of Teterboro Airport . The road continues into Little Ferry , where it passes suburban
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of the club house to facilitate luxury boxes . They were made available for sponsors , who were allowed to bring guests . The boxes and the vestibule became an important informal meeting area for the town 's political and business elite .
The new stand became a financial burden for the club . Operating costs increased after Norwegian clubs were allowed to wage players from 1984 . In addition , interest rates rose quickly , making the club unable to meet its financial obligations . At the same time , the club experienced falling attendance . In 1985 , the club 's auditor warned that the club was heading into financial distress . In 1986 , the club spent NOK 1 million to build terraces between the club house and the pitch on the northern short side , and terraces on the southern short side . In 1990 , Hamar Municipality gave Ham @-@ Kam a grant of NOK 1 @.@ 7 million in an attempt to save the club 's finances , in part because of the club 's debt on the venue .
In 1993 , Ham @-@ Kam proposed selling the stadium , including its 1 @.@ 0 @-@ hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ) lot , for NOK 6 million , to pay off its debt . In addition , NFF required that the stadium be renovated for NOK 2 million . The club launched the sales plans to the municipality in September 1993 , stating that if they did not purchase the venue , the club would probably be forced to file for bankruptcy . At the time , Lillestrøm and Brann were the only other premiership clubs to own their own stadiums . Ham @-@ Kam 's three star players , Vegard Skogheim , Petter Belsvik and Ståle Solbakken , threatened to sign with other clubs within days unless the municipality saved the club .
On 20 October 1993 , the municipal council voted in favor of purchasing the stadium . The proposal was supported by the Labour Party and Centre Party , who had 28 of 49 councilors , but opposed by the rest of the council . Along with two banks , the municipality established a limited company which would own the venue . The municipality and banks would pay for the club 's debt of NOK 5 @.@ 4 million , and take over the stadium 's operating costs of roughly NOK 1 million per year . Ham @-@ Kam would have to pay rent on the stadium . The transaction took place on 26 January 1994 , and included a clause granting Ham @-@ Kam the right to buy back the stadium at a later date . The municipality issued a loan of NOK 4 million to Ham @-@ Kam in 2003 to allow them to install floodlighting at Briskeby .
= = = Arena = = =
By 2001 NFF was in the process of implementing new stadium requirements in the top leagues , and Briskeby would no longer be permitted to be used in the top tier . Ham @-@ Kam entered an alliance with Totalprosjekt — an real estate development company working on Lillestrøm 's Åråsen Stadion — who presented a concept to finance a new venue : The municipality would transfer property to a limited company jointly owned by the municipality and the major sports clubs , the real estate would be re @-@ regulated to increase their value , and the company would use this capital to build a new professional and a new recreational stadium . Parallel with this , a municipal commission made a report that recommended a consolidation in the number of venues in town and the conversion of gravel and grass fields to artificial turf . The commission recommended that a new professional football venue be built either at Briskeby or Hamar stadion .
Hamar Sportsanlegg ( HSA ) was established in 2003 to execute the plan . It was owned 34 percent by the municipality , and 22 percent each by Ham @-@ Kam , Hamar IL and Storhamar Dragons . In 2004 , Storhamar 's share was transferred to Hamar Olympiske Anlegg , a municipal company which owns Vikingskipet Olympic Arena and Hamar Olympic Amphitheater . A report estimated the technical value of Briskeby to NOK 6 million , while the sales price of the lot was estimated at NOK 30 million . The municipal council voted on 18 February 2004 to transfer the ownership of the two stadiums to the new company . Ham @-@ Kam rented the venues from HSA , with HSA 's deficit for the first four years being covered by the municipality . Of the NOK 20 @.@ 8 million in value transferred to the company , NOK 14 @.@ 5 million was paid by HSA taking over the municipality 's obligation to build a new athletics venue should Hamar stadion be closed , and NOK 5 million was debt .
In October 2004 , Totalprosjekt presented the concept Skibladner Stadion , which would have been located on Tjuvholmen , a peninsula which sticks out into Mjøsa . In addition to a 9 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium , the project included a cultural center with an 800 @-@ seat auditorium and a 22 @-@ story hotel . However , Tjvuholmen is a popular recreational areas and a process to regulate the area as such had just been completed . The location would also cause problems for the railway , who wanted to expand Hamar Station . The Tjvuholmen project was rejected by the municipal executive committee on 8 December , and on 16 March 2005 , the municipal council voted to continue working on a new venue at Briskeby . This caused Totalproject to leave the project .
In 2004 , Biong Arkitekter was contracted to design the stadium , with Byggeråd as structural engineers . Five proposals for Briskeby were launched , estimated to cost between NOK 61 and 150 million . Three of them retained the current alignment and would give a capacity of between 8 @,@ 800 and 10 @,@ 200 spectators , and two of these again contained commercial and residential properties within the stadium complex . The two other proposals involved turning the pitch 90 degrees , which would give the least encroachment on neighbor properties . The residents ' association demanded that an impact study be made and that more specific plans be presented before municipal approval . The municipality concluded that neither were required . The municipal council passed a regulation plan on 1 February 2006 , which involved building a 10 @,@ 200 seat venue , but with the smaller of the two possible commercial property sizes . The residents ' association appealed to the county governor , who reject the appeal on 1 September .
At the time NFF awarded an annual license to clubs which permitted them to play in the top two divisions . This included a series of criteria that the home venue needed to meet . As Briskeby was severely substandard to the criteria , Ham @-@ Kam was required to apply for annual exemptions . These were only awarded to clubs who were actively working on upgrading or building new venues . If an exception was not granted , the club would either be relegated to the Second Division ( the third tier ) , or would have to play their home games at an approved stadium in another town .
In December 2006 , HSA sold Briskeby to a new company , Briskeby Gressbane AS ( BG ) , which was owned 50 percent each by Ham @-@ Kam and HSA . Another company , Briskeby Eiendom 1 AS ( BE1 ) , was established and owned 66 percent by HSA and 34 percent by BG . The latter was also given 50 percent of the shares in Hamar stadion . BG was non @-@ commercial and was to own the stadium itself , while BE1 was commercial and was to rent out the commercial property . The two shared board , managing director and accountant . In May 2007 , NCC was awarded the contract to build the new venue by BG and BE1 . Although NCC was NOK 8 million more expensive than the cheapest bid , they offered four months shorter construction time . Briskeby 's lot needed to be expanded , which was done by purchasing neighbor lots for NOK 34 million . Hamar stadion and the neighbor lot Fuglsetmyra were sold for NOK 295 million in June 2007 , of which NOK 9 million was paid to BG and another NOK 175 million was a guarantee which would be paid after the lot was re @-@ regulated .
Construction was financed through a loan of NOK 218 million from Handelsbanken , which was secured on the revenue which would be generated from the sale of Hamar stadion and Fuglsetmyra . However , the bank was not willing to lend money secured on the basis of sales price of Hamar stadion being based on the re @-@ regulation of the lot . The municipality was pressed on time by the possibility of NFF denying Ham @-@ Kam the right to play at Briskeby . Hamar Energi Holding AS ( HEH ) , which owns Hamar Municipality 's share of Eidsiva Energi , had large assets . Both HEH and BE1 had as chair Hans Kolstad , who proposed that HEH could issue a guarantee of NOK 75 million for BG and BE1 — which was issued in September 2007 . This allowed construction to start , but the project was still under @-@ financed by NOK 50 million . HEH therefore issued another guarantee the same month , for NOK 58 @.@ 75 million . Because of delays in the regulation work , HEH issued another two guarantees , NOK 60 million in March and NOK 25 million in June 2008 .
In August 2007 , the stadium was planned to be built in three stages , with a combined budget of NOK 156 @.@ 6 million . The first stage would involve the northern and western sides and cost NOK 78 @.@ 4 million , the second stage would involve the eastern side and cost NOK 43 @.@ 0 million , while the third stage would involve the southern side and cost NOK 35 @.@ 1 million . After construction started , BG changed two specifications , moving public rest rooms from the basement to the ground floor , and changing the angle of roof . Both of these gave increased construction costs and alteration of the architectural design plans .
During this entire period , BE1 was insolvent . The bank therefore required that the entire sales price of Hamar stadion be transferred to BG , even though NOK 50 million was to go to the construction of Børstad Idrettspark ( BIP ) . Therefore , Hamar Municipality decided to finance BIP to secure sufficient funding for Briskeby , essentially subsidizing Briskeby with a further NOK 50 million . In 2007 , BG paid NOK 3 @.@ 4 million in compensation to Ham @-@ Kam for lost ticket sales during the construction time and for the club house , which would be demolished .
In 2008 , Ham @-@ Kam tried to sell the naming rights of the stadium for between NOK 5 and 8 million per year , but neither of their main sponsors , Eidsiva Energi and Sparebanken Hedmark , were interested . The first stage of the stadium opened on 10 August 2008 , after which further construction was terminated . Stage one cost N
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. The eight men were transferred to Fort Hunt , Virginia shortly after VE Day , where they continued to be harshly treated until Just agreed to write an account of U @-@ 546 's history on 12 May . Historian Philip K. Lundeberg has written that the beating and torture of U @-@ 546 's survivors was a " singular atrocity " motivated by the interrogators ' need to promptly extract information on potential missile attacks .
The Second Barrier Force slowly moved south west from 24 April , searching for the remaining U @-@ boats . USS Swenning made radar contact with a submarine on the night of 24 April , but it escaped during the resulting search . After a week of searching south of the Newfoundland Banks , the barrier force was split on 2 May to provide greater depth . The Mission Bay group reinforced the Second Barrier Force during this period , bringing its strength to three escort carriers and thirty one destroyer escorts .
U @-@ 881 became the fifth and final U @-@ boat to be sunk during Operation Teardrop on 5 May . The boat was detected while attempting to pass submerged through the barrier line by USS Farquhar shortly before daybreak . The destroyer escort immediately turned to starboard and dropped depth charges , which sank the submarine with no survivors at 0616 . U @-@ 881 was the last German submarine to be sunk by the U.S. Navy during World War II .
The Second Barrier Force established its final barrier line along the 60th meridian on 7 May . Following the unconditional surrender of all German forces that day , it accepted the surrender of U @-@ 234 , U @-@ 805 , U @-@ 858 and U @-@ 1228 at sea before returning to bases on the U.S. east coast .
= = Aftermath = =
After the German surrender the U.S. Navy continued its efforts to determine whether the U @-@ boats had carried missiles . The crews of U @-@ 805 and U @-@ 858 were interrogated and confirmed that their boats were not fitted with missile launching equipment . Kapitänleutnant Fritz Steinhoff , who had commanded U @-@ 511 during her rocket trials and was captured at sea when he surrendered U @-@ 873 , was subjected to an abusive interrogation at Portsmouth by the interviewers of U @-@ 546 's crew . An official Navy investigation was held into this interrogation after Steinhoff committed suicide at Charles Street Jail in Boston shortly afterwards . It is not known if the Allies were aware of Steinhoff 's involvement in the rocket trials .
The tactics used in Operation Teardrop were evaluated by U.S. Navy officers after the war . The escort carriers ' air wings were disappointed with their experience , as their ability to detect submarines was hampered by severe weather throughout the operation . Despite this , the aircraft were successful in forcing the U @-@ boats to remain submerged , thereby greatly slowing their speed . Other after action reports stressed the importance of teamwork between destroyer escorts when attacking submarines and argued that single barrier lines such as those used throughout most of Operation Teardrop were inferior to grouping ships in assigned patrol areas . Nevertheless , Philip K. Lundeberg has assessed the operation as " a classic demonstration not only of coordinated hunter tactics , derived in part from British experience , but also of the profound impact of communications intelligence in the interdiction of U @-@ boat transit and operating areas . " Similarly , the British official history of the role intelligence played in World War II noted that information obtained from decrypted German radio transmissions contributed to " virtually all " of the sinkings during Operation Teardrop .
A variant of the V @-@ 1 was used by the U.S. Navy to test the feasibility of launching missiles from submarines in the years after World War II . Republic ‐ Ford JB ‐ 2 " Loon " missiles were launched from USS Cusk and Carbonero in a series of tests which began on February 12 , 1947 . These tests were successful , and led to the development of further submarine @-@ launched cruise missiles . The U.S. Navy 's success in adapting a variant of the V @-@ 1 to be launched from submarines also demonstrated that it would have been technically feasible for the German navy to have done the same .
= 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar ( 1st Croatian ) =
The 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar ( 1st Croatian ) was a mountain infantry division of the Waffen @-@ SS , an armed branch of the German Nazi Party that served alongside but was never formally part of the Wehrmacht during World War II . From March to December 1944 , it fought a counter @-@ insurgency campaign against communist @-@ led Yugoslav Partisan resistance forces in the Independent State of Croatia , a fascist puppet state of Nazi Germany that encompassed almost all of modern @-@ day Croatia , all of modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as parts of Serbia . It was given the title Handschar after a local fighting knife or sword carried by Turkish policemen during the centuries that the region was part of the Ottoman Empire . It was the first non @-@ Germanic Waffen @-@ SS division , and its formation marked the expansion of the Waffen @-@ SS into a multi @-@ ethnic military force . Composed of Bosnian Muslims ( ethnic Bosniaks ) with some Catholic Croat soldiers and mostly German and Yugoslav Volksdeutsche ( ethnic German ) officers and non @-@ commissioned officers , it took an oath of allegiance to both Adolf Hitler and the Croatian leader Ante Pavelić .
The division fought briefly in the Syrmia region north of the Sava river prior to crossing into northeastern Bosnia . After crossing the Sava , it established a designated " security zone " in northeastern Bosnia between the Sava , Bosna , Drina and Spreča rivers . It also fought outside the security zone on several occasions , and earned a reputation for brutality and savagery , not only during combat operations , but also through atrocities committed against Serb and Jewish civilians . In late 1944 , parts of the division were transferred briefly to the Zagreb area , after which the non @-@ German members began to desert in large numbers . Over the winter of 1944 – 45 , it was sent to the Baranja region where it fought against the Red Army and Bulgarians throughout southern Hungary , falling back via a series of defensive lines until they were inside the Reich frontier . Most of the remaining Bosnian Muslims left at this point and attempted to return to Bosnia . The rest retreated further west , hoping to surrender to the western Allies . Most of the remaining members became prisoners of the British Army . Subsequently , 38 officers were extradited to Yugoslavia to face criminal charges , and 10 were executed .
= = Background = =
= = = NDH and Ante Pavelić = = =
After the invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers on 6 April 1941 , the extreme Croat nationalist and fascist Ante Pavelić , who had been in exile in Benito Mussolini 's Italy , was appointed Poglavnik ( leader ) of an Ustaše @-@ led Croatian state – the Independent State of Croatia ( often called the NDH , from the Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska ) . The NDH combined almost all of modern @-@ day Croatia , all of modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern @-@ day Serbia into an " Italian @-@ German quasi @-@ protectorate " . NDH authorities , led by the Ustaše Militia , subsequently implemented genocidal policies against the Serb , Jewish and Roma population living within the borders of the new state .
In an effort to secure the loyalty of the Bosnian Muslims , Pavelić ordered that a property in Zagreb be converted into a mosque that he named the " Poglavnik 's Mosque " . Despite Pavelić 's assurances of equality with the Croats , many Muslims quickly became dissatisfied with Croatian rule . A Muslim leader reported that not one Muslim occupied an influential post in the administration . Fierce fighting broke out between the Ustaše , Chetniks and Yugoslav Partisans in NDH territory . Some Ustaše militia units became convinced that the Muslims were communist sympathizers , and burned their villages and murdered many civilians . The Chetniks accused the Muslims of taking part in the Ustaše violence against Serbs and perpetrated similar atrocities against the Muslim population . The Muslims received little protection from the Croatian Home Guard , the regular army of the NDH , whom the Germans described as " of minimal combat value " . Local militias were raised , but these were also of limited value and only one , the Tuzla @-@ based Home Guard " Hadžiefendić Legion " led by Muhamed Hadžiefendić , was of any significance .
= = = Denunciations and request for protection = = =
The Bosnian Muslim elite and notables in various cities and towns issued resolutions or memoranda that publicly denounced Croat @-@ Nazi collaborationist measures along with laws and violence against Serbs : Prijedor ( 23 September 1941 ) , Sarajevo ( 12 October ) , Mostar ( 21 October ) , Banja Luka ( 12 November ) , Bijeljina ( 2 December ) and Tuzla ( 11 December ) . The resolutions condemned the Ustaše in Bosnia and Herzegovina , both for their mistreatment of Muslims and for their attempts to turn Muslims and Serbs against one another . One memorandum declared that since the beginning of the Ustaše regime , the Muslims had dreaded the lawless activities that the Ustaše , Croatian government authorities and various illegal groups had been perpetrating against the Serbs .
The Bosnian Muslims ' dissatisfaction with the Ustaše rule of the NDH and their need for protection were combined with nostalgia for the period of Habsburg rule in Bosnia and a generally friendly attitude towards Germany among prominent Bosnian Muslims . These factors led to a push towards autonomy for the Bosnian Muslim community which was strongly opposed by Pavelić as counter to the territorial integrity of the NDH . By November 1942 , the autonomists were desperate to protect the Muslim people and wrote to Adolf Hitler asking that he annex Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Reich .
= = Origin = =
On 6 December 1942 , Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler and key Waffen @-@ SS recruiting officer SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen @-@ SS Gottlob Berger approached Hitler with the proposal to raise a Bosnian Muslim SS division . Both the Wehrmacht and the Waffen @-@ SS were concerned about the rapidly deteriorating security situation in the NDH that tied down German military personnel needed elsewhere . A German source noted that by 1943 over 100 @,@ 000 Bosnian Muslims had been killed and 250 @,@ 000 had become refugees . In addition , a serious food shortage threatened the region . " The Muslims , " remarked SS @-@ Gruppenführer und Generalleutnant der Waffen @-@ SS Artur Phleps , " bear the special status of being persecuted by all others " .
The romantic notions that Himmler had about the Bosnian Muslims were probably significant in the division 's genesis . He was personally fascinated by the Islamic faith and believed that Islam created fearless soldiers . He found their ferocity preferable to the gentility of Christians and believed their martial qualities should be further developed and put to use . He thought that Muslim men would make perfect SS soldiers as Islam " promises them Heaven if they fight and are killed in action . " As for their ethnic background and SS requirements , it appears that Himmler accepted the theories advanced by both Croatian and German nationalists that the Croatian people , including the Muslims , were not ethnic Slavs but pure Aryans of either Gothic or Iranian descent .
Himmler was inspired by the noted successes of the Bosnian @-@ Herzegovinian Infantry in World War I. He " endeavored to restore what he called ' an old Austrian ' tradition by reviving the Bosnian regiments of the former Austro @-@ Hungarian Army in the form of a Bosnian Muslim SS Division " . Once raised , the division was to engage and destroy Josip Broz Tito 's Partisan forces operating in north @-@ eastern Bosnia , thus restoring local " order " . Himmler 's primary concern in the region was not the security of the local Muslim population , but the welfare of ethnic German settlers to the north in Syrmia . " Srem ( Syrmia ) is the breadbasket of Croatia , and hopefully it and our beloved German settlements will be secured . I hope that the area south of Srem will be liberated by ... the Bosnian division ... so that we can at least restore partial order in this ridiculous ( Croatian ) state . "
Hitler formally approved the project in mid @-@ February 1943 and Himmler put Artur Phleps , commander of the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen , in charge of raising the first SS division to be recruited from a non @-@ Germanic people .
= = Recruitment = =
On 18 February 1943 , Phleps travelled to Zagreb to begin formal negotiations with the NDH government . He met with German foreign ministry envoy Siegfried Kasche and NDH Foreign Minister Dr. Mladen Lorković who represented Pavelić . Pavelić had already agreed to raise the division , but the Waffen @-@ SS and NDH governments had very different ideas of how it would be recruited and controlled . Lorković suggested that it be named the SS Ustaša Division , a Croatian unit raised with SS assistance , with familiar geographically based regimental names such as Bosna , Krajina and Una . This reflected the concerns shared by Pavelić and Kasche that an exclusively Muslim division might aid a Muslim bid for independence . As a compromise , the word " Croatian " was included in its official title and Croatian Catholic officers were recruited . Himmler and Phleps largely prevailed and created the division as they saw fit , leaving the NDH very unhappy with the outcome , particularly regarding its ethnic composition .
SS @-@ Standartenführer Karl von Krempler , a specialist in Islam who spoke Serbo @-@ Croatian , was charged by Himmler and Phleps with organising the division . On 3 March 1943 , Phleps met with von Krempler , who was to work with NDH government representative Dr. Alija Šuljak . The campaign began on 20 March 1943 , when von Krempler and Šuljak began an 18 @-@ day recruiting tour through 11 Bosnian districts . In the meantime the Germans began raising the divisional headquarters staff in Berlin , including SS @-@ Standartenführer der Reserve Herbert von Oberwurzer , who was transferred from the 6th SS Mountain Division Nord to command the division .
Šuljak and von Krempler soon fell out over the aims and purposes of the proposed division . Šuljak , an entirely political appointee , criticized von Krempler 's Serbian dialect and his use of traditional Islamic colours and emblems ( green flags and crescent moons ) during the recruitment drive rather than the Ustaše symbols . When he reached Tuzla in central Bosnia , von Krempler met the Muslim militia leader Major Muhamed Hadžiefendić , who was then officially serving in an under @-@ equipped Croatian Home Guard unit . On 28 March , Hadžiefendić escorted von Krempler to Sarajevo , where he introduced him to Hafiz Muhamed Pandža , who was the leader of the Islamic clergy for Bosnia , the reis @-@ ul @-@ ulema as well as other leading Muslim politicians not involved with the Ustaše . The NDH government and Kasche were furious , demanding von Krempler 's immediate removal . The SS ignored the demand and von Krempler continued recruiting , including deserters from the NDH armed forces .
= = = Mufti of Jerusalem = = =
In April 1943 , the Mufti of Jerusalem , Mohammad Amin al @-@ Husayni , was invited by Berger to assist in organising and recruiting Muslims into the Waffen @-@ SS and other units . He was escorted by von Krempler , who spoke Turkish . The Mufti successfully convinced the Muslims to ignore the declarations of the Sarajevo , Mostar and Banja Luka Ulama ( Islamic clerics ) , who in 1941 forbade them from collaborating with the Ustaše .
The Germans emphasised that al @-@ Husayni had flown from Berlin to Sarajevo in order to bless and inspect the division . During his visit to Bosnia al @-@ Husayni also convinced some important Muslim leaders that the formation of the division was in the interests of Islam .
The Mufti insisted , " The most important task of this division must be to protect the homeland and families [ of the Bosnian volunteers ] ; the division must not be permitted to leave Bosnia " , but the Germans paid no attention .
= = = Croat Catholic recruitment = = =
Despite the support of al @-@ Husayni , recruitment of Muslims for the division fell well short of the numbers needed . Himmler then allowed a 10 percent Christian component , but the recruitment of sufficient Muslims continued to prove difficult , resulting in the induction of 2 @,@ 800 Catholic Croats into the division . To Himmler 's dismay , this was greater than the ratio of Catholics to Muslims that he had wanted .
Hussein Biščević ( Husejin Biščević or Biščević @-@ beg ; born 28 July 1884 ) was the highest ranking ( and perhaps the oldest ) Bosnian military officer to volunteer . Bišcević had served in the Austro – Hungarian army and in August 1943 was appointed as an SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer to command the divisional anti @-@ aircraft battalion . He was eventually judged unsuitable , and was replaced with a German just before the division went into combat .
= = Composition = =
Sources differ regarding the division 's initial composition . Pavlowitch states that sixty percent of its recruits were Muslims and the rest were Yugoslav Volksdeutsche who made up the majority of its officers and NCOs . Tomasevich states that it was formed with 23 @,@ 200 Muslims and 2 @,@ 800 Croats , with mostly German officers . He further states it was the largest of the Muslim SS Divisions with 26 @,@ 000 men . Lepre indicates that the division 's prescribed strength was reduced from 26 @,@ 000 to 21 @,@ 000 , and Cohen states that the division achieved a maximum strength of 17 @,@ 000 in April 1944 . The division had a Muslim Imam for each battalion other than the all @-@ German signal battalion . For about six months the division included about 1 @,@ 000 ethnic Albanians from Kosovo and the Sandžak region who made up the 1st Battalion of the 2nd Regiment , which later became the 1st Battalion of the 28th Regiment ( I / 28 ) .
By the time the division had completed its training , it was still about one third below its designated strength in both officers and NCOs , and its officer corps remained almost entirely German . Most of the officers and NCOs were drawn from replacement units of other Waffen @-@ SS divisions .
= = Formation , training and mutiny = =
The division was initially sent to southern France for formation and training , where it was accommodated mainly in towns and villages in the Aveyron and Lozère départements . For a long period after its official formation , the division was unnamed and was referred to as the " Kroatische SS @-@ Freiwilligen @-@ Division " ( Croatian SS @-@ Volunteer Division ) or the " Muselmanen @-@ Division " ( Muslim Division ) . The decision by the Waffen @-@ SS to form and train the division outside Bosnia was contrary to advice given by the NDH 's German plenipotentiary general , Edmund Glaise von Horstenau . This advice soon proved prophetic .
On 9 August 1943 , Oberst Karl @-@ Gustav Sauberzweig took command of the division from von Oberwurzer . Sauberzweig transferred to the Waffen @-@ SS and was appointed to the rank of SS @-@ Oberführer . He was a Prussian who had been decorated as an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old company commander during World War I , and had served as a regimental commander during the early stages of Operation Barbarossa before being wounded . A " proven leader of men " , he spoke no Serbo @-@ Croatian but quickly gained the lasting respect and affection of the men of the division .
= = = Villefranche @-@ de @-@ Rouergue Mutiny ( September 1943 ) = = =
On the night of 16 / 17 September 1943 , while the 13th SS Division was training in Villefranche @-@ de @-@ Rouergue in France , a group of pro @-@ Partisan soldiers led by Muslim and Catholic junior officers staged a mutiny within the Pioneer battalion . Led by Ferid Džanić , Božo Jelinek ( aka Eduard Matutinović ) , Nikola Vukelić and Lutfija Dizdarević , they captured most of the German personnel and executed five German officers , including battalion commander SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Oskar Kirchbaum . Apparently , the mutineers believed that many of the enlisted men would join them and they could reach the western Allies .
The revolt was put down with the assistance of the unit imam , Halim Malkoč , and unit physician Dr. Willfried Schweiger . Malkoč told the Bosnian enlisted men of 1st Company that they were being deceived , released the German NCOs and rallied the company to hunt down the ringleaders . Schweiger did the same with 2nd Company . Dizdarević and Džanić were shot and killed during the fighting , and Vukelić was captured , while Jelinek escaped .
Sources vary on the number of mutineers killed after the revolt was suppressed . Tomasevich states that 78 of the worst offenders were executed , but Lepre lists only 14 executions while four more deserters were located and shot in late September . Cohen states that about 150 mutineers were killed immediately , while Noel Malcolm writes that 15 of the mutineers died and a further 141 were killed in a subsequent " clean @-@ up operation . " The Germans attributed the infiltration to Tito 's suggestion that his Partisan followers enlist for police duty to receive superior weapons , uniforms and training . Enlistees who were deemed " unsuitable for service " or " politically unreliable " were subsequently purged . Eventually , 825 Bosnians were removed from the division and sent to Germany for labour service with Organisation Todt . Of these , 265 refused and were sent to the Neuengamme concentration camp where dozens of them died .
Speaking of the Bosnian Muslim troops who had served in the Austro – Hungarian army , Himmler later said , " I knew there was a chance that a few traitors might be smuggled into the division , but I haven 't the slightest doubt concerning the loyalty of the Bosnians . These troops were loyal to their supreme commander twenty years ago , so why shouldn 't they be so today . " Himmler awarded both Malkoč and Schweiger the Iron Cross Second Class for thwarting the mutiny . Five soldiers were also decorated .
When Villefranche @-@ de @-@ Rouergue was liberated in 1944 , the local population decided to pay tribute to the mutineers by naming one of its streets Avenue des Croates ( Bosnian Muslims were seen by the local population as Croats of Islamic faith ) and commemorating " the revolt of the Croats " every 17 September . Cohen states that after the war , the Yugoslav government requested it be changed to " the revolt of the Yugoslavs " in order to obscure the mutineers ' ethnicity ;
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mph ( 280 km / h ) wind gust on Mount Washington in New Hampshire . In addition , David dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 10 @.@ 73 inches ( 273 mm ) in Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , with widespread reports of over five inches ( 130 mm ) . Storm surge was moderate , peaking at 8 @.@ 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) in Charleston and up to five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) along much of the eastern United States coastline .
Overall , damage was light in most areas , though it was very widespread . High winds and rain downed power lines in the New York City area , leaving 2 @.@ 5 million people without electricity during the storm 's passage . David also caused minor to moderate beach erosion , as well as widespread crop damage from the flooding . In addition , the hurricane spawned numerous tornadoes while moving through the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England . In Virginia eight tornadoes formed across the southeastern portion of the state , of which six were F2 's or greater on the Fujita scale . The tornadoes caused one death , 19 injuries , damaged 270 homes , and destroyed three homes , amounting to $ 6 million ( $ 20 million in 2005 USD ) in losses . In Maryland , David 's outer bands formed seven tornadoes . In New Castle County , Delaware , an F2 tornado damaged numerous homes and injured five .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Dominica = = =
Immediately after the storm , lack of power prevented communications and the outside world had little knowledge of the extent of the damage in Dominica . A citizen named Fred White ended that by using a battery @-@ operated ham radio to contact the world .
In response to the severe agricultural damage , the government initiated a food ration . By two months after the storm , assistance pledges amounted to over $ 37 million ( 1979 US $ ) from various groups around the world . Similar to the aftermath of other natural disasters , the distribution of the aid raised concerns and accusations over the amount of food and material , or lack thereof , for the affected citizens . The Hurricane destroyed some important landmarks , including a significant part of the ruins of the Fort Young which had stood since the 1770s .
Another occurrence less typical of the aftermath of other natural disasters was the looting . In supermarkets , seaports , and homes , what was not destroyed by the hurricanes was stolen in the weeks after the storm .
HMS Fife ( a Royal Navy County Class Destroyer ) was on its way back to the United Kingdom when the hurricane struck , and was turned back to provide emergency aid to the island . Sailing through mountainous seas The Fife docked in the main harbor at Roseau without assistance , and was the only outside help for several days . The crew provided work details and medical parties to offer assistance to the island and concentrated on the hospital buildings , the airstrip , and restoring power and water . The ship 's helicopter ( called Humphrey ) took medical aid into the hills to assist people who were cut off from getting to other help by fallen trees . The ship also used its radio systems to broadcast news and music to the island to inform the population of what was being done and how to get assistance . This was the first time a Royal Navy ship had provided a public broadcast news service .
= = = United States = = =
Despite the casualties and damages attributed to David , the storm 's effects were not as bad as in other countries . In particular , South Florida escaped relatively lightly . Because of this , NHC Director Neil Frank was accused of overly stirring up panic before the arrival of David : two local psychiatrists even claimed that the experience would make residents more complacent towards future storms . However , the NHC defended their methods , with Neil Frank stating : " If we hadn 't [ raised public alarm ] and our predictions had been more accurate , the consequences would have been disastrous . " One reporter who covered Hurricane David was Dick Baumbach , a journalist with TODAY newspaper , now known as Florida Today . He along with news photographer Scott Maclay followed the path of the hurricane from Miami to Central Florida . In Cocoa Beach , Baumbach decided to ride out the hurricane in his home with two other journalists . While it was a difficult and trying experience all three reporters survived and ended up winning numerous awards . The hurricane also interrupted the filming of the movie Caddyshack that was taking place at the Rolling Hills Country Club in Fort Lauderdale .
= = = Retirement = = =
The name David was retired following this storm because of its devastation and high death toll and will never be used again for an Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced with Danny for the 1985 season .
= Song Beneath the Song =
" Song Beneath the Song " also known as Grey 's Anatomy : The Music Event , is the eighteenth episode of the seventh season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the one @-@ hundred forty @-@ fourth episode overall . It was named after a song by American singer Maria Taylor . Written by series creator Shonda Rhimes and directed by Tony Phelan , it premiered on ABC in the United States on March 31 , 2011 . It is the series 's first musical episode , and features the cast performing songs previously featured within the program . It is accompanied by a soundtrack album , titled Grey 's Anatomy : The Music Event , also released on March 31 , 2011 .
The episode revolves around Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) and Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) , just after they are involved in a vehicular collision . Various songs are performed by the cast members , as they attempt to save the life of Torres . Rhimes originally idealized the episode at the conception of the drama , while the show remained untitled . The episode opened to mixed reviews from television critics , and it was the second most watched program of the night . " Song Beneath the Song " was ranked in several " best and worst " lists , and the soundtrack was included on the Billboard 200 .
= = Plot = =
En route to a weekend getaway , surgeons Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) and Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) are involved in a vehicular collision , moments after Robbins proposes marriage . Torres suffers severe injuries , which endanger both her life and the life of her unborn child . She and Robbins are taken to Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital , the institute at which they both work . Their colleagues attempt to save Torres , while Robbins and Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , the father of Torres 's baby , stand by . Torres 's many injuries include neurological trauma . While barely conscious , she hallucinates an uninjured version of herself standing beside her . The hallucinatory Torres begins to sing , and is gradually joined by the doctors treating her . This singing continues throughout the episode , as Torres 's projection of herself attempts to reach out to Robbins .
Torres goes into cardiac arrest and is taken into an operating room she is temporarily stabilized , pending further surgery . She is moved into intensive care , while neonatal surgeon Addison Montgomery ( Kate Walsh ) is flown in by helicopter in case the baby has to be delivered prematurely . Robbins and Sloan argue over Torres 's treatment ; Robbins believes that Torres would not risk endangering the baby , but Sloan argues for saving Torres at all costs . The attending surgeons devise a treatment plan , led by trauma surgeon Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) . As they do so , Torres dreams about the moments preceding the accident . Her dream self sings to Robbins , interspersed with shots of the hospital staff singing and dancing with their own partners . Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) suggests treating Torres with a high @-@ risk but potentially effective cardiothoracic procedure she learned from her old mentor , Preston Burke ( Isaiah Washington ) . Her current mentor , Teddy Altman ( Kim Raver ) , refuses to perform it , but when Torres 's condition deteriorates and she is rushed back into surgery , Hunt agrees that Yang should attempt the procedure .
When Torres again goes into cardiac arrest , Montgomery delivers her daughter at twenty @-@ three weeks 's gestation . The baby is initially unable to breathe , so with Sloan 's support , Robbins steps in and is able to revive her . Across the operating room , Torres 's condition begins to improve . Once the surgery is complete , the doctors deal with their own affairs ; Sloan 's former partner Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) commits to her new relationship with resident Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) ; Lexie 's sister Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) confesses that she was jealous of Torres 's pregnancy , which prompts her husband Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) to promise that they will have a child together ; Altman tells Yang that she can no longer teach her ; Sloan and Robbins bond over their shared parenthood . Later , as Robbins keeps a vigil by Torres 's bedside , the hallucinatory Torres is able to rouse her recovering self . As she regains consciousness , Torres accepts Robbins 's proposal .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Since Grey 's Anatomy began , series creator Shonda Rhimes had planned to produce a musical episode . She first vocalized the idea during filming of the pilot episode , when the program was as yet untitled . Rhimes felt that seasons six and seven were the right time for the crew to " try anything and everything [ they had ] always wanted to do , " and explained that she " finally [ had ] the right idea and the right talent to make [ a musical episode ] happen . " Filming began seven and a half years after Rhimes initially raised the idea . The episode was shot in approximately two weeks . Though cast member Dempsey jokingly referred to the episode as Glee M.D. , Rhimes intended for it to differ from other musical television episodes . She called it the opposite of " Once More , with Feeling , " the " all @-@ out , show @-@ stopping , " musical episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer , as she aimed to " do something that was musical without being a musical . "
Rhimes said she had difficulty getting the network 's permission . She added : " I begged the studio people . I begged the network people . I took these people to dinner and begged . I jumped out at these people in bathrooms and begged . And they all smiled politely but what they were clearly really thinking was , ' This woman is an idiot . ' " Rhimes also explains why it took so long to produce this episode :
The script was written by Rhimes in November 2010 . She centered the episode around Ramirez 's character , Callie , and stated that the storyline would have developed regardless of whether it involved musical performances . Sara Ramirez used the opportunity to launch her career as a singer @-@ songwriter ; an alternate version of " The Story " is included on her debut EP , released four days prior to the episode 's premiere . The episode served to improve the relationship between Mark and Arizona . Capshaw assessed that , " The traumatic circumstance leads to them having a greater understanding of each other and then appreciation , and then need for each other and desire to be in each other ’ s lives . They come to care , I think , for one another . "
= = = Musical performances = = =
Rhimes , executive producer Betsy Beers and director Tony Phelan selected songs that became famous through their use in Grey 's Anatomy , and chose " the most iconic ones , the ones that best suited [ their ] singers , and the ones that made the most sense . " The multiple cover versions include the program 's theme tune , " Cosy in the Rocket " by Psapp . The primary vocalists are cast members Ramirez , McKidd , Leigh and Chandra Wilson . The soundtrack also includes " How to Save a Life " by The Fray and " Running on Sunshine " by Jesus Jackson , performed as ensemble pieces by Ramirez , McKidd , Wilson , Leigh , Daniel Sunjata , Scott Foley , Ellen Pompeo , Justin Chambers , Raver , Dane , and Capshaw . Ramirez , McKidd and Wilson also perform together on Snow Patrol 's " Chasing Cars . " Ramirez is the lead vocalist on " The Story " by Brandi Carlile , and " Grace " by Kate Havnevik , which also features the other female cast members , including Leigh and Sarah Drew on the chorus . Capshaw duets with Ramirez on KT Tunstall 's " Universe & U. " Wilson is the lead vocalist on " Wait " by Get Set Go , McKidd on " How We Operate " by Gomez , and Leigh on Anna Nalick 's " Breathe ( 2 AM ) . "
Leigh told that some actors were not " adamant and excited " about singing but still had the possibility to participate in the episode . " There were certain ways in which the scenes were written , even if there was a song in there , that perhaps a line was spoken instead of sung , " she said .
A vocal coach was enlisted to help the cast . Music director Chris Horvath was recruited to arrange the selected songs for the cast . The arrangements took around two months , with vocals recorded over four days in February 2011 . Horvath praised the cast 's response to the episode , noting that only four performers had " serious vocal talent , " while some had " barely sung in the shower " before . Those with professional singing experience include Ramirez , who won a Tony Award for her role in the musical Spamalot , and Wilson , who appeared in the Broadway production of Caroline , or Change . Cast members 's reactions toward the episode varied . Pompeo initially deemed the idea " crazy , " but rescinded her stance following the first read @-@ through . Recurring cast member Sunjata stated that singing was " a bit out of [ his ] comfort zone , " but found it an " interesting challenge , " and McKidd deemed it " very exciting to do something that 's completely out on a limb for the show . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Pre @-@ broadcast commentary = = =
Critical response prior to broadcast was mixed . TVLine 's Michael Ausiello assessed that the episode would " either be a show @-@ stopping triumph or a spectacular failure , " with no possible middle ground . William Keck of TV Guide initially had " serious doubts , " which were allayed by a visit to the set , during which he listened to the soundtrack . Keck likened it to the " much @-@ beloved early seasons of Grey 's , when music played a vital role on the show . " Entertainment Weekly 's Dan Snierson predicted heavy use of Auto Tune , though fellow EW writer Jennifer Armstrong was optimistic that the episode would be a success , commenting : " I have faith . I like musicals , I like Grey 's . I 'm rooting for this to work . "
= = = Ratings = = =
During its original broadcast , " Song Beneath the Song " was watched by an average of 13 @.@ 09 million American viewers . It attained a 4 @.@ 9 / 13 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , making it the second highest @-@ rated program of the night , behind only American Idol on the Fox network . The rating was the second highest of the seventh season until that point , and a 30 percent increase from the previous episode , " This is How We Do It , " which was watched by 2 @.@ 4 million fewer viewers .
In Canada , where the episode also aired on March 31 , 2011 , it was watched by 3 @.@ 18 million viewers . Viewership again increased on " This is How We Do It , " which attained 2 @.@ 63 million viewers . However , while the preceding episode was the most @-@ viewed scripted show for the week of its original broadcast , " Song Beneath the Song " ranked second , behind The Big Bang Theory .
= = = Post @-@ broadcast commentary = = =
Following the first minutes of the drama , reactions on Twitter were mixed . Nicole Golden from TV Fanatic gave the episode 4 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 @.@ 0 . She found that " overall , the concept worked since music really has always played a big part in the show . Some songs were more appropriate and / or better performed than others , though . " She also wrote the concept worked in part because it was new but noted " the format would probably not have the same effect if used in future episodes . " Even though Boston Herald 's critic Mark Perigard was not a fan of the concept , saying " the Grey 's Anatomy event proved how tricky it is for an established show , especially a drama , to pull off a musical episode , " he did like several actors 's performances . He wrote : " Chandra Wilson and Chyler Leigh ( whom I never have anything good to say about ) delivered some impressive vocal work . Eric Dane did some of his best acting of his career last night as an anxious father @-@ to @-@ be terrified he would lose his best friend . " Lyneka Little of The Wall Street Journal wrote , " If Glee and ER had a baby it would be tonight ’ s episode of the medical drama Grey ’ s Anatomy titled “ Song Beneath the Song . ” " In his review of the episode Alan Sepinwall of HitFix wrote " Like Grey 's Anatomy as a whole , some parts were unintentionally silly , others were surprisingly powerful , and it was rarely dull , at least . "
Patrick Dempsey admitted that the musical episode might not have been showrunner Shonda Rhimes 's best idea . He explained : " It 's very difficult to keep it fresh when you 're doing 24 episodes a year . Shonda Rhimes has a lot of ideas , and she is in a position where she can take more chances . Sometimes that works , sometimes it does not . Last year we had the singing episode , which I think was a big mistake . But you have to try . "
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2011 , the episode was ranked number 19 on the TV Guide Network special , 25 Biggest TV Blunders 2 . It was included in TV Guide 's list " The Worst of 2011 " saying , " Sara Ramirez has powerhouse pipes , but what this episode desperately needed was a better playlist . " BuddyTV , however , ranked it number 43 on its list of 2011 's 50 Best TV Episodes and it also appeared on Digital Spy 's shortlist of " TV 's Best Musical Episodes . " Supervising Music Editor Jennifer Barak and Music Editors Carli Barber and Jessica Harrison were nominated in the Best Sound Editing : Short Form Musical in Television category at the 2012 Golden Reel Awards for their work on the episode .
= = Soundtrack = =
= = = Track listing = = =
= = = Chart history = = =
Grey 's Anatomy : The Music Event debuted at number 24 on the Billboard 200 , with 19 @,@ 000 copies sold . It reached number 2 on the U.S. Soundtracks chart , and was the number 5 Independent Album . " The Story " entered the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart at number 69 , and the Canadian Hot 100 at 72 .
= Douglas MacArthur 's escape from the Philippines =
Douglas MacArthur 's escape from the Philippines began on 11 March 1942 , during World War II , when General Douglas MacArthur and members of his family and staff left Corregidor Island , where his forces had been surrounded by the Japanese . They traveled in PT boats ( patrol torpedo boats ) for two days through stormy seas patrolled by Japanese warships to reach Mindanao . From there , MacArthur and his party flew to Australia in a pair of Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses , ultimately arriving in Melbourne by train on 21 March . In Australia , he made his famous speech in which he declared , " I came through and I shall return " .
MacArthur was a well @-@ known and experienced officer with a distinguished record in World War I , who had retired from the United States Army in 1937 and had become a defense advisor to the Philippine government . He was recalled to active duty with the United States Army in July 1941 , a few months before the outbreak of the Pacific War between the United States and the Empire of Japan , to become commander of United States Army Forces in the Far East ( USAFFE ) , uniting the Philippine and United States Armies under one command .
By March 1942 , the Japanese invasion of the Philippines had compelled MacArthur to withdraw his forces on Luzon to Bataan , while his headquarters and his family moved to Corregidor . The doomed defense of Bataan captured the imagination of the American public . At a time when the news from all fronts was uniformly bad , MacArthur became a living symbol of Allied resistance to the Japanese .
Fearing that Corregidor would soon fall , and MacArthur would be taken prisoner , President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered MacArthur to go to Australia . A submarine was made available , but MacArthur elected to break through the Japanese blockade in PT boats under the command of Lieutenant ( junior grade ) John D. Bulkeley . The staff MacArthur brought with him became known as the " Bataan Gang " . They would become the nucleus of his General Headquarters ( GHQ ) Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) .
= = Background = =
Douglas MacArthur was a well @-@ known and experienced officer . The son of Lieutenant General Arthur MacArthur Jr . , who was awarded the Medal of Honor for his services in the American Civil War , MacArthur had graduated at the top of the United States Military Academy class of 1903 . He was an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to his father from 1905 to 1906 , and to President Theodore Roosevelt from 1906 to 1907 . During World War I he commanded the 84th Brigade of the 42nd ( Rainbow ) Division in the fighting on the Western Front . After the war he served as Superintendent of the United States Military Academy , and as Chief of Staff of the United States Army . He retired from the United States Army in 1937 , and became a field marshal in the Philippine Army .
MacArthur 's job was to advise the Philippine government on defense matters , and prepare the Philippine defense forces when the Philippines became fully independent , which was to be in 1946 . The Philippine Army , almost entirely manned and officered by Filipinos with only a small number of American advisors , was raised by conscription , with two classes of 20 @,@ 000 men being trained each year , starting in 1937 . In addition , there was a regular U.S. Army garrison of about 10 @,@ 000 , half of whom were Filipinos serving in the U.S. Army known as Philippine Scouts . When MacArthur was recalled from retirement in July 1941 to become commander of United States Army Forces in the Far East ( USAFFE ) at the age of 61 , he united the Philippine and United States Armies under one command .
In getting the Philippine Army ready for war , MacArthur faced an enormous task On a visit to the United States in 1937 , MacArthur lobbied the Navy Department for the development of PT boats — small , fast boats armed with torpedoes — for which he believed that the geography of the Philippines , with its shallow waters and many coves , was ideally suited . The nascent Philippine Navy acquired three , known as Q boats , after President Manuel L. Quezon . In August 1941 , the U.S. Navy created Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three , under the command of Lieutenant ( junior grade ) John D. Bulkeley . It was a half @-@ strength squadron , with only six PT boats instead of the normal twelve , numbered 31 to 35 and 41 . It arrived at Manila in September 1941 . It was understood that a fleet consisting of more than PT boats would be required for a successful defense of the Philippines .
As early as 1907 , U.S. naval and military planners had concluded that it would be impractical to repel an invasion of the Philippines . The best that could be hoped for was that the garrison could hold out on the Bataan peninsula until help arrived . In the 1920s it was estimated that they could do so for about 60 days . By the 1930s , the planners had become decidedly pessimistic in view of the increased capability of aircraft , and by 1936 they were agreed that the Philippine should be written off . But in July 1941 , this decision was abruptly reversed , and it became the policy of the U.S. government to defend and hold the Philippines . This was based , at least in part , in the belief that Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bombers could deter or defeat an invading force .
Soon after the Japanese invasion of the Philippines in 1941 , MacArthur , in accordance with the pre @-@ war plan , declared Manila an open city , and ordered his forces on Luzon to withdraw to Bataan . The Philippine government , the High Commissioner 's office and MacArthur 's USAFFE headquarters moved to Corregidor Island . Although the dependents of U.S. military personnel had been sent back to the United States , MacArthur was , until his recall from retirement , a Philippine government employee , so his family had remained in the Philippines . MacArthur 's wife , Jean MacArthur , and young son , Arthur MacArthur IV , went with him to Corregidor . Arthur celebrated his fourth birthday on Corregidor , on 21 February 1942 . When an aide asked about Arthur 's possible fate , MacArthur replied : " He is a soldier 's son . "
Most of the United States Asiatic Fleet retired to the south of the Philippines . A small force was left behind under the command of Rear Admiral Francis W. Rockwell consisting of the submarine tender USS Canopus , the submarine rescue ship Pigeon , gunboats Oahu , Luzon and Mindanao , minesweepers Finch , Tanager and Quail , five tugboats , three small patrol boats , and the PT boats of Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three . The loss of Manila and the U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay meant that fuel and spare parts became scarce . The PT boats relied on Canopus and the floating dry dock USS Dewey for assistance with maintenance . Despite this , Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three continued to patrol . On 17 December , PT @-@ 32 , PT @-@ 34 and PT @-@ 35 rescued 296 survivors from SS Corregidor , which had been carrying refugees to Australia when it struck a mine and sank in Manila Bay . A week later , PT @-@ 33 ran aground while patrolling south of Manila Bay , and was set on fire to prevent her being salvaged by the Japanese . PT @-@ 31 met a similar fate a month later , after its engines failed and it drifted onto a reef . The PT boats attacked enemy barges off Luzon on the night of 23 January 1942 , a small Japanese warship on 1 February , and a small vessel , probably a fishing trawler , on 17 February .
= = Decision = =
= = = Washington = = =
In a message to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Washington , D.C. , on 11 February , MacArthur announced that he and his family intended to " share the fate of the garrison " . This meant surrender at best ; MacArthur knew that death from artillery fire or an air raid was also likely . Three days later , the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , George C. Marshall , urged MacArthur to send his family away , but MacArthur ignored this part of the message . Singapore , once considered impregnable , fell on 15 February , and in Washington , the possibility that Corregidor would also fall and MacArthur would be taken prisoner was considered . MacArthur was America 's most experienced general , but would be of little use in a prisoner of war camp . Moreover , he had become a living symbol of Allied resistance to the Japanese . The brave but doomed defense of Bataan had captured the imagination of the American public , who saw MacArthur as the only Allied general who knew how to fight the Japanese . Walter R. Borneman noted that :
in a fragile period of the American psyche when the general American public , still stunned by the shock of Pearl Harbor and uncertain what lay ahead in Europe , desperately needed a hero , they wholeheartedly embraced Douglas MacArthur — good press copy that he was . There simply were no other choices that came close to matching his mystique , not to mention his evocative lone @-@ wolf stand — something that always resonated with Americans .
Secretary of State Cordell Hull raised the possibility of MacArthur 's evacuation . Brigadier General Dwight Eisenhower wrote in his diary :
I cannot help thinking that we are disturbed by editorials and reacting to " public opinion " rather than to military logic . " Pa " Watson is certain we must get MacArthur out , as being worth " five Army corps . "
The President considered sending MacArthur to Mindanao to coordinate the defense of the Philippines from there , but another consideration arose . The fall of Singapore sealed the fate of the American @-@ British @-@ Dutch @-@ Australian Command ( ABDA ) , of which MacArthur 's command was nominally a part . Discussions were held with the British about future command arrangements . A broad agreement was reached that the United States would assume responsibility for the Southwest Pacific . A senior American officer was required , and MacArthur was the obvious choice . On 23 February , MacArthur received a message that had been drafted by the President , Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson and Marshall . It read :
The President directs that you make arrangements to leave and proceed to Mindanao . You are directed to make this change as quickly as possible … From Mindanao you will proceed to Australia where you will assume command
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Army Air Forces .
MacArthur was accompanied by his family : his wife Jean , four @-@ year @-@ old son Arthur , and Arthur 's Cantonese amah , Ah Cheu . MacArthur later defended his decision to take her instead of an American nurse . " Few people outside the Orient " , he wrote , " know how completely a member of the family an amah can become , and Ah Cheu had been with us since Arthur 's birth . Because of her relationship to my family , her death would have been certain had she been left behind . "
In case a doctor was needed , Major Charles H. Morhouse was summoned from Bataan to accompany the party . The remaining thirteen were members of MacArthur 's staff . They were loyal and experienced , and some of them had been with MacArthur for years . Creating a new staff in Australia would have taken time , while taking his existing one would enable him to commence work soon after arrival in Australia . They would be more valuable there than in the Philippines . Sutherland included two of his own men : his assistant , Lieutenant Colonel Francis H. Wilson , and his stenographer , Master Sergeant Paul P. Rogers . Promoted from private that day , Rogers was the only enlisted man on the list , which he typed . A number of men gave him letters to post .
Because there was no food for the passengers on the PT boats , Jean and MacArthur 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Lieutenant Colonel Sidney L. Huff , packed tins of food into four duffel bags , one for each PT boat . Huff removed the four @-@ star rank number plates from MacArthur 's car so they could be used in Australia , and took a mattress for the MacArthurs to lie on . Stories later circulated that it was full of cash or gold . Other stories had it that furniture from MacArthur 's residence in the Manila Hotel had been loaded on board the PT boats , even , in one version of the story , the piano . In fact , each passenger was limited to one piece of luggage weighing 35 pounds ( 16 kilograms ) or less . Jean took a small suitcase with some clothes . It sported a label from the Hotel New Grand in Yokohama , where she stayed during her honeymoon . Ah Cheu wrapped her possessions in a handkerchief . MacArthur took nothing .
= = = PT boat voyage = = =
Only PT @-@ 41 , which carried MacArthur and his family , departed from Corregidor 's North Dock . The passengers of the remaining boats were taken to Bataan in launches and boarded their PT boats there . While his family boarded , MacArthur spoke to Major General George F. Moore , the commander of the Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays . " George " , he told him , " keep the flag flying . I 'm coming back . "
PT @-@ 41 departed at 19 : 45 on 11 March and joined the other three 15 minutes later . A navy minelayer led the PT boats through the protective minefield in single file . The boats then assumed a diamond formation , with PT @-@ 41 in the lead and PT @-@ 34 bringing up the rear . If attacked by the Japanese , PT @-@ 41 was to flee while the other three boats engaged the enemy . The seas were moderate , but most of the passengers quickly became seasick . MacArthur later recalled :
The weather deteriorated steadily , and towering waves buffeted our tiny , war @-@ weary , blacked @-@ out vessels . The spray drove against our skin like stinging pellets of birdshot . We would fall into a trough , then climb up the steep water peak , only to slide down the other side . The boat would toss crazily back and forth , seeming to hang free in space as though about to breach , and would then break away and go forward with a rush . I recall describing the experience afterward as what it must be like to take a trip in a concrete mixer .
During the night , the four boats became separated . Bulkeley spent time looking for the other three boats , but was unable to find them in the darkness . At dawn he gave up , and headed for one of the alternative hiding places . Kelly 's PT @-@ 34 was the first to reach the rendezvous point , a cove on Tagauayan Island , two hours late at 09 : 30 . There was no sign of the other boats , and Rockwell , in the same boat with Kelly , was far from convinced that Kelly had found the correct island . Some repairs were made , and the boat was refueled by hand pumps from the drums . Two men were posted atop the island 's tallest hill to watch out for the Japanese and the other boats .
PT @-@ 32 , which had only two good engines , had straggled behind the others . Around dawn , Schumacher spotted what appeared to be a Japanese destroyer heading towards him . He jettisoned his fuel drums so he could increase speed and run from it . He ordered his crew to man the .50 @-@ caliber machine guns and get ready to launch torpedoes . Akin prepared to toss a barracks bag filled with code books overboard . However , as the light improved , and the vessel drew closer , another look though the binoculars revealed that it was not a Japanese destroyer at all , but PT @-@ 41 , carrying an angry Bulkeley . Schumacher was ordered to recover the drums he had jettisoned , but this proved to be a time @-@ consuming task , and a dangerous one in broad daylight , and it had to be abandoned after only a few drums were recovered . Bulkeley had his gunners sink the rest . The two boats then hid for the day in a nearby cove .
In the afternoon , PT @-@ 41 and PT @-@ 32 made their way to Tagauayan , where they found PT @-@ 34 . There was a discussion about whether to proceed to Mindanao , or wait for Permit . Bulkeley warned that the seas might even be higher . But , since there was no assurance that the submarine would make it , MacArthur decided to continue , departing in daylight at 18 : 00 so as to be sure to meet their air transport there . Since PT @-@ 32 had no fuel to make Mindanao , its passengers were divided between PT @-@ 41 and PT @-@ 34 . Soon after they had departed , PT @-@ 35 belatedly arrived at rendezvous point . Akers found the crew of PT @-@ 32 there , and discovered that the other two boats had been and gone . He therefore set out for Cagayan de Oro as well .
At 19 : 00 , about an hour after they had left Tagauayan , PT @-@ 34 and PT @-@ 41 spotted a Japanese cruiser . Bulkeley made a sharp turn due west , and headed at top speed , about 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , into the setting sun . Whether because of the high waves , the glare of the sun , or simple inattentiveness , the cruiser did not spot them . After midnight , the weather began to worsen , with heavy swells and sporadic squalls . Kelly later recalled :
Big foaming waves fifteen or twenty feet high thundering over the cockpit , drenching everybody . Our binoculars were full of water and our eyes so continuously drenched with stinging salt that we couldn 't see , in addition to which it was pitch @-@ black . We were making good speed through strange waters with islands all around us . We could see the outlines of the big ones — Negros and Mindanao — very dimly against the horizon through the storm . But there were dozens of small ones and probably hundreds of reefs .
You had to keep one hand in front of your eyes to avoid the slapping force of the water and yet you needed both to hold on .
The Admiral was pretty wrought up . " I 've sailed every type of ship in the Navy except one of these MTBs " , he shouted at me above the wind , " and this is the worst bridge I 've ever been on . I wouldn 't do duty on one of these for anything in the world — you can have them . "
By dawn , the winds and swells had subsided , but the delay caused by the bad weather had slowed the two boats , and they now had to travel across the Mindanao Sea in daylight . Cagayan was sighted shortly after 06 : 30 on 13 March . Although PT @-@ 34 had led all the way from Tagauayan , Kelly now let Bulkeley take the lead , as he had the channel charts . PT @-@ 41 therefore pulled up at the wharf first , with MacArthur on the bow . They were met by Colonel William Morse , an officer on the staff of the Brigadier General William F. Sharp , the commander of U.S. forces on Mindanao . MacArthur told Bulkeley " I 'm giving every officer and man here the Silver Star for gallantry . You 've taken me out of the jaws of death , and I won 't forget it . "
A few hours later , PT @-@ 35 reached Cagayan . Willoughby later recalled :
We were behind schedule and reached the north coast of Mindanao in broad daylight . It was a clear , dazzling day . Fortunately , no Japanese planes cut across the blue sky , though the enemy was known to make regular mail flights from Mindanao to Luzon . We were pretty conspicuous as the hours dragged on .
USS Permit , under the command of Lieutenant Wreford G. Chapple , reached Tagauayan on 13 March , and found PT @-@ 32 . With two of his three engines out of action , Schumacher felt that his boat was no longer seaworthy . He had Chapple destroy the boat with Permit 's deck gun . Chapple then took the fifteen PT @-@ 32 crewmen back to Corregidor . There , eight of the crew were disembarked , while Chapple embarked forty more passengers , thirty @-@ six of them codebreakers . Nonetheless , Chapple was ordered to conduct a regular war patrol , which he did . He finally reached Australia on 7 April . Unaware of this , Bulkeley attempted to locate PT @-@ 32 . Over the next few days he flew over the area as a passenger in various aircraft , including a P @-@ 35 and a P @-@ 40 , in the hope of finding it .
= = = Aircraft = = =
The commander of U.S. Army Forces in Australia , Lieutenant General George H. Brett , received a radiogram from General Marshall in Washington , D.C. , alerting him that MacArthur would be requesting bombers to transport his party from Mindanao to Australia . A subsequent message from MacArthur requested his " most experienced pilots , and the best available planes in top condition " , but the only long @-@ range aircraft that Brett had were Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses of the 19th Bombardment Group which had seen hard service in the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies campaigns . He therefore approached Vice Admiral Herbert F. Leary , the commander of naval forces in the Anzac Area , to ask for a loan of some of twelve newly arrived Navy B @-@ 17s . Leary , who had a reputation for refusing requests unless he could see how the Navy would benefit , turned Brett down .
Brett therefore sent four of the 19th Bombardment Group 's old planes . Two were forced to turn back with engine trouble . One of the others accidentally dumped 300 US gallons ( 1 @,@ 100 litres ; 250 imperial gallons ) of its fuel . The pilot flew on , and nearly made it to Del Monte Field , but , just a few miles from his destination , the fuel tanks ran dry and the engines stopped . The B @-@ 17 crash landed in the sea . Two of the crew were killed , but the rest made it to shore , and thence to Del Monte Field . Only one B @-@ 17 , piloted by Lieutenant Harl Pease , reached Del Monte , and this B @-@ 17 was in poor condition , with no brakes and a faulty supercharger . Sharp ordered it back to Australia before MacArthur arrived . Despite the lack of brakes , Pease made the return trip , carrying sixteen passengers .
Thus , with the arrival of PT @-@ 35 , all of MacArthur 's group had reached Mindanao safely , but there were no aircraft at Del Monte Field to meet them . They were taken to the Del Monte Plantation , where they were lodged in the guest houses , and had breakfast in the clubhouse . MacArthur sent a couple of sharp messages to Brett in Melbourne and Marshall in Washington . On their second day there , a Filipino woman arrived who wanted to speak to MacArthur . Her son was fighting on Luzon , and she had walked 25 miles ( 40 kilometres ) in the hope that the general would have some news about him . He did not , but the fact that she was aware of MacArthur 's presence was disturbing to the party , as the Japanese were only 30 miles ( 48 km ) away , at Davao on the south coast of Mindanao .
Brett went back to Leary , expecting to be turned down again , but this time , Leary gave Brett the aircraft he wanted . " Perhaps " , Brett speculated , " Leary had heard from Washington " . The newly formed 40th Reconnaissance Squadron manned the bombers . One B @-@ 17 turned back , but two made it to Del Monte Field on 16 March , landing in the dark on a runway lit by flares . Lieutenant Frank P. Bostrom , the pilot of the first plane , calculated that everyone could be carried in just two planes if they left most of their baggage behind . They divided into two groups and the two bombers took off at 01 : 30 on 17 March . MacArthur rode in the radio operator 's seat , which did not need to be manned as the aircraft were travelling under radio silence . For most of the passengers , the trip was dark and cold , with only a blanket between them and the metal skin of the aircraft .
As the two planes approached Darwin , word was received that a Japanese air raid was in progress there . The two B @-@ 17s therefore flew on to Batchelor Airfield , where they touched down at 09 : 30 . MacArthur awarded Silver Stars to the crews of the two bombers . Brett 's chief of staff , Brigadier General Ralph Royce , was on hand to greet them , and Brett had sent two Australian National Airways DC @-@ 3s to bring them to Melbourne . However , Jean now refused to fly any further , so MacArthur asked for a motorcade to take them to the nearest railway station , which was at Alice Springs , 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) away . Sutherland had received word of an incoming Japanese air raid , and asked Morhouse to intervene . Morhouse told MacArthur that Arthur , who had suffered badly from seasickness and airsickness , was on an intravenous feed , and could not guarantee that he would survive the trip across the desert . MacArthur then agreed to take the planes to Alice Springs . Sutherland had Huff hurry everyone onto the aircraft , which took off as the air raid siren sounded .
At Alice Springs , the party split up . MacArthur , his family , Sutherland , Morhouse and Huff took a special train that Brett had borrowed from the Australians , while the rest of the staff flew down to Melbourne via Adelaide in the DC @-@ 3s . His famous speech , in which he said , " I came through and I shall return " , was first made at Terowie , a small town in South Australia , on 20 March , where he changed trains . On 21 March , MacArthur 's journey was completed when his train rolled into Spencer Street Station , where he was greeted by the Australian Minister for the Army , Frank Forde .
= = Aftermath = =
Roosevelt issued a public statement on 17 March :
I know that every man and woman in the United States admires with me General MacArthur 's determination to fight to the finish with his men in the Philippines . But I also know that every man and woman is in agreement that all important decisions must be made with a view toward the successful termination of the war . Knowing this , I am sure that every American , if faced individually with the question as to where General MacArthur could best serve his country , could come to only one answer .
On Bataan , the reaction to MacArthur 's escape was mixed , with many American and Filipino troops feeling bitter and betrayed . When Wainwright broke the news to his generals " they were all at first depressed by the news … But I soon saw that they understood just as I understood . " Some people with family members in the Philippines were dismayed . One wrote to Roosevelt that " Nothing you could have done would have broken their morale and that of their parents at home so thoroughly " . Wainwright held out on Corregidor until 6 May . To Joseph Goebbels , MacArthur was a " fleeing general " , while Benito Mussolini labeled him a coward . Marshall decided that the best way to counter this was to award MacArthur the Medal of Honor .
In April 1942 , Bulkeley led his squadron in an attack on the Japanese cruiser Kuma . The PT boats scored a hit on the cruiser , but the torpedo was a dud , and failed to explode . No damage resulted . With the loss of Cebu City , there were no more torpedoes , so the active careers of the remaining boats of Bulkeley 's squadron came to an end . MacArthur gave PT boat officers a high priority to be flown out from Mindanao . Bulkeley was flown out on MacArthur 's orders on 13 April . Knox , Kelly and Akers were evacuated on 23 April , and Brantingham also made one of the last flights out from Mindanao . Sharp surrendered on Mindanao on 10 May .
MacArthur subsequently nominated Bulkeley for the Medal of Honor . The Commander in Chief , U.S. Fleet , Admiral Ernest King was not going to let MacArthur award the Medal of Honor to a naval officer , so he wrote a citation for Bulkeley on behalf of the Navy . Roosevelt presented it to Bulkeley in a ceremony in the Oval Office on 4 August 1942 . Bulkeley wrote a book about his exploits , entitled They Were Expendable . Parts were serialized in Reader 's Digest and Life magazines and it became a bestseller in 1942 . In 1944 , it was adapted as a movie of the same name , with Robert Montgomery playing a character based on Bulkeley , John Wayne one based on Kelly , and Donna Reed in the role of an Army nurse with whom Kelly had a brief liaison . Postwar analysis found that most of the book 's claims were exaggerated .
The staff that MacArthur brought with him from Corregidor formed the nucleus of General Headquarters ( GHQ ) Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) . The " Bataan Gang " , as they came to be called , remained with MacArthur for the duration , and were noted for their fanatical loyalty to him . So too was Bulkeley , who lauded MacArthur as " the greatest general as well as statesman since George Washington " , and hailed his decision to escape on PT boats as a stroke of genius . MacArthur eventually kept his promise , and returned to the Philippines . The Bataan Gang returned to Corregidor in March 1945 on four PT boats .
= John Millington Synge =
Edmund John Millington Synge ( / sɪŋ / ; 16 April 1871 – 24 March 1909 ) was an Irish playwright , poet , prose writer , travel writer and collector of folklore . He was a key figure in the Irish Literary Revival and was one of the co @-@ founders of the Abbey
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that " the lack of keyboards and the aging Xbox 360 hardware were a bit tricky , and updating the Xbox version is a huge pain to do . "
= = Release = =
Solar 2 was released on 17 June 2011 on Steam for Microsoft Windows and on 19 June 2011 on Xbox Live Indie Games for the Xbox 360 . On July 2012 , Watts announced that he was working on Mac OS X and Linux versions of the game . However , given that the original game was developed using the Windows @-@ only XNA platform , he expected the ports to be ready sometime before the end of the year . In October 2012 , the Mac port was announced and released on Steam . The iPad version of the game was released in March 2013 . An Android version was also made available on March 2013 .
= = Reception = =
Solar 2 received a positive response from video game journalists upon release . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the game received an average score of 72 based on 8 reviews . Most critics praised the physics @-@ based gameplay and soundtrack , but criticized the exceedingly difficult missions and somewhat repetitive gameplay . However , the game won the US $ 20 @,@ 000 first prize at the 2011 Microsoft Dream Build Play competition , and became a finalist at the 2011 IndieCade festival . Solar 2 was also among the ten indie video games showcased at the 10th Penny Arcade Expo , held in August 2011 .
IGN 's Gord Goble criticized the difficulty of the missions but praised the game 's soundtrack , which he called a combination of " new age @-@ meets @-@ Alan Parsons Project @-@ meets @-@ Pink Floyd @-@ meets @-@ 2001 : A Space Odyssey audioscape . " He also highlighted several features he would have liked to see in the game , such as a more complex universe to explore and the ability to control the life forms in the planets controlled by the player . Graham Smith from PC Gamer was also critical of the missions ' difficulty , although concluded that it was " a good price for a universe . " GamePro 's Nate Ralph mentioned the life forms as the only negative aspect of the game .
The iPad and Android versions of Solar 2 were also well received . App Spy 's Andrew Nesvadba , on his review of the iPad version of the game , highlighted the overall sense that " nothing about the game feels like a waste of time or effort , " but criticized the lack of control over the life forms . Meanwhile , Andrew Martonik from Android Central acknowledged that Solar 2 had all the elements necessary for a great game .
= Keith Miller with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
Keith Miller was a key member of Donald Bradman 's famous Australian cricket team , which toured England in 1948 and went undefeated in its 34 matches . This unprecedented feat by a Test side touring England earned the Australians the sobriquet The Invincibles .
Miller played as a right @-@ arm opening fast bowler and a right @-@ handed middle @-@ order batsman . Along with Ray Lindwall , he formed Australia 's first @-@ choice pace duo , a combination regarded as one of the best of all time . Bradman typically used the pair in short and intense bursts against the English batsmen with the new ball . England had agreed to make a new ball available every 55 overs , more often than usual , allowing the pair more frequent use of a shiny ball that swung at high pace . Miller was also a skillful slips fielder , regarded by his captain as the best in the world .
Miller took 13 wickets at an average of 26 @.@ 28 and scored 184 runs in the Tests at an average of 23 @.@ 15 , and played a key role in subduing England 's leading batsmen , Len Hutton and Denis Compton , with a barrage of short @-@ pitched bowling . He troubled Hutton to such an extent in the Tests and tour matches that the batsman was dropped for the Third Test . In the First Test , Miller took seven wickets , including Hutton and Compton twice , bearing a large part of the bowling workload after Lindwall broke down with a groin injury on the first day . In the Second Test at Lord 's , he scored 74 in the second innings to help bat England out of the match . Miller also scored a rapid 58 in the Fourth Test , featuring in a counter @-@ attacking partnership with Neil Harvey that helped Australia to regain the momentum ; they went on to win in the closing minutes of the final day .
In all first @-@ class matches , Miller scored 1 @,@ 088 runs at 47 @.@ 30 and took 56 wickets at 17 @.@ 58 . Bradman gave him a lighter bowling workload during the tour matches to keep him fresh for the key battles in the Tests . Miller played many of his more carefree innings in the tour matches , hitting many sixes . He also showed his disdain for Bradman 's obsession with annihilating the opposition . In one match against Essex , he deliberately let himself be bowled first ball to protest against Australia 's ruthless dismantling of the bowling ; the tourists set a world record for the most runs scored in a day of first @-@ class cricket ( 721 ) .
Miller 's charisma — coupled with the unprecedented popularity of the Australians — made him much sought after for social events . His friendship with Princess Margaret was particularly scrutinised by the media .
= = Background = =
Miller had played for Australia in every Test match since the resumption of major cricket following the end of World War II . He had been a specialist batsman at the start of the war , but emerged as a frontline fast bowler during the Victory Tests of 1945 . He made his official Test debut against New Zealand in early 1946 . Since the Test series against England during the 1946 – 47 Australian summer , he had opened the bowling with Ray Lindwall , as well as playing as a frontline batsman , usually at No. 5 . Miller had played a leading role in Australia 's 3 – 0 victory over the hosts in that series . He finished at the top of the Australian Test bowling averages with 16 wickets at 20 @.@ 88 , and was second in the batting averages , scoring 384 runs at 76 @.@ 80 . In particular , his pace and intimidating bouncers had caused much trouble for England 's leading batsmen Len Hutton and Denis Compton , whom he would confront again in 1948 . During that series , he dismissed Hutton thrice and took the wicket of his opening partner Cyril Washbrook twice . Apart from scoring his maiden Test century in the series , Miller also hit three scores over 150 for his state , Victoria , all at high pace with many long @-@ distance shots .
Miller had a light workload in the 1947 – 48 home Test series against India . He was not required a great deal , as India were well beaten 4 – 0 , three times by an innings , and his teammates often finished off the opposition before he had an opportunity , particularly with the bat . He was required to bat just once in each Test , accumulating 185 runs at 37 @.@ 00 , including two half @-@ centuries . His bowling duties were also light ; 72 overs yielded nine wickets at 24 @.@ 78 . Both Lindwall and Miller were selected by captain Donald Bradman and his fellow selectors for the 1948 tour of England as the intended new ball pairing .
= = Early tour = =
Along with his teammates , Miller arrived in Southampton in April after a sea voyage from Australia aboard the SS Strathaird . As was the custom , Australia fielded its first @-@ choice team in the traditional tour opener against Worcestershire . Miller was duly selected and started the Invincibles tour strongly . He scored a hard @-@ hitting 50 not out , with five fours and a six , after coming in to bat at No. 9 . His innings was the fastest for the match in terms of runs per minute . He bowled a total of 20 overs for match figures of 1 / 54 as Australia completed an innings victory . His first wicket for the summer was that of opposing captain Allan White .
The tour opener was immediately followed by a game against Leicestershire , and this time , Miller was promoted to No. 3 . At the fall of the first wicket , the crowd surged towards the players ' gate , expecting Bradman to enter in his customary batting position . However , Miller emerged instead , and scored an unbeaten 202 in five and a half hours . He featured in a 111 @-@ run second wicket partnership with Sid Barnes , before putting on 159 with Bradman for the third wicket . The hosts compounded their troubles by dropping a trio of chances from Miller . After a late @-@ order collapse , in which no other batsman passed 12 , it was left to last man Bill Johnston to partner Miller from 180 onwards . The pair put on 37 for the tenth wicket before Johnston was out for 12 , having successfully shepherded his partner to a double century . One of Miller 's sixes concussed a spectator , and after his long innings , Bradman did not use his bowling in the first innings , but he was used late in the second innings to take the last two wickets and end with 2 / 10 . Australia completed another innings triumph .
The next match against Yorkshire pitted Australia against Hutton ; it was thus an opportunity for both parties to gain a psychological advantage before the Tests . Bowling medium @-@ paced off breaks , Miller removed Hutton for five after the Yorkshireman had struggled for an hour in the middle . He finished with 6 / 42 as the home team were rolled for 71 on a wet wicket in cold and blustery conditions . Miller took four of the last six wickets as the hosts fell from 4 / 45 to 71 and had bowled almost unchanged , sending down 23 @.@ 3 of the 54 @.@ 3 overs . In reply , Australia struggled to reach 101 , including a counter @-@ attacking 34 from Miller , which was the highest individual score for the low @-@ scoring match . He came to the crease at 4 / 38 and scored 34 of the next 48 runs added , before falling at 7 / 86 . He hit two sixes in his innings , including one from the first ball that he faced . He then took 3 / 49 in the second innings as Yorkshire fell for 89 to leave Australia a victory target of 60 . However , he was dismissed for two , caught at long off after attempting to hit a six from the spin of Johnny Wardle to leave the score at 3 / 13 . Australia ’ s batsmen continued to struggle and fell to 6 / 31 — effectively seven wickets down with Sam Loxton injured and unable to bat — before stumbling home without further loss . It was the closest the Australians came to defeat for the whole tour and Miller was instrumental in preserving their unbeaten record .
After three consecutive three @-@ day matches , with only one rest day between nine scheduled days of cricket , Bradman rested Miller for the next match against Surrey at The Oval , which Australia won by an innings . He returned to take seven wickets in the next fixture against Cambridge University . In the first innings , he resumed his battle with John Dewes , whom he had tormented during the Victory Tests in 1945 . This time , Dewes put a thick towel under his shirt for protection against an anticipated short @-@ pitched barrage . Miller set up Dewes with a short ball , before yorking him . He then took the last three wickets to end with 5 / 46 as the hosts were bowled out for 167 in the first innings . Miller was not required to bat as Australia amassed 4 / 414 declared in its only effort with the bat . In the second innings , he took 2 / 29 as Australia completed an innings victory .
Miller was involved in a famous incident in the next match against Essex . Australia elected to bat and had already amassed 2 / 364 when he came to the crease midway through the first day . The previous partnership for the second wicket between Bradman and Bill Brown had plundered 219 runs from the Essex bowlers in 90 minutes . Miller took guard and deliberately let the first ball from Trevor Bailey hit the stumps , much to Bradman 's displeasure . He flicked his hair back and walked away . He later said that he was making a protest against the one @-@ sided nature of the contest , as Australia went on to set a world record of 721 runs , the most in one day of first @-@ class cricket . Former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton said " under the circumstances at Southend , I could well understand his [ Miller ’ s ] feelings " . Miller regained his competitive instinct when given the ball in the first innings , taking the first three wickets to reduce the hosts to 3 / 13 . He ended with 3 / 14 as the hosts were skittled for 83 , but then bowled only two wicketless overs as Bradman enforced the follow on ; Australia won by an innings and 451 runs , its largest winning margin for the season . Bradman rested Miller for the next game against Oxford University , which Australia won by an innings .
In the lead @-@ up to the Tests , Australia took on the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) at Lord 's ; it was effectively a dress rehearsal for the Tests , as the MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Ashes . It was Miller 's first match at the home of cricket since the Victory Tests . Bradman ’ s men batted first and Miller came to the crease at 3 / 200 to join Lindsay Hassett . The pair put on 80 for the fourth wicket before Hassett fell for 51 . Brown then partnered Miller for another 63 runs before he was out . Ian Johnson then came in and accompanied Miller to the close of play on the first evening . The latter reached his century in 165 minutes and was 114 at stumps , with Australia at 5 / 407 . The next day , the partnership extended to 155 runs before Miller fell at 6 / 498 . His innings had taken 250 minutes , with 20 fours and three sixes . The Australians attempted to gain a psychological advantage ahead of the Tests by attacking the off spin of Jim Laker . They hit nine sixes from the Englishman on the second morning . Miller 's dismissal triggered a collapse and Australia lost 5 / 54 to be all out for 552 . Miller and Lindwall then attempted to maintain their ascendancy over Hutton before the Tests . On this occasion , Hutton held off the pair with 52 and 64 , but his teammates could not , as the MCC fell to defeat by an innings and 158 runs . However , Miller was able to account for Bill Edrich and twice claimed Jack Robertson , ending with figures of 3 / 28 and 1 / 37 as Australia enforced the follow on . Test batsman Edrich had been prolific in recent English seasons , and was expected to be one of the key batsmen in the forthcoming Anglo @-@ Australian match ; Robertson was thought to be in contention for England selection but two low scores against Miller saw him overlooked . In addition to his performance on the field , Miller solved some off @-@ field problems . The MCC — which administered cricket at the time — provided him with legal assistance in his contract dispute with Rawtenstall . The Australian all @-@ rounder had signed a contract to play for the club in the Lancashire League , but failed to honour it . Rawtenstall dropped the dispute after being offered compensation .
Miller was rested for the next match against Lancashire , which resulted in Australia 's first non @-@ victory for the tour after the first day was lost to rain . He returned against Nottinghamshire and scored 51 of Australia 's total of 400 . His wicket prompted the loss of 5 / 45 as the tourists were bowled out . Miller took a wicket in each innings , including that of Test batsman Reg Simpson , to end with a total of 2 / 67 as Australia drew its second consecutive match . The next match against Hampshire saw Australia run into difficulty with Bradman resting under the rotation policy . Miller bowled 19 overs without reward , taking 0 / 39 as Hampshire batted first and scored 195 . In reply , Australia was in trouble after rain turned the pitch into a sticky wicket . Miller came in at 2 / 38 and launched a counter @-@ attack , scoring 39 of the 53 runs added before he fell with the score at 5 / 91 . The remainder of the Australians folded quickly , losing 6 / 26 to be all out for 117 , ceding a first innings lead of 78 , the first time during the tour that they had been behind on the first innings . Miller 's top score of 39 included three consecutive sixes from the bowling of Charlie Knott , whose bowling troubled the Australians the most and ended with 5 / 57 . He helped ensure that they did not capitalise on their lead and set a large target , taking 5 / 25 and bowling three of his victims . The tourists dismissed Hampshire for 103 , leaving a target of 182 , which Australia achieved with eight wickets to spare without Miller having to bat . He was rested for the match against Sussex at Hove , after six consecutive days of cricket . In its last match before the Tests , Australia completed an innings victory in just two days .
= = First Test = =
Leading into the Tests , Fingleton speculated that the English batsmen would have great difficulty against Miller and Lindwall , claiming that their prolific scoring against low @-@ quality bowling in county cricket would hinder their ability to adapt to the demands of facing world @-@ class opposition . Miller set the tone for Australia after England won the toss and batted first on the opening morning of the First Test at Trent Bridge . There had been overnight rain , which meant that the pitch would initially be favourable towards fast bowlers . Opening the bowling with Lindwall , he induced an edge from Washbrook in his first over , but it went to ground . In his second over , Miller bowled Hutton with a faster ball , leaving England at 1 / 9 . In his second over , Miller bowled Hutton for three with a faster ball that skidded off the pitch to leave England at 9 / 1 . The ball went between bat and pads as Hutton moved forward onto his front foot . The journalist and former Australian Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly criticised Hutton for not moving his leg across to the pitch of the ball , thereby leaving a gap between bat and pad , but also praise Miller for his ability to make occasional deliveries skid on faster , surprising the batsman .
Miller beat Washbrook 's bat twice in one over soon after lunch , but was unable to extract an edge . Miller then had a hand in another wicket , when Johnston removed Joe Hardstaff junior for a duck . Johnston induced an edge , which flew to the slips after the batsman had attempted a cut ; the catch was described by Wisden as " dazzling " . Miller dived and balanced himself on his spine , before catching the ball to leave England at 4 / 46 . Two runs later , he bowled Compton , who was attempting a leg sweep . The batsman ’ s leg stump was knocked out of the ground as he moved across the stumps . As a result , half the English team were out with only 48 runs on the board after 100 minutes of play . England fell to 8 / 74 , but recovered with an 89 @-@ run ninth @-@ wicket partnership between Alec Bedser and Laker . Miller ended the innings by removing Laker — caught behind for 63 — leaving England all out for 165 . The paceman ended with 3 / 38 from 19 overs .
On the second day , Miller came in at 2 / 121 and was dismissed for a duck without further addition to Australia 's total . He failed to pick Laker 's arm ball , which went straight on instead of turning in , clipped the outside edge and was taken at slip by Edrich . The hard @-@ hitting Miller had come in at No. 4 , a position usually occupied by vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett , a more sedate batsman , indicating that Bradman may have been looking to attack , but the change in batting order failed .
After Australia finished at 509 on the third day to take a 344 @-@ run lead , Miller opened the bowling with Johnston , as Lindwall had broken down in the first innings and was unable to take to the field . Miller removed Washbrook for one , caught behind by Tallon from a top @-@ edged hook shot . Washbrook was displeased with the decision and gestured to a red mark on his shirt , indicating his opinion that the ball did not touch the willow , but made a noise upon brushing his clothing . Miller continued his battle with Hutton and Compton , although he resorted to bowling off spin from a shorter run to conserve energy late in the day .
Hutton then hit three fours in quick succession from Miller ’ s bowling to reach his fifty . The paceman responded to the spate of boundaries by reverting to pace and bowling a series of bouncers , including five in the last over of the day . One of these struck Hutton high on his left ( front ) arm . The batsmen survived , but the bowler received a hostile reaction from the crowd throughout his barrage of short @-@ pitched bowling , including shouts of " Bodyline " . At the time , bowlers of the pace of Lindwall and Miller were rare , and persistently aiming at the upper bodies of batsmen had not yet become a mainstream practice . However , as only Australia possessed international quality bowlers of such pace , opposition teams could not use retaliation as a means of deterrence . In addition , the original practitioners of Bodyline , Harold Larwood and Bill Voce , were both from Nottinghamshire , and were later excluded from Test selection for England after being blamed for the ill @-@ feeling caused by their tactics . The Nottinghamshire supporters were still angry with how their players had been removed and were not happy that Miller was able to do something that they saw to be equivalent . For his part , Miller appeared to be amused by the crowd reaction and revelled in it , grinning and flicking his hair . Hutton had the last word , glancing Miller for a four from the final ball of the day . England were 2 / 121 at stumps on the third day , with Hutton and Compton still at the crease . Miller was widely jeered and heckled as he walked off the field at the end of play — the crowd regarded his bowling as intimidatory . The crowd surged towards him as he walked up the steps into the dressing room , but no altercation eventuated . O 'Reilly defended Miller 's use of short @-@ pitched deliveries , pointing out that he had not employed a packed leg side field and had allowed the batsman the opportunity to score from hook and pull shots if he was willing to try ; in contrast the packed Bodyline field meant that batsmen would find little reward for such shots and defensive play would only lead to dismissal .
The third day was followed by a rest day on Sunday , so play resumed on the fourth morning , a Monday , with England still 223 runs in arrears . The Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club ( NCCC ) secretary H. A. Brown broadcast an appeal to the gallery via the public address system , urging them to refrain from barracking Miller .
Let us keep Nottingham a place where Test matches can continue to be played . On Saturday the Australian , Miller , was booed and there was much subsequent publicity in the press . These Australians are great sportsmen . They stood by the Empire in the war and we should always be pleased to greet them . Let us show them how really pleased we are and give them a warmhearted greeting this morning .
The crowd responded by clapping when the Australians took to the field . The chairman of the NCCC reportedly apologised to Bradman in private regarding the crowd reaction to Miller . Taking the new ball in the fifth over of the day , Miller delivered no bouncers in the morning ; the first hour of play was punctuated by bad light and weather . In the overcast conditions , Miller bowled a relatively full length and swung the ball ; one of his deliveries beat Hutton and narrowly missed his stumps . Shortly after the resumption of play amid dark skies , he bowled Hutton with an off cutter . As in the first innings , Hutton played forward to a ball without getting his front foot close to the bat , resulting in the delivery moving through the gap into the stumps . This prompted the entrance of Hardstaff , and on the third ball , he shaped to cut at a wide ball , and it again flew low to second slip as it did in the first innings . However , this time Arthur Morris was in the position because Miller was bowling , and the former dropped the catch . It was part of an eventful over ; Hardstaff played and missed at one ball , inside edged another and then outside edged a ball through the slips for four runs . During the morning session , Bradman used Miller for 11 overs in a row in an attempt to pressure the Englishmen .
Soon after reaching his century late in the day , Compton edged to the slips from Miller 's bowling , but Johnson dropped the catch . Charlie Barnett then edged Johnston into the slips , where Miller completed a difficult catch . Compton then hit Miller for four , provoking the paceman 's first bouncer of the day . Compton hooked it away for two and the next delivery slipped out of Miller 's hand and cleared the batsman ’ s head on the full , provoking some jeering in the crowd . This type of delivery is known as a beamer and is illegal because it poses a physical danger to the batsman . England reached stumps at 6 / 345 , just one run ahead of the tourists , with Compton on 154 .
The next day , Miller bowled a fast bouncer at Compton , who moved into position to hook , before changing his mind and attempting to evade the ball . Compton lost balance and threw his legs apart , trying to avoid stepping onto his stumps . However , he was unsuccessful and was out hit wicket for 184 . Compton had batted for 413 minutes and hit 19 fours . Fingleton said that it was " a most depressing end to an innings that will live always " . Compton 's fall at 7 / 405 meant that there were no frontline batsmen left , leaving the English bowlers exposed to the visitors ' attack without specialist support . Australia quickly finished off the hosts ' innings ; Miller bowled Laker for four , before Evans reached 50 and England finished at 441 , leaving Australia with a victory target of 98 in three hours . The Australian paceman ended with 4 / 125 for the innings and 7 / 163 for the match , having removed England 's two leading batsmen in both innings and bowled 63 overs — more than his usual workload — because Lindwall was injured .
As the players were walking back to the pavilion after England 's innings , Miller received another hostile reception . One spectator threatened him with violence , prompting the Australian to grab him by his coat collar , challenging him to enter the Australian dressing room . The spectator declined . Miller was not required to bat as Australia went on to win by eight wickets .
After the heavy bowling workload at Trent Bridge , Bradman rested Miller for the innings win against Northamptonshire , which started the day after the Test . Miller returned for another match against Yorkshire , albeit with a lighter bowling load . He scored 20 in the first innings and made a duck in the second . Nevertheless , he opened the bowling in the first innings with the intention of keeping the pressure on Hutton . Miller was unable to dismiss his arch @-@ rival , but Ernie Toshack did . The paceman was barracked by the spectators , who shouted " What about Larwood " in response to the repeated short @-@ pitched bowling during his six wicketless overs . Bradman spared Miller from bowling in the second innings because of a back complaint , attempting to preserve him for the upcoming Test at Lord ’ s .
= = Second Test = =
After a day of rest following the second Yorkshire match , Australia proceeded to the Second Test at Lord 's ,
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with Miller still unable to bowl . He came in to bat in the first innings with Australia at 3 / 166 on the first afternoon after electing to bat . Bedser bowled three consecutive outswingers ; the fourth ball swung the other way , and Miller was hit on the pads not offering a shot , believing that the ball would have curved away past the stumps . The umpire upheld England ’ s appeal for leg before wicket ( lbw ) and Miller was out for four . O 'Reilly said that Miller 's display was more akin to that of a tail @-@ ender with minimal skill than that of a frontline batsman , and blamed his poor form with the bat on an excessive bowling workload imposed on him by Bradman . Australia went on to make 350 , but suffered a blow when Lindwall 's injury flared up in the first over . However , Lindwall continued through the pain . Bradman threw Miller the ball , hoping that the all rounder would reverse his decision not to bowl and take inspiration from Lindwall . The injured bowler returned the ball , citing his back . His gesture generated news headlines among journalists who believed that he had disobeyed Bradman .
Although Bradman claimed that the exchange had been amicable , others disputed this . Teammate Barnes later claimed that Miller had retorted by suggesting that Bradman — a very occasional slower bowler — bowl himself . Barnes said that the captain " was as wild as a battery @-@ stung brumby " and warned his unwilling bowler that there would be consequences for his defiance . According to unpublished writings in Fingleton 's personal collection , Bradman chastised his players in the dressing room at the end of the play , saying " I 'm 40 and I can do my full day 's work in the field . " Miller reportedly snapped " So would I — if I had fibrositis " ; Bradman had been discharged from the armed services during World War II on health grounds , whereas most of the team had been sent into battle . Miller had crash @-@ landed while serving as a fighter pilot in the Royal Australian Air Force in England and had suffered chronic back trouble since then .
England fell to 4 / 46 after Lindwall and Johnston 's new ball burst , but Compton and Yardley fought back to take the score to 133 without further loss . Compton edged Johnston into the slips , where Miller took a low catch , dismissing the batsman for 53 . Soon after , Johnston removed Evans for nine , caught by a diving Miller after lashing out at a wide ball outside off stump to leave the hosts at 7 / 145 .
Australia bowled England out for 215 at the beginning of the third day to take a 135 @-@ run first innings lead . This had increased to 431 when Miller came to the crease with the score at 3 / 296 during the afternoon . English captain Yardley was on a hat @-@ trick , having removed Hassett first ball after the fall of Barnes . Miller survived a loud lbw appeal on the hat @-@ trick ball before hitting a six into the grandstand and reaching stumps on 22 , with Australia at 4 / 329 . He resumed on the fourth morning with Brown and reached lunch on 63 with the tourists at 4 / 409 . Miller was reprieved when he lofted a ball high into the air ; Tom Dollery stood right under it and dropped the catch . During this time , the new ball became available , but England opted not to use it immediately , as the wet conditions had made it slippery . However , after a period of spin , the new ball was taken , and Miller hit three boundaries to pass 50 , and the run rate lifted . It appeared that aside from the need to score quickly in preparation for the declaration , Miller found the new ball easier to see than its muddied predecessor . Miller hooked Coxon repeatedly , and drove Bedser for many runs . After lunch , Miller proceeded to attack at every opportunity before the declaration . He was out for 74 , playing a hook shot that was caught by Bedser at square leg from Laker . Australia declared at 7 / 460 to set England a target of 596 .
England reached 3 / 106 by stumps on the fourth day , but the final day started poorly when Compton edged the second ball of the day — bowled by Johnston — to a diving Miller at second slip . Compton aimed a square drive , but the delivery was Johnston 's variation ball , which went away instead of into the batsman . It took the outside edge and flew to a diving Miller , who knocked the ball upwards before falling on his back and completing the catch as the ball went down . Compton stood his ground and waited for the umpire to confirm whether Miller had caught the ball cleanly , and was duly given out by the unhesitating umpire . O 'Reilly described Miller 's effort as " perhaps the very best slips catch of the whole series and ... a real match @-@ winner . " Just as in the first innings , Compton ’ s dismissal precipitated a collapse , and Australia dismissed England for 186 to complete victory by 409 runs .
After the end of the Lord 's Test , Miller attended a concert and party , before returning to the team hotel after dawn the next morning , just before breakfast . Bradman noticed this and addressed him as " Keith " , rather than his nickname Nugget . Australia was due to play Surrey at The Oval on the same day . Bradman won the toss and elected to field . Instead of deploying him to his usual slips position , the Australian skipper sent Miller to field on the fine leg boundary as a punishment for his late night out . Between overs , the banished player had to walk to the opposite end of the ground to be in position for the bowler from the other end . One of the spectators felt sorry for him and lent his bicycle , which the Australian used to cycle around the edge of the ground between overs . Soon after , Bradman brought his all rounder into a fielding position closer to the playing centre . Miller eventually scored nine in his only innings and was asked to bowl just one over in the second innings , as Australia completed victory by ten wickets . He had a quiet period on the cricket field during July , which generated less media stories than his celebrity appearances at social functions and classical music concerts during this time . The match against Surrey was immediately followed by a match against Gloucestershire in Bristol , where Miller scored 51 , featuring in a partnership of 136 with Morris ( 290 ) . Australia piled on 7 / 774 declared , its largest score of the season , before proceeding to victory by an innings and 363 runs . Acting captain Hassett allowed Miller to rest and he did not bowl during the match .
= = Third Test = =
The efforts of Miller and Lindwall against Hutton throughout the season had led the English selectors to drop the Yorkshireman for the Third Test at Old Trafford . The Australians were surprised by the move and thought that it was a blunder , as they rated Hutton to be England ’ s best batsman .
Miller had a quiet match . He did not bowl in the first innings as England batted first and posted 363 . The closest he came to a catch was when Yardley edged to him in slips on the half @-@ volley . When Australia batted , he came to the crease and joined Morris with the score at 3 / 82 and the pair took the score to 3 / 126 at stumps on the second day . He was on 23 and Morris had made 48 . The run rate picked up in the last 50 minutes of the day as the pair added 44 runs ; Miller was the more attacking of the Australian duo during this time . The next day , Australia struggled against the new ball in the first hour . Miller was beaten three times in one Bedser over before Dick Pollard trapped him for 31 , prompting a middle @-@ order collapse of 3 / 37 , before the tourists recovered to end at 221 , avoiding the follow on by eight runs .
Miller returned to the bowling crease in England 's second innings . He immediately broke through Washbrook 's defences , only to see the ball graze the stumps without dislodging the bails . After two Miller outswingers had evaded the outside edge of Washbrook , the batsman appeared unsettled . One bouncer was hit over square leg in an uncontrolled manner for a four , and another flew in the air , narrowly evading Loxton at fine leg . However , Miller did not take a wicket and ended with 0 / 15 from 14 overs , but again caught Compton . Not for the first time during the season , the Australian paceman earned the ire of the crowd after launching a series of short @-@ pitched balls at Edrich , apparently in retaliation for the Englishman 's bouncing of Lindwall . The paceman struck Edrich on the body before Bradman intervened and ordered him to stop his short @-@ pitched barrage . In another incident , Miller was playing poker with the Englishmen during a rain delay . When the weather cleared , Hassett beckoned him to return to the field for the resumption of play . The request was refused , and the poke match continued against the English players who were not currently batting . He won the pot and pocketed the money , before hurriedly running onto the ground late . When he was on the field and approaching the centre , Miller pulled the money out of his pockets . He brandished the notes to the crowd and taunted his English colleagues . The match ended in a draw after the entire fourth day and half of the fifth day was washed out . England declared upon the resumption of play on the final day and set Australia a target of 317 for victory . The tourists reached 1 / 92 to ensure a draw .
Between Tests , Australia had one tour match against Middlesex at Lord 's . Bradman rested Miller as Australia won by ten wickets , giving him an eight @-@ day break between the Tests .
= = Fourth Test = =
The teams moved to Headingley for the Fourth Test at Leeds . Hutton was recalled and the home team won the toss and batted first . England tallied 496 , its highest score of the series . Miller took the last wicket of Yardley to finish with 1 / 43 . Generally unthreatening throughout the innings , he bowled only 17 @.@ 1 overs ; the other frontline bowlers sent down at least 33 each . The innings started badly for Miller . He bowled below his full pace and his opening over yielded three full tosses . In Miller ’ s first over , Hutton scored the first boundary of the day , driving past mid @-@ off . He felt his legs for muscle strains , and after two overs that O ’ Reilly described as " very innocuous " , Miller was taken off . Nursing fitness concerns , Miller was forced to bowl medium @-@ paced off breaks on the second day as England proceeded to 2 / 423 and appeared to be in complete control , before losing 8 / 73 . In reply , Australia was struggling at 3 / 68 on the third morning . Neil Harvey — playing his first Ashes Test — joined Miller at the crease . Both had walked out in the same over , as Pollard removed Bradman and Hassett in the space of three balls . Australia was more than 400 behind , and if England were to remove the pair quickly , they would expose Australia 's lower order and give themselves an opportunity to win by taking a hefty first innings lead . Harvey asked his senior partner " What ’ s going on here , eh ? Let 's get stuck into ' em " . The pair launched a counterattack , with Miller taking the lead . He hoisted Laker 's first ball over square leg for six . Miller shielded the left @-@ handed Harvey from Laker , as his partner was struggling against the off breaks that were turning away from him , especially one that spun , bounced , and beat his outside edge . The all rounder drilled one off @-@ drive from Laker for four , and after mis @-@ hitting the next to the amusement of the crowd , struck the off spinner flat over his head , almost for six into the sightscreen . This allowed Australia to seize the initiative , and Harvey joined in during the next over . The left @-@ hander hit consecutive boundaries against Laker , the second of which almost cleared the playing area . He followed this with another boundary to reach 44 . Miller then lifted Laker for a six over long off , hitting a spectator in the head , and another over long on from Yardley 's bowling to move from 42 to 54 . He drove the next ball through cover for four . Yardley responded by stacking his leg side with outfielders and bowling outside leg stump , challenging Miller to another hit for six . The batsman obliged , but edged the ball onto wicket @-@ keeper Evans ' head ; Edrich dived forward and caught the ball on the rebound at short fine leg . The crowd was in raptures at both the batting and Edrich 's catch .
The partnership had yielded 121 runs in only 90 minutes , and Wisden likened it to a " hurricane " . Cricket commentator John Arlott described the innings as the most memorable that he had witnessed . He said " Miller played like an emperor ... Every stroke would have been memorable but each one had bettered its predecessor " , saying that his batting had raised cricket " to a point of aesthetic beauty " . Fingleton said that he had never " known a more enjoyable hour " of " delectable cricket " . He acclaimed Miller 's innings as " one of the rarest gems in the Test collection of all time " and " a moment to live in the cricket memory " . O 'Reilly said that Miller and Harvey had counter @-@ attacked with " such joyful abandon that it would have been difficult , if not absolutely impossible , to gather from their methods of going about it that they were actually retrieving a tremendously difficult situation " .
The momentum swung in Australia 's favour . Harvey scored 112 , while Loxton made 93 , hitting a further five sixes from Laker . Lindwall added 77 late in the afternoon as Australia finished at 9 / 457 on the fourth day , having added 394 in one day 's play . At the start of the second innings , Miller bowled a tight opening spell and the English openers scored only five from his six overs as they tried to establish a solid start . Miller took 1 / 53 in the second innings , removing Bedser and catching Compton yet again as Australia was set a world record chase of 404 on the final day in just 345 minutes . A 301 @-@ run second wicket partnership between Morris and Bradman set up the run @-@ chase and Miller came in with the score at 2 / 358 . He made only 12 but Australia won by seven wickets to set a new world record and take a 3 – 0 series lead .
The day after the Test , the Australians moved onto their next match against Derbyshire , where Miller scored 57 and took 3 / 31 in the first innings . He took the first two wickets to reduce the hosts to 2 / 26 before they recovered to 240 in reply to Australia ’ s 361 . In the second innings he bowled only two overs as Australia won by an innings . In a rain @-@ affected draw against Glamorgan , Miller took 2 / 41 in the hosts ' first innings of 197 before compiling a hard @-@ hitting 84 . Coming in to join Hassett with the score at 2 / 67 , he struck five sixes and seven fours . He hit one of the sixes with one hand , sending it 20 rows into the crowd . Taking his bottom hand off the bat , he had effectively played a left @-@ handed tennis @-@ style backhand , This sent the ball from Allan Watkins off his pads into the fine leg region . Miller then attacked the local captain Wilf Wooller , hitting him over the sightscreen with straight drives from consecutive balls and lofting a third six over long off . He was finally dismissed while attempting another six ; Australia 's first innings was washed out at 3 / 215 .
Miller was rested for the nine @-@ wicket win against Warwickshire . He returned against Lancashire . On the final day , Lancashire batsman Jack Ikin had reached 99 after being repeatedly hit by bouncers . Bradman took the new ball and gave it to Miller , who refused to bowl , saying that he felt Ikin deserved a century . The Australian skipper gave the ball to Lindwall , who promptly removed Ikin for 99 . Miller had a light workload for the match , scoring 24 and 11 , and taking a total of 1 / 32 from 16 overs . In the next game , he came in with Australia in difficulty at 5 / 133 , and scored 55 in faster than even time against Durham in the last match before the Fifth Test . The match was a two @-@ day fixture that was not given first @-@ class status . Miller took 1 / 17 as the hosts fell to 5 / 73 in reply to Australia 's 282 when rain ended the match at the end of the opening day .
= = Fifth Test = =
The teams proceeded to The Oval for the Fifth Test . England elected to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch . Analysts questioned the move and predicted that Bradman would have bowled if he had won the toss .
Dewes and Hutton opened for England . Yardley attracted criticism for exposing the debutant Dewes to the new ball attack of Lindwall and Miller . Dewes took a single from Lindwall ’ s opening over and thus faced the start of the second over , which was bowled by Miller , who had troubled him in the past . During the Victory Tests in 1945 , Miller had repeatedly dismissed Dewes , and during a match for Cambridge University against the Australians earlier in the season , the English batsman used towels to pad his torso against the Australian paceman 's short balls . During his short innings , Dewes was visibly nervous and kept on moving around , unable to stand still .
Miller caused a stoppage after his first ball to sprinkle sawdust on the slippery and damp crease . With his second ball , he bowled Dewes — who was playing across the line — middle stump for one with an inswinger to leave England at 2 / 1 . He then removed Jack Crapp caught behind from an outside edge for a 23 @-@ ball duck , leaving England at 4 / 23 as play was adjourned for lunch . The paceman ended with 2 / 5 from eight overs as Lindwall ( 6 / 20 ) cut down the home team for 52 with a display of express swing bowling . In his last Test innings for the summer , Miller scored five before overbalancing , falling forward , and being stumped . Australia made 389 and led by 337 on the first innings on the second afternoon . Bowling for the second time , Miller struck Crapp in the head with a bouncer , before bowling him for nine . He then extracted an edge from Hutton — who fell for 64 , having top @-@ scored in both innings — to wicket @-@ keeper Tallon , leaving England at 4 / 153 . Miller ended with 2 / 22 as Australia won by an innings and took a 4 – 0 series win .
= = Later tour matches = =
Seven matches remained on Bradman ’ s quest to go through a tour of England without defeat . Miller was rested for the innings victory over Kent , but played against the Gentlemen of England at Lord 's against an amateur team with many Test players . He scored 69 , putting on 157 with Hassett , before being dismissed after attempting a third consecutive hooked boundary . Australia declared at 5 / 610 and Miller took a match total of 3 / 76 in another innings victory , including the wickets of Yardley and Martin Donnelly . In the following match against Somerset , Miller had a light workload , scoring an unbeaten 37 at No. 8 as Australia made 5 / 560 declared , and then bowling only eight overs and taking one wicket as Australia claimed victory by an innings and 374 runs after bowling out the hosts for 115 and 71 . He was then rested from the match against South of England , which ended in a rain @-@ affected draw .
Australia 's biggest challenge in the post @-@ Test tour matches was against the Leveson Gower 's XI . During the last Australian tour in 1938 , this team was effectively a full @-@ strength England outfit , but this time Bradman insisted that only six current Test players be allowed to represent for the hosts . The Australian skipper then fielded a full @-@ strength team . Miller returned for the match at Scarborough , but did little , scoring one in his only innings and bowling eight overs without success in a match that ended in a rain @-@ affected draw .
This left only two non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland to complete the tour . Miller played in the first game and scored six in his only innings and did not take a wicket , before being rested for the second match . Australia won both matches by an innings . As a result , Australia finished the tour with 25 wins and nine draws . They had gone through the summer without defeat .
When asked about the three most beautiful things in England , Miller said " The hills of Derbyshire , the leg sweep of Denis Compton and Princess Margaret " . He had gained a high profile in England during the Victory Tests of 1945 , when he played with a carefree manner in the aftermath of six years of devastating war . Coupled with his good looks , this made him a popular celebrity throughout the country . In 1948 , he was sought out for many social functions , such as at music or theatrical performances , and at dinner receptions with members of the Royal Family , peerage and political leaders . His friendship with Princess Margaret — the second daughter of King George VI — was the subject of widespread media speculation as to whether a romantic liaison was involved .
= = Role = =
During the tour , Miller generally played in the Tests as an opening bowler alongside Lindwall and as a middle @-@ order batsman , coming in at No. 4 or No. 5 . His batting ability was such that he played as a specialist batsman even when he was unable to bowl due to injury , such as during the Second Test . Miller wanted to play purely as a batsman , feeling that the workload of bowling would hinder his productivity with the willow . However , Bradman was intent on going through the tour undefeated , and utilised his bowling options to the full , to maximise the Australians ’ chances of winning . Lindwall and Miller were the first @-@ choice pace duo , regarded as one of the greatest speed pairings in the history of cricket , whereas the latter was just one of many accomplished batsmen in the team . As a result , the Australian skipper valued his all rounder more as an opening bowler . Miller ended the Tests with 184 runs at 26 @.@ 28 and 13 wickets at 23 @.@ 15 from 138 @.@ 1 overs and took eight catches .
During the Tests , Miller usually batted at No. 5 , except in the Fourth Test when he batted at No. 4 due to the injury @-@ enforced absence of opener Barnes , which resulted in a reshuffle in the batting order . Miller totalled 1 @,@ 088 first @-@ class runs for the tour , the seventh highest aggregate , although his average of 47 @.@ 30 was only the eighth highest in the squad . During the tour matches , he batted in a variety of positions , as did all of the squad , because Bradman used a rotation system to rest his team because many matches were played consecutively .
When fit , Miller opened the Test bowling with Lindwall , and the pair bowled in short and fiery bursts with the new ball . The English cricket authorities had agreed to make a new ball available every 55 overs . The pre @-@ existing rule stipulated that a replacement ball would be available every 200 runs , which usually took much more time to accumulate . This played directly into the hands of the Australians with their vastly stronger pace attack , as a new ball is ideal for fast bowling . Bradman thus wanted to preserve his two first @-@ choice bowlers
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has come out of retirement and traveled to America . While there , he assassinates Bonita Charne @-@ Sayre , a doctor working for the Syndicate to develop a black oil vaccine . From here , Peskow tracks down Charne @-@ Sayre 's test subjects , testing a Russian vaccine on them before killing them to cover his tracks .
Mulder has been able to return to America with the help of a group of Russian peasants , and rejoins his partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . Scully and assistant director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) had been detained by a United States Senate committee seeking to uncover Mulder 's whereabouts , but the committee was adjourned upon Mulder 's arrival . The agents attempt to track down Peskow , following a trail of murders in Boca Raton , Florida . However , the assassin is able to outwit the agents , and destroys the last of the oil @-@ containing rocks seen in the previous episode in an oil @-@ well explosion . He returns to Russia , where it is revealed that he had been hired for this task by Krycek .
= = Production = =
The episode 's title refers to terma , a set of Buddhist teachings hidden from the world . Series creator Chris Carter felt these represented the secrets kept by the Syndicate . The opening credits of the episode saw the series ' usual tagline of " The truth is out there " replaced with " E pur si muove " . The phrase , Italian for " and yet , it moves " , is attributed to astronomer Galileo Galilei , when forced by the Roman Inquisition to denounce his belief in heliocentrism . The episode 's gulag scenes were inspired by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 's novels The Gulag Archipelago ( 1973 ) and One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich ( 1963 ) .
Shots of the oil refinery seen in the episode were filmed at a thermal energy station situated in Port Moody , British Columbia . The climactic oil @-@ well explosion was achieved through physical effects , with crew member Dave Gauthier building a replica wellhead in a disused rock quarry , through which liquid was piped at pressures of 250 pounds per square inch ( 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 Pa ) to create a plume 300 feet ( 91 m ) high . This wellhead was rigged to spray oil @-@ colored water for shots of the plume itself , which was switched with a remote control to a stream of kerosene and liquid propane for the shots involving the oil catching fire .
Actor Nicholas Lea , who plays recurring character Alex Krycek , worked with a Russian @-@ speaking vocal coach to ensure that his dialogue was delivered with the correct accent and stresses . Malcolm Stewart , who portrayed NASA scientist Dr. Sacks in the episode , had previously appeared in several earlier episodes of the series , including " Pilot " , the second season episode " 3 " , and the third season 's " Avatar " . Carter has called " Terma " , along with its companion piece " Tunguska " , " an action piece from beginning to end " .
= = Reception = =
" Terma " premièred on the Fox network on December 1 , 1996 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on November 4 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 6 with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 17 @.@ 34 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing .
Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen rated the episode a B- , finding that it contained too much " vamping for time " , without enough focus on any of the individual plot threads . Handlen felt that the plot thread based on the murder of the Well @-@ Manicured Man 's doctor friend should have been the episode 's focus , and derided the " pomposity " of the dialogue elsewhere in the episode . Based on an advance viewing of the episode 's script , Entertainment Weekly rated " Terma " an A- , praising the " arms race " plotline . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Terma " one star out of five , comparing it unfavourably with the previous episode . Shearman and Pearson described the episode as " awful " , noting that there " is virtually no structure to it at all " . The episode 's dialogue was described as being " dreadful , boring and facile " , with its long , clumsy lines and " ever more complex and ever less interesting " speeches .
= Oddfellows ( album ) =
Oddfellows is the fourth studio album by musical supergroup Tomahawk . The album is the first to feature new bass player Trevor Dunn , who has replaced previous member Kevin Rutmanis . Oddfellows was recorded live in the Easy Eye Sound Studio in Nashville , Tennessee , after a brief period of rehearsal . Guitarist Duane Denison favored the location as its cheaper studio costs allowed for longer periods of song @-@ writing .
The album was released on January 29 , 2013 through the record label Ipecac Recordings . The release of Oddfellows was preceded by a single , " Stone Letter " , first released on November 23 , 2012 as part of Record Store Day 's " Black Friday " event . Reviews for Oddfellows have been positive , and Dunn 's presence has been seen by critics as a positive addition . The album reached chart positions in several countries , including the United Kingdom , Australia , Belgium and the United States .
= = Production = =
Following the departure of previous bass player Kevin Rutmanis , Oddfellows features new band member Trevor Dunn on bass . Dunn had previously worked with singer Mike Patton in the bands Mr. Bungle and Fantômas . The album was recorded over six days in Easy Eye Sound Studios in Nashville , Tennessee , and produced by Collin Dupuis and the band . Dupuis had previously worked with the band The Black Keys , whose singer Dan Auerbach owns Easy Eye Sound . Cartoonist Ivan Brunetti has provided the album 's cover artwork .
Drummer John Stanier has described the band as " the absolute simplest , most professional ensemble I have ever been involved with , by far " . The band planned to meet and rehearse for a week before recording the album , but upon getting together again , Patton experienced a death in the family which resulted in him leaving for several days . The band eventually reconvened to rehearse for what Stanier recalls as " a day and a half " . Denison felt positively about the process of recording in Nashville , finding that the cheaper studio costs meant he could allow his compositions to " gestate " for longer during his writing process .
Fifteen tracks were recorded for the album , thirteen of which were included on its release . Spin magazine 's Christopher R. Weingarten has described the record as featuring a mix of genres , including " groany , smoky , Morricone @-@ jazz " and " the types of epic , majestic choruses that Patton diehards might remember from the final Faith No More LP , Album of the Year " . Denison has described the album 's sound as just being that of " a rock band " , adding " I think we ’ re a very clever , intense sort of spooked @-@ out , dangerous rock band , but still a rock band " .
= = Release = =
Oddfellows was released on January 29 , 2013 through Ipecac Recordings , the label owned by Patton . The album had been completed for several months by this point , but its release date was moved back as the band 's members did not have time to promote an earlier release . To support the album 's release , the band played at the Voodoo Experience music festival in New Orleans , Louisiana in October 2012 ; and the Austin , Texas Fun Fun Fun Fest , along with several tour dates in the United States in October and November .
The band initially announced the release of " Waratorium " as a seven @-@ inch record as part of Record Store Day 's " Black Friday " event on November 23 , 2012 ; eventually releasing " Stone Letter " instead . The single featured illustrations by Brunetti , and was released as a digital download on December 4 , 2012 . Its accompanying music video was directed by Vincent Forcier , using concert footage from Tomahawk 's 2012 concerts . Another music video was also made for the title track .
Oddfellows debuted at number sixteen on the UK Rock Chart album countdown on February 9 , 2013 , spending one week in the chart . In the United States , Oddfellows recorded positions in several of Billboard magazine 's charts — reaching a peak position of 69 on the Billboard 200 , 12 on the Alternative Albums listings , second place on the Hard Rock Albums chart , and ninth on the Independent Albums chart . Oddfellows also reached chart positions in Australia , Belgium and Finland . The album reached number 37 on the ARIA Charts , 137 in the Ultratop countdown , and 26 in The Official Finnish Charts .
= = Reception = =
Oddfellows has received mostly positive reviews since its release . Review aggregation website Metacritic lists the album as having an average rating of 79 out of 100 , based on twenty reviews .
Writing for AllRovi , Jason Lymangrover rated the album four stars out of five . Lymangrover praised both Dunn 's bass playing and Patton 's vocals , and felt that the album was " a welcome return to form " , similar in sound to their 2001 debut album . Jason Heller of The A.V. Club awarded the album an " A − " . Heller felt that Oddfellows featured " tighter songs and sturdier structures " than the band 's previous work , which he considered comparable to that of a jam band . Drowned in Sound 's Kev Eddy scored Oddfellows eight out of ten , comparing it favorably to the work of Patton 's earlier band Faith No More . Eddy felt that the album was less experimental than previous Tomahawk records , but that its restraint was positive and accessible . Paige Camisasca of Revolver magazine scored the album four out of five , calling it a " surprising , thoroughly consistent return @-@ to @-@ form " . Camiscasca considered " Stone Letter " , " Waratorium " and " I.O.U. " to be the album 's highlights , and earmarked it as " the first contender for hard @-@ rock album of the year " .
Spin magazine 's Grayson Currin rated Oddfellows seven out of ten , finding that it " presents a tide of ideas , information , and intrigue " . Currin felt that the album attempted to blend both art rock and mainstream rock sounds , but was more successful when aiming solely for experimentation — finding " I Can Almost See Them " and " A Thousand Eyes " to be examples of this . Consequence of Sound writer Len Comaratta awarded Oddfellows three stars out of five , finding that Dunn 's bass playing improves the band 's sound without altering it radically . Comaratta felt that the album rewarded patient listeners but did not provide memorable hooks or melodies , and compared its " laid back " sound to that of Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds .
Cole Waterman of PopMatters awarded the album a score of eight out of ten , finding the record to be the group 's " most accessible by far " . Waterman described the album 's composition as " catchy " , finding it to be an appropriate response to the band 's previous album Anonymous ; he also highlighted the " absurdist " tone of the record 's lyrics — pointing out " South Paw " and " Waratorium " as particular examples of this . Pitchfork Media 's Paul Thompson scored Oddfellows 6 @.@ 8 out of ten , considering it " Tomahawk 's most straightforward , stripped @-@ down release to date " . Thompson considered the group 's main dynamic to consist of Denison 's compositions and Patton 's vocals , finding that bass player Dunn " hangs back here , ably holding down the low end without overasserting himself " . Thompson also debated the effect that the album 's short germination period had on its overall composition , believing that the brief recording time lent the record " a feeling that , whenever you get these guys in the same room , this music [ ... ] just comes tearing out " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart performance = =
= Tricia Tanaka Is Dead =
" Tricia Tanaka Is Dead " is the tenth episode of the third season of the American drama television series Lost , and the show 's 59th episode overall . The episode was written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz and directed by Eric Laneuville . The character of Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) is featured in the episode 's flashbacks , as he reminisces over his father ( guest star Cheech Marin ) abandoning his family for seventeen years . On the island , Hurley works with Jin @-@ Soo Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) and James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) to repair an old Volkswagen camper van while Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) ponders what to do about the still @-@ captured Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) .
In interviews , Garcia , Dae Kim , and Holloway commented that they had a lot of fun shooting their scenes , as they had not worked together for a while . The episode marked the first appearance of recurring guest actor Cheech Marin . It first aired on February 28 , 2007 , in the United States on ABC , with an estimated 12 @.@ 78 million viewers . The episode received mixed reviews , with many praising its humor but still noting that little was learned concerning the show 's overall mythology .
= = Plot
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pitcher : " Sanford was suffering from a cold and he was pooped . " Duke Snider doubled , advancing Gilliam to third . Tommy Davis then hit a sacrifice fly , scoring Gilliam and advancing Snider . This run made the game 5 – 1 and ended what had been a 35 consecutive scoreless inning stretch by the Dodgers . The Dodgers increased their score as Wally Moon walked and Frank Howard singled , to bring Snider home and make the game 5 – 2 . Billy O 'Dell relieved Miller and Doug Camilli , who was pinch hitting for John Roseboro , singled to load the bases . Andy Carey then pinch hit for Willie Davis and was hit by a pitch to score Moon . The Dodgers continued substituting players , pinch hitting Lee Walls for Roebuck and bringing in Larry Burright to pinch run for Carey . Walls then hit a double which emptied the bases , giving the Dodgers a 6 – 5 lead in the game , and advanced to third base on the throw .
Walls ' double continued his success as a pinch hitter , making him 13 @-@ for @-@ 26 with 12 runs batted in in such situations for the season . Don Larsen entered to relieve O 'Dell , who had not recorded an out but had earned a blown save for his performance . Maury Wills hit a ground ball to the first baseman , who threw home in an attempt to put out Walls who slid hard into the Giants ' catcher Haller . The slide , which cut Haller 's arm deep enough to later require six stitches , caused him to drop the ball , leaving Walls safe on Haller 's error and extending the Dodgers ' lead to 7 – 5 . John Orsino entered as the new catcher to replace the injured Haller . Wills then stole second , his 101st stolen base of the season , before the batter Gilliam saw a single pitch . Orsino 's throw to try to catch Wills went past second base and into center field . Wills attempted to advance to third , but was thrown out by Willie Mays . Larsen then induced a flyball out by Gilliam and the inning was over . Between the two halves of the sixth the two teams had scored a combined 11 runs and used six pitchers , three pinch hitters , two defensive replacements , and a pinch runner .
Ron Perranoski entered as the new pitcher for the seventh , Camilli took his place as the new catcher , and Ron Fairly replaced Wally Moon at first base . Burright became the new second baseman , replacing Gilliam who moved to third base while the previous third baseman , Tommy Davis , moved to center field . Perranoski allowed singles to Orsino and Pagán after a ground out by Felipe Alou . The Giants pinch hit Harvey Kuenn for Matty Alou and Bob Nieman for Hiller , but both recorded outs to end the top of the seventh . Ernie Bowman replaced Nieman at second base for the Giants in the bottom of the inning and no runs scored in the frame . The Giants continued to hit Perranoski in the top of the eighth , with singles by Davenport and Mays to open the inning . Jack Smith entered in relief but allowed a single to Ed Bailey pinch hitting for Larsen which scored Davenport to cut the Dodgers ' lead to 7 – 6 . Mays attempted to advance to third on the play but was called out . The play drew arguments from Mays , Alvin Dark , and third base coach Whitey Lockman as third base umpire Jocko Conlan appeared to call Mays safe before changing it to out . Carl Boles pinch ran for Bailey , and Cepeda reached on an error on his fly ball which allowed Boles to move to third . Stan Williams relieved Smith and walked Felipe Alou to load the bases . Orsino hit a sacrifice fly to tie the game at seven runs apiece and Pagán grounded out to end the inning .
Bobby Bolin entered as the new pitcher for the Giants in the bottom of the eighth . Bolin kept the game tied , as did Williams who pitched a perfect top of the ninth inning . Wills walked to leadoff the bottom of the ninth , however , and Dick LeMay relieved Bolin . Gilliam then also walked , advancing Wills to second . The Dodgers announced Daryl Spencer as a pinch hitter for Snider and the Giants countered by bringing Gaylord Perry in relief of LeMay . Spencer laid down a successful sacrifice bunt , advancing the two runners to second and third base . The play drew comment after the game , as some writers believed Perry had a chance to throw to third base to put out the lead runner Wills . He threw to first instead , allowing the sacrifice . Mike McCormick relieved Perry , intentionally walked Tommy Davis , and then allowed a game @-@ winning walk @-@ off sacrifice fly to Fairly driving in Wills . Game 2 lasted 4 hours and 18 minutes , breaking the previous record of 4 hours and 2 minutes for the longest 9 @-@ inning game in major league history . Coincidentally Wills , who scored the winning run , celebrated his 30th birthday on the same day as Game 2 .
= = Game 3 summary = =
Box score for Wednesday October 3 , 1962 at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles , California
Game 3 matched the Giants ' Juan Marichal against Johnny Podres , though Dodgers ' manager Walt Alston had considered starting reliever Larry Sherry . The pair kept the game scoreless through two innings before the Giants opened the scoring in the top of the third . José Pagán singled to lead off the inning , Marichal reached on a throwing error by the pitcher on a throw to second base which allowed Pagán to move to third , and Pagán scored on a Harvey Kuenn single . Then , while Chuck Hiller was batting , John Roseboro made an error in attempting to pickoff Marichal on second base , allowing him to advance to third . Hiller hit a fly ball to shallow left field and Marichal held at third base . Left fielder Duke Snider threw home but the ball was cut off by the third baseman , who threw to second to try to catch Kuenn in a rundown between first and second . However , the second baseman 's throw to first hit Kuenn in the back , leaving him safe at first and allowing Marichal to score , to make the game 2 – 0 . Felipe Alou then singled , Kuenn went to third , and Alou advanced to second on the throw . Podres intentionally walked Willie Mays to load the bases with one out , and induced a double play from Orlando Cepeda to end the inning .
The Dodgers cut into the lead in the fourth , as Snider doubled to leadoff , advanced to third on a Tommy Davis single , and scored on a groundout by Frank Howard . The Giants threatened against Podres in the top of the sixth with singles by Cepeda , Ed Bailey , and Jim Davenport on a bunt to load the bases . However , Ed Roebuck relieved Podres and escaped the inning without allowing a run . The Dodgers took a 3 – 2 lead in the bottom of the inning as Snider singled and scored on a home run by Tommy Davis . They extended this lead in the bottom of the seventh as Wills singled and then stole second as Jim Gilliam batted . Manager Alvin Dark had chosen not to try to hold Wills to the first base bag as Dark did not believe his Giants ' defense could stop Wills from stealing regardless of their positioning . Gilliam was put out for the second out of the inning , but Wills stole third base and then scored on a throwing error by the catcher trying to catch him . This extended the Dodgers ' lead to 4 – 2 . The Dodgers further threatened in the bottom of the eighth . Don Larsen entered in relief of Marichal midway through Davis ' at bat but Davis walked to lead off the inning regardless . Ron Fairly sacrificed him to second base and Davis then stole third as Howard struck out . However , Larsen intentionally walked both Roseboro and Willie Davis to load the bases and induced a ground out by Roebuck to end the inning .
The Giants took the decisive lead in the top of the ninth inning . Matty Alou pinch hit for Larsen and singled to lead off the inning and Kuenn grounded into a force out at second base . Willie McCovey pinch hit for Hiller and walked to advance Kuenn . Ernie Bowman pinch ran for McCovey and Felipe Alou walked to load the bases . Mays hit a line drive single scoring Kuenn . Roebuck barely managed to knock the ball down to hold Mays to a single and Mays said he was " still mad " after the game because he had expected more off of the hit . Stan Williams relieved Roebuck and Cepeda hit a sacrifice fly to tie the game at 4 – 4 and advance Alou to third . Mays moved to second on a wild pitch to Bailey and Williams intentionally walked him to reload the bases . Williams walked Davenport to give the Giants a 5 – 4 lead , and they added to it as Pagán reached on an error by second baseman Larry Burright allowing Mays to score and extend the lead to 6 – 4 . Billy Pierce pitched a perfect bottom of the ninth to end the game , earning his only save of the season . Had the Dodgers not yielded the lead in the final inning they instead would have earned a postseason berth , their first since winning the pennant via a tie @-@ breaker in 1959 .
= = Aftermath = =
The Giants ' win earned the franchise its 17th playoff berth , the first since moving to San Francisco from New York in 1958 . In the playoffs they faced the New York Yankees in the 1962 World Series which they lost in seven games , ending the Giants ' season . They returned to the playoffs in 1971 and the World Series in 1989 and 2002 . In 2010 , the Giants won their first World Series since moving to San Francisco . The Dodgers returned to the World Series in 1963 and swept the Yankees . The Dodgers set a new attendance record in 1962 , topping the previous mark of 2 @,@ 641 @,@ 845 set by the Cleveland Indians in 1948 with a total of 2 @,@ 755 @,@ 184 fans . Game 2 was the longest nine @-@ inning game in MLB history with a time of 4 hours and 18 minutes , a record which stood until April 30 , 1996 when a game between the Yankees and the Baltimore Orioles lasted 4 hours and 21 minutes . The record was again broken on August 18 , 2006 during a game in which the Yankees beat the Boston Red Sox 14 – 11 in 4 hours and 45 minutes .
In baseball statistics tie @-@ breakers count as regular season games , with all events in them added to regular season statistics . For example , Willie Mays extended his league @-@ leading home run total to 49 and Maury Wills raised his record @-@ breaking stolen base total from 100 to 104 , the most since 1900 . Additionally Wills , José Pagán , and Tommy Davis played in 165 , 164 , and 163 games respectively , totals which could not have been matched by players not on the Dodgers or Giants . Wills also won the NL Most Valuable Player Award narrowly over Mays , with Davis placing third in the voting . Don Drysdale won both the Cy Young and Sporting News Pitcher of the Year awards and Jim Davenport , Wills , and Mays each won Rawlings Gold Glove Awards . MLB played two All @-@ Star Games in 1962 . Four Dodgers and five Giants were named to the first while four Dodgers and four Giants played in the second . Five future Hall of Famers were on the Giants roster in 1962 ( Cepeda , Marichal , Mays , McCovey , and Perry ) while the Dodgers had three ( Drysdale , Koufax , and Snider ) . Dodgers ' manager Walt Alston was also inducted to the Hall as a manager in 1983 . Additionally , this 1962 series was the last MLB tie @-@ breaker to use the three @-@ game series format . The AL had always used a one @-@ game format and all future NL tie @-@ breakers were played in that format as well .
= Stacy Keibler =
Stacy Ann @-@ Marie Keibler ( born October 14 , 1979 ) is an American actress , model , dancer , cheerleader , retired professional wrestler and valet who is best known for her work with World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) and World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) as a WWE Diva .
Keibler was a contestant on the second season of Dancing with the Stars , where she placed third . She has also appeared on other American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) shows such as What About Brian , George Lopez , and October Road , as well as the 100th episode of the
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CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother as a bartender and on the USA Network show Psych . Keibler has also modeled , appearing in both Maxim and Stuff magazines .
She began her professional wrestling career as a part of the Nitro Girls in WCW . She quickly moved on to a more prominent role in the company as the manager , Miss Hancock . As Miss Hancock she was known for doing table dances , her relationship with David Flair , and a pregnancy angle . After WCW was purchased by WWE , she moved to the new company , taking part in the Invasion storyline and managing the Dudley Boyz . Keibler also managed Test and Scott Steiner . Before her departure she was affiliated with The Hurricane and Rosey and nicknamed " Super Stacy . "
Keibler is known for her unusually long legs , making her the tallest WWE Diva . She has been known as both " The Legs of WCW " and " The Legs of WWE " . During her time on Dancing with the Stars , judge Bruno Tonioli nicknamed her " The Weapon of Mass Seduction " because of her long legs .
= = Early life = =
Keibler was born on October 14 , 1979 , in Rosedale , Maryland , the daughter of Patricia and Gary Keibler . Beginning at the age of three , Keibler took ballet , jazz , and tap dancing classes at Jean Kettell Studio of Dance in Dundalk , Maryland . She went to St. Clement Mary Hofbauer School in Rosedale for her early schooling .
After attending The Catholic High School of Baltimore , an all @-@ girls school , she attended Towson University , where she studied mass communication . She attended the university on a partial scholarship and had a 3 @.@ 7 grade point average ( GPA ) . She had minor parts in movies such as Pecker and Liberty Heights , as well as small modeling jobs . Keibler became a cheerleader for the Baltimore Ravens football team when she was 18 .
= = Modeling and acting career = =
As the Fitness Editor at Stuff magazine during 2005 and 2006 , Keibler wrote and modeled for her own occasional column , Getting Fit with Stacy Keibler . She has appeared on the cover of that magazine twice -June 2005 and March 2006 . Maxim named Keibler No. 5 in its 2006 Hot 100 issue , and No. 70 in its 2007 Hot 100 . In 2008 she was named No. 89 in Maxim 's annual Hot 100 list . ; the following year she was No. 77 . In 2010 she was No. 82 and in 2011 she was No. 72 . And in 2012 she was ranked 51 . Keibler has declined each of two invitations from Playboy to pose in the nude for its magazine .
Keibler starred in a commercial for AT & T Corporation alongside Carrot Top . She also auditioned and earned a role in Big Momma 's House 2 , but she did not appear .
She competed in the second season of Dancing with the Stars , alongside her dance partner , Tony Dovolani . Keibler received a perfect score of 30 from the three judges for her samba dance routine in week five . This prompted judge , Bruno Tonioli , to nickname her a " weapon of mass seduction . " Overall , Keibler and Dovolani received four perfect scores . Keibler was eliminated in the final episode , coming in third to Jerry Rice , who placed second in the final round of the competition , and Drew Lachey , the winner of the season . Two of the judges , Bruno Tonioli and Len Goodman , felt she should have at least placed second . Oddsmakers had considered her the favorite to win the competition .
Keibler has appeared on MTV 's Punk 'd twice . In season five Keibler took part in helping prank fellow WWE Superstar , Triple H , which also included Stephanie McMahon . In season seven , however , Keibler was seen as a victim of a prank by her then @-@ boyfriend , Geoff Stults .
In February 2007 Keibler began a recurring role in ABC 's What About Brian . She played the role of Brian 's new neighbor and love interest . This was Keibler 's first major acting role , following her previous minor roles in both Bubble Boy and Pecker . Keibler guest starred on George Lopez on ABC . In the fall of 2007 Keibler appeared both in The Comebacks and on ABC 's drama October Road .
In April 2008 she was named No. 64 in FHM 's annual 100 Sexiest Women list . Keibler was featured in an advertisement in the 2008 Sports Illustrated Swimsuit issue . Keibler appeared on ABC Family 's mini television series , Samurai Girl as the character Karen that September . On November 23 , 2008 , Keibler was named the " World 's Hottest Athlete " by a sixty @-@ four contestant bracket on InGameNow .
Keibler recently hosted the E ! Special Maxim 's Celebrity Beach Watch : 15 Hottest Bodies on September 16 , 2009 , and The Ultimate Spike Girl 2009 Finale on Spike TV on October 1 , 2009 . On January 11 , 2010 , Keibler appeared as " the hot bartender " , a new conquest for Barney , in the How I Met Your Mother 100th episode , " Girls Versus Suits " . On February 3 , 2010 , Keibler appeared on an episode of the USA Network show " Psych " . Keibler is currently host of Call of Duty Elite 's Friday Night Fights .
In July 2013 , Keibler began hosting a Lifetime show called Supermarket Superstar , where home chefs fight for their product to be sold in supermarkets .
= = Filmography = =
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Championship Wrestling ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
Keibler began watching wrestling with her boyfriend at the time , Kris Cumberland . She can be seen in the crowd at Starrcade 1998 before the television title match , dancing in a nWo Wolfpac t @-@ shirt . In late 1999 , Keibler entered a contest held by World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) to find a new member of the Nitro Girls dance troupe . In November , she defeated 300 other girls for a spot on the dance troupe and $ 10 @,@ 000 . Her winning routine was watched by 4 @.@ 4 million viewers . Keibler performed dance routines every week on WCW 's flagship show Monday Nitro under the name Skye . By 2000 , Keibler was appearing on WCW as a Nitro Girl , attending school full @-@ time , and cheering for the Baltimore Ravens .
She soon accepted a larger role and became a valet using the stage name Miss Hancock ( some weeks spelled " Handcock " ) , briefly serving as an associate for the tag team of Lenny Lane and Lodi dubbed Standards and Practices . Despite wearing business suits , her character was known to climb on top of the announcers ' table and dance sensually . It was also during this period that she began using what would become her trademark ring entrance : slowly putting her forty @-@ two inch legs through the second tier of ropes , pausing to let the crowd momentarily see her panties . At 5 feet 11 inches , Keibler was one of few women in professional wrestling tall enough to step over the middle of three ropes that surround the ring .
For a brief period , she dated David Flair ( both on @-@ screen and off ) , who was already involved in an on @-@ screen relationship with Daffney . This led to Keibler 's in @-@ ring debut at the Bash at the Beach in a Wedding Gown match , which she lost after she removed her own gown . Hancock next briefly feuded with Kimberly Page , but the storyline ended abruptly when Page quit the company . Keibler and Flair then began a feud with the Misfits in Action stable , including a mud wrestling singles match against Major Gunns at New Blood Rising . During the match , she was kicked in the stomach , and she revealed herself to be pregnant the next night , beginning a new angle for herself and Flair . Two proposed endings to the storyline were for either Ric Flair or Vince Russo to be the father of her child . The angle , however , ended prematurely , as she revealed the pregnancy to be false , broke up with David Flair , and was taken off of television . When she returned , she was known by her real name on @-@ screen .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment = = =
= = = = The Invasion ( 2001 ) = = = =
When WCW was purchased by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) in 2001 , Keibler 's contract was bought by the WWF . She portrayed a heel character in The Alliance . She made her WWF television debut on the June 14 , 2001 episode of SmackDown ! when then @-@ face , Shane McMahon brought her to the ring to distract then @-@ heel , Rhyno , causing him to lose a match . Keibler originally teamed up with real @-@ life friend , then @-@ heel , Torrie Wilson , and the pair feuded with Divas , Trish Stratus and Lita . During this feud the four Divas competed in the first @-@ ever tag team Bra and Panties Match at the InVasion pay @-@ per @-@ view , which Trish and Lita won by stripping Stacy down to her yellow underwear and Torrie Wilson to her white underwear .
= = = = Duchess of Dudleyville ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = = =
Towards the end of the WCW / ECW Invasion , Keibler managed the heel gimmicks of The Dudley Boyz and was nicknamed the " Duchess of Dudleyville " . During this time , she began an on @-@ screen rivalry with former ally Torrie Wilson after Wilson left The Alliance , with Keibler helping The Dudley Boyz put Torrie through a table . Torrie , however , got her revenge after giving Keibler a wedgie then pantsing her on an episode of SmackDown ! . She then defeated Keibler in the first @-@ ever lingerie match , a match wrestled in lingerie , at No Mercy . Keibler made her WrestleMania debut at WrestleMania X8 alongside The Dudleyz . Keibler 's role with the Dudley Boyz came to an abrupt end when she was powerbombed through a table after accidentally costing the team a match . She then set her sights on the WWE Women 's Championship at Judgment Day , facing Trish Stratus in a losing effort . She faced Stratus several more times in the succeeding weeks , but she never won a match against her .
= = = = On @-@ screen relationships ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = = =
Keibler was originally drafted to the SmackDown ! brand in 2002 , where her character showed an interest in becoming the personal assistant to WWE chairman , then @-@ heel , Vince McMahon . McMahon was ready to hire another attractive female until Keibler interrupted and performed a table dance in the ring . Keibler became McMahon 's personal assistant , as well as his on @-@ screen mistress . She was frequently shown flirting and ' making out ' with him in backstage segments , until Stephanie McMahon became general manager of the SmackDown ! brand. then @-@ babyface , Dawn Marie made her debut on SmackDown ! as McMahon 's legal assistant , who competed with Keibler for McMahon 's affections .
A key storyline for Keibler 's on @-@ screen character occurred when she left SmackDown ! for Raw . Keibler made her official Raw debut on August 12 , 2002 . For the remainder of 2002 and most of 2003 , Keibler was paired with her real @-@ life boyfriend at the time , Test . As Test 's on @-@ screen marketing agent , she came up with the idea that Test should call his fans " Testicles , " cut his hair , and reshape his image . The couple were originally villains but due to popularity of the gimmick , they became fan favorites . In the spring of 2003 , Test , however , became to verbally abuse Keibler , who also started managing Scott Steiner . After months of build @-@ up , Keibler finally left Test for Steiner on the June 2 edition of Raw . Steiner defeated Test for Keibler 's services at Bad Blood , and Keibler seemed happy as Steiner 's new manager , as the two alluded to having more than a professional relationship . Test , however , continued to harass Keibler and Steiner until Steiner accepted a rematch with Stacy 's services on the line . On the August 18 episode of Raw , Test won the match after faking a leg injury and then blindsiding Steiner with a big boot . A match was then set for Unforgiven with the stipulation that if Test won , he would not only retain Keibler 's services , but would acquire Steiner 's services as well . During the match , Keibler 's interference backfired , and Test won the match . Steiner then turned heel by attacking Keibler after her interference in his match on the September 29 episode of Raw backfired . For a time , Test and Steiner worked as a tag team , sharing the services of Keibler as their on @-@ screen sex slave . The storyline finally ended on the December 1 episode of Raw , when general manager Mick Foley freed Keibler from her obligatory contracts with Test and Steiner by temporarily firing them .
= = = = Various storylines ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = = =
Keibler was chosen to record a track on the album WWE Originals . She and WWE music producer Jim Johnston recorded the song " Why Can 't We Just Dance ? " for the album . She was then placed in a feud involving SmackDown ! divas Torrie Wilson and then @-@ babyface , Sable , who both had recently posed for a Playboy cover . Keibler aligned with Miss Jackie , neither of whom had posed for the magazine , claiming that they deserved to be in Playboy over Sable and Wilson . Keibler and Jackie challenged Sable and Wilson to a Tag Team Evening Gown match at WrestleMania XX , which they lost when Jackie was pinned by Wilson , and the feud was dropped afterward . Before the feud was dropped , all divas were playing face characters at the time .
She took over the 2004 Raw Diva Search for a few weeks , which led to several tag matches against the heel gimmicks of Gail Kim , Trish Stratus , and Molly Holly and with partners Nidia and the face gimmick of Victoria . Keibler got upset victories over Kim , Stratus , and Holly . She earned a Women 's Championship title match on October 11 , 2004 , but she was defeated by Stratus , who retained the title . Keibler also competed in the first @-@ ever Fulfill your Fantasy Diva Battle Royal for the WWE Women 's Championship at Taboo Tuesday along with Victoria , Nidia , Gail Kim , Molly Holly , Jazz , and then @-@ champion Stratus . She was eliminated second to last after jumping over the top rope to avoid hitting the turnbuckle , followed by Holly knocking her off the apron to eliminate her .
In February 2005 , Keibler began appearing in backstage segments with then @-@ babyface , Randy Orton , and eventually became his on @-@ screen girlfriend . When Orton challenged The Undertaker to a match at WrestleMania 21 , Orton ended the relationship by hitting Stacy with an RKO , incapacitating her . He justified it by claiming he was demonstrating how ruthless he could be in order to defeat The Undertaker .
= = = = Super Stacy and departure ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
Keibler then joined forces with Rosey and The Hurricane . She became one @-@ third of the trio as a superhero sidekick nicknamed Super Stacy , complete with her own superhero costume . She was ringside during several matches as they defended their World Tag Team Championship . During this time , Keibler feuded on @-@ screen with then @-@ heel , Victoria , including confrontations and a mixed @-@ tag @-@ team match on Raw and a singles match on Heat .
After a long tenure on Monday nights , Keibler and fellow Raw Diva , Christy Hemme , were moved to SmackDown ! on August 25 , as part of a trade that brought Torrie Wilson and Candice Michelle to Raw . On SmackDown ! Keibler participated in lingerie matches and bikini contests . After a short absence Keibler began a short feud with Jillian Hall , which led to the two having a match on Velocity , which Keibler lost . The match was Keibler 's final match with WWE . Keibler then asked for time off to appear on Dancing with the Stars . After completing her stint on Dancing with the Stars , Keibler left WWE in early 2006 to move on to other endeavors .
= = = = Tough Enough ( 2011 ) = = = =
After leaving WWE in July 2006 , Keibler made a special guest appearance for WWE 's reality show , Tough Enough . Being a former NFL Cheerleader , she helped prepare the contestants to perform publicly in Universal Studios .
= = Personal life = =
In 2000 , after winning the $ 10 @,@ 000 in the contest to become a part of the Nitro Girls , Keibler used the money to buy season tickets for the Baltimore Ravens , the team for which she used to cheer . During her days with WCW , Keibler was romantically linked with David Flair , the son of wrestler Ric Flair . While in the WWE she also dated wrestler Andrew " Test " Martin both on and off screen .
Keibler moved to Los Angeles in 2004 , where she was a roommate with her friend , Torrie Wilson . In June 2005 , Keibler was reported to be in a relationship with actor Geoff Stults , best known for his appearances on 7th Heaven . The pair appeared together on MTV 's Punk 'd , with Keibler as the recipient of the prank . Keibler and Stults were part @-@ owners of the now defunct Hollywood Fame , a 2006 expansion franchise of the new American Basketball Association . Stults and Keibler split in the middle of 2010 . Keibler started dating George Clooney in July 2011 . Clooney and Keibler ended their relationship in July 2013 .
Keibler began dating Future Ads CEO Jared Pobre in fall 2013 , though they had been friends for several years previously . They were married on March 8 , 2014 in Mexico . They have one daughter , Ava Grace Pobre , born on August 20 , 2014 .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Roundhouse kick – 2002 – 2003
Keibler Kick ( Spinning heel kick ) – 2003 – 2006
Signature moves
Corner foot choke
Hair @-@ pull snapmare
Handspring back elbow
Mounted punches
Wrestlers managed
Standards and Practices
Los Fabulosos ( El Dandy and Silver King )
David Flair
Shawn Stasiak
Tazz
Dudley Boyz
Test
Scott Steiner
Rosey and The Hurricane
Randy Orton
Nicknames
" The Legs of WCW / WWE "
" The Duchess of Dudleyville "
" Super Stacy "
Entrance themes
" Universal Love " ( WCW )
" The Way It Is " by Jim Johnston ( WWF / E )
" Legs " by Kid Rock ( WWF / E )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Babe of the Year ( 2004 )
= Mars , Bars =
" Mars , Bars " is the fourteenth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fifty @-@ eighth episode overall . Directed by Harry Winer , with a story by Phil Klemmer , John Enbom , and Joe Voci and a teleplay by Klemmer and Enbom , the episode premiered on The CW on February 20 , 2007 . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .
The episode is the second of two to deal directly with the death of Hearst 's basketball coach , Tom Barry ( Matt McKenzie ) . In this installment , Veronica and Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) search for Tom 's missing son Josh ( Jonathan Chase ) while investigating a variety of alternate suspects . In addition , they continue to question Mindy O 'Dell ( Jaime Ray Newman ) and Hank Landry ( Patrick Fabian ) with regards to the death of Dean Cyrus O 'Dell . Meanwhile , Logan ( Jason Dohring ) , Parker ( Julie Gonzalo ) , Mac ( Tina Majorino ) , and Bronson ( Michael Mitchell ) attend a scavenger hunt for Valentine 's Day .
" Mars , Bars " marks the final appearance of series Michael Muhney , the actor of Sheriff Lamb , after the death of his character . Muhney was not informed of his character 's death until the filming of the episode ; he was surprised and saddened at the decision . Spoilers about the scene were not leaked prior
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to the episode , something about which Muhney was happy . In addition , Mac was initially scheduled to be taken advantage of by a professor in this episode , but a romantic relationship with Bronson was chosen instead . The episode garnered 2 @.@ 27 million viewers and positive reviews from television critics , with many praising Muhney 's performance and viewing it as a return to form for the show , while some were more critical of Logan 's subplot .
= = Plot synopsis = =
At the end of the previous episode , Postgame Mortem , Veronica is arrested by Sheriff Lamb ( Michael Muhney ) on the suspicion that she helped the now @-@ missing Josh Barry to escape from prison . This episode opens with Lamb questioning her and learning little , as she had nothing to do with his disappearance .
Keith , Veronica 's father and owner of Mars Investigations , their detective firm , visits Veronica in jail . Cliff McCormack ( Daran Norris ) , a local public defender , also arrives , and tells Veronica that she has been all but cleared , but Sheriff Lamb will keep her in custody for as long as he can because he still believes she was involved in Josh 's disappearance . Keith returns to Mars Investigations , where Hank Landry arrives and says that he found a bugging device in his phone . Landry had been implicated in the ongoing investigation into the death of Cyrus O ’ Dell , dean of Hearst College where Veronica is a student . Keith denies that he or Veronica placed the device in his phone , but Hank becomes angry , telling him to stop investigating him .
Keith brings his findings on the death of Coach Barry to Sheriff Lamb and provides an alternate explanation ; that Coach Barry had discovered his wife was having an affair . Lamb agrees with him that it was a murder . Lamb calls Mindy O 'Dell , the dean 's wife and a main suspect , to his office . Logan , Veronica 's on @-@ again , off @-@ again boyfriend , visits Veronica in her cell and they are civil to each other . After being released from jail , Veronica is stopped on the street by Josh , who has Mason ( Robert Ri 'chard ) in the trunk of his car , frantically telling Veronica that Mason is the culprit . When Veronica disproves this claim , she tells Josh to call her using a disposable phone within 24 hours . Veronica releases Mason from the trunk .
Logan takes a wireless card to Mac as a favor , and she , Piz , and Bronson invite him on a night out . Logan , Mac , Bronson , and Parker take part in a Valentine 's Day scavenger hunt . The quartet find their last clue at a beach . Mac and Bronson kiss , while Parker and Logan bond while swimming . The scavenger hunt ends , and they come in third place . Logan and Parker leave , and Mac and Bronson have sex for the first time .
While reviewing the O 'Dell case , Veronica notices that the TV station the dean was watching the night he was murdered had moved its programming back an hour , meaning their estimated time of death was wrong . The forensic results about the prints in O 'Dell ’ s room come back , and they are the fingerprints of Steve Botando ( Richard Grieco ) . Steve Botando is investigated by Sheriff Lamb .
Keith investigates the Coach Barry case more , finding that the Coach had Creutzfeldt @-@ Jakob disease . His wife took out a life insurance policy several days before his death with a double indemnity clause . Keith talks to Coach Barry 's wife , who pulls out a gun on him . It is a Colt .45 , the gun that was used to kill Coach Barry . However , she claims that she was not intending to shoot Keith and that it is a relic of the Coach 's army days . Sheriff Lamb receives a call about a robbery at the O 'Dell house . It is Steve Botando , who bludgeons Lamb until he is mortally wounded .
Veronica gives Josh a new ID , and he successfully unlocks his safe @-@ deposit box at a bank . Inside is a DVD of Coach Barry telling Josh about his condition and that he was planning to have a friend kill him to avoid futile medical expenses and give his family the insurance money . Josh flees the country until he is old enough to receive the money his father left aside . Veronica shows Keith the DVD . Keith calls the Sheriff 's office and finds that Sheriff Lamb has just died from his wounds . Veronica sees Logan and Parker talking .
Keith , now acting Sheriff , questions Mindy with new evidence , claiming that Mindy is protecting Hank or Hank is protecting Mindy . The story continues in the next episode , Papa 's Cabin .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and filming = = =
" Mars , Bars " features a story by Phil Klemmer , John Enbom , and Joe Voci and a teleplay by Klemmer and Enbom , marking Klemmer 's fourteenth installment of the series , Enbom 's fifteenth episode for the show , and Voci 's second and final writing credit ( after " Postgame Mortem " ) . It was directed by Harry Winer , marking his fifth and final directing credit for Veronica Mars , after " Meet John Smith " , " Blast from the Past " , " Wichita Linebacker " , and " Of Vice and Men " . The scene on the beach was the work of Winer , whom Thomas referred to as a " visual stylist " . He enjoyed the scene for showing Neptune as a California beach town while distinguishing itself due to the cold weather , a visual characteristic that he felt was not portrayed often enough .
" Mars , Bars " features the reappearance of the character of Bronson , who had previously appeared in " Show Me the Monkey " . Mac loses her virginity to Bronson in the episode . However , the writers had initially planned a storyline in which Mac would be taken advantage of by a professor due to her fragile emotional state following her romance with Beaver ( Kyle Gallner ) . However , the storyline was removed , partially due to the fact that Thomas and the crew wanted Mac to have something positive happen to her . Prior to the filming of this episode , Thomas counseled Jason Dohring and Julie Gonzalo , who play Logan and Parker , respectively , on the two characters ' interpersonal chemistry in the episode . Specifically , he did not want them to make their flirting obvious , but rather give " a whiff of connection " .
= = = Acting = = =
This episode marks the final appearance of series regular Michael Muhney , who plays Don Lamb on the show , after his character is bludgeoned to death by Steve Botando , played by Richard Grieco . Muhney did not know about his character 's death until receiving the script for the episode . This was roughly six weeks before the episode 's airing and during filming . Muhney did not know the rationale for killing the character , but when he found out , he stated that " I felt like a piece of me was dying as well . " He also stated that he was also heartbroken because he had grown attached to the character over the course of three years playing him . Muhney also expressed surprise over the writing decision .
Because the crew shoots scenes out of order , the last scene that Muhney filmed was the one in which Keith offers to help Lamb in investigating the break @-@ in at the O 'Dell residence . He enjoyed acting with Grieco , calling him " very approachable . " He was also pleased with the character 's sendoff , stating that it was appropriate . He wished that he had more time to say farewells to each cast and crew member individually . Lamb 's last words were " I smell bread " ; Muhney explained that it was a reference to a minor character death on M * A * S * H. He stated that it was an in @-@ joke among the crew and that the words had " no significance within the borders of Neptune . " However , Muhney thought of it as his character 's last burst of sarcasm .
The reveal of Sheriff Lamb 's death was not leaked anywhere online prior to the airing of " Mars , Bars " , something about which Muhney was happy . He stated that " the surprise was the best part " and that he disliked it when spoilers from other series were released early . After the episode 's initial airing , Muhney reported that his inbox was flooded with emails from press members seeking interviews , stating that new messages came after the airing in each U.S. time zone . Some fans were upset about his death , and debate occurred online . However , Muhney also received messages of support for the character , commenting " it 's nice to know that he will be missed . " With the announcement of the Veronica Mars film in 2013 , Zap2it speculated that Muhney might return ; however , this was later revealed not to be the case when the official casting was announced . Thomas praised Daran Norris 's performance in the episode , particularly his voice in the scene in which he defends Steve Botando in front of Sheriff Lamb . Thomas noted that Norris was also a voice actor and that he was particularly well @-@ liked on the set for his humorous performances .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " Mars , Bars " received 2 @.@ 27 million viewers , ranking 96th of 99 in the weekly rankings . This was a decrease of 100 @,@ 000 viewers from the figures of the previous episode , " Postgame Mortem " , which garnered 2 @.@ 37 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman , writing for IGN , gave the episode an 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great " . He referred to " Mars , Bars " as one of the finest episodes of season three , praising the Valentine 's Day subplot , the development of the mystery of Dean O 'Dell 's death , and Muhney 's performance . Regarding Logan , he opined that although he did not like him moping after his breakup with Veronica , this episode fixed that by including him in the Valentine 's Day subplot and setting up a romantic relationship with Parker : " it 's just a huge relief to see Logan in a different light and interacting with different people , finally . " He also praised Lamb 's death scene as being devoid of clichés by not giving him an act of heroism for his dying moments . Reviewer Alan Sepinwall , on his blog What 's Alan Watching ? , lauded the episode . He saw the episode and the previous episode as a return to form for Veronica Mars , writing , " it 's episodes like these last two that remind me of what this show looks like when it 's really cooking . " He also enjoyed the lack of a redemptive moment for Lamb at the end of his life as well as the comedic value of some scenes in the episode .
BuddyTV wrote that " Mars , Bars " was an example of the best the series could get . The reviewer praised all of the interconnecting subplots , Jason Dohring 's performance , and the episode 's pacing , writing , " Anybody who was kvetching over the slow pace of the last few weeks of Veronica Mars got a huge payoff tonight . " Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , gave a mixed review . While he was positive towards Lamb 's death , he criticized the subplot involving Mac , Logan , Parker , and Bronson . Regarding Lamb , he opined that it made him realize how much he had enjoyed the role ; however , he thought that " knowing that the show is almost finished limits its impact . " He was positive towards Keith 's role in the episode but referred to the Valentine 's Day plot as out of character for the show for its happy feel . " It 's cute . And cuteness in an episode with the shocking death of a recurring character seems out of place . " Television Without Pity graded the episode a " B " .
BuddyTV also ranked Sheriff Lamb 's death 7th on its list of the seven saddest TV deaths of 2007 . On a ranking of all 64 Veronica Mars episodes , Anais Bordages of BuzzFeed ranked the episode 13th . After the series was announced as being cancelled by The CW , fans collectively sent nearly 10 @,@ 000 Mars bars to Dawn Ostroff , the president of the network as a reference to the show , but the attempt was futile .
= Disintegration ( The Cure album ) =
Disintegration is the eighth studio album by British alternative rock band The Cure , released on 2 May 1989 by Fiction Records . The record marks a return to the introspective and gloomy gothic rock style the band had established in the early 1980s . As he neared the age of thirty , vocalist and guitarist Robert Smith had felt an increased pressure to follow up on the group 's pop successes with a more enduring work . This , coupled with a distaste for the group 's newfound popularity , caused Smith to lapse back into the use of hallucinogenic drugs , the effects of which had a strong influence on the production of the album . The Cure recorded Disintegration at Hookend Recording Studios in Checkendon , Oxfordshire , with co @-@ producer David M. Allen from late 1988 to early 1989 . During production , founding member Lol Tolhurst was fired from the band .
Disintegration became the band 's commercial peak , charting at number three in the United Kingdom and at number twelve in the United States , and producing several hit singles including " Lovesong " , which peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 . It remains The Cure 's highest selling record to date , with more than three million copies sold worldwide . It was greeted with a warm critical reception before later being acclaimed , eventually being placed at number 326 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it the " culmination of all the musical directions The Cure were pursuing over the course of the ' 80s " .
= = Background = =
The Cure 's second album Seventeen Seconds ( 1980 ) established the group as a prominent gothic rock band characterised by what Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described as " slow , gloomy dirges and Smith 's ghoulish appearance " . Three singles were released during 1982 and 1983 that were a significant divergence in style for The Cure ; essentially , pop hits . " The Love Cats " became The Cure 's first single to infiltrate the top ten in the United Kingdom , peaking at number seven . This shift is attributed to Smith 's frustration over the band 's labeling as a predictable gothic rock band : " My reaction to all those people ... was to make a demented and calculated song like ' Let 's Go to Bed ' . " Following the return of guitarist Porl Thompson and bassist Simon Gallup in 1984 and the addition of drummer Boris Williams in 1985 , Smith and keyboardist Lol Tolhurst continued to integrate more pop @-@ oriented themes with the release of the group 's sixth studio album The Head on the Door ( 1985 ) . With the singles " In @-@ Between Days " and " Close to Me " , The Cure became a viable commercial force in the United States for the first time .
The band 's 1987 double album Kiss Me , Kiss Me , Kiss Me resulted in further commercial success , with a sold @-@ out world tour booked in its wake . Despite the success , internal friction became prevalent . Tolhurst began to consume heavy amounts of alcohol , rendering him useless . Roger O 'Donnell was hired as a second keyboardist to pick up the slack . O 'Donnell quickly realised that Tolhurst was essentially dead weight : " I couldn 't see why [ Tolhurst ] was in the band . He could have afforded to hire a tutor and have daily lessons , but he wasn 't interested in practicing . He just liked being in the group . " The rest of the band was equally unimpressed . As Tolhurst 's alcohol consumption increased , Smith recalled that his behaviour was similar to that of " some kind of handicapped child being constantly poked with a stick " . At the end of the Kissing Tour in support of Kiss Me , Kiss Me , Kiss Me , Smith became uncomfortable with the side effects of being a pop star and moved to Maida Vale ( in West London ) with fiancée Mary Poole . Regularly taking LSD to cope with his depression , Smith once again felt The Cure was being misunderstood and sought to return to the band 's dark side with their next record .
= = Recording and production = =
Robert Smith 's depression prior to the recording of Disintegration gave way to the realisation on his twenty @-@ ninth birthday that he would turn thirty in one year . This realisation was frightening to him , as he felt all the masterpieces in rock and roll had been completed well before the band members reached such an age . Smith consequently began to write music without the rest of the band . The material he had written instantly took a dismal , depressing form , which he credited to " the fact that I was gonna be thirty " . The Cure convened at Boris Williams ' home in the summer of 1988 where Smith played his bandmates the demos he had recorded . If they had not liked the material , he was prepared to record them as a solo album : " I would have been quite happy to have made these songs on my own . If the group hadn 't thought it was right , that would have been fine . " His bandmates liked the demos and began playing along . The group recorded thirty two songs at Williams ' house with a 16 @-@ track recorder by the end of the summer .
When the band entered Hook End Manor Studios in Oxfordshire , their attitude had turned sour towards Tolhurst 's escalating alcohol abuse , although Smith insisted that his displeasure was caused by a meltdown in the face of recording The Cure 's career @-@ defining album and reaching thirty . Displeased with the swollen egos he believed his bandmates possessed , Smith entered what he considered to be " one of my non @-@ talking modes " deciding " I would be monk @-@ like and not talk to anyone . It was a bit pretentious really , looking back , but I actually wanted an environment that was slightly unpleasant " . He sought to abandon the mood present on Kiss Me , Kiss Me , Kiss Me and the pop singles they had released , and rather recreate the atmosphere of the band 's fourth album Pornography ( 1982 ) .
Tolhurst , meanwhile , was becoming a nuisance . The band found him impossible to work with , and he spent most of the recording process drunk and watching MTV . The members of the band , except for Smith , would taunt and physically abuse Tolhurst simply to get a reaction . Smith recalls that Tolhurst turned into someone he did not recognise : " I didn 't know who he was any more and he didn 't know who he was either . I used to despair and scream at the others because it was fucking insane the way we were treating him . " At that point , Smith was allowing Tolhurst to remain in The Cure simply because he felt an obligation as an old friend . The other band members , finally , threatened to quit if Tolhurst was not fired before the end of the recording session . When Tolhurst arrived to the mixing of the album excessively drunk , a shouting match ensued and he left the building furious ; this effectively terminated his tenure with The Cure . Smith and the rest of the group confirm he contributed nothing to the record . Thereafter , O 'Donnell became an integral member of The Cure , instead of simply a touring musician . Despite Tolhurst 's ejection from the group , Smith told NME in April 1989 , " He 'll probably be back by Christmas . He 's getting married , maybe that 's his comeback . " Tolhurst only returned briefly around 2011 .
= = Music = =
Disintegration was Robert Smith 's thematic return to a dark and gloomy aesthetic that The Cure had explored in the early 1980s . Smith deliberately sought to record an album that was depressing , as it was a reflection of the despondency he felt at the time . The sound of the album was a shock to the band 's American label Elektra Records ; the label requested Smith shift the release date back several months . Smith recalled " they thought I was being ' wilfully obscure ' , which was an actual quote from the letter [ Smith received from Elektra ] . Ever since then I realised that record companies don 't have a fucking clue what The Cure does and what The Cure means . " Despite rumours that Smith was one of the only contributors to the record , he confirmed that more than half of the dozen tracks on Disintegration had substantial musical input from the rest of the band .
Disintegration is characterized by a significant usage of synthesizers and keyboards , slow , " droning " guitar progressions and Smith 's introspective vocals . " Plainsong " , the album 's opener , " set the mood for Disintegration perfectly " , according to journalist Jeff Apter , by " unravelling ever so slowly in a shower of synths and guitars , before Smith steps up to the mic , uttering snatches of lyrics ( ' I 'm so cold ' ) as if he were reading from something as sacred as the Dead Sea Scroll . " Smith felt the song was a perfect opener for the record , describing it as " very lush , very orchestral " . The album 's third track , " Closedown " , contains layers of keyboard texture complemented with a slow , gloomy guitar line . The track was written by Smith as a means to list his physical and artistic shortcomings . Despite the dark mood present throughout Disintegration , " Lovesong " was an upbeat track that became a hit in the United States . Ned Raggett of AllMusic noted the difference from other songs : " the Simon Gallup / Boris Williams rhythm section create a tight , serviceable dance groove , while Smith and Porl Thompson add further guitar fills and filigrees as well , adding just enough extra bite to the song . Smith himself delivers the lyric softly , with gentle passion . "
Much of the album made use of a considerable amount of guitar effects . " Prayers for Rain " , a depressing track ( Raggett noted : " the phrase ' savage torpor ' probably couldn 't better be applied anywhere else than to this song " ) sees Thompson and Smith " treating their work to heavy duty flanging , delay , backwards @-@ run tapes and more to set the slow , moody crawl of the track . " Others , like the title track , are notable for " Smith 's commanding lead guitar lines [ that are ] scaled to epic heights while at the same time buried in the mix , almost as if they 're trying to burst from behind the upfront rhythm assault . Roger O 'Donnell 's keyboards add both extra shade and melody , while Smith 's singing is intentionally delivered in a combination of cutting clarity and low resignation , at times further distorted with extra vocal treatments . "
While Disintegration mainly consists of sombre tracks , " Lovesong " , " Pictures of You " and " Lullaby " were equally popular for their accessibility . Smith wanted to create a balance on the album by including songs that would act as an equilibrium with those that were unpleasant . Smith wrote " Lovesong " as a wedding present for Mary Poole . The lyrics had a noticeably different mood than the rest of the record , but Smith felt it was an integral component of Disintegration : " It 's an open show of emotion . It 's not trying to be clever . It 's taken me ten years to reach the point where I feel comfortable singing a very straightforward love song . " The lyrics were a notable shift in his ability to reveal affection . In the past , Smith felt it necessary to disguise or mask such a statement . He noted that without " Lovesong " , Disintegration would have been radically different : " That one song , I think , makes many people think twice . If that song wasn 't on the record , it would be very easy to dismiss the album as having a certain mood . But throwing that one in sort of upsets people a bit because they think , ' That doesn 't fit ' . " " Pictures of You " , while upbeat , contained poignant lyrics ( " Screamed at the make @-@ believe / Screamed at the sky / You finally found all your courage to let it all go " ) with a " two @-@ chord cascade of synthesizer slabs , interweaving guitar and bass lines , passionate singing and romantic lyrics . " " Lullaby " is composed of what Apter calls " sharp stabs " of rhythmic guitar chords with Smith whispering the words . The premise for the song came to Smith after remembering lullabies his father would sing him when he could not sleep : " [ My father ] would always make them up . There was always a horrible ending . They would be something like ' sleep now , pretty baby or you won 't wake up at all . ' "
= = Release and reception = =
Disintegration was released in May 1989 and peaked at number three on the UK Albums Chart , the highest position the band had placed on the chart at that point . In the UK , the lead single " Lullaby " became The Cure 's highest charting hit in their home country when it reached number five . In the US , due to its appearance in the film Lost Angels , the band 's American label Elektra Records released " Fascination Street " as the first single . The international follow @-@ up single to " Lullaby " , " Lovesong " , became The Cure 's highest charting hit in the United States , when it reached number two on the Billboard charts . The success of Disintegration was such that the March 1990 final single " Pictures of You " reached number 24 on the British charts , despite the fact that the album had been released a year earlier . Disintegration was certified silver ( 60 @,@ 000 copies shipped ) in the United Kingdom , and by 1992 had sold more than three million copies worldwide .
In a contemporary review for Rolling Stone , music critic Michael Azerrad gave the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars and felt that , " while Disintegration doesn 't break new ground for the band , it successfully refines what the Cure does best " . He concluded , " Despite the title , Disintegration hangs together beautifully , creating and sustaining a mood of thoroughly self @-@ absorbed gloom . If , as Smith has hinted , the Cure itself is about to disintegrate , this is a worthy summation . " Melody Maker reviewer Chris Roberts dismissed the claims that Disintegration was not a miserable record and , noting the tone of the album and its lack of melody ( " You 'll be lucky to find a tune on here . Or a gag " ) , he commented that " The Cure have almost invisibly stopped making pop records " . Roberts summarised the album as " challenging and claustrophobic , often poignant , often tedious . It 's nearly surprising . " NME praised Disintegration for its tunes , " from the first track ' Plainsong ' , a swaying , slow narrative , paralysing the listener with sex @-@ poison , to Disintegration 's last ' Untitled ' Smith 's lyrical agony of indecision is remorseless " . Reviewer Barbara Ellen noted the large range of emotions in Smith 's lyrics , " from deep , loving pink to an ugly , violent maroon and almost back again " . Although she found the two extra @-@ tracks superfluous , Ellen hailed Disintegration as " a mindblowing and stunningly complete album " . Q gave the album a three @-@ star rating out of five , mainly comparing it to Joy Division 's work . Writer Mat Snow observed : " The Cure have studied well the art of the tragic bass line , the hesitant and melancholy guitar lick , the funereal keyboard coloration " . He concluded : " Disintegration is thus well @-@ crafted [ ... ] , just don 't tell me it 's original " . Robert Christgau of The Village Voice gave the album a " C + " grade and felt that Smith attempts to appease a larger audience by broadening " gothic clichés " and " pumping his bad faith and bad relationship into depressing moderato play @-@ loud keyb anthems far more tedious than his endless vamps " .
In a retrospective review for AllMusic , Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave Disintegration four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , and applauded the band by saying , " The Cure 's gloomy soundscapes have rarely sounded so alluring [ and ] the songs – from the pulsating , ominous ' Fascination Street ' to the eerie , string @-@ laced ' Lullaby ' – have rarely been so well @-@ constructed and memorable . " Erlewine went on to praise Disintegration for being " darkly seductive " , and " a hypnotic , mesmerizing record " . Pitchfork praised the record , admitting " Disintegration stands unquestionably as Robert Smith 's magnum opus . " Writer Chris Ott noted that " scant few albums released in the 1980s can boast an opener as grand as ' Plainsong ' , the most breathtaking , shimmering anthem the band ever recorded . "
Disintegration has been included in numerous " Best Of " lists . Rolling Stone placed the record at number 326 on its 2003 compilation of the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . The magazine 's German counterpart placed Disintegration at number 184 on the same list . The album was considered to be the best album of 1989 by Melody Maker , 17th on Q magazine 's " 40 Best Albums of the 80s " , and 38th on Pitchfork 's " Best Albums of the 80s " . The album placed at number 14 in Entertainment Weekly 's " New Classics : The 100 Best Albums from 1983 to 2008 . " In 2012 , Slant Magazine listed the album at number 15 on its list of " Best Albums of the 1980s " . In a 2001 article in Rolling Stone , readers selected Disintegration as number 9 in of " the 10 Best Albums of the Eighties " . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = The Prayer Tour and aftermath = =
Following completion of Disintegration , Smith noted that The Cure had " despite my best efforts , actually become everything that I didn 't want us to become : a stadium rock band . " Furthermore , Smith claimed the album 's title was the most appropriate one he could think of : " Most of the relationship with the band outside of the band fell apart . Calling it Disintegration was kind of tempting fate , and fate retaliated . The family idea of the group really fell apart too after Disintegration . It was the end of a golden period . "
The Prayer Tour began in Europe shortly after the release of the album . The band performed numerous high @-@ profile concerts , including shows in front of more than 40 @,@ 000 fans over two nights in Paris and their first performances in Eastern Europe . Following the European leg , the band elected to travel to North America for their upcoming US leg by boat , instead of plane . Smith and Gallup shared a fear of flight , and ultimately lamented the upcoming dates , wishing to reduce the number of concerts they booked . The record label and tour promoters strongly disagreed , and even proposed to add several new shows to the itinerary because of the success of Disintegration in the US . The first concert in the United States was at New Jersey 's Giants Stadium , where 44 @,@ 000 people attended ; 30 @,@ 000 tickets were purchased on the first day alone . The opening acts at Giant Stadium were : Pixies , Shelleyan Orphan and Love and Rockets along with a special appearance by The Bubblemen . The band were extremely displeased with the massive turnout ; according to Roger O 'Donnell : " We had been at sea for five days . The stadium was too big for us to take it all in . We 've decided that we don 't like playing stadiums that large . " Smith recalls that " it was never our intention to become as big as this " .
The band 's show at Dodger Stadium attracted roughly 50 @,@ 000 attendees , grossing over US $ 1 @.@ 5 million . The band 's notably greater popularity in the United States — virtually every concert in the leg was sold out — caused Smith to break down , and threatened the band 's future : " It 's reached a stage where I personally can 't cope with it , " he said , " so I 've decided this is the last time we 're gonna tour . " Backstage , there were ongoing feuds between band members owing to the strife onset by Smith . He recalled that towards the end of the tour " I was tearing my hair out ... It was just a difficult tour . " Cocaine use was prevalent , and only ended up distancing Smith from his fellow band members .
Upon returning to the United Kingdom in early October , Smith wanted nothing more to do with recording , promoting and touring for an album . In 1990 " Lullaby " won " Best Music Video of 1989 " at the BRIT Awards . The Cure also released a live album titled Entreat ( 1991 ) , which compiled songs entirely off Disintegration from their performance at Wembley Arena , and despite claims that The Cure would never tour again , Smith accepted an invitation to headline the Glastonbury Festival . O 'Donnell , after two years with the group , left to pursue a solo career , and was replaced by the band 's guitar technician Perry Bamonte . Smith , who was influenced by the acid house
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movement that had exploded in London that summer , released a predominantly electronic remix album , Mixed Up , in 1990 .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Robert Smith , all music composed by Smith , Simon Gallup , Roger O 'Donnell , Porl Thompson , Boris Williams , and ( officially , in credits ) Lol Tolhurst .
Original cd and cassette copies of Disintegration listed " Last Dance " and " Homesick " as bonus tracks , as they were not included on the original vinyl issue of the album .
= = = 2010 deluxe edition disc two : Rarities 1988 – 1989 = = =
" Prayers for Rain " – Robert Smith home demo ( Instrumental ) – 4 / 88
" Pictures of You " – Robert Smith home demo ( Instrumental ) – 4 / 88
" Fascination Street " – Robert Smith home demo ( Instrumental ) – 4 / 88
" Homesick " – Band rehearsal ( Instrumental ) – 6 / 88
" Fear of Ghosts " – Band rehearsal ( Instrumental ) – 6 / 88
" Noheart " – Band rehearsal ( Instrumental ) – 6 / 88
" Esten " – Band demo ( Instrumental ) – 9 / 88
" Closedown " – Band demo ( Instrumental ) – 9 / 88
" Lovesong " – Band demo ( Instrumental ) – 9 / 88
" 2Late " ( alternate version ) – Band demo ( Instrumental ) – 9 / 88
" The Same Deep Water as You " – Band demo ( Instrumental ) – 9 / 88
" Disintegration " – Band demo ( Instrumental ) – 9 / 88
" Untitled " ( alternate version ) – Studio rough ( Instrumental ) – 11 / 88
" Babble " ( alternate version ) – Studio rough ( Instrumental ) – 11 / 88
" Plainsong " – Studio rough ( Guide vocal ) – 11 / 88
" Last Dance " – Studio rough ( Guide vocal ) – 11 / 88
" Lullaby " – Studio rough ( Guide vocal ) – 11 / 88
" Out of Mind " – Studio rough ( Guide vocal ) – 11 / 88
" Delirious Night " – Rough mix ( vocal ) – 12 / 88
" Pirate Ships " ( Robert Smith solo ) – Rough mix ( vocal ) – 12 / 89
= = = Disc three : Entreat Plus : Live at Wembley 1989 = = =
" Plainsong "
" Pictures of You "
" Closedown "
" Lovesong "
" Last Dance "
" Lullaby "
" Fascination Street "
" Prayers for Rain "
" The Same Deep Water as You "
" Disintegration "
" Homesick "
" Untitled "
= = = Online only : Alternative Rarities : 1988 – 1989 = = =
" Closedown " ( RS Home Instrumental Demo 5 / 88 ) – 1 : 24
" Last Dance " ( RS Home Instrumental Demo 5 / 88 ) – 3 : 11
" Lullaby " ( RS Home Instrumental Demo 5 / 88 ) – 2 : 10
" Tuned Out on RTV5 " ( Instrumental Rehearsal 6 / 88 ) – 2 : 20
" Fuknnotfunk " ( Instrumental Rehearsal 6 / 88 ) – 2 : 08
" Babble " ( Instrumental Rehearsal 6 / 88 ) – 2 : 08
" Plainsong " ( Instrumental Demo 9 / 88 ) – 2 : 24
" Pictures of You " ( Instrumental Demo 9 / 88 ) – 3 : 11
" Fear of Ghosts " ( Instrumental Demo 9 / 88 ) – 4 : 04
" Fascination Street " ( Instrumental Demo 9 / 88 ) – 3 : 45
" Homesick " ( Instrumental Demo 9 / 88 ) – 4 : 37
" Delirious Night " ( Instrumental Demo 9 / 88 ) – 3 : 26
" Out of Mind " ( Studio Instrumental Jam 10 / 88 ) – 2 : 40
" 2 Late " ( Studio ' WIP ' Mix 11 / 88 ) – 2 : 30
" Lovesong " ( Studio ' WIP ' Mix 11 / 88 ) – 3 : 19
" Prayers for Rain " ( Studio ' WIP ' Mix 11 / 88 ) –
" The Same Deep Water as You " ( Live Dallas Starplex 9 / 15 / 89 ) – 10 : 28
" Disintegration " ( Live Dallas Starplex 9 / 15 / 89 ) – 7 : 08
" Untitled " ( Live Dallas Starplex 9 / 15 / 89 ) – 7 : 07
" Faith " ( Live Rome Palaeur 6 / 4 / 89 — Crowd Bootleg ) – 14 : 06
These recordings were only found on www.thecuredisintegration.com , now closed .
= = Personnel = =
Robert Smith – vocals , guitars , keyboards , 6 @-@ string bass , production , engineering
Simon Gallup – bass guitar , keyboards
Porl Thompson – guitars
Boris Williams – drums , percussion
Roger O 'Donnell – keyboards , piano
Lol Tolhurst – credited with " other instrument " ; basis for the song " Homesick "
Production
David M. Allen – production , engineering
Richard Sullivan – engineering
Roy Spong – engineering
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= Samuel J. Randall =
Samuel Jackson Randall ( October 10 , 1828 – April 13 , 1890 ) was a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania in the late 19th century . He served as the 29th Speaker of the House and was twice a contender for his party 's nomination for President of the United States .
Born in Philadelphia to a family active in Whig politics , Randall shifted to the Democratic Party after the Whigs ' demise . His rise in politics began in the 1850s with election to the Philadelphia Common Council and then to the Pennsylvania State Senate . Randall served in a Union cavalry unit in the American Civil War before winning a seat in the federal House of Representatives in 1862 . He was reelected every two years thereafter until his death . The representative of an industrial region , Randall became known as a staunch defender of protective tariffs designed to assist domestic producers of manufactured goods . While often siding with Republicans on tariff issues , he differed with them in his resistance to Reconstruction and the growth of federal power .
Randall 's defense of smaller , less centralized government raised his profile among House Democrats , and they elevated him to Speaker in 1876 . He held that post until the Democrats lost control of the House in 1881 , and was considered a possible nominee for President in 1880 and 1884 . Randall 's support for high tariffs began to alienate him from most Democrats , and when that party regained control of the House in 1883 , he was denied another term as Speaker . Randall continued to serve in Congress as head of the Appropriations Committee . He remained a respected party leader , but gradually lost influence as the Democrats became more firmly wedded to free trade . Worsening health also curtailed his power until his death in 1890 .
= = Early life and family = =
Randall was born on October 10 , 1828 in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , the eldest son of Josiah and Ann Worrell Randall . Three younger brothers soon followed : William , Robert , and Henry . Josiah Randall was a leading Philadelphia lawyer who had served in the state legislature in the 1820s . Randall 's paternal grandfather , Matthew Randall , was a judge on the Pennsylvania Courts of Common Pleas and county prothonotary in that city in the early 19th century . His maternal grandfather , Joseph Worrell , was also a prominent citizen , active in politics for the Democratic Party during Thomas Jefferson 's presidency . Josiah Randall was a Whig in politics , but drifted into the Democratic fold after the Whig Party dissolved in the 1850s .
When Randall was born , the family lived at Seventh and Walnut Streets in what is now Center City Philadelphia . Randall was educated at the University Academy , a school affiliated with the University of Pennsylvania . On completing school at age 17 , he did not follow his father into the law , but instead took a job as a bookkeeper with a local silk merchant . Shortly thereafter , he started a coal delivery business and , at age 21 , became a partner in a scrap iron business named Earp and Randall .
Two years later , in 1851 , Randall married Fannie Agnes Ward , the daughter of Aaron and Mary Watson Ward of Sing Sing , New York . Randall 's new father @-@ in @-@ law was a major general in the New York militia and had served in Congress as a Jacksonian Democrat for several terms between 1825 and 1843 . Randall and Fannie went on to have three children : Ann , Susan , and Samuel Josiah .
= = Local politics and military service = =
In 1851 , Randall assisted his father in the election campaign for a local judge . The judge , a Whig , was elected despite considerable opposition from a candidate of the nativist American Party ( commonly called the " Know @-@ Nothing Party " ) . The strength of this group , combined with the Whigs ' declining fortunes , led Samuel Randall to call himself an " American Whig " when he ran for Philadelphia Common Council the following year . He was elected , holding office for four one @-@ year terms from 1852 to 1856 . The period was one of significant change in Philadelphia 's governance , as all of Philadelphia County 's townships and boroughs were consolidated into one city in 1854 .
As the Whig Party fell apart , Randall and his family became Democrats . Josiah Randall was friendly with James Buchanan , a Pennsylvania Democrat then serving as the United States ' envoy in Great Britain . Both Randall and his father attended the Democratic National Convention in 1856 to work for Buchanan 's nomination for president , which was successful . When , in 1858 , a vacancy occurred in Randall 's state Senate district , he ran for election ( as a Democrat ) for the remainder of the term , and was elected . Still only 30 years old , Randall had risen rapidly in politics . Much of his term in the state Senate was spent dealing with the incorporation of street railway companies , which he believed would benefit his district . Randall also supported legislation to reduce the power of banks , a policy that he would continue to advocate for his entire political career . In 1860 , he ran for election to a full term in the state Senate while his brother Robert ran for a seat in the state House of Representatives . Ignoring their father 's advice that it meant " too much Randall on the ticket , " both brothers were unsuccessful .
In 1861 , the Civil War began as eleven Southern states seceded from the Union to form the Confederate States of America . Randall joined the First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry in May of that year as a private . The unit was stationed in central Pennsylvania and eastern Virginia during Randall 's 90 @-@ day enlistment , but saw no action during that time . In 1863 , he re @-@ joined the unit , this time being elected captain . The First Troop was sent back to central Pennsylvania during the Gettysburg campaign that summer , when Confederate forces under Robert E. Lee invaded Pennsylvania . He served as provost marshal at Gettysburg , Pennsylvania in the days before the battle there , and had the same role at Columbia , Pennsylvania during the battle , but did not see combat . As historian Albert V. House explained , " [ h ] is military career was respectable , but far from arduous , most of his duties being routine reconnoitering which seldom led him under fire . "
= = House of Representatives = =
= = = Election to the House = = =
In 1862 , before rejoining his cavalry unit , Randall was elected to the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania 's 1st congressional district . The city had been gerrymandered by a Republican legislature to create four solidly Republican districts , with the result that as many Democrats as possible were lumped into the 1st district . Gaining the Democratic nomination was , thus , tantamount to election ; Randall defeated former mayor Richard Vaux for their party 's endorsement and won easily over his Republican opponent , Edward G. Webb . He won with the help of William " Squire " McMullen , the Democratic boss of the fourth ward , who would remain a lifelong Randall ally .
Under the congressional calendar of the 1860s , members of the 38th United States Congress , elected in November 1862 , did not begin their work until December 1863 . Randall arrived that month , after being discharged from his cavalry unit , to join a Congress dominated by Republicans . As a member of the minority , Randall had little opportunity to author legislation , but quickly became known as a hard @-@ working and conscientious member . James G. Blaine , a Republican also first elected in 1862 , later characterized Randall as " a strong partisan , with many elements of leadership . He ... never neglects his public duties , and never forgets the interests of the Democratic Party . "
Randall was known as a friend to the manufacturers in his district , especially as it concerned protective tariffs . Despite being in the minority , Randall spoke often in defense of his constituents ' interests . As House described him ,
He had a tongue that could snap out sarcastic quips with lightning speed . His voice was pitched rather high , and in moments of excitement , its metallic ring approached a shrill screech . His countenance was usually very attractive ... but this face became a thundercloud when he was in a defiant mood .
With his party continually in the minority , Randall gained experience in the functioning of the House , but his tenure left little evidence in the statute book . He attracted little attention , but kept his constituents happy and was repeatedly reelected .
= = = War and Reconstruction = = =
When the 38th Congress convened in December 1863 , the Civil War was approaching its end . Randall was a War Democrat , sometimes siding with his Republican colleagues to support measures in pursuit of victory over the Confederates . When a bill was proposed to allow President Abraham Lincoln to promote Ulysses S. Grant to lieutenant general , Randall voted in favor , unlike most in his party . He voted with the majority of Democrats , however , to oppose allowing black men to serve in the Union Army .
When it came to political plans for the post @-@ war nation , he was strictly opposed to most Republican @-@ proposed measures . Republicans proposed the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865 , which would abolish slavery , and Randall spoke against it . Claiming opposition to slavery , Randall said his objections stemmed instead from a belief that the amendment was " a beginning of changes in the Constitution and the forerunner of usurpation . " After Andrew Johnson became president following Lincoln 's assassination , Randall came to support Johnson 's policies for Reconstruction of the defeated South , which were more lenient than those of the Republican majority in Congress . In 1867 , the Republicans proposed requiring an ironclad oath from all Southerners wishing to vote , hold office , or practice law in federal courts , making them swear they had never borne arms against the United States . Randall led a 16 @-@ hour filibuster against the measure ; in spite of his efforts , it passed .
Randall began to gain prominence in the small Democratic caucus by opposing Reconstruction measures . His delaying tactics against fellow Pennsylvanian Thaddeus Stevens 's military Reconstruction bill in February 1867 kept the bill from being considered for two weeks — long enough to prevent it from being voted on until the next session . He likewise spoke against what would become the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution . Although he opposed the amendment , Randall did favor the idea behind part of it : section 4 , which guarantees that Congress may not repudiate the federal debt , nor may it assume debts of the Confederacy , nor debt that the individual Confederate states incurred during the rebellion . Many Republicans claimed that if the Democrats were to regain power , they would do exactly that , repudiating federal debt and assuming that of the rebels . Despite disagreement on other facets of Reconstruction , Randall stood firmly with the Republicans ( and most Northern Democrats ) on the debt .
As impeachment proceedings began against President Johnson , Randall became one of his leading defenders in the House . Once the House determined to impeach Johnson , Randall worked to direct the investigation to the Judiciary Committee , rather than a special committee convened for the purpose , which he believed would be stacked with pro @-@ impeachment members . His efforts were unsuccessful , as were his speeches in favor of the president : Johnson was impeached by a vote of 128 to 47 . Johnson was not convicted after his Senate trial , and Randall remained on good terms with him after the president left office .
= = = Financial legislation = = =
With Grant , a Republican , elected president in 1868 , and the 41st Congress as Republican @-@ dominated as its immediate predecessors , Randall faced several more years in the minority . He served on the Banking and Currency Committee and began to focus on financial matters , resuming his long @-@ standing policy against the power of banks . This placed Randall in the growing fight over the nature of the nation 's currency — those who favored the gold @-@ backed currency were called " hard money " supporters , while the policy of encouraging inflation through coining silver or issuing dollars backed by government bonds ( " greenbacks " ) was known as " soft money " . Although he believed in a gold @-@ backed dollar , Randall was friendly to greenbacks ; in general , he favored allowing the amount of currency to remain constant , while replacing bank @-@ issued dollar bills with greenbacks . He also believed the federal government should sell its bonds directly to the public , rather than selling them only to large banks , which then re @-@ sold them at a profit . He was unsuccessful in convincing the Republican majority to adopt any of these measures .
Randall worked with Republicans to shift the source of federal funds from taxes to tariffs . He believed the taxation of alcohol spread the burdens of taxation unfairly , especially as concerned his constituents , who included several distillers . He also believed the income tax , first enacted during the Civil War , was being administered unfairly , with large refunds often accruing to powerful business interests . On this point , Randall was successful , and the House accepted an amendment that required all cases for refunds over $ 500 to be tried before a federal district court . He also worked toward the elimination of taxation on tea , coffee , cigars , and matches , all of which Randall believed fell disproportionately on the poor . Relief from taxation made these items cheaper for the average American , while increasing reliance on tariffs helped the industrial owners and workers in Randall 's district , as it made foreign products more expensive .
Tariff legislation generally found favor with Randall , which put him more often in alliance with Republicans than Democrats . In the late 1860s and early 1870s , Randall worked to raise tariffs on a wide variety of imported goods . Even so , he sometimes differed with the Republicans when he believed the tariff proposed was too high ; biographer Alfred V. House describes Randall 's attitude as supporting " higher tariff rates ... largely because he believed that the benefits of such high rates were passed on to the labor population . " In 1870 , he opposed the pig iron tariff as too high , against the wishes of fellow Pennsylvanian William " Pig Iron " Kelley . Randall called his version of protectionism " incidental protection " : he believed that tariffs should be high enough to support the cost of running the government , but only applied to those industries that needed tariff protection to survive foreign competition .
= = = Appropriations and investigations = = =
While the Democrats were in the minority , Randall spent much of his time scrutinizing the Republicans ' appropriations bills . During the Grant administration , he questioned thousands of items in the appropriation bills , often gaining the support of Republicans in excising expenditures that were in excess of the departments ' needs . He proposed a bill that would end the practice , common at the time , of executive departments spending beyond what they had been appropriated , then petitioning Congress to retroactively approve the spending with a supplemental appropriation ; the legislation passed and became law . The supplemental appropriations were typically rushed through at the end of a session with little debate . Reacting to the large grants of land given to railroads , he also sought unsuccessfully to ban all land grants to private corporations .
Investigating appropriations led Randall to focus on financial impropriety in Congress and the Grant administration . The most famous of these was the Crédit Mobilier scandal . In this scheme , the Union Pacific Railroad bankrupted itself by overpaying its construction company , the Crédit Mobilier of America . Crédit Mobilier was owned by the railroad 's principal shareholders and , as the investigation discovered , several congressmen also owned shares that they had been allowed to purchase at discounted prices . Randall 's role in the investigation was limited , but he proposed bills to ban such frauds and sought to impeach Vice President Schuyler Colfax , who had been implicated in the scandal . Randall was involved with the investigation of several other scandals , as well , including tax fraud by private tax collection contractors ( known as the Sanborn incident ) and fraud in the awarding of postal contracts ( the star route scandal ) .
Randall was caught on the wrong side of one scandal in 1873 when Congress passed a retroactive pay increase . On the last day of the term , the 42nd Congress voted to raise its members ' pay by 50 % , including a raise made retroactive to the beginning of the term . Randall voted for the pay raise , and against the amendment that would have removed the retroactive provision . The law , later known as the Salary Grab Act , provoked outrage across the country . Randall defended the Act , saying that an increased salary would " put members of Congress beyond temptation " and reduce fraud . Seeing the unpopularity of the Salary Grab , the incoming 43rd Congress repealed it almost immediately , with Randall voting for repeal .
= = = Rise to prominence = = =
Democrats remained in the minority when the 43rd Congress convened in 1873 . Randall continued his opposition to measures proposed by Republicans , especially those intended to increase the power of the federal government . That term saw the introduction of a new civil rights bill with farther @-@ reaching ambitions than any before it . Previous acts had seen the use of federal courts and troops to guarantee that black men and women could not be deprived of their civil rights by any state . Now Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts proposed a new bill , aimed at requiring equal rights in all public accommodations . When Sumner died in 1874 , his bill had not passed , but others from the radical wing of the Republican Party , including Representative Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts , continued to work for its enactment .
Randall stood against this measure , as he had against nearly all Reconstruction laws . A lack of consensus delayed the bill from coming to a vote until the lame @-@ duck session beginning in December 1874 . By that time , disillusionment with the Grant administration and worsening economic conditions had translated into a Democratic victory in the mid @-@ term elections . When the 44th Congress gathered in March 1875 , the House would have a Democratic majority for the first time since the Civil War . In the meantime , the outgoing Republicans made one last effort to pass Sumner 's civil rights bill ; Randall and other Democrats immediately used parliamentary maneuvers to bring action to a stand @-@ still , hoping to delay passage until the Congress ended . Randall led his caucus in filibustering the bill , at one point remaining on the floor for 72 hours . In the end , the Democrats peeled away some Republican votes , but not enough to defeat the bill , which passed by a vote of 162 to 100 . Despite the defeat , Randall 's filibuster increased his prominence in the eyes of his Democratic colleagues .
As Democrats took control of the House in 1875 , Randall was considered among the candidates for Speaker of the House . Many in the caucus hesitated , however , believing Randall to be too close to railroad interests and uncertain on the money question . His leadership in the Salary Grab may have harmed him , as well . Randall was also occupied by an intra @-@ party battle with William A. Wallace for control of the Pennsylvania Democratic Party . Wallace , who had been elected to the United States Senate in 1874 , was weakened by rumors that he had taken bribes from the railroads while a member of the State Senate . Randall wanted control of the Democratic machine statewide , and the Wallace faction 's vulnerability on the bribery rumors provided the opportunity . In January 1875 , he had friends in the state legislature begin an investigation into Wallace 's clique , which ultimately turned state Democratic leaders against the senator . At the state Democratic convention in September 1875 , Randall ( with the help of his old ally , Squire McMullen ) triumphed , putting his men in control of the state party .
In the meantime , the divisions in the state party proved ruinous for Randall 's chances at the Speaker 's chair . Instead , the Democrats decided on Michael C. Kerr of Indiana , who was elected . Randall was instead named chairman of the Appropriations Committee . In that post , he focused on reducing the government 's spending , and cut the budget by $ 30 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , despite opposition from the Republican Senate . Kerr 's health was fragile , and he was often absent from sessions , but Randall refused to take his place as speaker on a temporary basis , preferring to concentrate on his appropriations work . Kerr and Randall began to work more closely together through 1876 , but Kerr died in August of that year , leaving the Speakership vacant once again .
= = Speaker of the House = =
= = = Hayes and Tilden = = =
After Kerr 's death , Randall was the consensus choice of the Democratic caucus , and was elected to the Speakership when Congress returned to Washington on December 2 , 1876 . He assumed the chair at a tumultuous time , as the presidential election had just concluded the previous month with no clear winner . The Democratic candidate , Samuel J. Tilden of New York , had 184 electoral votes , just shy of the 185 needed for victory . Rutherford B. Hayes , the Republican , had 163 ; the remaining 22 votes were in doubt .
Randall spent early December in conference with Tilden while committees examined the votes from the disputed states . The counts of the disputed ballots were inconclusive , with each of the states in question producing two sets of returns : one signed by Democratic officials , the other by Republicans , each claiming victory for their man . By January 1877 , with the question still unresolved , Congress and President Grant agreed to submit the matter to a bipartisan Electoral Commission , which would be authorized to determine the fate of the disputed electoral votes .
Randall supported the idea , believing it the best solution to an intractable problem . The bill passed , providing for a commission of five representatives , five senators , and five Supreme Court justices . To ensure partisan balance , there would be seven Democrats and seven Republicans ; the fifteenth member was to be a Supreme Court justice chosen by the other four on the commission ( themselves two Republicans and two Democrats ) . Justice David Davis , an independent respected by both parties , was expected to be their choice , but he upset the careful planning by accepting election to the Senate by the state of Illinois and refusing to serve on the commission . The remaining Supreme Court justices were all Republicans and , with the addition of Justice Joseph P. Bradley to the place intended for Davis , the commission had an 8 – 7 Republican majority . Randall nevertheless favored the compromise , even voting in favor of it in the roll call vote ( the Speaker usually does not vote ) . The commission met and awarded all of the disputed ballots to Hayes by an 8 – 7 party @-@ line vote .
Democrats were outraged , and many demanded that they filibuster the final count in the House . Randall did not commit , but permitted the House to take recesses several times , delaying the decision . As the March 4 inauguration day approached , leaders of both parties met at Wormley 's Hotel in Washington to negotiate a compromise . Republicans promised that , in exchange for Democratic acquiescence in the Commission 's decision , Hayes would order federal troops to withdraw from the South and accept the election of Democratic governments in the remaining " unredeemed " states there . The Democratic leadership , including Randall , agreed and the filibuster ended .
= = = Monetary disputes = = =
Randall returned to Washington in March 1877 at the start of the 45th Congress and was
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stated in a police report that Stalin " observed the ruthless bloodshed , smoking a cigarette , from the courtyard of a mansion . " Another source claims that Stalin was actually at the railway station during the robbery and not at the square . Stalin 's sister @-@ in @-@ law stated that Stalin came home the night of the robbery and told his family about its success .
Stalin 's role was later questioned by fellow revolutionaries Boris Nicolaevsky and Leon Trotsky . The latter , Stalin 's rival , was later assassinated on orders from Stalin . In his book Stalin – An Appraisal of the Man and his Influence , Trotsky analyzed many publications describing the Tiflis expropriation and other Bolshevik militant activities of that time , and concluded , " Others did the fighting ; Stalin supervised them from afar " . In general , according to Nicolaevsky , " The role played by Stalin in the activities of the Kamo group was subsequently exaggerated " . Kun later discovered official archive documents however clearly showing that " from late 1904 or early 1905 Stalin took part in drawing up plans for expropriations " , adding , " It is now certain that [ Stalin ] controlled from the wings the initial plans of the group " that carried out the Tiflis robbery .
= = Security response and investigation = =
The robbery featured in headlines worldwide : " Rain of Bombs : Revolutionaries Hurl Destruction among Large Crowds of People " in the London Daily Mirror , " Tiflis Bomb Outrage " in The Times of London , " Catastrophe ! " in Le Temps in Paris , and " Bomb Kills Many ; $ 170 @,@ 000 Captured " in The New York Times .
Authorities mobilized the army , closed roads , and surrounded the square hoping to secure the money and capture the criminals . A special detective unit was brought in to lead the police investigation . Unfortunately for the investigators , witness testimony was confusing and conflicting , and the authorities did not know which group was responsible for the robbery . Polish socialists , Armenians , anarchists , Socialist @-@ Revolutionaries , and even the Russian State itself were blamed .
According to Brackman , several days after the robbery the Okhrana agent Mukhtarov questioned Stalin in a secret apartment . The agents had heard rumors that Stalin had been seen watching passively during the robbery . Mukhtarov asked Stalin why he had not informed them about it , and Stalin stated that he had provided adequate information to the authorities to prevent the theft . The questioning escalated into a heated argument ; Mukhtarov hit Stalin in the face and had to be restrained by other Okhrana officers . After this incident , Muktarov was suspended from the Okhrana , and Stalin was ordered to leave Tiflis and go to Baku to await a decision in the case . Stalin left Baku with 20 @,@ 000 rubles in stolen money in July 1907 . While Brackman claims to have found evidence of this incident , whether Stalin cooperated with the Okhrana during his early life has been a subject of debate among historians for many decades and has yet to be resolved .
= = Moving the money and Kamo 's arrest = =
The funds from the robbery were originally kept at the house of Stalin 's friends in Tiflis , Mikha and Maro Bochoridze . The money was sewn into a mattress so that it could be moved and stored easily without arousing suspicion . The mattress was moved to another safe house , then later put on the director 's couch at the Tiflis Meteorological Observatory , possibly because Stalin had worked there . Some sources claim that Stalin himself helped put the money in the observatory . The director stated that he never knew that the stolen money had been stored under his roof .
A large portion of the stolen money was eventually moved by Kamo , who took the money to Lenin in Finland , which was then part of the Russian Empire . Kamo spent the remaining summer months staying with Lenin at his dacha . That autumn , Kamo traveled to Paris , to Belgium to buy arms and ammunition , and to Bulgaria to buy 200 detonators . He next traveled to Berlin and delivered a letter from Lenin to a prominent Bolshevik physician , Yakov Zhitomirsky , asking him to treat Kamo 's eye , which had not completely healed from the bomb blast . Unknown to Lenin , Zhitomirsky had been secretly working as an agent of the Russian government and quickly informed the Okhrana , who asked the Berlin police to arrest Kamo . When they did so , they found a forged Austrian passport and a suitcase with the detonators , which he was planning to use in another large bank robbery .
= = Cashing the marked notes = =
After hearing of Kamo 's arrest , Lenin feared that he too might be arrested and fled from Finland with his wife . To avoid being followed , Lenin walked three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) across a frozen lake at night to catch a steamer at a nearby island . On his trek across the ice , Lenin and his two companions nearly drowned when the ice started to give way underneath them ; Lenin later admitted it seemed like it would have been a " stupid way to die " . Lenin and his wife escaped and headed to Switzerland .
The unmarked bills from the robbery were easy to exchange , but the serial numbers of the 500 @-@ ruble notes were known to the authorities , making them impossible to exchange in Russian banks . By the end of 1907 , Lenin decided to exchange the remaining 500 @-@ ruble notes abroad . Krasin had his forger try to change some of the serial numbers . Two hundred of these notes were transported abroad by Martyn Lyadov ( they were sewn into his vest by the wives of Lenin and Bogdanov at Lenin 's headquarters in Kuokkala ) . Lenin 's plan was to have various individuals exchange the stolen 500 @-@ ruble notes simultaneously at a number of banks throughout Europe . Zhitomirsky heard of the plan and reported it to the Okhrana , who contacted police departments throughout Europe asking them to arrest anyone who tried to cash the notes .
In January 1908 , a number of individuals were arrested while attempting to exchange the notes . The New York Times reported that one woman who had tried to cash a marked 500 @-@ ruble note later tried to swallow evidence of her plans to meet her accomplices after the police were summoned , but the police stopped her from swallowing the paper by grabbing her throat , retrieved the paper , and later arrested her accomplices at the train station . Most prominent among those arrested was Maxim Litvinov , caught while boarding a train with his mistress at Paris 's Gare du Nord with twelve of the 500 @-@ ruble notes he intended to cash in London . The French Minister of Justice expelled Litvinov and his mistress from French territory , outraging the Russian government , which had requested his extradition . Officially the French government stated that Russia 's request for extradition had been submitted too late , but by some accounts , they denied the extradition because French socialists had applied political pressure to secure his release .
Nadezhda Krupskaya , Lenin 's wife , discussed these events in her memoirs :
The money obtained in the Tiflis raid was handed over to the Bolsheviks for revolutionary purposes . But the money could not be used . It was all in 500 @-@ ruble notes , which had to be changed . This could not be done in Russia , as the banks always had lists of the note numbers in such cases ... The money was badly needed . And so a group of comrades made an attempt to change the 500 @-@ ruble notes simultaneously in various towns abroad , just a few days after our arrival ... Zhitomirsky had warned the police about the attempt to change the ruble notes , and those involved in it were arrested . A member of the Zurich group , a Lett , was arrested in Stockholm , and Olga Ravich , a member of the Geneva group , who had recently returned from Russia , was arrested in Munich with Bogdassarian and Khojamirian . In Geneva N. A. Semashko was arrested after a postcard addressed to one of the arrested men was delivered to his house .
Brackman claims that despite the arrests , Lenin continued his attempts to exchange the 500 @-@ ruble notes and did manage to trade some of them for 10 @,@ 000 rubles from an unknown woman in Moscow . According to Nicolaevsky , however , Lenin abandoned attempts to exchange the notes after the arrests , but Bogdanov tried ( and failed ) to exchange some notes in North America , while Krasin succeeded in forging new serial numbers and managed to exchange several more notes . Soon after , Lenin 's associates burned all the 500 @-@ ruble notes remaining in their possession .
= = Trials of Kamo = =
[ R ] esigned to death , absolutely calm . On my grave there should already be grass growing six feet high . One can 't escape death forever . One must die some day . But I will try my luck again . Try any way of escape . Perhaps we shall once more have the laugh over our enemies ... I am in irons . Do what you like . I am ready for anything . "
After Kamo was arrested in Berlin and awaiting trial , he received a note from Krasin through his lawyer Oscar Kohn telling him to feign insanity so that he would be declared unfit to stand trial . To demonstrate his insanity , he refused food , tore his clothes , tore out his hair , attempted to hang himself , slashed his wrists , and ate his own excrement . To make sure that he was not faking his condition , German doctors stuck pins under his nails , struck him in the back with a long needle , and burned him with hot irons , but he did not break his act . After all of these tests , the chief doctor of the Berlin asylum wrote in June 1909 that " there is no foundation to the belief that [ Kamo ] is feigning insanity . He is without doubt mentally ill , is incapable of appearing before a court , or of serving sentence . It is extremely doubtful that he can completely recover . "
In 1909 Kamo was extradited to a Russian prison , where he continued to feign insanity . In April 1910 , he was put on trial for his role in the Tiflis robbery , where he ignored the proceedings and openly fed a pet bird that he had hidden in his shirt . The trial was suspended while officials determined his sanity . The court eventually found that he had been sane when he committed the Tiflis robbery , but was presently mentally ill and should be confined until he recovered . In August 1911 , after feigning insanity for more than three years , Kamo escaped from the psychiatric ward of a prison in Tiflis by sawing through his window bars and climbing down a homemade rope .
Kamo later discussed these experiences :
What can I tell you ? They threw me about , hit me over the legs and the like . One of the men forced me to look into the mirror . There I saw − not the reflection of myself , but rather of some thin , ape @-@ like man , gruesome and horrible looking , grinding his teeth . I thought to myself , " Maybe I 've really gone mad ! " It was a terrible moment , but I regained my bearings and spat upon the mirror . You know I think they liked that ... I thought a great deal : " Will I survive or will I really go mad ? " That was not good . I did not have faith in myself , see ? ... [ The authorities ] , of course , know their business , their science . But they do not know the Caucasians . Maybe every Caucasian is insane , as far as they are concerned . Well , who will drive whom mad ? Nothing developed . They stuck to their guns and I to mine . In Tiflis , they didn 't torture me . Apparently they thought that the Germans can make no mistakes .
After escaping , Kamo met up with Lenin in Paris , and was distressed to hear that a " rupture had occurred " between Lenin , Bogdanov , and Krasin . Kamo told Lenin about his arrest and how he had simulated insanity while in prison . After leaving Paris , Kamo eventually met up with Krasin and planned another armed robbery . Kamo was caught before the robbery took place and was put on trial in Tiflis in 1913 for his exploits including the Tiflis bank robbery . This time , Kamo did not feign insanity while imprisoned , but he did pretend that he had forgotten all that happened to him when he was previously " insane " . The trial was brief and Kamo was given four death sentences .
Seemingly doomed to death , Kamo then had the good luck along with other prisoners to have his sentence commuted to a long prison term as part of the celebrations of the Romanov dynasty tricentennial in 1913 . Kamo was released from prison after the February Revolution in 1917 .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Effect on Bolsheviks = = =
Apart from Kamo , none of the organizers of the robbery were ever brought to trial , and initially it was not clear who was behind the raid , but after the arrest of Kamo , Litvinov and others , the Bolshevik involvement became obvious . The Mensheviks felt betrayed and angry ; the robbery proved that the Bolshevik Centre operated independently from the unified Central Committee and was taking actions explicitly prohibited by the party congress . The leader of the Mensheviks , Georgi Plekhanov , called for separation from the Bolsheviks . Plekhanov 's colleague , Julius Martov , said the Bolshevik Centre was something between a secret factional central committee and a criminal gang . The Tiflis Committee of the party expelled Stalin and several members for the robbery . The party 's investigations into Lenin 's conduct were thwarted by the Bolsheviks .
The robbery made the Bolsheviks even less popular in Georgia and left the Bolsheviks in Tiflis without effective leadership . After the death by natural causes of his wife Ekaterina Svanidze in November 1907 , Stalin rarely returned to Tiflis . Other leading Bolsheviks in Georgia , such as Mikhail Tskhakaya and Filipp Makharadze , were largely absent from Georgia after 1907 . Another prominent Tiflis Bolshevik , Stepan Shahumyan , moved to Baku . The Bolsheviks ' popularity in Tiflis continued to fall , and by 1911 , there were only about 100 Bolsheviks left in the city .
The robbery also made the Bolshevik Centre unpopular more widely among European social democrat groups . Lenin 's desire to distance himself from the legacy of the robbery may have been one of the sources of the rift between him and Bogdanov and Krasin . Stalin distanced himself from Kamo 's gang and never publicized his role in the robbery .
= = = Later careers = = =
After the Russian Revolution of 1917 , many of the Bolsheviks who had been involved in the robbery gained political power in the new Soviet Union . Lenin went on to become its first premier until his death in 1924 , followed by Stalin until his death in 1953 . Maxim Litvinov became a Soviet diplomat , serving as People 's Commissar for Foreign Affairs ( 1930 – 1939 ) . Leonid Krasin initially quit politics after the split from Lenin in 1909 , but rejoined the Bolsheviks after the 1917 Revolution and served as the Soviet trade representative in London and as People 's Commissar for Foreign Trade until his death in 1926 .
After Kamo 's release from prison , he worked in the Soviet customs office , by some accounts because he was too unstable to work for the secret police . He died in 1922 when a truck hit him while he was cycling . Although there is no proof of foul play , some have theorized that Stalin ordered his death to keep him quiet .
Bogdanov was expelled from the party in 1909 , ostensibly over philosophical differences . After the Bolshevik Revolution , he became the leading ideologist of Proletkult , an organization designed to foster a new proletarian culture .
= = = Monument = = =
Yerevan Square , where the robbery took place , was renamed Lenin Square by the Soviet authorities in 1921 , and a large statue of Lenin was erected in his honor in 1956 . Despite being convicted of the bloody robbery , Kamo was originally buried and had a monument erected in his honor in Pushkin Gardens , near Yerevan Square . Created by the sculptor Lakob Nikoladze , it was removed during Stalin 's rule , and Kamo 's remains were moved to another location . The statue of Lenin was torn down in August 1991 — one of the final moments of the Soviet Union — and replaced by the Liberty Monument in 2006 . The name of the square was changed from Lenin Square to Freedom Square in 1991 .
= Park Crescent , Brighton =
Park Crescent is a mid @-@ 19th @-@ century residential development in the Round Hill area of Brighton , part of the English city of Brighton and Hove . The horseshoe @-@ shaped , three @-@ part terrace of 48 houses was designed and built by one of Brighton 's most important architects , Amon Henry Wilds ; by the time work started in 1849 he had 35 years ' experience in the town . Wilds used the Italianate style rather than his ( and Brighton 's ) more common Regency motifs . Three houses were replaced after the Second World War because of bomb damage , and another was the scene of one of Brighton 's notorious " trunk murders " of the 1930s . The three parts of the terrace , which encircle a private garden formerly
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0 transit soldiers and to supply the new army camps established at Purfleet and Belhus Mansion . It was initially manned by the 2nd Battalion of the Royal Dublin Fusiliers until 1916 , and by various reserve units for the rest of the war . The fort itself was used to store munitions while a depot for remounts was built just to the west ; a pontoon bridge was built across the Thames for troop movements , guarded by the fort 's guns . Until 1917 , also used to house the headquarters of several infantry battalions . Electric lighting was installed , and a narrow @-@ gauge railway and a steam crane on the quay were added to help to move material in and out of the fort . After the Zeppelin raids of June 1915 , anti @-@ aircraft guns and searchlights mounted at the fort and they played a role in the shooting down of the German Navy Zeppelin , L15 , although it is disputed as to which site in the area fired the shell that brought down the airship .
During the inter @-@ war years , the government concluded that the fort was no longer militarily useful and there were unsuccessful attempts to sell it off for development . During the Second World War , the fort initially housed an improvised anti @-@ aircraft operations room , controlling the defences of the Thames and Medway ( North ) Gun Zone between 1939 and 1940 . Trenches were dug across the surrounding area to prevent an airborne attack . The enlisted barracks and the facilities block , as well as probably the sutler 's house , were bombed and damaged , being demolished after the war . The fort was transferred out of military use relatively early in the post @-@ war period , and in 1950 the Ministry of Works took over the site . Restoration work took place in the 1970 , including the construction of replica wooden bridges . It was opened to the public in 1982 .
In the 21st century , the fort is controlled by English Heritage and operated as a tourist attraction , receiving 16 @,@ 154 visitors in 2014 . The site is protected under UK law as a scheduled ancient monument , with the officers ' barracks a grade II * listed building .
= = Architecture = =
Tilbury Fort remains largely unaltered from its reconstruction in the late 17th century under the direction of Sir Bernard de Gomme , with some 19th century additions . It was designed in a predominantly Dutch style , with a ring of outer and inner defences intended to allow the fort to attack hostile warships , while being protected from attack from the land . The heritage agency Historic England describes it as " England 's most spectacular " example of a late 17th century fort , and the historian Paul Pattison considers the defences the " best surviving example of their kind in Britain " .
= = = Outer defences = = =
The outer defences comprise outer and inner water @-@ filled moats , fed by the Thames and separated by a ring of defensive ramparts . The inner moat is 50 metres ( 160 ft ) wide but relatively shallow and the banks have been repeatedly strengthened with piles to protect them from erosion . The fort is entered from the north through a triangular defensive work known as a redan , with a redoubt to defend the entrance . A causeway links the redan to the outer defences , which form a complex pattern of ramparts , protecting a covered way stretching around the defensive line . There are bastions on the north @-@ west and north @-@ east corners , and two triangular spurs , originally equipped with cannons , project from the defences on the west and east sides , with assembly points for infantry soldiers on the inside .
A replica wooden bridge runs from the outer defences over the water to an island called a ravelin , which is in turn linked to the inner defences by another replica bridge , protected with two drawbridges . The ravelin formed a physical barrier to incoming artillery fire aimed at the entrance to the inner defences and could also have directed fire against enemy forces that breached the outer defensive line .
On the south side of the outer defences , facing the river , are the West and East Lines of gun positions . These were built in the 18th century and have been subject to considerable erosion and silting ; 12 of the original 14 gun positions on the West Line remain but only one of the East Line has survived . In between the lines is a quay , designed to allow the delivery of supplies from the Thames , and the remains of the tracks from the narrow gauge railway built during the First World War . A sluice gate in the south @-@ west corner managed the water in the moats , and allowed them to be drained completely should the surfaces begin to freeze over in winter and provide an advantage to any attackers . To the west of the outer defences is the World 's End pub , originally the local ferry house , dating from 1788 .
= = = Inner defences = = =
The inner defences largely follow a pentagonal design , with four defensive bastions positioned around a central parade ground . From the south , the fort is entered through the Water Gate . This two @-@ storeyed gatehouse dates from the late 17th century with a monumental stone facade featuring carved displays of classical and 17th @-@ century weapons ; when first built , the now @-@ empty niche at the front probably held a statue of King Charles II . The building originally acted a house for the master gunner . Most of the inside of the fort is taken up by the parade ground , an area covering 2 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 0 ha ) . The central parade ground was raised to its current height in the 17th and 19th centuries using chalk and dirt , and by the early 20th century much of it was occupied by four large warehouses , since destroyed .
Moving east from the Water Gate , the south @-@ eastern curtain defences and the south @-@ east bastion were rebuilt at the start of the 20th century to hold emplacements for four quick @-@ firing guns and two 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) guns , with underground tunnels linking to an underground magazine . Four artillery pieces , dating from 1898 to 1942 , are on display . Facing the parade ground are the officers ' quarters , a terrace of houses probably dating in its current form to the late 18th century , with a stables at the northern end , originally used to hold the commandant 's horses . It now holds the Bernard Truss collection of military memorabilia . The north @-@ east bastion was redesigned after 1868 and contains an earth @-@ covered magazine , as well as emplacements for 9 @-@ inch ( 22 cm ) rifled muzzle loading guns .
On the north side of the parade are two early 18th century magazines , altered in the 19th century . These were specially designed to avoid the use of iron , which might have generated sparks and set off an explosion , instead being built using wood and copper ; they are the only remaining examples of their type in Britain . The Landport Gate lies behind the magazines , and has a gatehouse , called the Dead House , above the passageway leading into the interior of the fort . Past the north @-@ west bastion , the soldiers ' barracks would have stood opposite those of the officers ' , but was destroyed after the war and only the foundations of the building remain . The south @-@ west magazine also holds a covered magazine , similar to that in the north @-@ east bastion . Just to the west of the Water Gate is the fort 's guardhouse and chapel , dating from the late 17th century and one of the oldest surviving places of worship within a British artillery fortress .
= Pyramid of Userkaf =
The pyramid complex of Userkaf was built c . 2490 BC for the pharaoh Userkaf ( reign 2494 – 2487 BC ) , founder of the 5th dynasty of Egypt ( c . 2494 – 2345 BC ) . It is located in the pyramid field at Saqqara , on the north @-@ east of the step pyramid of Djoser ( reigned ca . 2670 BC ) . Constructed in dressed stone with a core of rubble , the pyramid is now ruined and resembles a conical hill in the sands of Saqqara . For this reason , it is known locally as El @-@ Haram el @-@ Maharbish , the " Heap of Stone " and was recognized as a royal pyramid by western archaeologists in the 19th century .
Userkaf 's pyramid is part of a larger mortuary complex comprising a mortuary temple , an offering chapel and a cult pyramid as well as separate pyramid and mortuary temple for Userkaf 's wife , queen Neferhetepes . Userkaf 's mortuary temple and cult pyramid are today completely ruined and difficult to recognize . The pyramid of the queen is no more than a mound of rubble , with its funerary chamber exposed by stone robbers .
The complex is markedly different from those built during the 4th Dynasty ( c . 2613 – 2494 BC ) in its size , architecture and location , being at Saqqara rather than Gizah . As such , Userkaf 's pyramid complex could be a manifestation of the profound changes in the ideology of kingship that took place between the 4th and 5th dynasties , changes that may have started during the reign of Userkaf 's likely immediate predecessor , Shepseskaf . Some 1500 years after its construction , the pyramid complex was restored under Ramses II . During the much later Saite period ( 664 – 525 BC ) , it was used as a cemetery .
= = Discovery and excavations = =
The entrance of the pyramid was discovered in 1831 by the Italian Egyptologist Orazio Marucchi but was not entered until 8 years later in 1839 by John Shae Perring who took advantage of an existing tunnel dug into the pyramid by tomb robbers . Perring did not know for sure who the owner of the pyramid was and attributed it to Djedkare Isesi ( reign 2414 – 2375 BC ) , a late 5th dynasty pharaoh . After his investigations Perring buried the robbers tunnel which remains inaccessible to this day . The pyramid of Userkaf entered the official records a few years later in 1842 when Karl Richard Lepsius catalogued it in his list of pyramids under number XXXI . Since Perring had already buried the robbers tunnel by that time , K. R. Lepsius did not investigate the pyramid any further .
The pyramid was then neglected until October 1927 when Cecil Mallaby Firth and the architect Jean @-@ Philippe Lauer started excavating there . During the first season of excavation Firth and Lauer cleared the south side of the pyramid area , discovering Userkaf 's mortuary temple and tombs of the much later Saite period . The following year , Firth and Lauer uncovered a limestone relief slab and a colossal red granite head of Userkaf , thus determining that he was the pyramid owner . After Firth 's death in 1931 no excavations took place on site until they were resumed by Lauer in 1948 . Lauer worked there until 1955 , re @-@ clearing and re @-@ planning the mortuary temple and investigating the eastern side of the pyramid . Research on the north and west sides of the mortuary complex was conducted starting in 1976 by Ahmed el @-@ Khouli who excavated and restored the pyramid entrance . The entrance was , however , buried under rubble in an earthquake in 1991 .
More recent work on the pyramid was undertaken by Audran Labrousse in 2000 .
= = Morturary Complex = =
= = = Layout = = =
The mortuary complex of Userkaf comprises the same structures as those of Userkaf 's 4th dynasty predecessors : a high wall surrounded the complex with its pyramid and high temple and there was certainly a valley temple located closer to the Nile , yet to be uncovered . The valley temple was connected to the pyramid by a causeway whose exact trajectory is unknown , even though its first few meters are still visible today .
The layout of the complex however differs significantly from that of earlier complexes . Indeed , it is organized on a north @-@ south axis rather than an east @-@ west one : the high temple is located south of the main pyramid and its structures are turned away from it . Furthermore , a small offering chapel is adjoining the eastern base of the pyramid , a configuration otherwise unattested since offering chapels usually occupy the inner sanctum of the mortuary temple . Finally , immediately to the south of Userkaf 's funerary enclosure is a second smaller pyramid complex attributed to his wife , queen Neferhetepes .
The reason for these changes is unclear and several hypotheses have been proposed to explain them :
The first hypothesis is that this is due to a change of ideology . The advent of the 5th dynasty marks the growing importance of the cult of the sun as hinted by the Westcar Papyrus . This is also directly evidenced by the large sun temples built at Abusir throughout the dynasty , a tradition initiated by Userkaf . Finally , the Abusir Papyri demonstrate the strong connection between the cult of the sun and the mortuary cult of the pharaohs of this dynasty : offerings for a deceased ruler were first consecrated in a sun temple before being dispatched to his mortuary temple . Thus , Userkaf located his mortuary temple to the south of the main pyramid so that the sun would shine directly into it all year round .
The second hypothesis holds that Userkaf chose to return to 3rd dynasty ( c . 2670 – 2610 BC ) traditions : not only did he choose to construct his mortuary complex on the north @-@ east corner of Djoser 's complex but its layout is similar to that of Djoser . Indeed , both are organized on a north @-@ south axis and both have their entrances located at the south @-@ end of the eastern side .
The third hypothesis proposes that Userkaf 's choice is due to practical considerations . Nabil Swelim discovered a large moat completely surrounding Djoser 's enclosure , some places as deep as 25 metres ( 82 ft ) . This moat might be a stone quarry for material used during the construction of Djoser 's step pyramid . If for some reason it was important for Userkaf to locate his mortuary complex on the north @-@ east corner of Djoser 's , i.e. between the enclosure and the moat , then there was not enough space available for the mortuary temple to be located on the east side . Thus the local topography would explain the peculiar layout of Userkaf 's complex .
= = = Mortuary temple = = =
Userkaf 's mortuary temple layout and architecture is difficult to establish with certainty . Not only was it extensively quarried for stone throughout the millennia , but a large Saite period shaft tomb was also dug in its midst , damaging it .
Modern reconstructions of the temple nonetheless show that it shared the same elements as all mortuary temples since the time of Khafra ( reigned ca . 2570 BC ) . However , just as with the complex , the layout of the temple seem to differ significantly from those of Userkaf 's predecessors . The causeway entered the pyramid enclosure at the southern end of the east wall . There the entrance corridor branched south to five magazine rooms as well as a stairway to a roof terrace . To the north a doorway led to a vestibule and then to an entrance hall . That in turn led to an open black @-@ basalt floored courtyard bordered on all sides but the south one by monolithic red granite pillars bearing the titles of the king . A colossal head of Userkaf was found there , the second oldest monumental statue of an Egyptian ruler after the Great Sphinx , now in the Egyptian Museum . The head , which must have belonged to a 5 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 16 ft ) statue , represents Userkaf wearing the Nemes and Uraeus . The walls of the courtyard were adorned with fine reliefs of high workmanship depicting scenes of life in a papyrus thicket , a boat with its crew and names of Upper and Lower Egyptian estates connected to the cult of the king .
Two doors at the south @-@ east and south @-@ west corners of the courtyard led to a small hypostyle hall with four pairs of red granite pillars . Beyond were storage chambers and the inner sanctum with three ( Ricke ) or five ( Lauer ) statue niches where statues of the king would have been placed , facing the pyramid to the north . Contrary to other mortuary temples , the inner sanctum was thus separated from the pyramid by the courtyard . The only remains of the mortuary temple that are visible today are its basalt paving and the large granite blocks framing the outer door .
= = = Offering chapel = = =
A small offering chapel is adjoining the eastern side of the main pyramid and is barely visible today . It consisted of a central two pillared room with a large quartzite false door and two narrow chambers on the sides . Like the mortuary temple , the chapel was floored with black basalt . Its walls however were made of Tura limestone and granite and were adorned with fine reliefs of offering scenes .
= = = Cult pyramid = = =
In the south @-@ west corner of Userkaf 's mortuary complex is a small cult pyramid . This pyramid was destined to receive the Ka of the deceased pharaoh and thus might have housed a statue of Userkaf 's Ka . It stood 15 metres ( 49 ft ) high with a base 21 metres ( 69 ft ) long and its slope is identical to that of the main pyramid at 53 ° . The position of the cult pyramid within the complex is unusual , the cult pyramid being normally located in the south @-@ eastern corner . This difference is certainly linked with the peculiar overall north @-@ south layout of Userkaf 's complex with the south @-@ eastern corner hosting the entrance to the mortuary temple .
The core of the pyramid is made of roughly hewn limestone blocks similar to those of the main pyramid . These were disposed in two layers and finally clad with fine Tura limestone which fell victim to stone robbers . Consequently , the poor quality pyramid core was exposed and degradated rapidly with only the two lowest layers of the pyramid still visible today .
The pyramid has a T @-@ shaped substructure with a descending corridor leading to a chamber with a gabled roof . Similarly to the main pyramid , the substructure was constructed in a shallow open pit dug into the ground before the pyramid construction started and is therefore located just below ground @-@ level .
= = Main pyramid = =
= = = Construction = = =
Userkaf 's pyramid is located on the northeast corner of Djoser 's step pyramid complex . The pyramid was originally around 49 metres ( 161 ft ) high and 73 metres ( 240 ft ) large with an inclination of 53 ° identical to that of Khufu 's great pyramid for a total volume of 87 @,@ 906 m3 ( 114 @,@ 977 cu yd ) .The core of the pyramid is built of small roughly @-@ hewn blocks of local limestone disposed in horizontal layers . This meant a considerable saving of labor as compared to the large and more accurately @-@ hewn stone cores of 4th Dynasty pyramids . However , as the outer casing of Userkaf 's pyramid fell victim to stone robbers throughout the millennia , the loosely assembled core material was progressively exposed and fared much worse over time than that of the older pyramids . This explains the current ruined state of the pyramid .
The pyramid core was constructed in a step @-@ like structure , a construction technique similar to that of the 4th dynasty although the building material was of a significantly lower quality . The outer casing of the pyramid was made of fine Tura limestone which certainly ensured Userkaf 's construction an appearance similar to that of the glorious 4th Dynasty pyramids . There was however no red granite paneling over the lower part of the pyramid as in the case of the Pyramid of Menkaure .
= = = Substructures = = =
The pyramid does not have internal chambers , the chambers being located underground . These were constructed in a deep open ditch dug before the pyramid construction started and only later covered by the pyramid . The entrance to the underground chambers is located north of the pyramid from a pavement in the court in front of the pyramid face . This is different from the 4th dynasty pyramids for which the entrance to the internal chambers is located on the pyramid side itself . The entrance was hewn into the bedrock and floored and roofed with large slabs of white limestone , most of which have been removed in modern times .
From the entrance a 18 @.@ 5 metres ( 61 ft ) long , southward descending passage leads to a horizontal tunnel some 8 metres ( 26 ft ) below the pyramid base .
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spine @-@ bellied , Lapemis curtus , and horned , Acalyptophis peronii , sea snakes found three classes of visual pigments all from cone cells . Despite the absence of rod cells in sea snake eyes , Simeos et al. found genes from rod @-@ cells ( rh1 ) were still being expressed suggesting that in sea snakes some cones may be transmuted rods . However , behavioural observations indicate that vision has a limited role for catching prey and mate selection , but sound ( i.e. vibration ) and chemoreception may be important . One study identified small sensory organs on the head of Lapemis curtus similar to the mechanoreceptors in alligators and aquatic snake Acrochodus that are used to sense the movement of fish prey . Westhoff et al. recorded auditory brain responses to vibration underwater in Lapemis curtus , which are sensitive enough to detect movement in prey but were not as sensitive as fish lateral line systems . Similarly , vision appears to be of limited importance for finding mates . Shine experimented with applying skin secretions ( pheromones ) to snake @-@ like objects to see if male turtle @-@ headed sea snakes , Emydocephalus annulatus , are attracted to female pheromones . Shine found that although vision may be useful over short distances ( < 1 m ) , pheromones are more important once the male comes in physical contact with an object .
The olive sea snake , Aipysurus laevis , has been found to have photoreceptors in the skin of its tail , allowing it to detect light and presumably ensuring it is completely hidden , including its tail , inside coral holes during the day . While other species have not been tested , Aipysurus laevis possibly is not unique among sea snakes in this respect .
Other unique senses , such as electro @-@ magnetic reception and pressure detection , have been proposed for sea snakes , but scientific studies have yet to be performed to test these senses .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Hydrophiinae are mostly confined to the warm tropical waters of the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean , with a few species found well out into Oceania . The geographic range of one species , Pelamis platurus , is wider than that of any other reptile species , except for a few species of sea turtles . It extends from the east coast of Africa , from Djibouti in the north to Cape Town in the south , across the Indian Ocean , the Pacific , south as far as the northern coast of New Zealand , all the way to the western coast of the Americas , where it occurs from northern Peru in the south ( including the Galápagos Islands ) to the Gulf of California in the north . Isolated specimens have been found as far north as San Clemente in the United States .
Sea snakes do not occur in the Atlantic Ocean . It is thought that Pelamis would be found there were it not for the cold currents off Namibia and western South Africa that keep it from crossing into the eastern South Atlantic , or south of 5 ° latitude along the South American west coast . Sea snakes do not occur in the Red Sea , believed to be due to its increased salinity , so no danger exists of them crossing through the Suez Canal . A lack of salinity is also thought to be the reason why Pelamis has not crossed into the Caribbean via the Panama Canal .
Despite their marine adaptations , most sea snakes prefer shallow waters near land , around islands , and especially somewhat sheltered waters , as well as near estuaries . They may swim up rivers and have been reported as far as 160 km ( 99 mi ) from the sea . Others , such as P. platurus , are pelagic and are found in drift lines , slicks of floating debris brought together by surface currents . Some sea snakes inhabit mangrove swamps and similar brackishwater habitats , and two landlocked freshwater forms are found : Hydrophis semperi occurs in Lake Taal in the Philippines , and Laticauda crockeri in Lake Te Nggano on Rennell Island in the Solomon Islands .
= = Behavior = =
Sea snakes are generally reluctant to bite , and are usually considered to be mild @-@ tempered , although variation is seen among species and individuals . Some species , such as P. platurus , which feed by simply gulping down their prey , are more likely to bite when provoked because they seem to use their venom more for defense . Others , such as Laticauda , use their venom for prey immobilization ; these snakes are often handled without concern by local fishermen , who unravel and toss them back into the water barehanded when the snakes become entangled in fishing nets . Species reported as much more aggressive include Aipysurus laevis , Astrotia stokesii , Enhydrina schistosa , Enhydrina zweifeli , and Hydrophis ornatus .
On land , their movements become very erratic . They crawl awkwardly in these situations and can become quite aggressive , striking wildly at anything that moves , although they are unable to coil and strike in the manner of terrestrial snakes .
Sea snakes appear to be active both day and night . In the morning , and sometimes late in the afternoon , they can be seen at the surface basking in the sunlight , and they dive when disturbed . They have been reported swimming at depths over 90 m ( 300 ft ) , and can remain submerged for as long as a few hours , possibly depending on temperature and degree of activity .
Sea snakes have been sighted in huge numbers . For example , in 1932 , a steamer in the Strait of Malacca , off the coast of Malaysia , reported sighting " millions " of Astrotia stokesii , a relative of Pelamis ; these reportedly formed a line of snakes 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide and 100 km ( 62 mi ) long . The cause of this phenomenon is unknown , although it likely has to do with reproduction . They can sometimes be seen swimming in schools of several dozen , and many dead specimens have been found on beaches after typhoons .
= = Feeding = =
They feed on small fish and occasionally young octopodes .
= = Reproduction = =
Except for a single genus , all Hydrophiinae species are ovoviviparous ; the young are born alive in the water where they live their entire lives . In some species , the young are quite large : up to half as long as the mother . The one exception is the genus Laticauda , which is oviparous ; its five species all lay their eggs on land .
= = Venom = =
Like their relatives in the Elapidae family , the majority of the Hydrophiinae species are highly venomous ; however , when bites occur , venom injection is rare , so envenomation symptoms usually seem nonexistent or trivial . For example , P. platurus has a venom more potent than any terrestrial snake species in Costa Rica based on LD50 , but despite its abundance in the waters off its western coast , few human fatalities have been reported . Nevertheless , all sea snakes should be handled with great caution .
Bites in which envenomation does occur are usually painless and may not even be noticed when contact is made . Teeth may remain in the wound . Usually , little or no swelling occurs , and rarely are any nearby lymph nodes affected . The most important symptoms are rhabdomyolysis ( rapid breakdown of skeletal muscle tissue ) and paralysis . Early symptoms include headache , a thick @-@ feeling tongue , thirst , sweating , and vomiting . Symptoms that can occur 30 minutes to several hours after the bite include generalized aching , stiffness , and tenderness of muscles all over the body . Passive stretching of the muscles is also painful , and trismus , which is similar to tetanus , is common . This is followed later on by symptoms typical of other elapid envenomations : a progressive flaccid paralysis , starting with ptosis and paralysis of voluntary muscles . Paralysis of muscles involved in swallowing and respiration can be fatal .
= = Taxonomy = =
Sea snakes were at first regarded as a unified and separate family , the Hydrophiidae , that later came to comprise two subfamilies : the Hydrophiinae , or true / aquatic sea snakes ( now 16 genera with 57 species ) , and the more primitive Laticaudinae , or sea kraits ( one genus , Laticauda , with five species ) . Eventually , as it became clear just how closely related the sea snakes are to the elapids , the taxonomic situation became less well @-@ defined . Some taxonomists responded by moving the sea snakes to the Elapidae , thereby creating the subfamilies Elapinae , Hydrophiinae , and Laticaudinae , although the latter may be omitted if Laticauda is included in the Hydrophiinae . No one has yet been able to convincingly work out the phylogenetic relationships between the various elapid subgroups , and the situation is still unclear . Therefore , others opted to either continue to work with the older traditional arrangements , if only for practical reasons , or to lump all of the genera together in the Elapidae , with no taxonomic subdivisions , to reflect the work that remains to be done .
* ) Not including the nominate subspecies
= = = Molecular studies = = =
Molecular data studies suggest all three monotypic semiaquatic genera ( Ephalophis , Parahydrophis and Hydrelaps ) are early diverging lineages . The Aipysurus group is monophyletic : the egg @-@ eating specialists form separate , early @-@ diverging lineages . The Hydrophiini last shared a common ancestor about 6 million years ago ago with the majority of extant lineages diversified over the last 3 @.@ 5 million years ago . The Hydrophis group shared a last common ancestor about 1 @.@ 5 @-@ 3 million years ago .
= = Captivity = =
At best , Hydrophiinae make difficult captives . Ditmars ( 1933 ) described them as nervous and delicate captives that usually refuse to eat , preferring only to hide in the darkest corner of the tank . Over 50 years later , Mehrtens ( 1987 ) wrote , although they were rarely displayed in Western zoological parks , some species were regularly on display in Japanese aquariums . Available food supply limits the number of species that can be kept in captivity , since some have diets that are too specialized . Also , some species appear intolerant of handling , or even being removed from the water . Regarding their requirements in captivity , the Laticauda species need to be able to exit the water somewhere at about 29 ° C , along with a submerged shelter . Species that have done relatively well in captivity include the ringed sea snake , Hydrophis cyanocinctus , which feeds on fish and eels in particular . Pelamis platurus has done especially well in captivity , accepting small fish , including goldfish . However , care has to be taken to house them in round or oval tanks , or in rectangular tanks with corners that are well @-@ rounded , to prevent the snakes from damaging their snouts by swimming into the sides .
= = Conservation status = =
Most sea snakes are not on the CITES protection lists , however , one species , Laticauda crockeri , is classified as vulnerable , another , Aipysurus fuscus , classified as endangered , and two , Aipysurus foliosquama and Aipysurus apraefrontalis , are classified as critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species .
= Moe Berg =
Morris " Moe " Berg ( March 2 , 1902 – May 29 , 1972 ) , was an American catcher and coach in Major League Baseball who later served as a spy for the Office of Strategic Services during World War II . Although he played 15 seasons in the major leagues , almost entirely for four American League teams , Berg was never more than an average player , usually used as a backup catcher , and was better known for being " the brainiest guy in baseball " than for anything he accomplished in the game . Casey Stengel once described Berg as " the strangest man ever to play baseball " .
A graduate of Princeton University and Columbia Law School , Berg spoke several languages and regularly read 10 newspapers a day . His reputation was fueled by his successful appearances as a contestant on the radio quiz show Information , Please in which he answered questions about the derivation of words and names from Greek and Latin , historical events in Europe and the Far East , and ongoing international conferences .
As a spy working for the government of the United States , Berg traveled to Yugoslavia to gather intelligence on resistance groups the U.S. government was considering supporting . He was then sent on a mission to Italy , where he interviewed various physicists concerning the German nuclear program . After the war , Berg was occasionally employed by the OSS 's successor , the Central Intelligence Agency , but , by the mid @-@ 1950s , was unemployed . He spent the last two decades of his life without work , living with various siblings .
= = Early life = =
Moe Berg was Jewish , and was the third and last child of Bernard Berg , a pharmacist , and Rose Tashker , a homemaker , both Jewish , who lived in the Harlem section of New York City , New York , a few blocks from the Polo Grounds . When Berg was three and a half , he begged his mother to let him start school . In 1906 , Bernard Berg bought a pharmacy in West Newark . In 1910 the Berg family moved again , to the Roseville section of Newark . Roseville offered Bernard Berg everything he wanted in a neighborhood — good schools , middle @-@ class residents , and very few Jews .
Berg began playing baseball at the age of seven for the Roseville Methodist Episcopal Church baseball team under the less ethnic pseudonym Runt Wolfe . In 1918 , at the age of 16 , Berg graduated from Barringer High School . During his senior season , the Newark Star @-@ Eagle selected a nine @-@ man " dream team " for 1918 from the city 's best prep and public high school baseball players , and Berg was named the team 's third baseman . Barringer was the first in a series of institutions Berg joined in his life where his religion made him unusual . Most of the other students were East Side Italian Catholics or Protestants from Forest Hill , but there were not many Jews , just as Bernard wanted it .
After graduating from Barringer , Berg enrolled in New York University . He spent two semesters there and played baseball and basketball . In 1919 he transferred to Princeton University , and never again mentioned that he attended NYU for a year , presenting himself exclusively as a Princeton man . Berg received a B.A. , magna cum laude in modern languages . He had studied seven languages : Latin , Greek , French , Spanish , Italian , German and Sanskrit , studying with the philologist Harold H. Bender . His Jewish heritage and modest finances combined to keep him on the fringes of Princeton society , where he never quite fit in .
During his freshman year , Berg played first base on an undefeated team . Beginning in his sophomore year , he was the starting shortstop . He was not a great hitter and was a slow baserunner , but he had a strong , accurate throwing arm and sound baseball instincts . In his senior season , he was captain of the team and had a .337 batting average , batting .611 against Princeton 's arch @-@ rivals , Harvard and Yale . Berg and Crossan Cooper , Princeton 's second baseman , communicated plays in Latin when there was a man on second base .
On June 26 , 1923 , Yale defeated Princeton 5 – 1 at Yankee Stadium to win the Big Three title . Berg had an outstanding day , getting two hits in four at bats ( 2 – 4 ) with a single and a double , and making several marvelous plays at shortstop . Both the New York Giants and the Brooklyn Robins ( i.e. , Dodgers ) desired " Jewish blood " on their teams , to appeal to the large Jewish community in New York , and expressed interest in Berg . The Giants were especially interested , but they already had two future Hall of Famers at shortstop , Dave " Beauty " Bancroft and Travis Jackson . The Robins were a mediocre team , where Berg would have a better chance to play . On June 27 , 1923 , Berg signed his first big league contract for $ 5 @,@ 000 ( $ 69 @,@ 000 today ) with the Robins .
= = Major league career = =
= = = Early career ( 1923 – 1925 ) = = =
Berg 's first game with the Robins came on June 27 , 1923 against the Philadelphia Phillies at the Baker Bowl . Berg came in at the start of the seventh inning , replacing Ivy Olson at shortstop , when the Robins were winning 13 – 4 . Berg handled five chances without an error and caught a line drive to start a game @-@ ending double play . He got a hit in two at bats , singling up the middle against Clarence Mitchell , and scoring a run . For the season , Berg batted .187 and made 21 errors in 47 games , his only National League experience .
After the season ended , Berg took his first trip abroad , sailing from New York to Paris . He settled in the Latin Quarter in an apartment that overlooked the Sorbonne , where he enrolled in 32 different classes . In Paris he developed a habit he kept for the rest of his life : reading several newspapers daily . Until Berg finished reading a paper , he considered it " alive " and refused to let anyone else touch it . When he was finished with it , he would consider the paper " dead " and anybody could read it . In January 1924 , instead of heading back to New York and getting himself into shape for the upcoming baseball season , Berg toured Italy and Switzerland .
During spring training at the Robins facility in Clearwater , Florida , manager Wilbert Robinson could see that Berg 's hitting had not improved , and optioned him to the Minneapolis Millers of the American Association . Berg did not take the demotion well and threatened to quit baseball , but by mid @-@ April he reported to the Millers . Berg did very well once he became the Millers ' regular third baseman , hitting close to .330 , but in July his average plummeted and he was back on the bench . On August 19 , 1924 Berg was loaned to the Toledo Mud Hens , a poor team ravaged by injuries . Berg was immediately inserted into the lineup at shortstop when Rabbit Helgeth refused to pay a $ 10 ( $ 140 today ) fine for poor play and was suspended . Major league scout Mike González sent a telegram to the Dodgers evaluating Berg with the curt , but now famous , line , " Good field , no hit . " Berg finished the season with a .264 average .
By April 1925 , he was starting to show promise as a hitter with the Reading Keystones of the International League . Because of his .311 batting average and 124 runs batted in , the Chicago White Sox exercised their option they had with Reading , paying $ 6 @,@ 000 ( $ 81 @,@ 000 today ) for him , and moved Berg up to the big leagues the following year .
= = = Career as a catcher ( 1926 – 1934 ) = = =
The 1926 season began with Berg informing the White Sox that he would skip spring training and the first two months of the season to complete his first year of law school at Columbia University , and Berg did not join the White Sox until May 28 . Bill Hunnefield was signed by the White Sox to take Berg 's place at shortstop , and was having a very good year , batting over .300 . Berg played in only 41 games , batting .221 .
Berg returned to Columbia after the season to continue working on his law degree . Despite White Sox owner Charles Comiskey offering him more money to come to spring training , Berg declined , and informed the White Sox that he would be reporting late for the 1927 season . Noel Dowling , a professor to whom Berg explained his situation , told Berg to take extra classes in the fall , and said that he would arrange with the dean a leave of absence from law school the following year , 1928 .
Because he reported late , Berg spent the first three months of the season on the bench . In August , a series of injuries to catchers Ray Schalk , Harry McCurdy and Buck Crouse left the White Sox in need of somebody to play the position . Schalk , the White Sox player / manager , selected Berg , who did a fine job filling in . Schalk arranged for former Philadelphia Phillies catcher Frank Bruggy to meet the team at their next game , against the New York Yankees . Bruggy was so fat that pitcher Ted Lyons refused to pitch to him . When Schalk asked him whom he wanted to catch , Lyons selected Berg .
In Berg 's debut as a starting catcher , he had to worry not only about catching Lyons ' knuckleball , but also about facing the Yankees ' Murderers ' Row lineup , which included Babe Ruth , Lou Gehrig and Earle Combs . Lyons beat the Yankees 6 – 3 , holding Ruth hitless . Berg made the defensive play of the game when he caught a poor throw from the outfield , spun and tagged out Joe Dugan at the plate . He caught eight more times during the final month and a half of the season .
To prepare for the 1928 season , Berg went up to a lumber camp in New York 's Adirondack Mountains three weeks before reporting to the White Sox spring training facility in Shreveport , Louisiana . The hard labor did wonders for him , as he reported to spring training on March 2 , 1928 in excellent shape . By the end of the season , Berg had established himself as the starting catcher .
At law school , Berg failed Evidence and did not graduate with the class of 1929 , but he did pass the New York State bar exam . He repeated the evidence course the following year , and on February 26 , 1930 received his LL.B. On April 6 , during an exhibition game against the Little Rock Travelers , his spikes caught in the soil as he tried to change directions and he tore a knee ligament .
He was back in the starting lineup on May 23 , 1930 , but his knee would not allow him to play every day . He played in only 20 games the whole season and finished with a .115 batting average . During the winter , he took a job with the respected Wall Street law firm Satterlee and Canfield ( now Satterlee , Stephens , Burke & Burke ) . The Cleveland Indians picked him up on April 2 , 1931 when Chicago put him on waivers , but he played in only 10 games with 13 at @-@ bats and only 1 hit for the entire season .
The Indians gave him his unconditional release in January 1932 , but with catchers hard to come by , Clark Griffith , owner of the Washington Senators , invited him to spring training in Biloxi , Mississippi . He made the team , playing in 75 games while not committing an error . When starting catcher Roy Spencer went down with an injury , Berg stepped in , throwing out 35 baserunners while batting .236 .
= = = First trip to Japan = = =
Retired ballplayer Herb Hunter arranged for three players , Berg , Lefty O 'Doul and Ted Lyons , to go to Japan to teach baseball seminars at Japanese universities during the winter of 1932 . On October 22 , 1932 , the group of three players began their circuit of Meiji , Waseda , Rikkyo , Todai ( Tokyo Imperial ) , Hosei , and Keio universities , the members of the Tokyo Big6 Baseball League . When the other Americans returned to the United States after their coaching assignments were over , Berg stayed behind to explore Japan . He went on to tour Manchuria , Shanghai , Peking , Indochina , Siam , India , Egypt and Berlin .
Despite his desire to go back to Japan , Berg reported to the Senators training camp on February 26 , 1933 in Biloxi . He played in just 40 games during the season , and batted only .185 . The Senators won the pennant , but lost to the Giants in the World Series . Cliff Bolton , the Senators ' starting catcher in 1933 , demanded more money in 1934 . When the Senators refused to pay him more , he sat out and Berg got the starting job . On April 22 , Berg made an error , his first fielding mistake since 1932 — an American League record of 117 consecutive errorless games . On July 25 , the Senators gave Berg his unconditional release . He soon returned to the big leagues , however , after Cleveland Indians catcher Glenn Myatt broke his ankle on August 1 . Indians manager Walter Johnson , who had managed Berg in 1932 , offered Berg the reserve catching job . Berg played sporadically until Frankie Pytlak , Cleveland 's starting catcher , injured himself , and Berg became the starting catcher .
= = = Second trip to Japan = = =
Herb Hunter arranged for a group of All @-@ Stars , including Babe Ruth , Lou Gehrig , Earl Averill , Charlie Gehringer , Jimmie Foxx and Lefty Gomez , to tour Japan playing exhibitions against a Japanese all @-@ star team . Despite the fact that Berg was a mediocre , third @-@ string catcher , he was invited at the last minute to make the trip . Among the items Berg took with him to Japan were a 16 @-@ mm Bell & Howell movie camera and a letter from MovietoneNews , a New York City newsreel production company with which Berg had contracted to film the sights of his trip . When the team arrived in Japan , he gave a welcome speech in Japanese and also addressed the legislature .
On November 29 , 1934 , while the rest of the team was playing in Omiya , Berg went to Saint Luke 's Hospital in Tsukiji , ostensibly to visit the daughter of American ambassador Joseph Grew . Instead , Berg sneaked onto the roof of the hospital , one of the tallest buildings in Tokyo , and filmed the city and harbor with his movie camera . He never did see the ambassador 's daughter . Back at home , the Indians gave him his unconditional release . Berg continued on to the Philippines , Korea and Moscow .
= = = Late career and coaching ( 1935 – 1941 ) = = =
After his return to America , Berg was picked up by the Boston Red Sox . In his five seasons with the Red Sox , Berg averaged fewer than 30 games a season . On February 21 , 1939 , Berg made his first of three appearances on the radio quiz show , Information , Please . Berg put on a dazzling performance . Of his appearance , baseball commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis told him , " Berg , in just thirty minutes you did more for baseball than I 've done the entire time I 've been commissioner " . On his third appearance , Clifton Fadiman , the moderator , started asking Berg too many personal questions . Berg did not answer any more questions and never appeared on the show again . Regular show guest and sportswriter John Kieran later said that " Moe was the most scholarly professional athlete ( I ) ever knew . " After his playing career ended , Berg was a Red Sox coach in 1940 and 1941 .
= = Post @-@ baseball career = =
= = = Spying for the U.S. Government = = =
With the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese on December 7 , 1941 , the United States was thrust into World War II . To do his part for the war effort , Berg accepted a position with Nelson Rockefeller 's Office of the Coordinator of Inter @-@ American Affairs on January 5 , 1942 . Nine days later , his father , Bernard , died . During the summer of 1942 , Berg screened the footage he shot of Tokyo Bay for intelligence officers of the United States military . The film may have helped Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle plan his famous Doolittle Raid .
From August 1942 to February 1943 , Berg was on assignment in the Caribbean and South America . His job was to monitor the health and physical fitness of the American troops stationed there . Berg , along with several other OIAA agents , left in June 1943 because they thought South America posed little threat to the United States , and they wanted to be someplace where their talents would be put to better use .
On August 2 , 1943 , Berg accepted a position with the Office of Strategic Services Special Operations Branch ( SO ) for a salary of $ 3 @,@ 800 ( $ 52 @,@ 000 today ) a year . He was a paramilitary operations officer in the part of the OSS that is now called the CIA Special Activities Division . In September , he was assigned to the OSS Secret Intelligence branch ( SI ) and given a spot on the OSS SI Balkans desk . In this role , he parachuted into occupied Yugoslavia to evaluate the various resistance groups operating against the Nazis to determine which was the strongest . He talked to both Draža Mihailović and Tito and reviewed their forces , deciding that Tito had the stronger and better supported group . His evaluations were used to help determine the amount of support and aid to give each group . In late 1943 , Berg was assigned to Project Larson , an OSS operation set up by OSS Chief of Special Projects John Shaheen . The stated purpose of the project was to kidnap Italian rocket and missile specialists out of Italy and bring them to the U.S. However , there was another project hidden within Larson , called Project AZUSA , with the goal of interviewing Italian physicists to see what they knew about Werner Heisenberg and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker . It was similar in scope and mission to the Alsos project .
From May to mid @-@ December 1944 , Berg hopped around Europe interviewing physicists and trying to convince several to leave Europe and work in America . At the beginning of December , news about Heisenberg giving a lecture in Zürich reached the OSS . Berg was assigned to attend the lecture and determine " if anything Heisenberg said convinced him the Germans were close to a bomb . " If Berg came to the conclusion that the Germans were close , he had orders to shoot Heisenberg ; Berg determined that the Germans were not close . During his time in Switzerland , Berg became close friends with physicist Paul Scherrer . Berg returned to the United States on April 25 , 1945 , and resigned from the Strategic Services Unit , the successor to the OSS , in August . He was awarded the Medal of Freedom on October 10 , but he rejected the award on December 2 . His sister accepted it on his behalf after his death .
= = = After World War II = = =
In 1946 , former Chicago White Sox teammate Ted Lyons was the new manager of the White Sox , and offered Berg a coaching position . Berg declined . Boston Red Sox owner Thomas Yawkey , who was much closer to Berg when he played for Red Sox , matched Lyons ' offer , but Berg still turned them down . Berg did not apply for a teaching position , or join a law firm .
In 1951 , Berg begged the CIA to send him to Israel . " A Jew must do this " , he wrote in his notebook . The CIA rejected Berg 's request . Still , in 1952 Berg was hired by the CIA to use his old contacts from World War II to gather information about the Soviet atomic science . For the $ 10 @,@ 000 plus expenses that Berg received , the CIA received nothing in return . The CIA officer who spoke with Berg when he returned from Europe said that he was " flaky " . Berg continued to serve his assignment for the CIA until 1954 , when his contract expired . The CIA chose not to renew it . Berg tried again to serve the CIA and the CIA again declined .
For the next 20 years , Berg had no real job , living off friends and relatives who put up with him because of his charisma . When they would ask what he did for a living , he would reply by putting his finger to his lips , giving them the impression that he was still a spy . A lifelong bachelor , he lived with his brother Samuel for 17 years . According to Samuel , he became moody and snappish after the war and did not seem to care for much in life besides his books . His brother finally grew fed up with the arrangement and asked Moe to leave and even had eviction papers drawn up . After being evicted from his brother 's home , Berg moved in with his sister Ethel in Belleville , New Jersey , where he remained for the rest of his life .
He received a handful of votes in Baseball Hall of Fame voting ( four in 1958 , and five in 1960 ) . When he was criticized for " wasting " his intellectual talent on the sport he loved , Berg replied , " I 'd rather be a ballplayer than a justice on the U.S. Supreme Court " .
Berg received many requests to write his memoirs , but turned them down ; he almost wrote them in 1960 , but he quit after the co @-@ writer assigned to him confused him with Moe Howard of the Three Stooges .
= = Death = =
Moe Berg died on May 29 , 1972 , at age 70 , from injuries sustained in a fall at home . A nurse at the Belleville , New Jersey hospital where he died recalled his final words as , " How did the Mets do
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today ? " ( They won . ) His remains were cremated and spread over Mount Scopus in Israel .
= = Legacy = =
Berg was inducted into the National Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in 1996 , and the Baseball Reliquary 's Shrine of the Eternals in 2000 . His is the only baseball card on display at the headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency .
In 1976 , reporters Louis Kaufman of the Boston Globe and Tom Sewell of the Boston Herald joined writer Barbara Fitzgerald to write Moe Berg : Athlete , Scholar , Spy . In 1994 Nicholas Dawidoff wrote a biography , The Catcher Was a Spy : The Mysterious Life of Moe Berg . Rick Wilber has a story , Something Real , in the April / May 2012 issue of Asimov 's Science Fiction that presents a lightly altered history of Berg 's spying activities for the OSS in 1944 . Berg makes an appearance again in the March 2013 issue of Asimov 's Science Fiction in the story by Kristine Kathryn Rush Uncertainty . Berg makes a third appearance in the July issue of Asimov 's Science Fiction in Rick Wilber 's story , At Palomar .
Berg is the subject of " Moe Berg : The Song " by Chuck Brodsky .
In July 2015 , Berg was the subject of an ESPN 30 for 30 Short , Spyball . Directed by Christina Burchard and Daniel Newman , and narrated by former MLB pitcher Bill " Spaceman " Lee .
In April 2016 , it was announced that American actor Paul Rudd will portray Berg in an upcoming biographical drama film called The Catcher Was a Spy , based on the book of the same name . The film will be directed by Ben Lewin , and is likely to be released in 2017 .
= Bart Carny =
" Bart Carny " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 11 , 1998 . Homer and Bart start working at a carnival and befriend a father and son duo named Cooder and Spud . It was written by John Swartzwelder , directed by Mark Kirkland and guest stars Jim Varney as Cooder the carny . The episode contains several cultural references and received a generally mixed critical reception .
= = Plot = =
When Marge unsuccessfully tries to get the kids to clean up the backyard , Homer runs into the house to exclaim to the family that the carnival is in town . After trying some rides , Bart gets himself into trouble by crashing a display of Hitler 's limousine into a tree . To repay the loss , Bart and Homer become carnies .
They meet up with carnies Cooder and his son , Spud . Cooder asks Homer to run his fixed game , but Homer fails to bribe Chief Wiggum , and Cooder 's game is shut down . Feeling guilty , Homer invites Cooder and Spud to stay at the Simpson residence , much to Marge 's dismay .
To express their gratitude , the Cooders give the Simpsons tickets on a glass @-@ bottom boat ride . When the Simpsons return , they find that the locks have been changed , the windows are all boarded up , and the Simpsons ' name is crossed off the mailbox and replaced by " The Cooders " . The family is forced to take up residence in Bart 's treehouse .
Homer proposes to Cooder , that if he can throw a hula hoop onto the chimney , they get their house back . If he misses , he will sign the deed over to Cooder . Cooder agrees and steps onto the lawn to watch Homer 's attempt . Homer stretches and warms up , as if about to throw , but instead he and his family suddenly rush into the house , leaving Cooder and Spud dumbfounded .
= = Production = =
The carnival in this episode is based on The Eastern States Exposition ( currently known as The Big E ) fair . As a child , Mike Scully went to the fair , and had hoped one day to be a carny . This is the only episode that Mark Kirkland did not tell his parents to watch . This is due to Bart 's line " Out of my way , I 'm Hitler " . Kirkland 's stepfather was a lieutenant in World War II and was injured while in combat . Cooder was modeled after David Mirkin , the showrunner of seasons five and six and co @-@ writer and the executive producer of two episodes in the ninth season . Spud 's head shape is modeled after Bart 's head . The " fisheye effect " , when Cooder is looking through the peep hole was drawn by hand , not optically by assistant director Matthew Nastuk . Matt Groening said they had several endings worked out , including one where Homer made the hula hoop over the chimney .
= = Cultural references = =
When Homer and Bart talk through their teeth while holding the chickens , it is a reference to Bob Hope and Bing Crosby films . Some of the prizes for the ring toss game are a Def Leppard mirror , a Rubik 's Cube , and a Magic 8 @-@ Ball . The song being played , at the end when Homer fixes his " ass groove " is " Groove Me " by King Floyd .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Bart Carny " finished 13th in ratings for the week of January 5 – 11 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 9 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 7 million viewing households , making it the highest rated episode of Season 9 . It was tied with King of the Hill as the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " one of the most dismally unfunny episodes ever , lifted only by the brief appearance of a talking camel and Homer 's clever way of getting Cooder and Spud out of his home . Whereas most of the series ' politically incorrect moments are funny and well @-@ observed , this episode seems to be saying that fairground folk and travelers really are deeply unpleasant criminals who are both irredeemable and unworthy of help . Nasty @-@ taste @-@ in @-@ the @-@ mouth time . " Despite the negative review from I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Isaac Mitchell @-@ Frey of the Herald Sun described the episode as " brilliant " , and highlighted it along with episodes " The Trouble with Trillions " and " The Joy of Sect " and it has been described by the other Simpsons writers in the DVD audio commentary as " criminally underrated " .
= The Castafiore Emerald =
The Castafiore Emerald ( French : Les Bijoux de la Castafiore ) is the twenty @-@ first volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . It was serialised weekly from July 1961 to September 1962 in Tintin magazine .
The book was considered by critics to be an antithesis of the previous Tintin books as Hergé deliberately broke the adventure genre he had created , making it the only book in the Tintin series where the characters remain at Marlinspike Hall , Captain Haddock 's family estate in the fictional town of Marlinshire , England , and do not venture to another part of the world . The story tells of opera singer Bianca Castafiore 's holiday visit to Marlinspike Hall , and the subsequent theft of her emerald , which was given to her by the Maharajah of the fictional province of Gopal .
Although The Castafiore Emerald received critical acclaim for making its characters follow a lead of false trails , it was not a commercial success due to the experimental nature of its narrative . It was published as a book by Casterman shortly after its conclusion . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with Flight 714 , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . The story was adapted for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana .
= = Synopsis = =
Tintin and Captain Haddock are walking through the countryside of Marlinshire , England when they come across a Romani community camped in a garbage dump , and re @-@ unite a lost little girl named Miarka with her family there . The Romani explain that they are not allowed to camp anywhere else so Haddock invites them to the grounds of his estate , Marlinspike Hall .
Haddock has been trying for some time to get the local stonemason , Mr. Arthur Bolt , to fix a broken step in the Marlinspike foyer , but Bolt is never available . Shortly afterwards , Milanese opera diva Bianca Castafiore invites herself to Marlinspike Hall for a vacation . Haddock , who dislikes her company , decides to leave before she arrives but trips on the broken step and sprains his ankle . The doctor puts his foot and ankle in a cast and imposes a minimum of a fortnight 's bed rest . Castafiore then arrives with her maid , Irma , and pianist , Igor Wagner . Castafiore presents a parrot for Haddock called " Iago " to keep as a pet and fusses over him , to his great discomfort .
Some time later , two reporters from the magazine Paris Flash publish a story that Haddock and Castafiore intend to get married , on the basis of a misinterpreted conversation with the hard @-@ of @-@ hearing Professor Calculus . This results in an avalanche of congratulations from Haddock 's friends . Haddock is next forced to accommodate a television crew , who occupy Marlinspike Hall for an interview with Castafiore , during which a mysterious photographer , Gino , appears with the crew . Suddenly , Irma informs Castafiore that her jewels were stolen , and Tintin suspects Gino who runs away when there is a temporary power cut , to be the thief . Castafiore , however , finds the case containing her Jewels , earlier misplaced by herself . The next day , Castafiore shows Tintin and Haddock a copy of the magazine , Tempo Di Roma , with the front cover showing a picture of Castafiore taken at Marlinspike Hall without her permission , thereby revealing that Gino was a reporter for the magazine and not a thief .
A few days later , Castafiore 's most valuable jewel , an emerald , given to her by the Maharajah of the fictional province of Gopal , goes missing . After initially questioning Irma and Nestor , the detectives Thomson and Thompson suspect the Romani . Their suspicions are heightened when they find that a pair of golden scissors belonging to Irma in Miarka 's possession , though she claims to have found them . After the Romani depart , the police starts looking for them . Tintin also investigates Igor Wagner , whose behaviour Tintin finds suspicious , but finds out that the musician is simply sneaking out to indulge a horse @-@ gambling habit .
Castafiore leaves for Milan to perform an opera . When Tintin finds that the name of the opera is La gazza ladra ( Italian : The Thieving Magpie ) , he realises that the true culprit responsible for the theft of the emerald and the scissors is a Magpie . He later explains to Haddock that the scissors must have fallen out of the nest and was found by Miarka . Tintin retrieves the emerald and hands it to Thomson and Thompson to return it to Castafiore . The stonemason mends the broken step , only for Haddock to step on it again .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Following the culmination of the previous story , Tintin in Tibet ( 1960 ) , Hergé began planning his next adventure , seeking advice from the cartoonist Greg . Greg produced two plot outlines , Les Pilulues ( " The Pills " ) and Tintin et le Thermozéro ( " Tintin and the Thermozero " ) . Hergé began drawing the latter of these stories , but soon abandoned it . Instead , he decided to set his new Adventure entirely at Marlinspike Hall , the only instalment in the series to do this . This was the first and last adventure after The Secret of the Unicorn ( 1943 ) to be set entirely in Belgium , and he admitted that with his proposed scenario , it was difficult " to create suspense , a semblance of danger . " The titles that Hergé had previously considered for the book were : The Castafiore Affair , Castafiore 's Sapphire , The Castafiore Jewels and The Captain and the Nightingale , but The Castafiore Emerald eventually emerged as the favourite .
Hergé 's depiction of Bianca Casfafiore in the story – a famous opera singer , pursued by the press , and changing her outfit for every occasion – was influenced by the life of the opera singer Maria Callas . One of the new characters that Hergé introduced into the story was the stonemason Arthur Bolt ( M. Boullu in the original French version ) , whose characterisation was based on a real individual who worked for Hergé . Hergé 's depiction of the paparazzi within the story may have been influenced by his own repeat encounters with the press throughout his career . The reporter and the photographer , Christopher Willoughby @-@ Droupe and Marco Rizotto ( Jean @-@ Loup de la Battelerie and Walter Rizotto respectively in the original French version ) of the Paris Flash , are introduced into the series here , and would later be retroactively added into a re @-@ drawing of The Black Island ( 1938 ) by Bob de Moor , also making a reappearance in Tintin and the Picaros ( 1976 ) . The idea of having a proposed marriage between Castafiore and Haddock was based on a reader 's suggestion that Haddock marry .
On page 17 of the book , Jolyon Wagg mentions Castafiore 's Emerald to be a gift from , in his own words , " some character , Marjorie something or other ... " , to which Castafiore corrects Wagg by saying it was from the Maharajah of Gopal . The Maharajah of Gopal does not make an appearance in The Adventures of Tintin , but is one of the title characters in The Valley of the Cobras ( 1956 ) , which is a part of another Franco @-@ Belgian comics series created by Hergé , The Adventures of Jo , Zette and Jocko ( 1935 @-@ 1958 ) . Hergé also introduced the Romani people , members of whose community had previously appeared in Destination New York ( 1951 ) , another book from The Adventures of Jo , Zette and Jocko . The idea of including them in the story was inspired by an occasion on which Hergé came across a Romani gypsy camp near to his country home in Céroux @-@ Mousty . To ensure that his depiction of them had some accuracy , he approached Father Rupert in Verviers , who had some experience with the community , reassuring him that " The episode with the Romas will not pain you " .
The Castafiore Emerald was also one of the few instances of romance seen in The Adventures of Tintin , which begins when Calculus breeds a new variety of white @-@ coloured roses , and names it " Bianca " in honour of Castafiore . At her departure , Calculus presents a bouquet of the roses he created to Castafiore , who happily receives them and embraces Calculus , kissing him in the process . Unlike Haddock , who resents being kissed by Castafiore , Calculus willingly accepts it and blushes . Calculus also makes an imperfect attempt at colour television , which according to Michael Farr , was " some five years ahead of its day . "
= = = Influences = = =
The incident of the unwelcome band playing outside Marlinspike Hall , called the " Marlinspike Prize Band " ( Harmonie de Moulinsart in the original French version ) , was based on a similar experience of Hergé 's who was also obliged to serve a band with drinks . To add insult to injury , they gave a toast to " Spirou " , the cartoon character created by Robert Velter . Another influence for the band was a cutting of the " L 'Orpheon France " band . Whenever Castafiore fears her jewels her stolen , her expressions , which involve placing her hands on her face , were influenced by a photograph of her model in real life , Maria Callas , taken by Cecil Beaton in 1957 . In page 43 of the book , Tintin is shown reading Robert Louis Stevenson 's novel Treasure Island ( 1883 ) , which was also one of Hergé 's favourite books . The depiction of the Romani wagons and clothing was closely modelled on photographs of Romani communities that Hergé had consulted , and he depicted members of the group engaged in basket weaving and fortune telling after reading that the Romani engaged in such activities in the Oxford English Dictionary .
The book alludes to the well @-@ known French weekly Paris Match in its depiction of the reporters from the magazine Paris Flash and jibes at its reputation for the questionable accuracy of the articles . Hergé 's use of the word Paris Flash is also based on a previous encounter of his with the Paris Match when it featured an " error @-@ ridden " article on him . It also mentions a fashion designing company named Tristan Bior , based upon the French luxury goods company , Christian Dior . Andy ( André in the original French version ) , the director of the television crew belonging to the fictional company , Supavision , was compared by Farr to an employee of Belgian Television , Jacques Cogniaux . In a tribute to Auguste Piccard , Calculus ' model in real life , Castafiore greets him as a famous balloonist . Hergé also inserted references to previous stories in the narrative ; he included the three models of the Unicorn , originally featured in The Secret of the Unicorn , in a background scene at Marlinspike Hall .
= = = Publication = = =
The Castafiore Emerald was serialised weekly from 4 July 1961 to 4 September 1962 in Tintin magazine and published in book form as Les Bijoux De La Castafiore by Casterman in 1963 . For the English version of the book , the gramophone record that Tintin receives from Castafiore , which is the " Jewel Song " from Charles Gounod 's Faust , is titled " Margarethe " , the name by which Gounod 's opera is known in Germany but not in England .
The Castafiore Emerald was the first book in The Adventures of Tintin that was published in England the same year — 1963 — it was published in Belgium and France . When Hergé read the English version of the book , he found it to be " absolutely delirious " and even suggested to the book 's translator , " You really would think that this was originally written in English . " In the original French version , Calculus explains about his invention and ignores Haddock 's attempt to refer to the latest developments in the United States . This is not seen in the English edition .
= = Critical analysis = =
The book was considered by critics to be an antithesis of the previous Tintin ventures . Michael Farr , author of Tintin : The Complete Companion , stated that in The Castafiore Emerald , Hergé permits Haddock to remain at home in Marlinspike , an ideal that the " increasingly travel weary " character had long cherished , further stating that if Hergé had decided to end the Tintin series , The Castafiore Emerald would have been " a suitable final volume " . He compared the story to the detective novels by Agatha Christie , in that the narrative was " littered from start to finish with clues , most of which are false " , misleading both Tintin and the reader . He felt that in setting the story entirely at Marlinspike , Hergé " deliberately broke the classic adventure mould he had created " , and in doing so " succeeded in creating a masterpiece in the manner of a well constructed stage comedy or farce " . Farr viewed the volume as " a tour de force " , noting that it was quite dissimilar to any other instalment in The Adventures of Tintin . As such , he felt that it would have been a suitable story on which to end the series . As a result of its " experimental , exceptional nature " , Farr believed that The Castafiore Emerald " never gained the public recognition it merits " , stating that while attracting " a loyal following " it had not become one of the most popular Adventures of Tintin , something that he thought was " unjust " .
Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier , co @-@ authors of the book , The Pocket Essential Tintin , described Hergé 's depiction of Castafiore in the story as " a force of nature " , praising the way that he depicted her many outfit changes . They described Mr Bolt as being both a " Godot @-@ like character " and as being akin to Basil Fawlty from the British sitcom Fawlty Towers , while adding that the broken step acts " like a Greek God 's curse " in the story that affects everyone except Castafiore . They interpreted The Castafiore Emerald as Hergé 's Nouveau Roman , in which he realises that he cannot improve upon the standard set in Tintin in Tibet and thus decides to " deconstruct his own myth and create the antithesis of a Tintin adventure . " Given that accidents and bad luck befall most of the characters in the story , Lofficier and Lofficier described the story as " a comedy of errors , a wonderful tribute to Murphy 's Law . " Ultimately , they awarded the story four stars out of five .
English screenwriter and author of Tintin : Hergé and his Creation ( 1991 ) , Harry Thompson stated that in The Castafiore Emerald , " everything is topsy @-@ turvy " , with obvious villains being shown to be harmless , and alleged crimes turning out to have not happened . He thought that Haddock was a clear parallel for Hergé himself in the story , representing his own desires and frustrations . Ultimately , he considered the volume to be " Hergé 's masterpiece " when it came to technical issues , representing " the high tide of his creative abilities " .
Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters described the story as " the most surprising of Tintin 's adventures " , with Hergé having been " determined to push his reexamination of the comic strip even further . " He noted that in the story , Castafiore 's " dramatic femininity " disrupted the " idea of sociability " that pervaded Marlinspike , with its " proper respect of space , a form of harmony in independence " . He added that " this casually alluring tale is one of the most subtly handled of the adventures ; a riot of clues , both real and false , give The Castafiore Emerald an unequaled density " , elsewhere referring to it as " a catalogue of mishaps with nothing or no one spared " . He described it as having brought to the foreground the " anarchist and non @-@ conformist tendencies of Hergé 's work " which had previously been shown in Quick & Flupke . He also saw the book as being " a sort of flashback " for Hergé , allowing him to relive events from his own past ; thus , Peeters thought that the constant renovations at Marlinspike represented the constant renovations at Hergé 's country home of Céroux @-@ Mousty , while Haddock 's time in the wheelchair represented his former wife 's Germaine time spent similarly disabled , and Castafiore was a parody of Germaine herself . Ultimately , he felt that the story – " the last great adventure of Tintin " – was " also a swan song " , for Hergé " did not dare to continue down this path , where not all of his readers had followed him " , and which had represented " a permanent loss of innocence . "
= = Adaptations = =
In June 1970 , a long article on The Castafiore Emerald by French philosopher and author , Michel Serres , appeared in the literary review , Critique , under the title , Les Bijoux distraits ou la cantarice sauve .
In 1991 , a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana adapted 21 of the stories into a series of episodes , each 42 minutes long . The Castafiore Emerald was the nineteenth episode of The Adventures of Tintin to be produced , although it ran half as long as most of the others . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " , with compositions having been actually directly taken from the panels in the original comic book .
= Russian monitor Smerch =
Smerch ( Russian : Смерч ) was a monitor built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the early 1860s . She was designed by the British shipbuilder Charles Mitchell and built in Saint Petersburg . The ship spent her entire career with the Baltic Fleet . She ran aground and sank shortly after she entered service in 1865 . Smerch was refloated and repaired shortly afterwards . She became a training ship sometime after 1892 and was stricken from the Navy List in 1904 . The ship was hulked five years later and renamed Blokshiv No. 2 . She was in Finland when that country declared its independence in 1918 , but was returned to the Soviets after the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk was signed . Blokshiv No. 1 , as the ship was now known , was sunk by German artillery fire in 1941 . She was salvaged the following year and remained in service until she was stricken in 1959 and subsequently broken up .
= = Design and description = =
The Russian Admiralty Board had previously licensed the design of the Passaic class from the United States and wished to compare the John Ericsson @-@ designed gun turrets of those ships with the turrets designed by the British inventor Captain Cowper Coles . The board therefore commissioned Mitchell to design a twin @-@ turret monitor based on the Danish ironclad Rolf Krake and to build it in the shipyard that he had modernized for the board in Saint Petersburg , Russia .
Smerch was 188 feet 8 inches ( 57 @.@ 5 m ) long at the waterline . She had a beam of 38 feet 2 inches ( 11 @.@ 6 m ) and a maximum draft of 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . The ship was designed to displace 1 @,@ 460 long tons ( 1 @,@ 480 t ) , but turned out to be overweight and actually displaced 1 @,@ 560 long tons ( 1 @,@ 590 t ) . Smerch was fitted with a double bottom that could be flooded in combat to reduce her freeboard . Her crew numbered 11 officers and 122 enlisted men in 1867 and 12 officers and 143 crew
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to 98 by the end of 1957 .
May 1957 saw the first chapters at historically black universities : On May 19 , the Delta Alpha chapter at Langston University was installed ; three days later , the Gamma Omega chapter was established at Texas Southern University .
On September 1 , 1967 , the 11 districts were consolidated into nine . These districts would again be consolidated in 1987 , to six districts with regional names : Northeast , Southeast , Southwest , North Central , Midwest , and Western .
= = = Effect of Title IX = = =
On June 23 , 1972 , Title IX was enacted and had tremendous repercussions for the women 's rights movement . Title IX prevented organizations from excluding members based on sex . Although social fraternities were exempt from the law , Kappa Kappa Psi , as a recognition society , fell under its purview . Rutgers University 's board of trustees decided that Rutgers should serve as a model for the rest of the United States in Title IX implementation and mandated that all organizations on campus become coeducational or face disciplinary actions . The men of the Alpha Phi chapter of Kappa Kappa Psi regarded this issue as minor given the ongoing Vietnam War . With dwindling numbers , Alpha Phi looked to the new women members of the Rutgers band as potential members . The national constitution of Kappa Kappa Psi prohibited women from holding membership , so the Alpha Phi chapter explored the possibility of establishing a chapter of Tau Beta Sigma . This was unrealistic , as the undergraduate college for women prohibited the formation of or membership in any sorority .
On October 8 , 1972 , the men of Alpha Phi voted to admit women into their chapter . They alerted National Headquarters , and National Secretary Robert H. Rubin replied telling Alpha Phi not to administer any degree of ritual until the issue could be discussed in person . When Rubin arrived at Rutgers on November 11 , 1972 , he learned that the first degree of ritual had been administered , which began formal probationary membership . Alpha Phi 's charter was immediately revoked and their chapter was placed on suspension . On November 13 , the former Alpha Phi chapter formally reorganized as Mu Upsilon Alpha . On October 7 , 2007 , Mu Upsilon Alpha became a chapter of Mu Beta Psi .
At the national convention of 1973 , the issues presented by Title IX were discussed by the Grand Chapter . The jurisdiction committee considered several options that would bring the fraternity into compliance , but were not receptive of the general idea . At the insistence of committee chair Richard Adler , from the Nu chapter at the University of Michigan , the jurisdiction committee presented the Grand Chapter with an amendment " without prejudice " — that is , without recommendation for or against the amendment — that would strike the section of the constitution that read , " All members of the Fraternity shall be of the male sex . " The committee simultaneously recommended that the delegation take no action to change the constitution or consider a merger with Tau Beta Sigma . The amendment was defeated , and a separate amendment was proposed and approved that changed the wording to say , " All active , alumni , inactive , and life members of the Fraternity be of the male sex . " This amendment was approved , allowing the fraternity to initiate women as honorary members .
During the 1973 – 1975 biennium , pressure was put on Kappa Kappa Psi chapters by their host institutions to admit women to comply with Title IX . The issue was again brought up at the 1975 national convention , and a joint committee consisting of an equal number of members from Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma was formed to explore the legal possibilities of a corporate merger of the two organizations , with the results of their investigation to be read at the 1977 convention . At the 1977 national convention , votes were cast by the Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma delegations for a merger — Kappa Kappa Psi voted 211 against , 9 for ; Tau Beta Sigma voted 104 against , 4 for . With the idea of a merger soundly defeated , the delegation voted to remove all references to gender from the constitution , allowing women to become active members in full and regular standing .
The first women to join the fraternity were sisters of the Sigma chapter of Tau Beta Sigma at Arizona State University , who merged with the Beta Omicron chapter of Kappa Kappa Psi after a unanimous vote of both organizations . These women were Patricia A. Childress , Lydia L. Lennon , Leslie A. Anderson , Mary L. Duffala , Mary M. Ketterer , Kristina M. Zipsnis , Clara M. Bertilson , and Toni Ryon , who were initiated into Beta Omicron on August 26 , 1977 . On August 27 , Lea F. Fuller was initiated . The first woman to participate in the formal probationary membership process and become a member of Kappa Kappa Psi was Darragh Hill Young , who was initiated into the Beta Tau chapter at Wichita State University on September 1 , 1977 .
= = = Early 21st century = = =
Beginning with the installation of the Kappa Pi chapter at Claflin University on February 24 , 2001 , 57 new chapters have been installed in the 21st century .
In 2006 , Kappa Kappa Psi celebrated its inaugural National Month of Musicianship during the month of November , the month in which the fraternity was founded . The annual month @-@ long event is intended to promote music and university bands . Local chapters celebrate the National Month of Musicianship in various ways , such as creating lab bands for student conductors , organizing reading bands , and hosting master classes .
Also in 2008 , Kappa Kappa Psi joined other Greek organizations in sponsoring HazingPrevention.Org , a national anti @-@ hazing organization . Dr. Malinda Matney , past National President and current member of the Kappa Kappa Psi Board of Trustees , has served on the HazingPrevention.Org Board of Directors since 2009 .
On December 1 , 2011 , following the death of Florida A & M University drum major Robert Champion , the Delta Iota chapter was placed on investigative hold pending an investigation by the national fraternity . In January 2012 , the Tallahassee Democrat reported alleged hazing by the FAMU chapter in spring 2010 . According to the allegations , two members of the FAMU band faculty were involved in a hazing incident at a professor 's home in which prospective members were struck on the back and neck and forced to recite information . The fraternity 's investigation was postponed at the request of FAMU due to the ongoing police investigation . The investigations cleared Delta Iota of any connection to Champion 's death ; Champion was not a member or prospective member of the fraternity . After the conclusion of both the police and fraternity investigations , the national council closed down the chapter because of its violations of fraternity policy and the uncertainty of the future of the FAMU band program . As part of the chapter 's termination , 28 members , including all active and prospective members in spring 2010 , were expelled from the fraternity . Alumni members of the chapter who were present at the hazing were also expelled . Furthermore , the Delta Iota chapter may not return to FAMU before May 2017 . Members who joined the fraternity after spring 2010 were transferred to alumni status but cannot participate in any fraternity events due to the shutdown of the chapter . No criminal charges were filed due to the delay in reporting and investigation .
= = Programs = =
= = = National scope = = =
= = = = National Intercollegiate Band = = = =
In 1922 , plans were made to hold the first national intercollegiate band contest . A brief dispatch in the 1922 Baton explained , " Sometime within the next two years the Kappa Kappa Psi Fraternity will hold a National Intercollegiate Band Contest . This enterprise will be the first of its kind ever attempted . As Music is becoming the foremost Art in America , our Fraternity aims to assist in so spreading the good work . " Nothing came of these early plans , however , and the idea of a national intercollegiate band was not revisited until the 1940s .
Beginning in 1933 , the first intercollegiate band was established , with musicians from the University of Colorado ( home of the Alpha Iota chapter ) , the University of Denver ( Alpha Lambda ) , Colorado State College of Agricultural and Mechanical Arts ( Kappa ) , Colorado State College of Education ( Alpha Theta ) , the Colorado School of Mines ( Xi ) , and the University of Utah participating . In 1934 , the University of Utah left the intercollegiate band and the University of Wyoming ( Alpha Nu ) took its place . The concerts held by this intercollegiate band were sponsored by the local chapters of Kappa Kappa Psi and many members of the fraternity were involved with the ensemble , including F. Lee Bowling , who served as the band 's manager .
F. Lee Bowling was elected Grand President of the fraternity in 1941 and presented a plan to hold a national intercollegiate band concert , modeled after the Rocky Mountain intercollegiate bands . The plan was endorsed by the delegation to be executed at the next national convention in 1943 . However , due to World War II , the 1943 and 1945 national conventions were not held , and so the first National Intercollegiate Band was formed and gave a concert on the evening of Friday , March 7 , 1947 . Today , participation in the National Intercollegiate Band is open to any college band member who auditions — membership in Kappa Kappa Psi or Tau Beta Sigma is not required .
In June and July 2002 , Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma sponsored the first National Intercollegiate Marching Band , which traveled to the French Riviera , including the cities of Nice , Grasse , Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , Cannes , Antibes , and the Principality of Monaco . The thirty @-@ five member band performed at Le Suquet in Cannes , in Nice , and in front of the Prince 's Palace of Monaco . After the inaugural trip , the program was dissolved by the joint national councils due to its high cost and low attendance , which was believed to be caused by a fear of traveling abroad after the September 11 attacks .
The success of the National Intercollegiate Band led to districts creating their own bands . One such group was the Atlantic Coast Intercollegiate Band , formed in 1958 at the convention of Districts X and XI . The Atlantic Coast band comprised around one hundred musicians and was conducted by Paul V. Yoder . The convention was hosted by the Beta Chi chapter at the University of Virginia , and the convention and concert were co @-@ sponsored by the Universities of Rutgers , Maryland , and Pittsburgh . In 2009 , the North Central District organized the first North Central District Intercollegiate Band . The North Central District Intercollegiate Band is the only currently functioning district intercollegiate band and has performed at every North Central District convention since its inaugural .
= = = = Commissioning Program = = = =
Since 1953 , Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma have commissioned a new work for wind band to be premiered at almost every National Intercollegiate Band concert . This program was begun to add to the wind repertoire under the direction of Grand President Hugh McMillen , and is the longest @-@ running commissioning project in the United States . A number of these commissioned compositions have garnered national acclaim , including Robert Russell Bennett 's Symphonic Songs for Band and Karel Husa 's Concerto for Trumpet and Wind Orchestra . In the years following the start of the national commissioning program , local chapters have begun to commission new band works themselves , such as Frank Ticheli 's An American Elegy , commissioned by the Alpha Iota chapter in memory of the Columbine High School massacre .
= = = = Stillwater Station = = = =
The Stillwater Santa Fe Depot is a historic building originally built in March 1900 . In 1915 , a brick depot was added . The depot was used as a passenger rail station until 1953 . The depot was purchased at auction by five Stillwater residents , including three Alpha chapter alumni , in November 1991 . Stillwater Station replaced Oklahoma State University 's Seretean Center for the Performing Arts as the National Headquarters of the two organizations . The fraternity and sorority share office space , a conference room , and storage space in the converted station , which also hosts the organizations ' archives . The brick path leading to the building 's entrance has become a " Walk of Fame " with engraved bricks purchased by individuals or chapters .
In 2006 , Kappa Kappa Psi purchased a retired Detroit , Toledo and Ironton caboose to provide additional space for the fraternity 's history and archives program . After it was purchased , the caboose was placed on newly laid tracks outside the headquarters and wired for electricity , phone , and internet . The caboose is intended to host archives , artifacts , and chapter histories , as well as displays of historical items .
= = = Local programs and activities = = =
The mission statement and five purposes of Kappa Kappa Psi shape the activities of local chapters . Chapters of Kappa Kappa Psi provide service and support to the bands at its hosting institutions , from major projects like undertaking major renovations of rehearsal spaces used by the institution 's bands to relatively minor support such as providing apples and water to athletic bands or cleaning practice rooms . Some chapters also include general community service in their activities , such as sponsoring blood drives and other activities .
The fifth purpose of the fraternity charges chapters and members is to " provide a pleasant and helpful social experience for all engaged in college band work , " and chapters fulfill this charge through social programming such as hosting receptions after band concerts , sponsoring dances and socials for band members or their campus community in general , or by hosting concerts and providing food . Some chapters , especially southern chapters , also take part in step shows .
= = Jewelry and symbols = =
= = = Membership pins = = =
The Crown Pearl Badge is considered the " official means of identifying oneself with the Fraternity . " The fraternity badge is in the shape of an ancient Venetian harp , with a musical staff of gold lines on black enamel in the center of the badge , with the Greek letters " Kappa Kappa Psi " in gold across the staff . Five pearls adorn the bar across the top of the badge , and ten gems are set in the harp 's semicircle . In the upper left corner , the Greek letters " Alpha Epsilon Alpha " appear in gold on black enamel . A golden baton penetrates the badge diagonally from right to left . Unlike other Greek organizations , however , purchase of the badge is optional for members of Kappa Kappa Psi . Many brothers instead wear the recognition pin , which is a gold lapel pin in the shape of the fraternity 's coat of arms .
Prospective members may wear a lapel pin that has a musical staff and bass clef of silver on a background of blue enamel . The notes A , E , and A are placed on the staff in silver , representing the Greek phrase " Alpha Epsilon Alpha . " This is the only piece of regalia that prospective members are allowed to wear — all other jewelry is restricted to initiated members , and even the coat of arms and letters ( usually worn in the form of embroidered or ironed @-@ on blocked letters ) are restricted unless there is a clear indication that the wearer is a prospective member or colony member .
= = = Flag = = =
The Fraternity Flag was created by G. R. Schaag , a member of the Eta Sigma chapter at the University of Central Florida . The idea of a national flag was raised with the History and Traditions committee by Schaag at the 1987 national convention , but the committee ultimately decided not to take the idea to the national delegation . Schaag quickly drafted a motion to consider a national flag , which was presented by the chapter 's delegate and passed . In 1989 , Schaag presented a design for a flag , which won the committee 's recommendation over other submissions and was accepted by the national chapter . The upper half of the flag consists of a white field with the Greek letters " Kappa Kappa Psi " inscribed in an arc . On the lower half , three alternating stars of white , blue , and white appear on a blue field , with the top point of the lower white star extending into the white field above it .
= = = Other symbols = = =
The Fraternity Hymn was written by brother Scott Jeffrey Heckstall Jr. when he was a prospective member of the Eta Gamma chapter in 1977 . Heckstall had wanted to be a charter member , but was not chosen . Heckstall was encouraged to rush , and he recalled that as part of his rush process , a couple of brothers took him to a piano and told him , " We know that you play [ piano ] in church . We need a fraternity hymn . We 'll give you three hours , and you sit over there and come up with a hymn . We 'll come back in three hours , and we expect a hymn . " Heckstall recalled the hymn Someday ( Beams of Heaven As I Go ) by Charles Albert Tindley and changed a few words — for example , " Beams of Heaven as I go through this wilderness below " became " K K Psi , as we go through this wilderness here below . " The brothers of Eta Gamma were satisfied with Heckstall 's hymn . Years later , the hymn was presented to the brotherhood assembled at the 1995 National Convention and accepted as the national fraternity hymn . Blue and white are the fraternity 's official colors . The fraternity flower is a red carnation , so chosen because it was founder William Scroggs 's favorite flower .
= = Membership = =
A member of a college or university band who has completed one term in such a band may be offered membership in the fraternity . First @-@ term freshmen may only join if an exception is made by that chapter 's sponsor or director of bands . There were almost 6 @,@ 000 members active across the country in 2011 , and more than 66 @,@ 000 have joined the organization since 1919 .
A member of Kappa Kappa Psi may not be initiated as an active member of Tau Beta Sigma and vice versa — if a member of Kappa Kappa Psi transfers to a school with a chapter of Tau Beta Sigma and no Kappa Kappa Psi , he or she may instead join the sorority chapter as an " associate member " after going through a short orientation process acclimating the member to the sorority .
Brothers of Kappa Kappa Psi are not restricted from joining Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia or Sigma Alpha Iota , except by the gender restrictions or other eligibility requirements of either organization . Joint statements between Kappa Kappa Psi and Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia have affirmed this since at least 1973 , and have been reaffirmed as recently as 2005 , when the organizations released a joint statement saying , " there are equally important roles for Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia , Sigma Alpha Iota , Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma to fulfill on any campus where our chapters mutually exist , now or in the future . Each organization possesses a distinct mission and , as a result , fulfills a unique and vital role in the musical environment of a college campus . " Indeed , founder Raymond Shannon went on to join Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia after starting Kappa Kappa Psi .
= = = Chapters and districts = = =
By 2011 there were 210 active chapters out of 314 chapters chartered since 1919 , and 7 colonies . Colonies are probationary chapters at universities that have not historically had a chapter of Kappa Kappa Psi or whose chapter has gone inactive . Chapters and colonies of Kappa Kappa Psi are organized into seven districts , six of which are named for the geographical region of the United States that they represent . These are the North Central , Northeast , Midwest , Southeast , Southwest , and Western Districts . Although an International District is provided for , it has no chapters .
= = = National conventions = = =
Every two years in odd @-@ numbered years , Kappa Kappa Psi holds a national convention . The first such convention was held in 1922 in Stillwater , and only three conventions since then have not been held : 1931 , and the 1943 and 1945 conventions which were canceled due to World War II . The assembly of chapters in these conventions is called the National Chapter , which is the governing body of the fraternity and has the power to elect members of the National Council and Board of Trustees . The location of the National Convention rotates among the districts .
= = = National Presidents of Kappa Kappa Psi = = =
= Azotobacter =
Azotobacter is a genus of usually motile , oval or spherical bacteria that form thick @-@ walled cysts and may produce large quantities of capsular slime . They are aerobic , free @-@ living soil microbes which play an important role in the nitrogen cycle in nature , binding atmospheric nitrogen , which is inaccessible to plants , and releasing it in the form of ammonium ions into the soil ( nitrogen fixation ) . In addition to being a model organism for studying diazotrophs , it is used by humans for the production of biofertilizers , food additives , and some biopolymers . The first representative of the genus , Azotobacter chroococcum , was discovered and described in 1901 by the Dutch microbiologist and botanist Martinus Beijerinck . Azotobacter species are Gram @-@ negative bacteria found in neutral and alkaline soils , in water , and in association with some plants .
= = Biological characteristics = =
= = = Morphology = = =
Cells of the genus Azotobacter are relatively large for bacteria ( 1 – 2 μm in diameter ) . They are usually oval , but may take various forms from rods to spheres . In microscopic preparations , the cells can be dispersed or form irregular clusters or occasionally chains of varying lengths . In fresh cultures , cells are mobile due to the numerous flagella . Later , the cells lose their mobility , become almost spherical , and produce a thick layer of mucus , forming the cell capsule . The shape of the cell is affected by the amino acid glycine which is present in the nutrient medium peptone .
Under magnification , the cells show inclusions , some of which are colored . In the early 1900s , the colored inclusions were regarded as " reproductive grains " , or gonidia – a kind of embryo cells . However , it was later demonstrated that the granules do not participate in the cell division . The colored grains are composed of volutin , whereas the colorless inclusions are drops of fat , which act as energy reserves .
= = = = Cysts = = = =
Cysts of the genus Azotobacter are more resistant to adverse environmental factors than the vegetative cells ; in particular , they are twice as resistant to UV light . They are also resistant to drying , ultrasound and gamma and solar irradiation , but not to heating .
The formation of cysts is induced by changes in the concentration of nutrients in the medium and addition of some organic substances such as ethanol , n @-@ butanol , or β @-@ hydroxybutyrate . Cysts are rarely formed in liquid media . The formation of cysts is induced by chemical factors and is accompanied by metabolic shifts , changes in catabolism , respiration , and biosynthesis of macromolecules ; it is also affected by aldehyde dehydrogenase and the response regulator AlgR .
The cysts of Azotobacter are spherical and consist of the so @-@ called ' central body ' – a reduced copy of vegetative cells with several vacuoles – and the ' two @-@ layer shell ' . The inner part of the shell is called intine and has a fibrous structure . The outer part has a hexagonal crystalline structure and is called exine . Exine is partially hydrolyzed by trypsin and is resistant to lysozyme , in contrast to the central body . The central body can be isolated in a viable state by some chelation agents . The main constituents of the outer shell are alkylresorcinols composed of long aliphatic chains and aromatic rings . Alkylresorcinols are also found in other bacteria , animals , and plants .
= = = = Germination of cysts = = = =
A cyst of the genus Azotobacter is the resting form of a vegetative cell ; however , whereas usual vegetative cells are reproductive , the cyst of Azotobacter does not serve this purpose and is necessary for surviving adverse environmental factors . Following the resumption of optimal environmental conditions , which include a certain value of pH , temperature , and source of carbon , the cysts germinate , and the newly formed vegetative cells multiply by a simple division . During the germination , the cysts sustain damage and release a large vegetative cell . Microscopically , the first manifestation of spore germination is the gradual decrease in light refractive by cysts , which is detected with phase contrast microscopy . Germination of cysts , a slow process , takes about 4 – 6 h . During germination , the central body grows and captures the granules of volutin , which were located in the intima ( the innermost layer ) . Then the exine bursts and the vegetative cell is freed from the exine , which has a characteristic horseshoe shape . This process is accompanied by metabolic changes . Immediately after being supplied with a carbon source , the cysts begin to absorb oxygen and emit carbon dioxide ; the rate of this process gradually increases and saturates after four hours . The synthesis of proteins and RNA , occurs in parallel , but it intensifies only after five hours after the addition of the carbon source . The synthesis of DNA and nitrogen fixation are initiated 5 h after the addition of glucose to a nitrogen @-@ free nutrient medium .
Germination of cysts is accompanied by changes in the intima , visible with an electron microscope . The intima consists of carbohydrates , lipids , and proteins and has almost the same volume as the central body . During germination of cysts , the intima hydrolyses and is used by the cell for the synthesis its components .
= = = Physiological properties = = =
Azotobacter respires aerobically , receiving energy from redox reactions , using organic compounds as electron donors . Azotobacter can use a variety of carbohydrates , alcohols , and salts of organic acids as sources of carbon .
Azotobacter can fix at least 10 μg of nitrogen per gram of glucose consumed . Nitrogen fixation requires molybdenum ions , but they can be partially or completely replaced by vanadium ions . If atmospheric nitrogen is not fixed , the source of nitrogen can alternatively be nitrates , ammon
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light @-@ years distant , and each measure 55 @,@ 000 light @-@ years in diameter .
= = = Canis Minorids = = =
The 11 Canis @-@ Minorids , also called the Beta Canis Minorids , are a meteor shower that arise near the fifth @-@ magnitude star 11 Canis Minoris and were discovered in 1964 by Keith Hindley , who investigated their trajectory and proposed a common origin with the comet D / 1917 F1 Mellish . However , this conclusion has been refuted subsequently as the number of orbits analysed was low and their trajectories too disparate to confirm a link . They last from 4 to 15 December , peaking over 10 and 11 December .
= Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan de la Peyrière =
Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan de la Peyrière ( October 29 , 1764 – April 9 , 1845 ) was a French general who fought in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars .
Gazan started his military career as a cannonier in the French Coast Guard . He was later appointed to the Royal Life Guards and , upon the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789 , he joined the French National Guard . After service in the Upper Rhine valley and the Netherlands , he joined André Masséna in Switzerland in 1799 , and fought at the battles of Winterthur and First Zurich . In August 1805 , Gazan commanded of a division of the Army that encircled the Austrians in Ulm . On November 11 , under Joseph Mortier , his division provided the advance guard in the advance on Vienna . Mortier over @-@ extended his line of march and Gazan 's division was surrounded by Kutuzov 's Coalition army ; Gazan lost 40 percent of his force in the Battle of Dürenstein . Following the Prussian defeat at the Battle of Jena @-@ Auerstadt , he transferred with Jean Lannes to the Iberian peninsula . There he participated in the French capture of Zaragoza and in several important actions of the long Peninsular War , including the Battle of Albuera and the Battle of Vitoria .
During the Hundred Days , Gazan eventually joined Napoleon 's cause , although he did not have a field command . In 1815 , he judged Michel Ney 's trial for treason , but refused to reach a verdict . He dabbled briefly , and unsuccessfully , in politics in the 1820s . In 1830 , He was raised to the French peerage and held a divisional command in Marsailles , but by then was an old man , and he retired in 1832 . He died in 1845 .
= = Family and early military career = =
Gazan was born in the small town of Grasse , in the Alpes @-@ Maritimes . His father , a lawyer , sent him to the College of Sorèze , where he received military training . Gazan was a second lieutenant in the Coast Guard cannoniers of Antibes at the age of fifteen . In 1786 , he was appointed to the Royal Life Guards , Company Écossaise . Afterward he also joined the Freemasons .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
At the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 , Gazan returned to Grasse and joined the National Guard . In 1790 , he became a captain and , in 1791 , a lieutenant colonel of the local volunteer battalion of the Var . In 1792 , with the declaration of war with Austria , he was sent to the 27th Regiment . His regiment first served garrison duty in Strasbourg , but in December 1793 , participated in the Battle of Wissembourg . In May 1794 , Gazan became a battalion commander of the new 54th Demi @-@ Brigade . On 4 July , he routed the Prussians in Kuppenheim by ordering his drummers to beat a charge , convincing the Prussians that they were outnumbered . He was promoted to brigade colonel on 11 July and led his troops to victory against the Prussians at Trippstadt .
In 1796 , he joined the Army of the Rhine , under the command of Jean Victor Moreau . This was his first campaign and he was promoted to brigadier general in recognition of his outstanding achievements at the Battle of Ettlingen . Gazan was wounded on 22 November 1796 and taken to hospital in Strasbourg for his recovery , where he met Marie Madeleine Reiss ; after their marriage , she frequently accompanied him on his campaigns and they had several children .
= = = Swiss campaign = = =
On 4 April 1799 , his superior and friend André Masséna transferred him to the Army of the Danube , at that time located in the northeastern Swiss plateau . There , he took command of a weak ( under @-@ manned ) brigade at the small town of Winterthur , in northern Switzerland . On 26 May , Michel Ney , the newly appointed general of division , took command of the forward line protecting the main French force at Zürich . The following day , Friedrich , Baron von Hotze , arrived with close to 8 @,@ 000 battle @-@ hardened and experienced Austrian border troops , including the 12th Infantry Manfredini , a battalion of Hungarian grenadiers , and six squadrons of the Waldeck Dragoons . In the ensuing clash , Ney ordered Gazan 's under @-@ manned brigade to the center , where it was soon overwhelmed . In retreat , they safely crossed a bridge spanning a small river , the Töss , but the cavalry guarding the bridge was itself forced back . After stationing his batteries on a slight incline , to protect the retreat from the Austrians , the injured Ney handed command to Gazan , who organized and conducted the successful retreat .
A few days later , at the First Battle of Zürich ( 4 June 1799 ) , the Austrian force overpowered the French lines . As part of the V. Division of the Army of the Danube , Gazan again commanded the rear guard after Massena 's force disengaged from Archduke Charles ' army and withdrew across the Limmat river . Later that year , he faced a combined Austrian and Russian force at the Second Battle of Zürich ( 27 September ) . His division repulsed Russian outposts at the Limmat river . He subsequently participated in the wild pursuit of the Austrians , resulting in a decisive French victory . He was promoted to division commander and continued in the campaign against Coalition troops in Switzerland .
In 1800 , Gazan accompanied the Masséna 's Army of Italy , as a general of division in the Corps of Jean @-@ de @-@ Dieu Soult . The 1st Division included the Grenadiers Piedmontais , the 30th Legne ( light infantry ) , and portions of the 2nd , 3rd , and 78th Regiments Ligne ( line infantry ) , totaling approximately 4 @,@ 500 men . While Soult 's Corps campaigned in central northern Italy , Masséna was besieged in Genoa by an Austrian army of 24 @,@ 000 and a British naval squadron . Soult moved his Corps to the east to relieve Genoa . As part of Soult 's Corps , Gazan participated in the battle at Bocchetta ( 9 April ) , where he commanded the right wing , and again at the battle of Sassello ( 10 April ) . In both clashes , his division was outnumbered nearly three to one took heavy casualties French had heavy casualties . Later in the month , he participated in the clash at Voltri ( 18 April 1800 ) . To relieve Masséna at Genoa , Soult organized several assaults on strong Austrian positions around the city . At Monte Creto ( 13 May 1800 ) , Gazan 's division and the first column of Soult 's main force ( approximately 5 @,@ 000 men ) , attacked a stronger Austrian position of 7 @,@ 000 , under command of Prince Hohenzollern . Soult was taken prisoner , General of Brigade Joseph Perrin was killed , and the cavalry commander , Jean @-@ Joseph Gauthier , was badly wounded . The defeat could be seen from the ramparts at Genoa and caused the French garrison 's morale to plummet ; many units were already near mutiny and food was scarce . Gazan , who had been wounded , took his troops to Lozano and joined Louis Gabriel Suchet . There he commanded a division of the Army of Italy and fought in a French victory at the battle in Pozzolo ( 25 December ) against the Austrians . He was appointed commander of the First Subdivision of the 27th Military Division in Piedmont . After the peace in 1801 , Gazan returned home , but shortly after his return , received a new assignment as commander of a brigade in northern Italy , where he stayed until the declaration of the First French Empire in 1804 .
= = Service during the Napoleonic Wars = =
= = = Dürrenstein and Jena = = =
In the War of the Third Coalition , Gazan initially was assigned as a division commander of Napoleon 's Grande Armée in Lille , in preparation for the planned invasion of England ; he remained there until the idea was abandoned . In August 1805 , Gazan commanded of a division of the army that encircled Austrians in Ulm . On November 11 , under Marshal Mortier , his division provided the advance guard in the march against Kutuzov 's army . As they advanced through a narrow Danube canyon , the division was isolated from the main force , near Dürenstein . By the small village on the Danube , famous as the prison of Richard the Lionhearted at the end of the twelfth century , he and his division were trapped in a narrow canyon , attacked by a Russian force at his rear and more Russians at his front . Gazan 's division fought desperately for a harrowing day and suffered 40 percent casualties . He and Mortier were finally rescued by the arrival of the VIII . Corps ' 1st Division , commanded by Pierre Dupont de l 'Étang , but only after the loss of nearly 4 @,@ 000 men . In addition , 47 officers and 895 men were captured , and he lost five guns , as well as the eagles of the 4th Infantry Regiment , and the eagle and guidon of the 4th Dragoons . As recognition of his conduct in " the immortal Battle of Dürenstein , " he received the Officers Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor and the survivors of his division was sent to Vienna to recuperate . When Austria sued for peace , Gazan 's division was sent to Würzburg in Bavaria , where it remained until Prussia declared war in October 1806 .
Gazan 's division fought in the French victory over Prussia at the Battle of Jena @-@ Auerstedt ( 14 October 1806 ) . At Ostrolenka ( 16 February 1807 ) , Gazan 's troops took three guns and two Russian colors . Otherwise , his troops stayed in their winter quarters . After the new peace treaty , Gazan 's troops were sent to Silesia to restore order . In 1808 , he was named Comte de la Peyriére .
= = = Early Peninsular War = = =
In October 1808 , now attached to the VI . Corps , Gazan went to Spain with Jean Lannes and arrived at Zaragoza in December . The city was under siege and defended by Spanish under José de Palafox . Lannes ordered an attack on 22 January 1809 to capture the city in street by street fighting ; when the French took a block , sappers tunneled under the houses and blew them up , which prevented Spanish street fighters from slipping into houses behind them . The method was effective but painstaking . Gazan 's assignment , to take the well @-@ fortified Jesus Convent . Palafox surrendered on 20 February . The VI . Corps occupied northern Aragon afterward .
In July 1810 , Gazan 's force guarded the valleys of Extremadura , near Alcantara . In September he fought against Spanish general La Romana . In January 1811 he crossed the Sierra Morena to guard the supply On 15 – 21 March , his 2nd Division of the V. Corps besieged and captured the small fortified town of Campo Maior , in eastern Portugal . There they captured 50 guns and the 100 @-@ man Portuguese garrison . As General Latour @-@ Maubourg , four squadrons of dragoons and hussars and three battalions of the 100th Light Infantry moved the cannons to Badajoz the following week , a combined force of the 1st and 7th Portuguese Cavalry and the British 13th Light Dragoons , commanded by Brigadier General Robert Ballard Long , charged and scattered the French 26th Dragoons . In the melee , the drivers of the convoy were cut down , but instead of securing the convoy of guns , the British and Portuguese enthusiastically pursued the fleeing infantry for more than 11 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) ; meanwhile , the French sallied out of Badajoz , carefully avoiding the fleeing infantry and its pursuers , and recovered all but one of the guns .
At the Battle of Albuera ( 16 May 1811 ) , the " bloodiest battle of the Peninsular Campaign , " Gazan 's division was hammered by the British . The force , composed of two brigades of infantry , one of cavalry and 40 guns , were enveloped by the British on three sides . General of Division Girard 's 1st Division was also trapped . The fire @-@ fight wrought massive casualties , and the bodies were reportedly stacked three and four men high ; the distinction was in 360 French muskets in deep and narrow columns versus 2000 British flintlocks in a double line of infantry . Only a costly mistake by the British commander , Major General Colborne , prevented a worse disaster for the French . Colborne had deployed his infantry in the standard line , two men deep , and had prepared to fire close range volleys into the French flank . Recognizing the opportunity , Latour @-@ Marbourg 's 2nd Hussars and First Vistula Lancers ( a Polish unit ) to attack the British line before the infantry could form its defensive squares . The French cavalry wrought massive casualties on Colborne 's brigade . The 3rd ( East Kent ) Regiment of Foot ( " The Buffs " ) lost 643 of its 754 men at Albuera , most of them in the initial onslaught of French cavalry . The next two regiments in line lost over 500 men combined and Colborne ’ s brigade lost 1 @,@ 413 out of its 2 @,@ 166 men . Despite the mounted assault , however , the French 2nd Division suffered high casualties and lost five colors , a significant blow to its morale and pride . Gazan was wounded in the battle , and returned to Seville , where he was assigned to a staff position during his recovery .
= = = Gazan and the 1813 Peninsular War = = =
In June 1813 , Gazan was appointed commander of the Joseph Bonaparte 's Army of the South . Joseph had established a long defensive line on the heights of Puebla , with the Army of Portugal at the left flank , the Army of the Center , commanded by Jean @-@ Baptiste Drouet , Comte d 'Erlon and the Army of the South , at the southern flank . On 21 June , Generals Rowland Hill and Pablo Morillo moved toward the south end of the valley ; Gazan and d 'Erlon asked Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan for reinforcements , but the Corps ' commander was preoccupied with the possibility of an attack at the opposite flank , and sent none . In their own turn , D 'Erlon and Gazan could not agree on how to deal with the approaching threat . In the initial stages of battle , the Army of Portugal started to pull back . Realizing that his southern flank would not hold up in the face of Hill and Morillo , Joseph ordered Gazan to withdraw in ordered masses . Hill and Morillo attacked Gazan 's forces with such force that Gazan withdrew .
This was Gazan 's last field command . Gazan 's pre @-@ emptive withdrawal created a gap in French line , exposing D 'Erlon 's army in the center . D 'Erlon held his position as long as he could , but the line collapsed around him . Joseph 's planned orderly withdrawal turned into a rout . Gazan abandoned all his artillery . The Allies captured the entire supply convoy , all the baggage and took many prisoners , including Gazan 's wife and children , although they later managed to rejoin him . After losing their supply train , the plight of the French army was terrible . Gazan mentioned that general officers and subordinates alike " were reduced to the clothes on their backs and most of them were barefoot , " but the rank and file of the army also suffered enormously from hunger , exposure , and disease . When Soult took command of the new Army of the Pyrenees , Gazan became his chief of staff until Napoleon 's abdication .
= = Napoleon 's return and later life = =
During the Hundred Days , Gazan hesitated but eventually joined Napoleon , with little enthusiasm and he did not receive a field command . After the war , Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan persuaded Gazan to be part of the Conseil convened on 9 November 1815 to try Michel Ney for treason . Despite his oath of allegiance to the restored monarchy , the loyal Ney had rallied to Napoleon 's banner immediately upon his landing in southern France and had led a corps into battle at Waterloo . The King wished to make a point to Napoleon 's former marshals and Ney became the focus of his wrath . Gazan 's relationship with Ney had begun in the French Revolutionary Wars shortly after Ney 's promotion to general of division . At the Battle of Winterthur ( 1799 ) , he had been one of Ney 's first brigade commanders . Although the King 's government may have expected the Conseil to find Ney guilty , the members voted 5 – 2 to declare themselves incapable of reaching a verdict , and deferred the case to the Chamber of Peers .
Some historians maintain that that Ney 's death penalty resulted from the military court 's refusal to act in the case ; only the military court could have returned a verdict of " guilty under exceptional circumstances . " Such a verdict would have meant Ney 's lifelong incarceration , but would not have required his execution . When the military court refused to reach a verdict , Ney 's case went to the Chamber of Peers , which was populated by a mix of old and new peers . The old peers might not have been receptive to Ney 's predicament ; he had been , after all , a highly visible party to Napoleon 's success throughout Europe . If some of the new peers were sympathetic to Ney 's situation , they may also have been anxious to prove their own loyalty to the new regime . Ney 's penalty was a foregone conclusion .
Despite this , or perhaps because of it , Louis XVIII forced Gazan into retirement in Grasse , where the aging general dabbled unsuccessfully in politics . After the 1830 revolution , the new King of the French Louis Philippe made Gazan a peer of France , and he received a command of a military division in Marseille . By this time , he was an old man , and in poor health , and he retired in June 1832 . Gazan de la Peyriére died in Grasse on 9 April 1845 .
= The Stolen Invention =
The Stolen Invention is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on John Deering , an inventor , whose invention interests Mr. Cobleigh . Deering rejects the small sum Cobleigh offers for the invention , so Cobleigh decides to drugs Deering . The effect of the drug makes him temporarily insane and Deering is sent to the asylum , Cobleigh than forges Deering 's signature and secure the invention . Deering 's daughter breaks her father out of the asylum and nurses him back to health . The girl 's sweetheart , Tom , is a lawyer who takes Cobleigh to court and reveals the forgery through a stereopticon and Cobleigh is arrested . The film was released on September 16 , 1910 , and received neutral to negative reviews . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from September 17 , 1910 . It states : " John Deering is a poor inventor living modestly with his wife and only daughter . He has approached Mr. Cobleigh , a capitalist , with a proposition to share the profits of a new invention with him , providing that he ( Cobleigh ) furnish the capital to swing it . Cobleigh comes to see the model of Deering 's invention and is greatly impressed with it . Cobleigh offers Deering a small amount of money for the invention , but Deering refuses to accept it . Then Cobleigh , having failed to get his invention by fair means , determines to secure it by foul . He drugs Deering , and the result of the poison is to make the inventor temporarily insane . While in this condition , Cobleigh has Deering transferred to an insane asylum . Then he forges the inventor 's name to the bill of sale and thinks that his crime will never be discovered . Deering 's daughter , Grace , failing to induce her sweetheart , Tom Reynolds , to aid in rescuing Deering , breaks into the asylum and takes her father out singlehandedly . She conveys him to a camp in the woods where her tender care restores him to health . Then she takes him home again and he demands his rights from Cobleigh . The latter denies that he owes Deering a cent , and the inventor goes to law . Tom , who acts as his counsel , shows by enlarged stereopticon views of the two signatures that Cobleigh had traced the one from the other . Cobleigh , overcome by the revelation of his crime , is arrested , and the Deering family and the faithful Tom are happy . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . The Celluloid Couch does not include any credits and only a brief summary of the film in its filmography listing . It is also listed in Psychotherapists on Film without further detailing onto the cast or credits . A surviving film still gives the possibility of identifying the actors of Deering and his daughter .
A reviewer for the The New York Dramatic Mirror stated , " It is rather difficult to understand by what magic the two signatures are made to appear in the court room without human agency . They come and go in anything but legal fashion . Evidently their appearance is to be taken symbolically - not realistically . " The final part of the review is difficult to infer because the film is lost , but the synopsis states that a stereopticon was used . A stereopticon , not to be confused with a stereoscope , is a type of slide projector that projects an image . According to the synopsis , the production employs one , or possibly two , stereopticon 's to display the two different signatures to compare and reveal the forgery . The reviewer seems to state that the appearance as unnatural , perhaps referencing a dissolve effect . The ability to project with a dissolve was a known ability of more advanced stereopticons . According to another reviewer the film included shots of Long Island Sound .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on September 16 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , with known theater advertisements in Pennsylvania , Kansas , Minnesota , Washington , North Carolina , Arizona , and Indiana . The film was also shown in Vancouver , Canada by the Province Theatre .
Reception for this film was mixed , but not praised highly in the three main trade publications . Walton of The Moving Picture News merely commented on how the water scenery and the reviewer for the Moving Picture World stated it was , " [ an interesting domestic story , representing the machinations of a capitalist to secure a poor man 's invention . " The most detailed review was the negative one published in The New York Dramatic Mirror which states , " This film is not so good as the Thanhouser trademark would lead one to expect . The story is long and rambling and the acting is not notable at any point . A drugged potion , a forged receipt , an escape from an insane asylum , and the confounding of the villain are the points around which the threads are woven . The result looks a good deal like crazy work . The sheer impossibility of the plot is not relieved by the details of the mounting or of the action . The wild escape from the lunatic asylum , the row across the river , and hiding in the woods , are all cut upon an absurd pattern . Probably for those who like highly seasoned drama the film will prove entertaining ; for others it is too mellow . "
= North Yemen Civil War =
The North Yemen Civil War ( Arabic : ثورة 26 سبتمبر ) was fought in North Yemen from 1962 to 1970 between royalist partisans of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom and supporters of the Yemen Arab Republic . The war began with a coup d 'état carried out in 1962 by revolutionary republicans led by the army under the command of Abdullah as @-@ Sallal , who dethroned the newly crowned Imam Muhammad al @-@ Badr and declared Yemen a republic under his presidency . The Imam escaped to the Saudi Arabian border where he rallied popular support from northern Shia tribes to retake power , escalating shortly to a full @-@ scale civil war .
On the royalist side Jordan and Saudi Arabia supplied military aid , and Britain gave covert support , while the republicans were supported by Egypt and were supplied warplanes from the Soviet Union . Both foreign irregular and conventional forces were involved . Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser , supported the republicans with as many as 70 @,@ 000 Egyptian troops and weapons . Despite several military moves and peace conferences , the war sank into a stalemate by mid @-@ 1960s . Egypt 's commitment to the war is considered to have been detrimental to its performance in the Six @-@ Day War of June 1967 , after which Nasser found it increasingly difficult to maintain his army 's involvement and began to pull his forces out of Yemen . The surprising removal of Sallal on November 5 by Yemeni dissidents , supported by republican tribesmen , resulted in internal shift of power in the capital , while the royalists approached it from the north . The new republic government was headed by Qadi Abdul Rahman Iryani , Ahmed Noman and Mohamed Ali Uthman , all of which shortly either resigned or fled the country , leaving the disarrayed capital under the control of Prime Minister Hassan Amri . The 1967 siege of Sana 'a became the turning point of the war - the remaining republican Prime Minister succeeded in keeping control of Sana 'a and by February 1968 , the royalists lifted the siege . Clashes continued in parallel with peace talks between the sides , until in 1970 , Saudi Arabia recognized the Republic , and a ceasefire came into effect .
Egyptian military historians refer to the war in Yemen as their Vietnam and historian Michael Oren ( former Israeli Ambassador to the U.S ) wrote that Egypt 's military adventure in Yemen was so disastrous that " the imminent Vietnam War could easily have been dubbed America 's Yemen . "
= = Background = =
= = = Yemen = = =
Imam Ahmad bin Yahya inherited the Yemeni throne in 1948 . In 1955 , Iraq @-@ trained Colonel Ahmad Thalaya led a revolt against him . A group of soldiers under his command surrounded the royal palace of Al Urdhi at Taiz , a fortified stronghold where the Imam lived with his harem , the royal treasure , an arsenal of modern weapons , and a 150 strong palace @-@ guard , and demanded Ahmad 's abdication . Ahmad agreed , but demanded that his son , Muhammad al @-@ Badr succeed him . Thalaya refused , preferring the king 's half brother , the Emir Saif el Islam Abdullah , the 48 @-@ year @-@ old Foreign Minister . While Abdullah began forming a new government , Ahmad opened the treasury coffers and secretly began buying off the besieging soldiers . After five days , the number of besiegers was reduced from 600 to 40 . Ahmad then came out of the palace , wearing a devil 's mask and wielding a long scimitar , terrifying the besiegers . He slashed two sentries dead before exchanging the sword for a sub @-@ machine gun and leading his 150 guards onto the roof of the palace to begin a direct attack on the rebels . After 28 hours , 23 rebels
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will taste much more of coffee than the same crushed bean dissolved in the water . One day , using that principle , he over @-@ cooked the egg custard for an ice cream , so that it practically became scrambled . He puréed that and made an ice cream from it , that had an immense eggy flavour ... [ which ] was not particularly pleasant . Which was when he decided to see if he could incorporate the sweet tones of smoked bacon into an egg ice cream . Boy , did it work . "
Blumenthal explains that traditional ice cream is frozen egg custard with flavours added . Using his method to create ice cream , he whisks egg yolks with sugar until the sugar interacts with the proteins in the yolk , creating a network of proteins . The entire substance turns white , at which point any flavouring can be added and cooked in . While stirring the mixture , Blumenthal cools it as fast as possible using liquid nitrogen .
Blumenthal 's bacon and egg ice cream , now one of his signature dishes , along with his other unique flavours , has given him a reputation as ' The Wizard of Odd ' and has made his restaurant a magnet for food enthusiasts . In the 2006 New Years Honours List , Blumenthal was awarded Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) , the United Kingdom 's fourth highest order of chivalry , for his services to food . Blumenthal has stated that one ambition is to create an ice cream with flavours released in time @-@ separated stages , for example bacon and egg followed by orange juice or tea . Once he perfects the technique of separating the flavours , he would attempt mussels followed by chocolate .
= = Reception = =
Bacon ice cream has received a mixed reception ; as a combination of sweet and savoury flavours , it was designed to be controversial . In 2004 , rival chef Nico Ladenis showed his disapproval for the Michelin Star system by suggesting that bacon ice cream shows such a desperate need for originality in very graphic language . Blumenthal pointed out that Ladenis had never actually tried the aforementioned ice cream .
Trevor White has suggested that the Heston Blumenthal has latched onto a culture where we cannot get enough of the new and are spoiled by choice , comparing the food to a " freak @-@ show " . Janet Street @-@ Porter is highly critical of Blumenthal 's cooking philosophy , explaining that it was pretentious . She attempted to make his egg @-@ and @-@ bacon ice cream from the recipe published in his book , The Big Fat Duck Cookbook , altering the recipe slightly due to her hectic workload and guessing when she did not have the right tools . The end result she described as nauseating and " too sickly for words " .
The ice cream also sparked debate within the Los Angeles Times , where the food writer Noelle Carter described bacon ice cream as perfection but the health section put up a photograph of a heart bypass and the headline " Bacon ice cream . No good can come of it " . The Delaware " Udder Delight " ice cream maker , Chip Hearn , who made bacon ice cream appears to have done so partly as a gimmick to get people into his shop , since he allows customers to taste any flavour in the store . He explains that his flavours differentiate him from the many other parlours on the shore and many people come in to try bacon ice cream only to buy something else .
A re @-@ creation by a chef @-@ in @-@ training has been highlighted in the webcomic Three Panel Soul 's 2008 post called " On Surprises . " The recipe was posted to their forums , and saved on other sites like the entry for it on OK Cupid .
= = Notable uses = =
Bacon ice cream has been re @-@ created by other chefs in recent years . For example , it appears on the menu at Espai Sucre in Barcelona , a restaurant that specialises in desserts , with descriptions such as " innovative " and " spectacular " . In the United States , bacon was one of the themes for dessert at the Fancy food show . In 2006 , two separate contestants created versions of bacon ice cream in the reality series Top Chef . Celebrity chef Bob Blumer won a Texas ice cream making competition with a bacon ice cream . Originally planning to use candied bacon , he changed at the last moment to do a bacon brittle ice cream . Chef Michael Symon made bacon ice cream in the first season of the Food Network 's The Next Iron Chef competition . Andrew Knowlton , a judge , dismissed it as not original . But Symon managed to progress in the competition and eventually win . Burger King rolled out a " bacon sundae " , vanilla ice cream with caramel , chocolate , bacon bits , and one strip of bacon , in the summer of 2012 in the US . It was tested in Nashville in April .
= Love Always =
Love Always is the debut album of American R & B duo K @-@ Ci & JoJo , released on June 17 , 1997 , by MCA Records . It was recorded at various studios in New York and the Los Angeles area in 1996 and 1997 . It was produced by JoJo and several others , including DeVante Swing , Jon @-@ John Robinson , James Mtume , and Jeff Redd . The duo were originally a part of Jodeci before this album .
The album peaked at sixth on the US Billboard 200 and also appeared on international charts . The single " All My Life " charted number one in multiple countries , and all four of the album 's singles peaked above the top 25 in the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and the New Zealand Top 40 Singles . Love Always was received favorably by critics , who praised the brothers ' singing ability and the production . The album has been certified three times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and gold by Music Canada and IFPI Sweden . As of June 1999 it had sold 2 @.@ 9 million copies in the United States .
= = Background = =
Previously , K @-@ Ci & JoJo had been members of the group Jodeci , which consisted of them and another pair of brothers , DeVante Swing and Mr. Dalvin . Under Uptown Records , the group released three studio albums certified platinum by the RIAA : Forever My Lady ( 1991 ) , Diary of a Mad Band ( 1993 ) , and The Show , The After Party , The Hotel ( 1995 ) .
Jodeci has been inactive since 1996 . K @-@ Ci & JoJo , seeking to shed Jodeci 's " bad boy image " , began working on other projects . They appeared as featured artists in songs including Tupac Shakur 's " How Do U Want It " , which topped the Billboard Hot 100 and E @-@ 40 's Rapper 's Ball , which peaked 29th on the Hot 100 . They recorded their first songs as a duo , " If You Think You 're Lonely Now " and " How Could You " , for the soundtrack albums Jason 's Lyric and Bulletproof , respectively . Both singles reached the top 20 on Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop songs .
= = Production , writing , and recording = =
JoJo told Ebony that he and K @-@ Ci " wrote 75 percent " of Love Always . The brothers said they wanted to make an album that everyone , including their Christian mother , would be able to listen to . K @-@ Ci told Ebony , " We want to write songs that women can listen to . [ ... ] You can listen to this in the car , riding with the folks . " Contrasting the album with the brothers ' work with Jodeci , K @-@ Ci told Billboard , " With Jodeci , we might sing ' Freek 'n You ' , and with K @-@ Ci & JoJo , we don 't use the word ' sex ' " .
Love Always was the first album K @-@ Ci & JoJo produced . Referring to DeVante Swing , who produced many of Jodeci 's songs , K @-@ Ci told Billboard , " We couldn 't just say , ' Oh , DeVante 's gonna make sure it 's mixed right . ' We had to do it . " Other contributors to the album included Rory Bennett , James Mtume , Jorge Corante , Mike Smoov , Fred Rosser , Jeff Redd , Joey Wlias , Laney Stewart , Gerald Baillergeau , DeVante Swing , Derrick Garrett , Craig Brockman , Victor Merrit , Jon @-@ John Robinson , Andrew Braxton , and Bradley Spalter . Mike Smoov , Jimi Randolph , Derrick Garrett , Thom Cadley , and Mikael Ifverson engineered the album .
Recording took place in 1996 and 1997 at recording studios in New York and the Los Angeles area :
= = Content = =
Love Always is written and performed in the R & B and soul styles . It consists of slow jams and love songs . The album 's opening track , " HBI " , is a short introduction and is followed by " Last Night 's Letter " , a slow jam about broken hearts . The next song , " Baby Come Back " , was written by K @-@ Ci about his past relationship with singer Mary J. Blige . " Love Ballad " is a cover of the L.T.D. song .
= = Release and promotion = =
Love Always was released in the United States and Germany on June 17 , 1997 , in Canada on June 24 , 1997 , and in the United Kingdom on March 20 , 1999 . It was released in Australia in August 1998 packaged with six bonus remixes of " How Could You " , " Last Night 's Letter " , " All My Life " , and " You Bring Me Up " . The album was released on CD , cassette and LP , except in Australia , where it was only released on CD .
= = = Singles = = =
Four songs on Love Always became singles . All four appeared in the top 25 on Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and the New Zealand Singles Chart . The first single , " You Bring Me Up " , was released on May 27 , 1997 . It peaked at 26th on the Billboard Hot 100 , 15th on R & B / Hip Hop Songs , 15th on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and 21st on the UK Singles Chart . A remix was made featuring Snoop Dogg . The second single , " Last Night 's Letter " , was released on September 16 , 1997 . It peaked at 46th on the Hot 100 , 15th on Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , and 16th on the New Zealand Singles Chart .
The third single , " All My Life " , was released on March 17 , 1998 , and was the duo 's most successful song . JoJo wrote the song about his daughter but originally intended it for another artist . In an interview with MTV , he said , " The song was originally supposed to be used for … another artist , a female artist on A & M Records . But we listened to it after we got out of the studio and it was like , ' I 'm keeping this , this is too hot . ' " " All My Life " peaked at number one on the Hot 100 and R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , tying a record set by The Beatles by jumping from 15th to first on the U.S. charts . It was also a number @-@ one song in Australia , the Netherlands , and New Zealand . It peaked at second on the Norwegian Singles Chart , third on the Flanders Belgium Singles Chart , fourth on the Swedish Singles Chart and the Swiss Singles Chart , eighth on the UK Singles Chart , 11th on the Wallonia Belgium Singles Chart , 12th on the Austrian Singles Chart , and 43rd on the French Singles Chart . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association and gold by IFPI Sweden . " All My Life " was nominated for Best R & B Video at the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards .
The fourth single , " Don 't Rush ( Take Love Slowly ) " , was originally the B @-@ side to " All My Life " ; it was released as a single in July 1998 after it achieved more airplay than " All My Life " . It peaked at 24th on the US Rhythmic Top 40 , 46th on Hot R & B Airplay , 16th on the UK Singles Chart , 25th on the Dutch Singles Charts , and 26th on the New Zealand Singles Chart .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The album debuted at 24th on the US Billboard 200 , and went on to peak at sixth . It peaked at second on the Billboard Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums . On July 9 , 1998 , Love Always was certified three times platinum by the RIAA , for shipments of three million copies in the United States . It spent 90 weeks on the Billboard 200 and 91 weeks on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums . As of June 1999 , Love Always had sold 2 @.@ 9 million copies in the US , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
Love Always charted internationally , as well . It peaked at 26th in Canada , and on June 30 , 1998 , it was certified platinum by Music Canada , for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies in Canada . In Australia , the album debuted at 44th , before peaking the next week at 37th . In 1998 , Love Always was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipments of 35 @,@ 000 copies in Australia . It peaked at fifth in New Zealand , 19th in the Netherlands , 28th in Switzerland , 51st in the UK , and 56th in Sweden .
= = = Critical response = = =
Love Always has received favorable reviews from music critics . Alex Henderson of Allmusic gave the album three stars out of five and called " Love Ballad " the " best thing the Hailey brothers have ever done – inside or outside of Jodeci " . Henderson called the album 's ballads and slow jams " above average " and noted a lack of new jack swing and R @-@ rated lyrics of the sort he had observed in Jodeci 's music . He liked the songs " Now and Forever " , " Still Waiting " , and " Baby Come Back " and appreciated the 1970s soul music feel .
Vibe magazine 's Michael Gonzalez gave the album a favorable review , writing , " Love Always is a marvelous musical testament to black love in the ' 90s . " He enjoyed the production , especially from Rory Bennett , and compared the duo to Frankie Lymon . He noticed K @-@ Ci 's lyrics in " Baby Come Back " were about his relationship with Mary J. Blige stating " [ K @-@ Ci ] wails like a man driven crazy by his missteps . " Gonzalez also liked the songs " Don 't Rush ( Take Love Slowly ) " , and " You Bring Me Up " . Borders Group recommended " You Bring Me Up " and praised the brothers ' vocal talent .
= = Track listing = =
Writing and production gathered from Australian @-@ charts.com.
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Love Always adapted from Allmusic .
= = = Musicians = = =
= = = Production = = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Vanitas : Flesh Dress for an Albino Anorectic =
" Vanitas : Flesh Dress for an Albino Anorectic " ( 1987 ) is an artwork created by Canadian Jana Sterbak , first displayed at Montreal 's Galerie Rene Blouin . Its most famous showing was at the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa , where it attracted national controversy . The work was composed of 50 pounds of raw flank steaks sewn together , and hung on a hanger . According to the artist , the work is a contrast between vanity and bodily decomposition . The artwork is in the collections of Walker Art Center in Minneapolis and of Centre Pompidou in Paris ( edition of 2 + artist copy ) .
= = Description = =
The artwork consists of a " Flesh Dress " , constructed of slabs of beef sewn together , hung on a tailor 's dummy . On a nearby wall is a framed photograph of a model posing in the dress . The dress is stitch together from 50 @-@ 60 pounds of raw flank steak and must be constructed anew each time it is shown . The work included either $ 260 or $ 300 worth of meat , as of its 1991 showing .
As suggested by the title , the work is considered within the genre of " vanitas " , a category of art showing death and decay . The work includes non @-@ traditional materials , a trend in 20th @-@ century art . It " stands in the Surrealist tradition of the uncanny , of the informe , disturbing the distinctions , by which we categorize experience " .
There were some earlier instances of meat being used as clothing in art . Seafood outfits , including a lobster bikini , were featured at Salvador Dalí 's The Dream of Venus pavilion at the 1939 World 's Fair . The cover of the November 1983 The Undertones compilation album , All Wrapped Up showed a female model wearing cuts of meat held in place with plastic wrap . The clothes are mostly bacon , with a sausage necklace . In 2010 , singer Lady Gaga attended an awards show wearing a meat dress similar to Sterbak 's in style .
= = Exhibition = =
Montreal gallery Galerie Rene Blouin exhibited the " Flesh Dress " in 1987 . The exhibit received " scant " attention .
At age 36 , Sterbak was given a retrospective show at the National Gallery of Canada called " States of Being " , reviewing the past decade of her works . Scheduled from 8 March to 21 May 1991 , the exhibit included works like " Cone on Hand " ( 1979 ) . The exhibit was relatively well @-@ attended , compared to other shows , due in part to the controversy , and was discussed in the catalog Jana Sterbak : States of Being = corps à corps .
When the meat was shriveling , flaking , and falling off , one anonymous donor gave the gallery $ 260 for replacement meat . ( This number was of some debate , with $ 350 worth of meat listed in one vegetarian magazine . ) Because of the negative publicity the work had received , gallery staff pretended to be caterers when finding a butcher in the Ottawa area to provide replacement meat .
In 1993 , the T. B. Walker Acquisition Fund purchased a copy of the work for the Walker Art Center , in Minnesota . It was reconstructed by a small team in 2011 , for the show " Midnight Party " .
The work later was exhibited at the Tate Modern in London , for the exhibition " Rites of Passage " . When the small retrospective of her work was taken to Antoni Tàpies Foundation in Barcelona , the show was " edited down to an arid minimum " by the artist herself , which included editing out the dress . In 2011 , the work was presented at " Tous Cannibales " at la Maison Rouge [ 1 ] and in 2010 at Elles @ Centre Pompidou , Paris Jana Sterbak / Couture sanglante .
= = Controversy = =
The work was one in a series of controversies surrounding the National Gallery of Canada in the 1980s and 1990s , including the acquisition of Barnett Newman 's " Voice of Fire " ( 1967 ) , less than a year before . The show drew criticism from Members of Parliament , and the organizers of food banks and soup kitchens . It was considered an insult , given the early 1990s recession .
Progressive Conservative MP Felix Holtmann , a pig farmer from Manitoba commented : " I call it a jerky dress . There are a lot of people who hold food sacred in this land , and they are appalled by the use of food for this thing . " In response , one newspaper editorial called him a " meat head " . Holtmann was chair of the House of Commons Communications and Culture Committee , which oversees the NGC funding ; the committee itself was split on the issue . The artist called Holtmann a " self @-@ proclaimed Philistine [ who is ] not even successful as a hog farmer . " Art critic Christopher Hume commented that the Committee 's concept " was based on the notion that the National Gallery is somehow accountable for poverty and hunger in Canada . Surely the irony of their desperate position is that they are members of the group that created the mess the country is now in . "
Ottawa alderman Mark Maloney called health inspectors , who found that there the work presented no health hazards . Inspected on 1 April , Dr. Edward Ellis of the Ottawa @-@ Carlton Health Department issued a statement that the dress presented " no health hazard to the public at this time " , so long as no one touches or eats it . The inspector also suggested the dress was out of their jurisdiction , being on a federal property ; the department asked Health and Welfare Canada to follow up .
The Toronto Sun and sister paper Ottawa Sun printed a cartoon featuring " a curvy , spaghetti @-@ strapped slip " made of the same materials as the meat dress . The editorial cartoon suggested readers cut out the image , smear it with foodstuffs , and mail it to [ show curator Diana ] Nemiroff ; her address was included with the image . A writer for Canadian Art noted how the cartoonist suggested respondents use the most repulsive material possible , as " Diana will like that , " was an emphasis of the curator 's gender , with subtly sexual suggestions . The mailroom opened mail with gloves for weeks after the cartoon ; one was covered in feces . A sexually @-@ threatening letter was sent to the NGC communications officer , who had been quoted in articles about the work . The writer for Canadian Art suggested reaction would have been different if the genders of the artist and curator were different , that the work would have likely been deemed sexist , for starters . In all , 200 people mailed food scraps to the National Gallery of Canada within a week .
Contemporary Canadian art curator Diana Nemiroff suggested the controversy was largely due to the work being taken out of the larger context of the show . " There 's no doubt that the dress is a provocative object and it 's meant to be a provocative object , but the cry that it 's a waste of food is misplaced . " She noted that other exhibits have used grains , breads , and potatoes were used as part of previous exhibits , but the flesh was likely source of the controversy . Said Nemiroff : " It 's kind of double cross because clothing is supposed to be second skin and cover us up . And this one reverses the process and reveals what we don 't want to confront : our mortality . "
The film The Silence of the Lambs , about a man who butchers women , was released around the same time , a coincidence noted by a writer for Canadian Art magazine .
In various critical reviews , the work of German Joseph Beuys was referenced ; a 1996 work by Sterbak portrayed her as a moth , eating up the clothes in his closet . New York Times writer Ann Wilson Lloyd noted in 1998 that Sterbak 's work " has inspired reams of humorless , abstruse theoretical writing that leaves none of her layered metaphors unturned . Yet Ms. Sterbak 's work – seductive , intensely physical and edged with dark absurdity – delivers a mind @-@ body frisson unknowable by intellect alone . "
= The Last of Us : American Dreams =
The Last of Us : American Dreams is a four @-@ issue comic book series based on the video game The Last of Us . The series was written by Neil Druckmann and Faith Erin Hicks , with illustrations by Hicks and coloring by Rachelle Rosenberg . The series was published by Dark Horse Comics between April and July 2013 , and a collected edition was published in October 2013 .
Like the game , the comic is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic world , overrun by zombie @-@ like creatures infected by a mutated strain of the Cordyceps fungus . The comics serve as a prequel to the game , chronicling the journey of the young Ellie and her meeting with another young survivor , Riley Abel . Druckmann chose Ellie as the focus of the comic due to the uniqueness of her birth and upbringing in the post @-@ apocalyptic world . Hicks joined the project after discovering Ellie 's role in the game , considering her an unusual character to include in a survival horror game . The comic 's art style is different than the game art — a choice from Hicks to give the comic a unique feel and identity .
The series received generally positive reviews . Critics particularly praised Druckmann 's writing and character development , as well as the simplicity of Hicks ' illustrations . The series was also a commercial success , with some issues requiring reprinting due to high demand .
= = Publication history = =
Dark Horse Comics approached creative director Neil Druckmann , who was working on The Last of Us , to produce a tie @-@ in comic book series for the game . Druckmann was initially wary of the idea , but eventually agreed when he realized Dark Horse " didn 't want to do something tangential " with the opportunity of expanding their characters and universe beyond the game . Work on the comic began during the game 's development , which allowed the stories of the two projects to integrate , and influence each other . Druckmann requested webcomic artist Faith Erin Hicks as a collaborator on the project , after reading her comic Friends with Boys ( 2012 ) and appreciating " how personal it felt " . He also felt that Hicks could capture the " gritty " feel of the game . Hicks then sent some concept art to Dark Horse as a pitch for the job ; they accepted , and she became officially involved with the project . Hicks was drawn to the project after reading about the character of Ellie in the game 's script ; she considered Ellie an unusual character to include in a survival horror game , calling her a " tough teenage girl who wasn 't sexualized , and who seemed very much the equal of her male counterpart " . Hicks was given access to various gameplay sequences and the game 's script during development , to allow her to better understand the story . She was also given videos of the actors performing on set , which was helpful when illustrating the characters . " I get a look at these characters and I see them interacting as human beings , not just as concept art , " said Hicks .
Ellie 's back story was originally intended to fit as a gameplay sequence within The Last of Us , but this was ultimately scrapped . When Dark Horse approached Naughty Dog with the idea of a comic book , Druckmann had the opportunity to tell the story . Druckmann found that Ellie was the ideal main character for the comic due to her birth and upbringing ; while characters like Joel mostly lived in the world before the outbreak , Ellie is unaware of life prior to the outbreak . This created an interesting idea for Druckmann , who became intrigued with discovering the effects of everyday actions in a post @-@ apocalyptic world . Hicks enjoyed writing American Dreams , particularly due to the humor featured in the comic . Druckmann allowed Hicks to design the character of Riley , including her physical appearance , characteristics , and most of her dialogue . " It felt like a good way to split it , where [ Hicks ] would own Riley and I would own Ellie , " said Druckmann . When creating the comic 's art style , Hicks avoided replicating the game art , instead opting to " draw it in [ her ] own style and to the best of [ her ] ability " . She felt that the art style is slightly " cartoony " , which is partially due to Ellie 's young age . " If [ the comic ] was hyper @-@ realistic and super @-@ rendered , I think it would undermine the story we 're trying to tell " , said Hicks . When designing the character Angel Knives for the comic 's second issue , Hicks was inspired by the style of the characters from the Mortal Kombat series .
The first issue of the comic was published on April 3 , 2013 , and a reprint became available on May 29 ; the second issue was also published on May 29 , followed by the third issue on June 26 , and the fourth issue on July 31 . All four issues were republished in a collected edition as a single package on October 30 , 2013 .
= = Plot = =
At the Boston quarantine zone , Ellie becomes caught in a fight with a group of boys who attempt to steal her belongings . Riley Abel steps
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( ed ) . The Last of Us : American Dreams # 2 ( May 29 , 2013 ) , Dark Horse Comics
Druckmann , Neil , Hicks , Faith Erin ( w ) , Hicks , Faith Erin ( a ) , Rosenberg , Rachelle ( col ) , Robins , Clem ( let ) , Edidin , Rachel , Wright , Brendan ( ed ) . The Last of Us : American Dreams # 3 ( June 26 , 2013 ) , Dark Horse Comics
Druckmann , Neil , Hicks , Faith Erin ( w ) , Hicks , Faith Erin ( a ) , Rosenberg , Rachelle ( col ) , Robins , Clem ( let ) , Edidin , Rachel , Wright , Brendan ( ed ) . The Last of Us : American Dreams # 4 ( July 31 , 2013 ) , Dark Horse Comics
= Knock You Down =
" Knock You Down " is a song by American singer and songwriter Keri Hilson , recorded for her debut studio album In a Perfect World ... ( 2009 ) . The song features guest vocals from Ne @-@ Yo and Kanye West . All three artists co @-@ wrote the song with its producer Nate " Danja " Hills , as well as Kevin Cossom and Marcella Araica . The song was released first released to rhythmic and urban airplay in the United States as the album 's fourth single in the US , and it would later serve as the third worldwide single .
The song is a contemporary R & B and hip hop song , which includes elements of pop music . The lyrics of the song pertain to how love " knocks you down . " Part of the song refers to Michael Jackson ; coincidentally it was released at the time surrounding the death of the singer . The song received generally mixed to positive reviews , with critics divided as to whether Ne @-@ Yo and West overwhelmed Hilson 's appearance . However , reviewers also complimented that the song was radio @-@ friendly . It was nominated for multiple awards , including Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 52nd Grammy Awards .
" Knock You Down " peaked at number one in New Zealand , and was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand . It also reached the top ten in Canada , Ireland , the United Kingdom , and the United States . The song 's music video was directed by Chris Robinson . It sees Hilson caught in a love triangle with her former partner West , and new @-@ found love Ne @-@ Yo . The video received positive reviews , which appreciated the given performances given by the artists . Hilson performed the song a number of times , including television appearances such as on The Rachael Ray Show . She also notably performed the song at the 2009 BET Awards , where she used the Jackson reference of the song to give a tribute performance to the late singer .
= = Background = =
Hilson and Ne @-@ Yo knew each other from their days as co @-@ songwriters . Hilson had appeared as Ne @-@ Yo 's love interest in the video for his song " Miss Independent , " the second single taken from his 2008 album , Year of the Gentleman . In a September 2008 interview with Rap @-@ Up about a recent crop of songwriters becoming singers , Ne @-@ Yo said " For one , I think Keri Hilson ’ s too freakin ’ pretty to be in the background . For two , her voice is incredible — on top of the fact that she can write . So I think that she ’ s definitely one that deserves the spotlight . " In " Knock You Down " , Kanye West makes multiple references to Michael Jackson , and coincidentally , the song was released in numerous territories around the death of the singer .
= = Composition = =
" Knock You Down " is a R & B song with a length of five minutes and twenty six seconds . The song also includes electro tones , and derives from pop and hip hop genres . The song is set in common time , and composed in a " moderate R & B groove . " It is written in the key of G minor , and vocals span from F3 to D5 . It follows the chord progression E ♭ – F – B ♭ – E ♭ – F – Gm . The song begins with a rap intro by Kanye West , accompanied by a " stabbing synth riff . " According to Chris Williams of Billboard , The verses contain a " thumping bass @-@ beat " while the chorus is in a " frenetic midtempo groove . " Dan Nishimoto of Prefix Magazine said the song had a " 4 / 4 Motown feel on the verses and stuttering drums on the chorus . " Hilson performs the first verse and chorus , while Ne @-@ Yo sings the second verse . West then has a rap interlude before Hilson sings an additional part before the song ends with the chorus by Hilson , accompanied by Ne @-@ Yo . In West 's lines , he references Michael Jackson and his song " Bad " in the lines " This is bad , real bad , Michael Jackson . " Coincidentally , the song was released in numerous territories around the death of the singer . West also refers to the domestic abuse accusations against his Jackson 's father , Joe , in the following lyric " Now mad , real mad , Joe Jackson . " Lyrically , the song is about how a great love goes wrong .
= = Critical reception = =
Chris Williams of Billboard said " with a vocal assist from Ne @-@ Yo and a clever guest rap by Kanye West , it appears Hilson is intent on a knockout punch of her own . " Dan Nishimoto of Prefix Magazine said the song was one of the better radio @-@ friendly tracks on the album . Melinda Newman of HitFix said that " the mid @-@ tempo track is undeniably catchy and will embed itself within your brain after only a few listens . " Sophie Bruce of BBC Music positively received the song , calling it the album 's " biggest potential hit . " Although Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song three out of five stars , complimenting production by Danja , and saying that the song sounded like a more obvious hit than " Return the Favor " , he complained that " getting two R & B A @-@ listers to appear on your track should be a real coup , but not when one 's got a more distinctive voice than you and the other steals the show with some typically ballsy rapping . " Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters criticized the repetitive hook , stating " Hook @-@ wise , it ’ s a little like listening to an album of kids chanting while playing double @-@ dutch . " He also said that Hilson 's vocals " show promise but fail to distinguish the Hilson brand from the crowd . "
" Knock You Down " was nominated for three awards . At the 2009 Soul Train Awards , the song was nominated for Record of the Year ( Songwriters Award ) as well as Best Collaboration . At the 52nd Grammy Awards , it was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration , but lost to Jay @-@ Z 's " Run This Town " , another song in which West is featured .
= = Chart performance = =
" Knock You Down " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number sixty @-@ five , and would later go on to peak at number three . Along with " The Way I Are " , it was Hilson 's highest charting single on the Hot 100 . It also achieved successes in other Billboard component charts , topping the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , and reaching number three on the Pop Songs chart . " Knock You Down " became Hilson 's biggest airplay single to date , topping the Hot 100 Airplay for four consecutive weeks . It has sold over 2 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 digital copies as of April 2011 . " Knock You Down " spent a total of thirty @-@ one weeks on the Hot 100 . The single appeared on numerous charts internationally . On the Canadian Hot 100 , and the Australian Singles Chart the song peaked at number three . It debuted at number forty on the UK Singles Chart , and five weeks later , it reached number five , where it remained for two weeks . In Ireland , it peaked at number two on the Irish Singles Chart , while it reached number eight on the Dutch Top 40 . The song performed best on the New Zealand Singles Chart , where it reached number one , and was eventually certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . " Knock You Down " charted in the top twenty of Norway , Sweden , and Slovakia , the top thirty of Germany , Belgium ( Wallonia ) , and Denmark , and in the top forty of the Czech Republic . It reached number forty @-@ nine on the Belgian Singles Chart in Flanders. its success in Europe allowed it to chart at number thirteen on the European Hot 100 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Knock You Down " , directed by Chris Robinson , premiered on March 23 , 2009 . The video begins with Hilson slowly falling backwards onto a bed , and then West appears and raps the introduction . Both start reflecting on their previous relationship , before the clip flashes back to the previous events . West is shown to be an artist , who is painting a portrait of Hilson . Hilson and West begin to caress each other , as she as shown in several seductive poses in a bed and sings in front of a white backdrop . The video returns to the present , showing Hilson and West breaking up , as both of them fall backwards onto the floor , similar to the way Hilson falls on to the bed in the opening sequence . Visual effects come into play greater in this scene , as when West falls , he shatters into pieces . Ne @-@ Yo then appears , and sings his lines in front of a grey backdrop . Ne @-@ Yo and Hilson proceed to go on a date at a party in West and Hilson 's apartment , and are seen being affectionate by West . He then confronts Hilson , and Ne @-@ Yo also approaches the duo before Hilson walks off , torn between the two men . The clip ends with Hilson falling backwards onto a bed , in similar fashion as the opening scene .
Melinda Newman of HitFix positively received the video , stating " its success lies solely in the charisma and believability that the trio brings to the small screen , which is considerable . " A writer for BET Sound Off called the video a " tantalizing visual " and said he adored it , commenting , " sans Kanye and Neyo ’ s unbearable showdown , I could watch this video over and over and over and over ! " Margeaux Watson of Entertainment Weekly said , " Though their scenes together are G @-@ rated in comparison to Ciara 's steamy romp with Justin Timberlake in their new clip for ' Love Sex Magic , ' Hilson ’ s solo shots in bed are undeniably hot . Indeed , a tasteful flash of booty never hurt nobody . " In an interview on the Today Show , anchor Hoda Kotb made a remark to Ne @-@ Yo , stating , " You have this really hot new video that you do with Kanye West and another woman named Keri . You [ and Kanye ] are such big stars . How did this happen ? " Blogs reported this as a possible " diss " toward Hilson , however , neither camps reported anything after the fact .
= = Live performances = =
Hilson performed the song for her Walmart SoundCheck to promote the album . She also performed the song while being a supporting act to Ne @-@ Yo , on his Year of the Gentleman tour in 2009 . Hilson and West performed the song on May 5 , 2009 on the Late Show with David Letterman . Hilson also performed the song , along with a cover of Gnarls Barkley 's " Crazy " on July 21 , 2009 for Yahoo ! Music sponsored by Pepsi . She performed the song with " Turnin Me On " at the 2009 BET Awards in June 2009 . She utilized the Michael Jackson reference in the song to perform a dance routine paying homage to Jackson , at the awards ceremony . On July 28 , 2009 , Hilson performed the song on It 's On with Alexa Chung . Hilson performed the song and " Energy " with British singer @-@ songwriter Taio Cruz at the MOBO Awards 2009 , which she co @-@ hosted , on October 4 , 2009 . On January 1 , 2010 , she performed the song as a part of her set list of Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest . On January 29 , 2010 , Hilson performed an acoustic rendition of the song on The Rachael Ray Show . On February 5 , 2010 , she performed the song at BET 's SOS : Help for Haiti Telethon , to benefit the victims of the 2010 Haitian earthquake . On October 22 , 2010 , she performed the song in Chicago at Collins Academy High School during for the Get Schooled National Challenge and Tour .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
Nathaniel " Danja " Hills – writer , record producer
Keri Hilson – writer , vocals ,
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vocal producer
Kevin Cossom – writer
Shaffer " Ne @-@ Yo " Smith – writer , vocals
Marcella Araica – writer , recording engineer , audio mixer
Kanye West – writer , vocals
Josh Mosser – recording engineer
Bryan Jones – recording engineer
Ben Reid – recording engineer
Anthony Palazolle – recording engineer
Jared Newcomb – audio mixing assistant
Source
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = Covers and parodies = =
Rucka Rucka Ali made a parody of " Knock You Down " called " Crips & Bloods " .
= Never Say Never ( Justin Bieber song ) =
" Never Say Never " is a song by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber . The song is used as the theme song for The Karate Kid , and features rap interludes from the film 's star , Jaden Smith . It was originally a risque demo with sexual lyrics performed by American singer Travis Garland , it was written and produced by The Messengers , and Omarr Rambert . However , for unknown reasons , Bieber was tapped to record the song for the film . He re @-@ wrote the song with The Messengers , Rambert , Smith , and his vocal producer Kuk Harrell , to feature inspirational lyrics to foil the film 's theme . The song contains R & B and pop elements while merging hip @-@ hop .
The song was released for digital download in the United States on June 8 , 2010 . The song was later included as an acoustic track on the remix album My Worlds Acoustic ( 2010 ) and both the acoustic and single versions were on the compilation album My Worlds : The Collection ( 2010 ) . To promote Bieber 's 3D concert film of the same name , the song was released as the lead single and the only single from Bieber 's second remix album , Never Say Never : The Remixes .
" Never Say Never " peaked within the top twenty in Canada , Norway , and New Zealand , while reaching the top forty in Australia , as well as charting in other international markets . After it was re @-@ released as the lead single and the only single from – The Remixes , promoting his film , the single peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Bieber 's second top @-@ ten single in the United States . Its accompanying music video , directed by Honey , features Smith and Bieber in a recording studio playing around and dancing , and is intercut with scenes from the film . He has notably performed the song on Today and on his My World Tour . Smith joined Bieber during the tour 's stop at Madison Square Garden to perform the song for scenes in Justin Bieber : Never Say Never .
= = Background = =
A demo of the song , " Sexy Together " was originally recorded by Mike Chilton and Travis Garland ( with Mike 's close friend Chuck singing backup ) . Reportedly the song was re @-@ written by its original writers Adam Messinger , Nasri , Omarr Rambert , and his vocal producer Kuk Harrell , while Smith added lines . Carina Adly MacKenzie of Zap2it preferred Bieber and Smith 's version , commenting , " No wonder Bieb skipped this version -- it 's a total snoozer . You 'd think that a song about sex would be more interesting than a song about little kids doing karate ... but no . " Bieber hinted at the collaboration by posting a promo photo of himself and Smith on his Twitter , and also posting that a video of his would premiere before " Somebody to Love , " the second single from his studio album debut , My World 2 @.@ 0 . The song was confirmed when the track listing for the soundtrack was revealed . It was released on iTunes in the United States on June 8 , 2010 .
= = Composition = =
" Never Say Never " is a pop @-@ R & B which includes hip hop . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Never Say Never " is set in common time with a metronome of 96 beats per minute , which is described as " steady , not too fast . " It is composed in the key of A minor with vocals spanning from the low @-@ note of G3 to the high @-@ note of C6 . The song follows in the chord progression of Am – C – G – D Bieber provides lead vocals in the song while Smith provides the backing with rap interludes . The song is a " motivational track , " containing inspirational lyrics , such as Bieber singing about a life filled with adversity , through lines like , " I never thought that I could walk through fire / I never thought that I could take the burn / never had the strength to take it higher " . Idolator thought the song as a tween @-@ friendly version of Eminem 's " Lose Yourself . " Smith 's lines reference his father , and puns in the phrase , " raised by the power of Will " . He also makes reference to his lineage by saying " Born from two stars so the moon 's where I land . " , as he is the son of Will Smith and Jada Pinkett Smith , who are both Hollywood stars . Smith also makes references to Luke Skywalker and Kobe Bryant in his lines .
= = Critical reception = =
Shima Maya of AOL Radio Blog gave the song a positive review , calling it " a burst of sexual energy " , and stating , " Even on a soundtrack featuring the likes of Lady Gaga , John Mayer and the Red Hot Chili Peppers , this single ... is sure to stand out as the film 's flagship anthem . " Toor also complimented Bieber 's " now @-@ trademark silky @-@ smooth voice . " Monica Herrera of Billboard said that Smith 's rapping skills could rival those of his former @-@ rapper father . E ! Online said " And while some might insist that " Parents Just Don 't Understand , " we think Big Willy would totally be down with Jaden 's rap . " Maria @-@ Mercedes Lara of Celebuzz said , " don 't make assumptions with the suspiciously nepotistic circumstances surrounding Jaden 's appearance on Bieber 's song : the kid is actually really good . " Lara also commented that Bieber " should be watching his back for Jaden 's rising star . " Tiger Beat said that they loved the song , and said it had a " great beat . "
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending June 17 , 2010 , the song debuted at number thirty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 , propelled by its debut at number seventeen on the Hot Digital Songs chart selling 76 @,@ 000 copies . The song became Bieber 's ninth consecutive top 40 release for a regular or digital single as a lead artist . In Canada on the Canadian Hot 100 , the song debuted at eleven . The single debuted at forty @-@ five on the Australian Singles Chart , and peaked at thirty @-@ eight in its second week , while on the New Zealand Singles Chart , the song debuted and peaked at twenty . The Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) certified " Never Say Never " gold on June 5 , 2011 , denoting the sale of 7 @,@ 500 copies . On the Norwegian Singles Chart , the song debuted at eighteen , and spent one week on the chart . Debuting at seventy @-@ five on the Austrian Singles Chart , the following week it peaked at forty @-@ six on the chart . On the Dutch Single Top 100 , after spending four weeks on the chart , the song peaked at seventy . On the Tip charts in both Belgian regions , the song peaked at two and five .
= = Promotion = =
The accompanying clip for the single was directed by Honey . The music video takes place in a studio , and contains a heroic concept , featuring Bieber and Smith singing the song and playing around , intercut with scenes from the film . Bieber appears in a motorcycle jacket and high tops . Studio scenes include Bieber flexing karate moves , he and Smith dancing , jerkin ' , and eating Twizzlers . The scenes also show the two shadowboxing , as footage from the film shows Smith performing an " array of fight moves . " Near the end of the clip features Bieber giving a roundhouse kick .
The actual ' film ' within the music video is directly taken from the footage of Karate Kid , which was shot entirely in Beijing and features Jackie Chan as " Mr. Han , " a mentor figure who trains Smith throughout the film . The scenes include Smith looking at the CCTV Headquarters building , a shot of the Beijing street scene , an Air China Boeing 747 @-@ 400 taking off and landing , and a training scene at the Great Wall of China . The basic storyline involves Smith 's character vying for the affection of a Chinese girl and being rebuffed by a rival suitor . Smith eventually wins a fight against his rival and wins the affection of the girl . Both Wall Street Journal Online and E ! Online noted the low @-@ production value of the clip . Kyle Anderson of MTV News commended Bieber 's latest " attention @-@ grabbing video , " and jokingly stated , " As a video that features fighting , it 's a pretty strong entry , and it joins the list of great fight @-@ centric videos below . " An Idolator writer said that they were impressed with Smith 's moves , and Bieber 's " spinning roundhouse . " A writer for Tiger Beat said , " The video is SO cute – we love when Justin and Jaden get silly at the end ! "
Bieber performed the song on June 4 , 2010 , on the Today Show as part of a medley with " Baby " , " Somebody to Love " , and " One Time " . The song is a part of his setlist during the My World Tour . Smith joined Bieber for the song on the August 31 , 2010 date , along with Usher , Miley Cyrus , Ludacris , and Boyz II Men , to film scenes for his upcoming 3D concert film .
To promote his remix album , My Worlds Acoustic as well as draw interest for the upcoming film , Bieber shot a music video for the song . The video premiered during Game 3 of the 2010 World Series . In the video , Bieber stands on a baseball diamond and dons apparel from both teams in the Series , wearing a San Francisco Giants hat and Texas Rangers jacket Scenes in which Bieber sings on the diamond is intercut with players hitting the ball and hanging in the dugout , as well as Bieber playing a guitar . In an interview , Bieber said that the video was inspired by his love for sports .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Broken @-@ Hearted Girl =
" Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her 2008 double album I Am ... Sasha Fierce . Written by Beyoncé , Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds , and production duo Stargate , it was initially a classic rhythm and blues song until Babyface changed the arrangement and chords . The track appears on the I Am ... disc , the songs on which give a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes glimpse of Beyoncé 's life stripped of her make @-@ up and celebrity trappings . It is a midtempo pop ballad accompanied by piano , strings , and drum machine beats . The lyrics describe heartache and the insecurities of love .
The song was initially announced as the sixth single from I Am ... Sasha Fierce in the United States and the fourth elsewhere , but was replaced with " Sweet Dreams " . Columbia Records released " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " outside the US on August 28 , 2009 . Critics praised Beyoncé 's emotional vocals on the track but had divided opinions on the production . The single reached the top twenty on the singles charts of Australia , Brazil , the Czech Republic , Germany , and Ireland . Sophie Muller directed a monochrome music video in which Beyoncé 's character reminisces about her relationship on a beach in Malibu , California . Beyoncé performed " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " on the I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) .
= = Writing and production = =
Beyoncé wrote " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " alongside the Norwegian production team Stargate , which comprises of Tor Erik Hermansen and Mikkel Storleer Eriksen . The duo initially composed " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " as a traditional rhythm and blues song but co @-@ writer Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds changed one chord and added falsetto vocals . His recording a demo version preceded a rewrite of the backing track chords and the addition of a four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor piano ; the result was a " grand @-@ piano ballad " . According to the sheet music published by EMI , " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " was composed at a tempo of 84 beats per minute using common time in the key of D minor . Eriksen explained , " I suppose many of our songs are in minor keys . We probably lean towards more a moody , melodic expression . It 's what comes most natural for us . "
Stargate and Bey
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intersection with US 113 . Past this intersection , the route becomes Northwest Front Street and runs past homes and businesses a short distance to the north of Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line and Silver Lake along the Mispillion River , narrowing back to two lanes . The road curves to the east , passing to the south of the Parson Thorne Mansion , and heads through the downtown of Milford , becoming Northeast Front Street at the intersection with North Walnut Street . DE 14 passes a short distance to the north of the Mispillion River , curving northeast and coming to an intersection with DE 1 Bus . Past this intersection , the route continues through areas of farmland with some commercial development , ending at an intersection with the DE 1 bypass of Milford .
DE 14 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 14 @,@ 121 vehicles at the western edge of Milford to a low of 1 @,@ 804 vehicles at the eastern terminus at DE 1 . None of DE 14 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What would become DE 14 originally existed as a county road between the Maryland border in Burrsville and Rehoboth Beach by 1920 . By 1924 , the road was built as a state highway between Burrsville and Milford and was proposed as one between Nassau and Rehoboth Beach . A year later , the state road was completed between Milford and Cedar Creek and from Nassau to just west of Rehoboth Beach , with the sections between Cedar Creek and Nassau and into Rehoboth Beach under proposal . A bascule bridge was constructed over the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal in Rehoboth Beach in 1926 . In 1927 , the state highway between Milford and Rehoboth Beach was finished with the construction of a bascule bridge over the Broadkill River .
In 1931 , a state gravel road was extended from Bethany Beach to the Indian River Inlet along the Atlantic Ocean , providing access to the inlet for recreational purposes . By this time , the county road between Rehoboth Beach and Dewey Beach was paved . In January 1933 , bids were made for construction of a gravel road from Dewey Beach south to the Indian River Inlet as well as for a timber bridge across the inlet , connecting with the gravel road between the Indian River Inlet and Bethany Beach . This gravel road would provide a direct connection between Bethany Beach and Rehoboth Beach and would provide better access to the Atlantic coast for recreation . The Ocean Highway between Bethany Beach and Rehoboth Beach was completed in 1933 . In fall of that year , the roadway between Bethany Beach and Indian River Inlet was paved , with recommendations to pave the road north from the Indian River Inlet toward Rehoboth Beach . In 1934 , the Ocean Highway between the Indian River Inlet and Rehoboth Beach was paved . The same year , recommendations were made to extend the Ocean Highway south from Bethany Beach to Fenwick Island , where it would lead to a Maryland state highway continuing to Ocean City .
DE 14 was designated to run from the Maryland border in Burrsville east to DE 26 in Bethany Beach by 1936 . In 1939 , a southern extension of DE 14 was built between Bethany Beach and the Maryland border in Fenwick Island as a gravel road . In 1940 , a swing bridge opened across the Indian River Inlet . The same year , work began for a bypass of the route between Dewey Beach and west of Rehoboth Beach , which included a bascule bridge over the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal . In 1942 , the Rehoboth Beach bypass for DE 14 was completed . In addition , the roadway was paved between Fenwick Island and Bethany Beach by that year . In 1952 , a new swing bridge opened across the Indian River Inlet after the previous bridge was destroyed by ice and tides in 1948 .
The route was widened into a divided highway between DE 18 ( now US 9 ) in Nassau and Rehoboth Beach in 1954 in order to provide relief to traffic heading to the beaches . Channelized intersections were built at DE 18 and the entrance to Rehoboth Beach . As part of this widening , DE 14 was moved to a new alignment to bypass Wescoats Corner , removing a concurrency with DE 18 ( now US 9 Bus . ) . In 1956 , DE 14 was realigned slightly north to its current alignment in Burrsville to meet a new routing of MD 317 ; the former alignment is now Knife Box Road . In 1965 , a new dual bridge was constructed across the Indian River Inlet . By 1966 , DE 14A was designated onto the former alignment of DE 14 through Rehoboth Beach . The divided highway portion of DE 14 was extended north to DE 16 , which included a bypass of Nassau , and between the Indian River Inlet and South Bethany in 1967 . In 1971 , the divided Miford Bypass between DE 14 southeast of Milford and US 113 north of Milford was completed . In 1971 , a contract was awarded to widen DE 14 to a divided highway between Fenwick Island and South Bethany . This widening project was completed a year later . In 1973 , construction was underway to make DE 14 a divided highway from the Milford Bypass to DE 16 , which included a bypass of Argos Corner ; this was completed in 1974 .
In 1974 , DE 1 was signed concurrent with DE 14 east of Milford and on the Milford Bypass . In 1977 , DE 14 was truncated to the southern terminus of the Milford Bypass southeast of Milford , with DE 1 replacing the route between Fenwick Island and the south end of the Milford Bypass and DE 1 Bus. becoming concurrent with route between the Milford Bypass and Northeast Front Street . As a result of this , DE 14A was renumbered to DE 1A . DE 14 was realigned to follow Northeast Front Street to end at DE 1 on the Milford Bypass by 1984 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Kent County .
= = Bannered and suffixed routes = =
= = = DE 14 Truck = = =
Delaware Route 14 Truck ( DE 14 Truck ) is a truck bypass of DE 14 in Harrington . The route heads south from DE 14 on two @-@ lane undivided Farmington Road , leaving Harrington and heading through farmland . DE 14 Truck turns east onto Tower Hill Road and crosses Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line before coming to an intersection with US 13 . At this point , the truck route turns north to form a concurrency with US 13 on Dupont Highway , a four @-@ lane divided highway . The road heads back into Harrington and runs through commercial areas , passing to the east of the Delaware State Fairgrounds , which is where the Delaware State Fair is held and the Harrington Raceway & Casino is located . US 13 / DE 14 Truck crosses Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary , with the median widening to include businesses in it . DE 14 Truck ends at another intersection with DE 14 . DE 14 Truck was designated in 2008 following an $ 8 @.@ 5 million , year @-@ long project that improved the roads the truck route follows .
Major intersections
The entire route is in Harrington , Kent County .
= = = Former DE 14A = = =
Delaware Route 14A ( DE 14A ) was the designation of the former alignment of DE 14 through Dewey Beach and Rehoboth Beach . The route began at DE 14 in Dewey Beach and headed north into Rehoboth Beach , where it turned to the west and intersected DE 14 again west of Rehoboth Beach . The route was a former segment of DE 14 that was bypassed by 1942 and received the DE 14A designation by 1966 . By 1974 , the route would become cosigned with DE 1A , with DE 1A replacing DE 14A in 1977 .
= Hurricane Kiko ( 1989 ) =
Hurricane Kiko was one of the strongest tropical cyclones to have hit the eastern coast of Mexico 's Baja California peninsula during recorded history . The eleventh named storm of the 1989 Pacific hurricane season , Kiko formed out of a large mesoscale convective system on August 25 . Slowly tracking northwestward , the storm rapidly intensified into a hurricane early the next day . Strengthening continued until early August 27 , when Kiko reached its peak intensity with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . The storm turned west at this time , and at around 0600 UTC , the storm made landfall near Punta Arena at the southern tip of Baja California Sur . The hurricane rapidly weakened into a tropical storm later that day and further into a tropical depression by August 28 , shortly after entering the Pacific Ocean . The depression persisted for another day while tracking southward , before being absorbed by nearby Tropical Storm Lorena . Though Kiko made landfall as a Category 3 hurricane , its impact was relatively minor . Press reports indicated that 20 homes were destroyed and numerous highways were flooded by torrential rains .
= = Meteorological history = =
Unlike most other eastern Pacific hurricanes between 1988 and 1990 that began as tropical waves off the western coast of Africa , Hurricane Kiko developed out of a large @-@ scale mesoscale convective system on August 23 on the coast of Sonora . The system slowly tracked southward into the Gulf of California and became increasingly organized . Shower and thunderstorm activity was present around an area of low pressure the following day ; however , insufficient reports from the region hindered the National Hurricane Center 's ( NHC ) forecasting ability . By August 25 , satellite intensity estimates , using the Dvorak technique , indicated that the low had developed into a tropical depression around 1200 UTC , while the storm was located about 115 miles ( 185 kilometers ) south of Mazatlán , Sinaloa . Operationally , the system was not declared a tropical depression ; instead it was immediately declared Tropical Storm Kiko with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Located within an area with little or no steering current , and situated over warm waters and underneath an upper @-@ level low , conditions were near perfect for rapid intensification , despite the proximity to land . A general northwestward drift was anticipated , and the NHC forecast the storm to reach hurricane intensity within 24 hours .
Convective banding features began to develop late on August 25 as winds around the center reached 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . With the development of an anticyclone over the storm , Kiko 's outflow become more pronounced . Around 0600 UTC on August 26 , an eye developed within the small circulation , suggesting the cyclone had strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . However , satellite intensity estimates indicated winds of only 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Shortly after , Kiko was upgraded to a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . Ships in the vicinity of the hurricane reported tropical
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storm @-@ force winds extending roughly 50 mi ( 85 km ) from the center . Winds within the eyewall subsequently increased to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , making Kiko a minimal Category 3 hurricane . Intensification continued for another six hours , ending around 0000 UTC on August 27 , at which time the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 955 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 2 inHg ) .
Around the time of peak intensity , Dvorak intensity estimates reached T6.0 , equating to a minimal Category 4 hurricane with winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . A trough located to the north of the hurricane began to weaken , causing the storm to track in a more westward direction . Kiko weakened slightly before making landfall near Punta Arena , on the southern tip of Baja California , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 mph ) . Kiko was thus the second major hurricane to ever make landfall on the Gulf Coast of Baja California since reliable recordkeeping began in 1949 , with the other being 1967 's Hurricane Olivia . Due to the small size and slow movement of the storm , it rapidly weakened , becoming a tropical storm by 1800 UTC . Convection associated with the storm significantly diminished ; the center of circulation became nearly devoid of thunderstorm activity early on August 28 . Shortly after emerging into the Pacific Ocean , Kiko was further downgraded into a tropical depression , and turned towards the southwest due to interaction with nearby Tropical Storm Lorena . Tropical Depression Kiko dissipated around 1800 UTC on August 29 ; however , its remnants continued southward before being absorbed by Lorena .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Around 2100 UTC on August 25 , the Government of Mexico issued a hurricane warning for the Islas Marías and areas between the southern border of Sonora and El Dorado . A hurricane watch was also issued for areas between Los Burros and the southern tip of Baja California Sur along the Gulf of California . By 0900 UTC the following day , the hurricane watch was upgraded to a warning . Roughly three hours later , the previous hurricane watch issued for Sonora was discontinued as Kiko was no longer forecast to make landfall in the state . The hurricane warning on Baja California was also extended northward to Bahía Concepción . Due to uncertainty in Kiko 's track , a hurricane watch was re @-@ issued for Sonora between El Dorado and Los Mochis . Around 0900 UTC on August 27 , a hurricane warning was issued for areas south of San Carlos on the Pacific coast of Baja California . The hurricane watch for Sonora was then discontinued . By 1800 UTC , the hurricane warnings on the Gulf Coast of Baja California were replaced by a tropical storm warning which was declared for areas between the southern tip of the peninsula and Bahía Concepción . At this time , the hurricane warning for the Pacific coast was revised to a tropical storm warning . Early on August 28 , all watches and warnings were discontinued as Kiko weakened into a tropical depression and moved away from land .
In Baja California Sur , more than 1 @,@ 300 people evacuated to shelters in La Paz . Flights arriving and departing in the region were canceled or diverted to other airports . The Red Cross prepared shelters in schools , hospitals , and other public buildings throughout the city . On the Islas Marías , an unconfirmed report of 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) sustained winds was relayed to the National Hurricane Center . Due to the hurricane 's small size , only areas directly in the path of the storm received precipitation ; however , a monsoonal outer band on the eastern side of the storm produced widespread rainfall in eastern Mexico . In Sonora , over 7 in ( 180 mm ) of rain fell in mountainous areas , while numerous locations recorded at least 1 in ( 25 mm ) . In Baja California , the heaviest rainfall was recorded in Los Cabos , and amounted to 11 @.@ 97 in ( 304 mm ) . Only a small portion of the peninsula received more than 10 in ( 250 mm ) of rain . At least 1 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from heavily damaged areas . Press reports indicated that 20 homes were destroyed by Hurricane Kiko . High winds , gusting over 109 mph ( 175 km / h ) , brought down numerous trees and power lines .
Before Kiko 's eye moved ashore , the airport near Cabo San Lucas reported sustained winds of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) with gusts up to 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) . Meteorological recordings near the place of landfall were not available as the small system tracked over a sparsely populated region . From La Paz to Cabo San Lucas , power and water supplies were lost . The heavy rains flooded several highways , and the resultant flood waters overturned a bus . Passengers on the bus managed to escape injury and were quickly brought to shelter by the local fire department . The storm 's effects washed out roughly 100 yd ( 91 m ) of the San Antonio – San Bartolome highway . The Rancho Leonero Resort in Buena Vista sustained severe roof damage and several docked boats were damaged . Several days after Kiko dissipated , remnant moisture from the storm contributed to a complex weather system that produced torrential rainfall throughout the U.S. state of Kansas , unofficially reaching 16 in ( 410 mm ) in localized areas .
= Luke Cain =
Luke Cain ( born 3 February 1980 ) is an SH2 @-@ classified Australian shooter who became a paraplegic after an accident while playing Australian rules football . He started competing in 2007 , as the sport suited his disability , and has been a Victorian Institute of Sport scholarship holder since 2008 . He first represented Australia internationally in 2009 at a World Cup event in South Korea.He has been selected to represent Australia at the 2016 Rio Paralympics . These will be his second Games .
= = Personal = =
Cain was born on 3 February 1980 in Rosebud , Victoria . He started playing Australian rules football when he was seven years old for the Rye Football Club . He played senior football for Rosebud Football Club as a full @-@ forward . In August 1999 , at the age of nineteen , he was playing for Rosebud in a game against Hastings Football Club when he broke his neck after being sandwiched between a teammate and an opposing player . He is a paraplegic , and requires use of a wheelchair because of paralysis that affects him from the chest down . He has limited use of his fingers and no use of his hands . Before his accident , he participated in a range of sports , including basketball , athletics , waterskiing , kneeboarding and wakeboarding . After his accident , he continued in some sports , including angling . As of 2012 , he resides in Boneo , Victoria .
His cousin is Travis Cloke , an AFL All @-@ Australian full @-@ forward . Cain has been an inspiration to his cousin on the football field . At the same time , Cloke has supported Cain . Other cousins include AFL players Jason Cloke and Cameron Cloke .
= = Shooting = =
Cain is an SH2 @-@ classified shooter competing in 10m air rifle prone and 10m air rifle standing events . He has been a Victorian Institute of Sport scholarship holder since 2008 , and is a member of the Springvale Range Club . He is coached by Miro Sipek as an individual and when on the national team .
As a youngster , Cain hunted with his father and cousin . He took up the sport of shooting because it was one of the few available to people with his physical limitations . As of 2012 , he was sponsored by Miall 's Gun Shop of Frankston , Victoria , who provided him with competition gear including cleaning supplies , a rifle case and a rifle . He holds two world records , one in the individual 600 – 600 R4 prone event , and another in the R4 10 @-@ metre standing event .
Cain started competing in 2007 , and made the Australian national team the same year . During Australia 's 2009 domestic series , the Australia Cup , an invitation @-@ only series for the top shooters in the country , he earned a bronze , silver and gold medal . That year , he made his national team debut at an international event when he represented Australia at the 2009 ISSF World Cup in South Korea . By early 2010 , he was looking for a sponsor to assist with costs for his international competitions . He set a personal best of 598 out of 600 in the SH @-@ 2 prone air event at the 2010 World Cup in Germany , and not long after , set a new personal best when he shot 599 at the same event at the 2010 World Cup in France . He came in first at the 2010 Oceania Shooting Federation Continental Championship . At the 2010 IPC World Shooting Championships in Zagreb , he came in first in the SH @-@ 2 prone air event by setting a world record of 600 points , a perfect score . At the 2011 Great Britain International , he finished second in the 10m air rifle prone event . He competed in the United States @-@ hosted International Paralympic Committee World Cup in 2011 , finishing fourth in the R5 Air Rifle Prone event with a score of 599 . He earned a gold medal in the team event with teammates Jason Maroney and Bradley Mark . In 2012 , he trained up to six days a week . At the Australian nationals , he finished second in the prone event behind New Zealander Michael Johnson , and third in the standing event behind fellow Australian Bradley Marks and Johnson .
Cain was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in Mixed R5 @-@ 10m Air Rifle Prone @-@ SH2 and Mixed R4 @-@ 10m Air Rifle Standing @-@ SH2 shooting events . Competing on 3 September , he did not medal , finishing 27th in the standing event and 28th in the prone event .
= = = Performance = = =
= Stylianos Zaoutzes =
Stylianos Zaoutzes ( Greek : Στυλιανὸς Ζαούτζης , but Ζαουντζᾶς in Skylitzes ) was a high Byzantine official of Armenian origin . Rising to high rank under Byzantine emperor Basil I ( reigned 867 – 886 ) , he then rose further to prominence under Basil 's successor Emperor Leo VI the Wise ( r . 886 – 912 ) , who had a close friendship and possibly an affair with Stylianos 's daughter Zoe Zaoutzaina . Stylianos Zaoutzes was Leo 's leading minister during the first half of his reign , and was awarded the unique title of basileopator . His standing and influence declined after 895 , but in 898 , he became Leo 's father @-@ in @-@ law when the Byzantine emperor married Zoe . He died in 899 , in the same year as Zoe . Following an attempted coup by his relatives , the Zaoutzes clan was deprived of the considerable power it had amassed under Stylianos 's tutelage .
= = Biography = =
= = = Origins and early career = = =
Zaoutzes was of Armenian descent , and was born in the thema of Macedonia . It has been theorized by the historian Nicholas Adontz that Zaoutzes might be the son of a contemporary strategos of Macedonia named Tzantzes , the name also of Zaoutzes 's son , but the connection is ultimately impossible to prove . According to Steven Runciman , the surname Zaoutzes derives from the Armenian word Zaoutch , "
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and the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade . The search activities also involved analysis of the flight 's satellite communications by Inmarsat , the AAIB ( UK ) , the NTSB ( US ) , and other organisations .
After the initial search efforts through May , the agency has worked primarily with Australian government agencies , Malaysia , and China to plan and carry out the bathymetric survey and underwater search . The JACC works closely with the ATSB , which is the agency responsible for defining the search area and carrying out the tenders for the underwater search and , if possible pieces of Flight 370 are located , the recovery effort . Geoscience Australia works closely with the ATSB to perform the bathymetric survey and underwater search . The JACC also works with Malaysia and China , which have both sent representatives to work at the JACC offices .
= = = Media = = =
The JACC is the primary source of information from Australian government concerning the search . Since September 2014 , the JACC has issued weekly updates — " Operational Search Updates " — highlighting the week 's key developments , search progress , ship movements , and weather . The updates also mention and link to newly released images , interviews , videos , media statements , and reports concerning the search and released by agencies involved in search activities . The agency 's website maintains press releases , transcripts of press conferences , communiqués of the tripartite meetings ( between Australia , China , and Malaysia ) , and photos , videos , maps , and reports published by several agencies that are related to the search .
= = = Relatives of passengers = = =
The JACC serves as a single point of contact for the relatives of Flight 370 passengers . The agency 's weekly search updates are provided in both English and Mandarin Chinese ( the majority of Flight 370 's passengers were Chinese ) . In addition to search information , the JACC serves as a liaison with the passengers ' families to provide visas , counselling , accommodation assistance , and interpretation services .
= Alsos Mission =
The Alsos Mission was an organized effort by a team of United States military , scientific , and intelligence personnel to discover enemy scientific developments during World War II . Its chief focus was on the German nuclear energy project , but it also investigated both chemical and biological weapons and the means to deliver them .
The Alsos Mission was created following the September 1943 Allied invasion of Italy with a twofold assignment : search for personnel , records , material , and sites to evaluate the above programs and prevent their capture by the Soviet Union . It was established as part of the Manhattan Project 's mission to coordinate foreign intelligence related to enemy nuclear activity . Alsos personnel followed close behind the front lines in Italy , France , and Germany , occasionally crossing into enemy @-@ held territory to secure valuable resources before they could be destroyed or scientists escape or fall into rival hands .
The Alsos Mission was commanded by Colonel Boris Pash , a former Manhattan Project security officer , with Samuel Goudsmit as chief scientific advisor . It was jointly staffed by the Office of Naval Intelligence ( ONI ) , the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , the Manhattan Project , and Army Intelligence ( G @-@ 2 ) , with field assistance from combat engineers assigned to specific task forces .
Alsos teams were successful in locating and removing a substantial portion of the German research effort 's surviving records and equipment . They also took most of the senior German research personnel into custody , including Otto Hahn , Max von Laue , Werner Heisenberg and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker .
= = Origin = =
The Manhattan Project was a research @-@ and @-@ development program , operated during and immediately after World War II . Led by the United States with contributions principally from the United Kingdom and Canada , it aimed to produce an atomic bomb . Brigadier General Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers became its director in September 1942 . The project operated under a tight blanket of security lest its discovery induce Axis powers , particularly Germany , to accelerate their own nuclear projects or to undertake covert operations against the project .
The Manhattan Project intelligence staff believed that the Japanese atomic program was not far advanced because Japan had little access to uranium ore , the industrial effort required exceeded Japan 's capacity , and , according to American physicists at the University of California , Berkeley , who knew the leading Japanese physicists personally , there were too few Japanese qualified to work in the area . Oppositely , German scientists had reputations as leaders in the field , and the fear of Germany developing nuclear weapons first was one of the reasons for the establishment of the Manhattan Project . The Chancellor of Germany , Adolf Hitler , frequently claimed that Germany was developing secret weapons , and it was feared that these might include nuclear weapons . Reports of German nuclear activity were taken very seriously . At the instigation of the Manhattan Project , Norwegian saboteurs and Allied bombers attacked heavy @-@ water infrastructure in German @-@ occupied Norway in late 1942 and early 1943 .
Following the September 1943 Allied invasion of Italy , Brigadier General Wilhelm D. Styer , Chief of Staff of Army Service Forces , was concerned intelligence activities related to foreign nuclear energy programs were not being properly coordinated . He feared that important items might be overlooked unless those responsible were properly briefed , yet at the same time wished to minimize the number of personnel with access to such secret information . Having the Manhattan Project itself take over responsibility for coordinating these efforts would address both these concerns . Accordingly , he approached Groves on behalf of General George Marshall , the Chief of Staff of the Army , with that recommendation .
In response , Groves created the Alsos Mission , a small team jointly staffed by the Office of Naval Intelligence ( ONI ) , the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , the Manhattan Project , and Army Intelligence ( G @-@ 2 ) . Its assignment was to investigate enemy scientific developments , including nuclear weapons research . Groves was not pleased with the codename , the Greek word for " grove " , but decided that changing it would only draw unwanted attention .
The Chief of Army Intelligence , Major General George V. Strong , appointed Lieutenant Colonel Boris Pash to command the unit . Pash had served as the head of the Counter Intelligence Branch of the Western Defense Command , where he had investigated suspected Soviet espionage at the Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley . Pash 's command comprised his executive officer Captain Wayne B. Stanard , four Counter Intelligence Corps ( CIC ) agents , four interpreters , and four scientists : Dr. James B. Fisk from the Bell Telephone Company , Dr. John R. Johnson from Cornell University , Commander Bruce Olds from the Office of Naval Intelligence ( ONI ) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , and Major William Allis , originally from MIT although then serving on the War Department scientific staff .
= = Italy = =
In December 1943 , the Alsos Mission reached Algiers , where Pash reported to the Chief of Staff at Allied Force Headquarters ( AFHQ ) , Major General Walter B. Smith , and his British Chief of Intelligence , Brigadier Kenneth Strong . This was awkward as Pash 's instructions were not to give the British information about the Alsos Mission , but it turned out that Strong was already fully aware of it . It was arranged that Pash would deal with Strong 's American deputy , Colonel Thomas E. Roderick . The Alsos Mission then moved on to Italy , where it was assigned to Major General Kenyon A. Joyce 's Allied Control Commission . Pash met with Marshal of Italy Pietro Badoglio , the man who had negotiated Italy 's surrender to the Allies , and was now head of the Italian Provisional Military Government , who gave him a letter of introduction addressed to Italian civil and military authorities .
Alsos interviewed the Italian Minister for Communications , the Chief of Naval Ordnance , the staff of the Italian Naval Academy , and Italian scientists at the University of Naples , and examined what captured technical documents could be found . There was little information about developments in northern Italy and Germany . The Alsos Mission was attached to Colonel George Smith 's S @-@ Force . Built around a Royal Air Force ground reconnaissance squadron equipped with armored cars , this unit contained American , British , French , and Italian technical specialists of various kinds who would enter Rome on the heels of the advancing Allied forces . The expectation that Rome would soon be captured proved premature , and by March 1944 most of the Alsos Mission had returned to the United States . The Alsos Mission had gathered little of value about nuclear matters , but submitted detailed reports about German rockets and guided missiles .
Rome fell on 4 June 1944 . When the news came that its fall was imminent , Pash was ordered from London to Italy . He flew back to Italy and entered the city with S @-@ Force on 5 June . Pash took key scientists into custody and arranged for sites targeted by Alsos , including the University of Rome and the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche , to be secured . The Alsos Mission to Italy was reconstituted under the command of Pash 's deputy , Major Richard C. Ham , and Johnson and Major Robert R. Furman were sent from the United States to join him . They reached Rome on 19 June , and over the next weeks interviewed scientists including Edoardo Amaldi , Gian @-@ Carlo Wick , and Francesco Giordani . The picture that the Alsos Mission built up indicated that the German effort was not far advanced .
= = Western Europe = =
= = = Britain = = =
In December 1943 , Groves sent Furman to Britain to discuss the establishment of a London Liaison Office for the Manhattan Project with the British government , and to confer over coordinating the intelligence effort . Lieutenant Commander Eric Welsh , the head of the Norwegian Section of MI6 , was unimpressed with Furman 's grasp of the subject matter . Groves selected the head of the Manhattan District 's security activities , Captain Horace K. Calvert , as head of the London Liaison Office , with the title of Assistant Military Attaché . Working in cooperation with Eric Welsh and Michael Perrin from Tube Alloys , the London Liaison Office consisted of Calvert , Captain George C. Davis , two Women 's Army Corps clerks and three CIC agents .
The Liaison Office interviewed European refugee scientists and studied German physics journals . It compiled lists of German scientists of interest and possible locations of nuclear research and industrial facilities , and the mining and stockpiling of uranium and thorium ores . Little thorium was available in Germany or German @-@ occupied Europe , and attention soon centered on the mines at Joachimsthal in Czechoslovakia . Aerial reconnaissance was carried out periodically , and production was measured by assessing the size of the piles of tailings .
Groves warned General Dwight D. Eisenhower of the possibility that the Germans might disrupt the Normandy landings with radioactive poisons , and sent Major Arthur V. Peterson to brief his chief of staff , Lieutenant General Walter B. Smith . Under the codename Operation Peppermint , special equipment was prepared and Chemical Warfare Service teams were trained in its use . The British forces made similar preparations for their beaches . The precautions were unnecessary .
Meanwhile , the new head of G @-@ 2 , Major General Clayton L. Bissell , at the urging of Groves and Furman , decided to create a new , even larger Alsos Mission for western Europe in March 1944 . Pash assumed command of the new unit upon its official creation by the Secretary of War , Henry L. Stimson , on 4 April . The military staff for the new mission were selected by Bissell on Pash 's advice . Lieutenant Colonel George R. Eckman became the deputy commander . Captain Henry A. Schade was appointed as the head of the naval contingent . Groves and Vannevar Bush , the head of OSRD , selected the scientific staff , and appointed Samuel Goudsmit , a University of Michigan physicist with a good command of several western European languages , as its head . Goudsmit had not been working on the Manhattan Project , and therefore could not reveal any of its secrets if captured . The British considered creating their own rival mission , but in the end agreed to participate as a junior partner . Three Dutch and one Norwegian officer also served with the Alsos Mission . By the end of August it had seven officers and 33 scientists .
= = = France = = =
On 5 August , Pash received a secret message from Washington , D.C. , reporting that the French physicist Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie had been sighted at his holiday home at L 'Arcouest in Brittany . Joliot @-@ Curie was at the top of Alsos 's wanted list , so Pash and CIC Special Agent Gerry Beatson set out to investigate in the wake of the advancing U.S. Third Army . They searched the University of Rennes and found some documents there on 9 August . On 11 August they reached the homes of Joliot @-@ Curie , Francis Perrin , and Pierre Auger in the L 'Arcouest area . Joliot @-@ Curie was not home , but German snipers fired on them , and they had to wait until 12 August before they could search the house .
The rest of the advance party of the Alsos Mission moved to Normandy in August 1944 , where it joined T @-@ Force , a similar formation to S @-@ Force , at Rambouillet , where it was preparing for the liberation of Paris . An Alsos Mission team including Pash and Calvert reached Joliot @-@ Curie 's house in the Paris suburbs on 24 August to find that he was not there , but at his laboratory at the Collège de France . The next day they reached the Porte d 'Orléans where they encountered troops of the French 2e Division Blindée , who were engaged in liberating the city , and came under small arms fire from the German defenders . The Alsos Mission replied with their M1 carbine and Tommy guns as they made their way through the back streets to the college , where they found Joliot @-@ Curie in his office .
Goudsmit interviewed Joliot @-@ Curie in Paris on 27 August . Accompanied by Calvert , Joliot @-@ Curie was flown to London where Perrin and Goudsmit interviewed him about the activities of German scientists . Joliot @-@ Curie recalled visits to the College , which had a cyclotron , by German scientists including Erich Schumann , who had initiated the German nuclear project , and controlled it until it had been handed over to the Reichsforschungsrat ( National Research Council ) in 1942 ; by Abraham Esau , who had been in charge of nuclear physics under the Reichsforschungsrat ; and by Walter Gerlach , who had replaced him in January 1944 . Other German physicists who had used the facilities included Kurt Diebner , Walther Bothe , and Erich Bagge , all of whom were known to be associated with the German nuclear project .
Meanwhile , T @-@ Force had moved into the Petit Palais . The main body of the Alsos Mission soon followed , and the Mission opened an office at the Place de l 'Opéra . On 5 September , word was received that the British 21st Army Group was about to enter Brussels . There were two important Alsos Mission objectives in Belgium : the corporate headquarters of Union Minière du Haut Katanga , the world 's largest supplier of uranium ore , in Antwerp , and its uranium processing plant in Olen . A six @-@ man Alsos Mission team set out to secure them , led by Pash and the Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 2 , at ETOUSA , Colonel G. Bryan Conrad .
On reaching Brussels , they made contact with Lieutenant Colonel David Strangeways , the commander of R Force , who provided them with an escort of Royal Air Force armored vehicles . They entered Antwerp on 7 September and found the office of Union Minière . They discovered that over 1 @,@ 000 tons of refined uranium had been sent to Germany , but about 150 tons still remained at Olen . They set out for Olen , where they located 68 tons , but another 80 tons were missing , having been shipped to France in 1940 ahead of the German invasion of Belgium . The capture of Eindhoven by the U.S. 101st Airborne Division allowed early access to another high priority target , the Philips plant there . Brigadier Edgar Williams , the 21st Army Group 's Chief of Intelligence , facilitated the Alsos Mission 's detour to Eindhoven , where it was able to interview Dutch scientists . Williams also furnished a detachment of Royal Engineers to transport and move the uranium from Olen . Groves had it shipped to England , and , ultimately , to the United States .
The Alsos Mission now attempted to recover the shipment that had been sent to France . Documentation was discovered that said that part of it had been sent to Toulouse . An Alsos Mission team under Pash 's command reached Toulouse on 1 October and inspected a French Army arsenal . They used a Geiger counter to find barrels containing 31 tons of the uranium from Belgium . Conrad persuaded Major General Frank S. Ross to release the U.S. 3342nd Quartermaster Truck Company from the Red Ball Express to retrieve the shipment . The barrels were collected and transported to Marseille , where they were loaded on a ship bound for the United States . During the loading process a barrel fell into the water and had to be retrieved by a Navy diver . In Marseilles , the Alsos Mission detachment also met up with the detachment that had been sent to Italy , which now rejoined them . The remaining 49 tons of the original shipment to France were never found .
Information gathered in Rennes , Paris , and Eindhoven pointed to Strasbourg as a place of particular interest . Physicists Rudolf Fleischmann and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker were known to be working at the University of Strasbourg , as was Eugen von Haagen , an expert on viruses whose work was of great concern to the Alsos Mission 's Biological Warfare section . The Naval section was interested in the torpedo research being carried out there , and jet engine development was being undertaken at Strasbourg 's Junkers plant .
On 22 November , the U.S. Sixth Army Group notified the Alsos Mission that the capture of Strasbourg was imminent , and it should join T @-@ Force in Saarburg , where it was preparing to enter the city . The Alsos Mission joined T @-@ Force in Strasbourg on 25 November . The German nuclear laboratory was discovered on the grounds of the Strasbourg Hospital , where the physicists attempted to pass themselves off as medics . Fleischmann was taken into custody , but Weizsäcker and von Haagen had fled the city .
Documents discovered in Weizsäcker 's office , Fleischmann 's laboratory and the Strasbourg Hospital pointed to nuclear activities taking place at Stadtilm , Haigerloch , Hechingen , and Tailfingen . After establishing its headquarters in von Haagen 's office Alsos staff uncovered documents concerning secret medical experiments at Natzweiler concentration camp . These indicated the Germans had been unable to develop a practical process for uranium enrichment . For the first time the Alsos Mission was able to categorically report that the Germans did not have nuclear weapons , and would not have them for some time .
= = = Germany = = =
When the German Operation Nordwind offensive threatened Strasbourg , Pash ordered all captured documents to be removed . Papers indicating the nature of the Alsos Mission were removed or destroyed . Although Strasbourg was not abandoned by the Allies , and ultimately did not fall , the Alsos Mission departed the city on 8 January 1945 . Pash even ordered an evacuation plan to be prepared for the Alsos Mission 's main headquarters in Paris . The embarrassing series of intelligence failures that had led up to the Battle of the Bulge cast doubts on the Alsos Mission 's own findings . A four @-@ man team under Eckman was sent to investigate a suspiciously devastating V @-@ 2 explosion near Antwerp , and Fred Wardenburg had to confirm that it was not a small nuclear explosion . Rumors that Germany had an atomic bomb persisted as late as March 1945 .
A new forward headquarters , Alsos Forward North ( AFwdN ) , was opened at Aachen , and on 8 February the Alsos Mission reopened its forward headquarters in Strasbourg as Alsos Forward South ( AFwdS ) . In March , the U.S. Twelfth Army Group launched Operation Lumberjack , an offensive to clear the Germans west of the Rhine . Pash , who was promoted to colonel on 6 March , led an Alsos Mission detachment into Cologne on 7 March , but little additional information was found .
The interrogation of German prisoners indicated that uranium and thorium were being processed in Germany , mostly at the Auergesellschaft plant at Oranienburg , so Groves arranged for the plant to be bombed on 15 March 1945 . Some 612 B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses of the U.S. Eighth Air Force dropped 1 @,@ 500 tons of high explosive and 178 tons of incendiary bombs on the plant .
On 30 March , the Alsos Mission reached Heidelberg , where important scientists were captured including Walther Bothe , Richard Kuhn , Philipp Lenard , and Wolfgang Gertner . Their interrogation revealed that Otto Hahn was at his laboratory in Tailfingen , while Werner Heisenberg and Max von Laue were at Heisenberg 's laboratory in Hechingen , and the experimental natural uranium reactor that Heisenberg 's team had built in Berlin had been moved to Haigerloch . Henceforth , the main focus of the Alsos Mission was on these nuclear facilities in the Württemberg area .
As the Allied armies advanced into Germany in April 1945 , Alsos Mission teams searched Stadtilm , where they found documentation concerning the German nuclear program , components of a nuclear reactor , and eight tons of uranium oxide . Scientists captured at Göttingen and Katlenburg @-@ Lindau included Werner Osenberg , the chief of the planning board of the Reichsforschungsrat , and Fritz Houtermans , who provided information about the Soviet atomic bomb project . At Celle , the Alsos Mission uncovered an experimental centrifuge for separating uranium isotopes , the result of work undertaken at the University of Hamburg by a team under Paul Harteck .
The problem with the targets in the Württemberg area was that they not only lay in the path of the French First Army 's advance , but were also in the occupation zone allocated to France . Groves attempted to get the occupation boundaries changed , but the State Department wanted to know why first , and Groves refused to provide this information . Groves , Marshall , and Stimson then decided that the area would have to be secured by American troops that would carry off what they could and destroy everything else . Pash was sent to ask General Jacob Devers , the commander of the U.S. Sixth Army Group , if the zones of the French First Army and the U.S. Seventh Army could be swapped around . He was informed that the matter would have to be taken up with Eisenhower .
Groves dispatched Lieutenant Colonel John Lansdale , Jr . , to Europe , where he participated in a meeting with Lieutenant General Bedell Smith and Major General Harold Bull of SHAEF ; Major General Eldridge G. Chapman , the commander of the U.S. 13th Airborne Division ; Pash , Furman , and Goudsmit of Alsos ; and Brigadier General Reuben E. Jenkins from the Sixth Army Group . The plan , codenamed Operation Effective , called for the 13th Airborne Division to occupy the area to prevent its capture by the French , and seize an airfield that could be used to fly in an Alsos Mission team , and later to fly it out , along with captured German scientists . Operation Effective was scheduled for 22 April . Meanwhile , Devers took steps to delay the French advance .
The Alsos Mission had learned that the uranium ores that had been taken from Belgium in 1944 had been shipped to the Wirtschaftliche Forschungsgesellschaft ( WiFO ) plant in Staßfurt . The 83rd Infantry Division captured this on 15 April . As it was in the occupation zone allocated to the Soviet Union at the Yalta Conference , the Alsos Mission , led by Pash and accompanied by Lansdale , Perrin and Air Commodore Sir Charles Hambro , arrived on 17 April to remove anything of interest . Over the following ten days , 260 truckloads of uranium ore , sodium uranate and ferrouranium weighing about 1 @,@ 000 tons , were taken away by an African @-@ American truck company . The uranium was taken to Hildesheim and most of it was flown to the United Kingdom by the Royal Air Force ; the rest had to be moved to Antwerp by train and loaded onto a ship to England .
On 20 April , the French First Army captured an intact bridge over the Neckar River at Horb and established a bridgehead . It was decided to send in a force on the ground instead of Operation Effective , which was cancelled on 19 April . This time , instead of following or accompanying the front @-@ line troops , the Alsos Mission would operate behind enemy lines . The Alsos Mission had taken delivery of two armored cars , four jeeps with machine gun mounts , and two .50 caliber machine guns . The other two jeeps would carry captured German machine guns . They would be accompanied by three unarmed jeeps . For the operation , codenamed Operation Big , Pash would command a special force called Task Force A , built around his Alsos Mission team and Lieutenant Colonel Wilbur White 's U.S. 1269th Engineer Combat Battalion , less its Company B. Sir Charles Hambro decided to accompany the Alsos Mission with a British group that included Michael Perrin , David Gattiker , Eric Welsh , and Rupert Cecil . Lansdale accompanied Task Force A as Groves ' representative , and Brigadier General Eugene L. Harrison , the G @-@ 2 from the Sixth Army Group , as Devers ' representative .
The Alsos Mission set out on 20 April and rendezvoused with the 1269th Engineer Combat Battalion at Freudenstadt . The intact bridge over the Neckar River at Horb was crossed and Haigerloch was occupied without opposition on 22 April . The main body of Task Force A arrived on 23 April . In a laboratory in a cellar they found a German experimental nuclear reactor shaped like a cylinder and made of graphite blocks , but the uranium and heavy water were missing . The scientists immediately began dismantling it . Pash left Hambro in charge , while he led troops of Task Force A to Bisingen , and then on to Hechingen , where 25 scientists were captured , including von Weizsäcker , von Laue , Karl Wirtz , Horst Korsching and Erich Bagge . At Tailfingen they took Otto Hahn and nine members of his staff into custody . At Haigerloch , a sealed drum of documents was retrieved from a cesspool , and three drums of heavy water and 1 @.@ 5 tons of uranium ingots were found buried in a field . The uranium and heavy water were loaded onto trucks . The apertures in the cellar were blown up with minor explosions to prevent their capture by the French .
Werner Heisenberg remained at large , having left Hechingen on 19 April . On 1 May , Pash set out in pursuit of Heisenberg with ten men in the two armored cars and two jeeps . They teamed up with the 36th Reconnaissance Troop of the U.S. 36th Infantry Division and entered Urfeld on 2 May , where Pash found Heisenberg at his home . The Americans became involved in firefights with German troops attempting to enter the town , and the 36th Reconnaissance Troop had to head off on another mission , leaving Pash
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intended that Jake Tucker would appear , and the origin of his upside @-@ down face would be revealed . The scene with " The Peanuts Reunion " was originally meant for the season four episode " Patriot Games " , but was moved to this episode to ease time constraints in " Patriot Games " . The scene was described by 20th Century Fox worker Leann Siegel as being depressing .
" Mother Tucker " , along with the twelve other episodes from Family Guy 's fifth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 18 , 2007 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by MacFarlane and various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discusses the process behind drawing Peter Griffin , and mini @-@ feature entitled " Toys , Toys Galore " .
In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Jon Benjamin , child actor Max Burkholder , actress Phyllis Diller , voice actor Phil LaMarr , actor Joe Lomonaco , voice actress Tamera Mowry , actress Anne @-@ Michelle Seiler , voice actress Tara Strong , voice actress Nicole Sullivan , author Gore Vidal , actor Gedde Watanabe , and voice actor Wally Wingert guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Chris Cox , Ralph Garman , writer David A. Goodman , writer Mike Henry , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener made minor appearances in the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode opens with the Griffin family attending the local Airshow in Quahog , and are shown to be anxiously awaiting one of the pilots to crash . After a pilot successfully lands , Peter expresses his boredom , and states that he would rather be home watching " the tape from the The Ring " . In a flashback , Peter begins playing the film , after first being warned , with the 1987 film Mannequin appearing instead and having the same effect as the cursed tape . Deciding to stay at the airshow to watch their neighbor , Glenn Quagmire perform , he flies his plane through several billboards ( specifically through the crotch of the women 's images on the boards ) , including those for Veronica Mars , The Simple Life and On the Record w / Greta Van Susteren ( which he can only do after " getting some help " from a Jack Daniel 's Tennessee whiskey billboard .
Returning home , the Griffin family decide to watch a television show entitled Roundtable , featuring guests Al Michaels , Harold Ramis , Ray Romano and Kermit the Frog . Once Thelma appears , and alerts Peter of her split @-@ up with his father , Peter is shocked , stating that the same happened at the Peanuts reunion , with Charlie Brown then appearing as a punk rock drug dealer .
When Peter finds Thelma and Tom in bed , a cutaway shows Stewie reading a quotation from the movie Harold and Maude .
After Thelma leaves Tom , he begins showing Peter more affection , causing Lois to believe it to be strange . Peter then states that it is no stranger than when Darth Vader from the film franchise Star Wars was a parking attendant . Vader is then shown in the contemporary world as a failure , and making minimum wage . This scene , as with all scenes that contain references to Star Wars or its characters , was sent to Lucasfilm for approval , in order to protect copyright . After Stewie takes over Brian 's radio show , the two begin playing random sound clips from various films and television shows , including dialogue from the 1993 drama film Philadelphia , which was acknowledged as a mistake by Stewie .
In an attempt to rebel from his father , Peter decides to reach for the freezer to take out some ice cream during dinner , much to the chagrin of Tom Tucker , who attempts to stop him . As Peter lifts a spoon of ice cream to his mouth , he is warned by Tucker several times not to eat it . When he does , however , Tucker repeatedly spanks him , in reference to the 1979 drama feature Kramer vs. Kramer ( even though the spanking does not occur in the movie ) . After author Gore Vidal appears at the radio station Brian had invited him to speak at , Vidal quickly leaves after he finds the show to be low @-@ brow . This causes Brian to quit the show , noting that he has become " worse of a sell @-@ out " than when Stewie appeared in a Butterfinger commercial . Stewie is then shown eating a Butterfinger , and says " Nobody better lay a finger on my Butterfinger " , which is a parody of the many Butterfinger commercials featuring Bart Simpson , and utters the annoyed grunt , D 'oh ! , a phrase used regularly by The Simpsons character Homer Simpson . The bit is also a reference to the negative criticism and similarities between Family Guy and The Simpsons .
= = Reception = =
In a slight decrease from the previous week , the episode was viewed in 9 @.@ 23 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 3 in the 18 – 49 demographic , slightly edging out The Simpsons , in addition to series creator Seth MacFarlane 's second show American Dad ! , in both rating and total viewership .
Reviews of the episode were mixed , calling it a " slow start to the season . " Dan Iverson of IGN reviewed the episode positively , noting that the episode " would make even the most anti @-@ Family Guy television viewers out there laugh pretty hard . " Iverson went on to comment , however , that " it probably won 't be remembered as fondly as some of the episodes from the first few seasons . " For him , the " funniest aspect of the episode " was the radio scene , in which " we get the impression that [ radio jockeys ] are immature , simple @-@ minded idiots . " Brett Love of TV Squad reviewed the episode slightly more negatively , stating that " the whole Peter story just didn 't do much for me . " Love did find that the " Stewie and Brian stuff was the best part of the episode , " but went on to proclaim that " there are 20 more episodes to get it right . " In his review of the Family Guy Volume 5 box set , Francis Rizzo of DVD Talk wrote that the radio subplot is " a perfect parody of everything that 's wrong in radio . "
= The Boat Race 1856 =
The 13th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 15 March 1856 . Typically held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . The race , the second to be held on the ebb tide , was won by Cambridge who beat Oxford by half a length .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . It was the second race to be held on the ebb tide , the first time since the 1846 race , from Barker 's Rails to Putney , approximately 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 097 m ) longer than the conventional course . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Cambridge by seven lengths in the previous race held in 1854 . Cambridge led overall with seven wins to Oxford 's five .
No Boat Race took place in 1855 – severe frost had caused both the Thames ( from Oxford to Henley ) and the River Cam to freeze , and heavy snow curtailed efforts to practice for the race . Instead the universities faced each other at the Henley Royal Regatta where Cambridge won the Grand Challenge Cup . Despite the victory , Cambridge agreed that they should propose the challenge to Oxford and did so during the October term ; it was duly accepted . Both crews raced in boats constructed by Searle . The umpire for the race was W. G. Rich , the former Cambridge University Boat Club president who had rowed in both the March and December races of 1849 . The starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 9 @.@ 375 lb ( 73 @.@ 9 kg ) , 8 @.@ 75 pounds ( 4 @.@ 0 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . None of the competitors had taken part in a previous Boat Race .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The race commenced shortly after 11am with Oxford taking an early lead . Cambridge 's number six , M 'Cormick , caught a wave with his oar by the Ship pub and lost his seat , allowing Oxford to extend their lead . After recovering , Cambridge made a substantial push and passed Oxford to hold a small advantage , to hold a half @-@ a @-@ length by Barnes Bridge . Although they nearly increased their lead to a length , the Light Blues encountered a barge at Corney Reach which caused them to change course and lose ground , enabling Oxford to draw level once again . The crews exchanged leads with Oxford shooting Hammersmith Bridge with a half @-@ length advantage . Cambridge steered closer to the shore and retook the lead . Despite a late surge from the Dark Blues , Cambridge passed the finish first , winning by half a length in a time of 25 minutes 45 seconds . It was Cambridge 's first win in four attempts and their eighth win overall against Oxford 's five victories .
= Phoronid =
Phoronids ( scientific name Phoronida , sometimes called horseshoe worms ) are a phylum of marine animals that filter @-@ feed with a lophophore ( a " crown " of tentacles ) , and build upright tubes of chitin to support and protect their soft bodies . They live in most of the oceans and seas including the Arctic Ocean but excluding the Antarctic Ocean , and between the intertidal zone and about 400 meters down . Most adult phoronids are 2 cm long and about 1 @.@ 5 mm wide , although the largest are 50 cm long .
The bottom end of the body is an ampulla ( a flask @-@ like swelling ) , which anchors the animal in the tube and enables it to retract its body very quickly when threatened . When the lophophore is extended at the top of the body , cilia ( little hairs ) on the sides of the tentacles draw food particles to the mouth , which is inside and slightly to one side of the base of the lophophore . Unwanted material can be excluded by closing a lid above the mouth or be rejected by the tentacles , whose cilia can switch into reverse . The food then moves down to the stomach , which is in the ampulla . Solid wastes are moved up the intestine and out through the anus , which is outside and slightly below the lophophore .
A blood vessel leads up the middle of the body from the stomach to a circular vessel at the base of the lophophore , and from there a single blind vessel runs up each tentacle . A pair of blood vessels near the body wall lead downward from the lophophore ring to the stomach and also to blind branches throughout the body . There is no heart , but the major vessels can contract in waves to move the blood . Phoronids do not ventilate their trunks with oxygenated water , but rely on respiration through the lophophore . The blood contains hemoglobin , which is unusual in such small animals and seems to be an adaptation to anoxic and hypoxic environments . The blood of Phoronis architecta carries twice as much oxygen as a human of the same weight . Two metanephridia filter the body fluid , returning any useful products and dumping the remaining soluble wastes through a pair of pores beside the anus .
One species builds colonies by budding or by splitting into top and bottom sections , and all phoronids reproduce sexually from spring to autumn . The eggs of most species form free @-@ swimming actinotroch larvae , which feed on plankton . An actinotroch settles to the seabed after about 20 days and then undergoes a radical change in 30 minutes : the larval tentacles are replaced by the adult lophophore ; the anus moves from the bottom to just outside the lophophore ; and this changes the gut from upright to a U @-@ bend , with the stomach at the bottom of the body . One species forms a " slug @-@ like " larva , and the larvae of a few species are not known . Phoronids live for about one year .
Some species live separately , in vertical tubes embedded in soft sediment , while others form tangled masses buried in or encrusting rocks and shells . In some habitats populations of phoronids reach tens of thousand of individuals per square meter . The actinotroch larvae are familiar among plankton , and sometimes account for a significant proportion of the zooplankton biomass . Predators include fish , gastropods ( snails ) , and nematodes ( tiny roundworms ) . One phoronid species is unpalatable to many epibenthic predators . Various parasites infest phoronids ' body cavities , digestive tract and tentacles . It is unknown whether phoronids have any significance for humans . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has not listed any phoronid species as endangered .
As of 2010 there are no indisputable body fossils of phoronids . There is good evidence that phoronids created trace fossils found in the Silurian , Devonian , Permian , Jurassic and Cretaceous periods , and possibly in the Ordovician and Triassic . Phoronids , brachiopods and bryozoans ( ectoprocts ) have collectively been called lophophorates , because all use lophophores to feed . From about the 1940s to the 1990s , family trees based on embryological and morphological features placed lophophorates among or as a sister group to the deuterostomes , a super @-@ phylum which includes chordates and echinoderms . While a minority adhere to this view , most researchers now regard phoronids as members of the protostome super @-@ phylum Lophotrochozoa . Although analysts using molecular phylogeny are confident that members of Lophotrochozoa are more closely related to each other than of non @-@ members , the relationships between members are mostly unclear . Some analyses regard phoronids and brachiopods as sister @-@ groups , while others place phoronids as a sub @-@ group within brachiopoda .
= = Name = =
The name of the phylum comes from Phoronis , one of the many names of the Ancient Egyptian goddess Isis . Phoronis is also the name of one of the two genera of Phoronids .
= = Comparison of similar phyla = =
= = Description = =
= = = Body structure = = =
Most adult phoronids are 2 to 20 cm long and about 1 @.@ 5 mm wide , although the largest are 50 cm long . Their skins have no cuticle but secrete rigid tubes of chitin , similar to the material used in arthropods ' exoskeletons , and sometimes reinforced with sediment particles and other debris . Most species ' tubes are erect , but those of Phoronis vancouverensis are horizontal and tangled . Phoronids can move within their tubes but never leave them . The bottom end of the body is an ampulla ( a flask @-@ like swelling in a tube @-@ like structure ) , which anchors the animal in the tube and enables it to retract its body when threatened , reducing the body to 20 percent of its maximum length . Longitudinal muscles retract the body very quickly , while circular muscles slowly extend the body by compressing the internal fluid .
For feeding and respiration each phoronid has at the top end a lophophore , a " crown " of tentacles with which the animal filter @-@ feeds . In small species the " crown " is a simple circle , in medium @-@ size species it is bent into the shape of a horseshoe with tentacles on the outer and inner sides , and in the largest species the ends of the horseshoe wind into complex spirals . These more elaborate shapes increase the area available for feeding and respiration . The tentacles are hollow , held upright by fluid pressure , and can be moved individually by muscles .
The mouth is inside the base of the crown of tentacles but to one side . The gut runs from the mouth to one side of the stomach , in the bottom of the ampulla . The intestine runs from the stomach , up the other side the body , and exits at the anus , outside and a little below the crown of tentacles . The gut and intestine are both supported by two mesenteries ( partitions that run the length of the body ) connected to the body wall , and another mesentery connects the gut to the intestine .
The body is divided into coeloms , compartments lined with mesothelium . The main body cavity , under the crown of tentacles , is called the metacoelom , and the tentacles and their base share the mesocoelom . Above the mouth is the epistome , a hollow lid which can close the mouth . The cavity in the epistome is sometimes called the protocoelom , although other authors disagree that it is a coelom and Ruppert , Fox and Barnes think it is built by a different process .
= = = Feeding , circulation and excretion = = =
When the lophophore is extended , cilia ( little hairs ) on the sides of the tentacles draw water down between the tentacles and out at the base of the lophophore . Shorter cilia on the inner sides of the tentacles flick food particles into a groove in a circle under and just inside the tentacles , and cilia in the groove push the particles into the mouth . Phoronids direct their lophophores into the water current , and quickly reorient to maximize the food @-@ catching area when currents change . Their diet includes algae , diatoms , flagellates , peridinians , small invertebrate larvae , and detritus . Unwanted material can be excluded by closing the epistome ( lid above the mouth ) or be rejected by the tentacles , whose cilia can switch into reverse . The gut uses cilia and muscles to move food towards the stomach and secretes enzymes that digest some of the food , but the stomach digests the majority of the food . Phoronids also absorb amino acids ( the building blocks of proteins ) through their skins , mainly in summer . Solid wastes are moved up the intestine and out through the anus , which is outside and slightly below the lophophore .
A blood vessel starts from the peritoneum ( the membrane that loosely encloses the stomach ) , with blind capillaries supplying the stomach . The blood vessel leads up the middle of the body to a circular vessel at the base of the lophophore , and from there a single blind vessel runs up each tentacle . A pair of blood vessels near the body wall lead downward from the lophophore ring , and in most species these are combined into one a little below the lophophore ring . The downward vessel ( s ) leads back to the peritoneum , and also to blind branches throughout the body . There is no heart , but muscles in the major vessels contract in waves to move the blood . Unlike many animals that live in tubes , phoronids do not ventilate their trunks with oxygenated water , but rely on respiration by the lophophore , which extends above hypoxic sediments . The blood has hemocytes containing hemoglobin , which unusual in such small animals and seems to be an adaptation to anoxic and hypoxic environments . The blood of Phoronis architecta carries as much oxygen per cm3 as that of most vertebrates ; the blood 's volume in cm3 per gm of body weight is twice that of a human .
Podocytes on the walls of the blood vessels perform first @-@ stage filtration of soluble wastes into the main coelom 's fluid . Two metanephridia , each with a funnel @-@ like intake , filter the fluid
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. If a fragmentary inscription ( Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1331 ) refers to Priscus , he would have moved through several equestrian offices ( that is , administrative positions open to a member of the equestrian order ) during Gordian 's reign . In the spring of 242 , Philip himself was made praetorian prefect , most likely with the help of his brother . Following a failed campaign against Persia in the winter of 243 – 44 , Gordian died in camp . Rumors that Philip had murdered him were taken up by the senatorial opposition of the later 3rd century , and survive in the Latin histories and epitomes of the period . Philip was acclaimed emperor , and was secure in that title by late winter 244 . Philip made his brother rector Orientis , an executive position with extraordinary powers , including command of the armies in the Eastern provinces . Philip began his reign by negotiating a peaceful end to his predecessor 's war against Persia . In 248 , Philip called the Secular Games to celebrate the 1000 @-@ year anniversary of the founding of Rome .
In the Near East , Philip 's brother Priscus ' tax collection methods provoked the revolt of Jotapianus . At the same time , Silbannacus started a rebellion in the Rhenish provinces . He faced a third rebellion in 248 when the legions he had used in successful campaigns against the Carpi on the Danubian frontier revolted and proclaimed an officer named Pacatianus emperor . All three rebellions were suppressed quickly . In 249 , to restore order after the defeat of Pacatianus , Philip gave Senator Decius , a native of the region , command of the Danubian armies . In late spring 249 , the armies proclaimed Decius emperor . The civil war that followed ended in a battle outside Verona . Decius emerged victorious , and Philip either died or was assassinated . When news of Philip 's death reached Rome , the Praetorian Guard murdered his son and successor Marcus Julius Severus Philippus .
= = = = Christianity and Philip 's early life and career = = = =
No account or allusion to Philip 's presumed conversion to Christianity survives . The Byzantinist and Arabist Irfan Shahîd , who argues in favor of Philip 's Christianity in Rome and the Arabs , assumes that he had been a Christian before becoming emperor . He argues , therefore , that there is no need to explain the absence of evidence for Philip 's conversion in contemporary Christian literature . Trachonitis , equidistant from Antioch in the north and Bosra in the south , and sited on a road connecting the two , could have been Christianized from either direction . Even if he was not himself Christian , Philip would probably have been familiar with Christians in his hometown as well as Bosra and other nearby settlements . Hans Pohlsander , a classicist and historian arguing against accounts of Philip 's Christianity , allows that Philip " may have been curious about a religion which had its origins in an area so close to his place of birth . As an eastern provincial rather than an Italian , he may not have been so intense in his commitment to the traditional Roman religion that he could not keep an open mind on other religions . " He also accepts that Philippopolis probably contained a Christian congregation during Philip 's childhood . For the scholar of religion Frank Trombley , however , the absence of evidence for the early Christianization of Philippopolis makes Shahîd 's assumption that Philip was Christian from early childhood unmerited .
If Philip had been a Christian during his military service , he would have not been a particularly unusual figure for his era — although membership in the army was prohibited by certain churchmen , and would have required participation in rites some Christians found sacrilegious , it was not uncommon among the Christian laity . The position of an emperor , however , was more explicitly pagan — emperors were expected to officiate over public rites and lead the religious ceremonies of the army . Christian scripture contains explicit prohibitions on this sort of behavior , such as the First Commandment : " You shall have no other gods before me " . Whatever the prohibitions , people raised on the " more tolerant Christianity of the camp " would have been able to justify participation in pagan ritual to themselves . We know that these people exist : the historical record includes Christian army officers , who would have been regularly guilty of idolatry , and the military martyrs of the late 3rd century . Their ritual sacrifice excluded them from certain parts of the Christian community ( ecclesiastical writers tended to ignore them , for example ) but these people nonetheless believed themselves to be Christian and were recognized by others as Christians .
= = = Christianity in Auranitis = = =
Thanks to its proximity to the first Christian communities of Palestine , Provincia Arabia , of which Philippopolis was a part , was among the first regions to convert to Christianity . By the time of Philip 's birth , the region had been extensively Christianized , especially in the north and in Hellenized settlements like those of Auranitis . The region is known to have had a fully developed synodal system ( in which bishops from the dioceses in the region met to discuss Church affairs ) by the mid @-@ 3rd century . The region sent six bishops to the Council of Nicaea in 325 , and Eusebius ' Onomasticon , a gazetteer of Biblical place @-@ names , records a wholly Christian village called Cariathaim , or Caraiatha , near Madaba . Outside of the cities , however , there is less evidence of Christianization . Before the 5th century there is little evidence of the faith , and many villages remained unconverted in the 6th . Philippopolis , which was a small village for most of this period , does not have a Christian inscription that can be dated earlier than 552 . It is not known when the village established a prelateship , but it must have been sometime before 451 , when it sent a bishop to the Council of Chalcedon .
Christian beliefs were present in the region 's Arab community since about AD 200 , when Abgar VIII , an ethnic Arab and king of the Roman client state Osroene , converted to Christianity . The religion was propagated from Abgar 's capital at Edessa until its destruction in 244 . By the mid @-@ 3rd century , the city of Bosra had a Christian bishop , Beryllos . Beryllos offers an early example of the heretical beliefs Hellenic Christians imputed to the Arabs as a race : Beryllos believed that Christ did not exist before he was made flesh at the Incarnation . According to Eusebius of Caesarea , his views were condemned as heresy following debate at a local synod . The debate was most likely conducted in Greek , a language in common use among the well @-@ Hellenized cities of the region .
= = = Christianity in the mid @-@ 3rd century = = =
The 3rd century was the age in which the initiative for persecution shifted from the masses to the Imperial office . In the 1st and 2nd centuries , persecutions were carried out under the authority of local government officials . Septimius Severus ( r . 193 – 211 ) and Maximin ( r . 235 – 38 ) are alleged to have issued general rescripts against the religion and targeted its clergy , but the evidence for their acts is obscure and contested . There is no evidence that Philip effected any changes to the Christians ' legal status . Pogroms against the Christians in Alexandria took place while Philip was still emperor . There is no evidence that Philip punished , participated in or assisted the pogrom .
No historian contests that Philip 's successor Decius ( r . 249 – 51 ) , called a general persecution against the Church , and most would list it as the first . Decius was anxious to secure himself in the imperial office . Before mid @-@ December 249 , Decius issued an edict demanding that all Romans , throughout the empire , make a show of sacrifice to the gods . Libelli were signed in Fayum in June and July 250 as demonstrations of this sacrifice . If the persecutions of Maximin and Septimius Severus are dismissed as fiction , Decius ' edict was without precedent . If the Christians were believed to be Philip 's friends ( as Dionysius of Alexandria presents them ) , however , it might help explain Decius ' motivations .
= = In Greek ecclesiastical writing = =
The ancient traditions regarding Philip 's Christianity can be divided into three categories : the Eusebian , or Caesarean ; the Antiochene ; and the Latin . The Eusebian tradition consists of Eusebius , bishop of Caesarea 's Historia Ecclesiastica and the documents excerpted and cited therein , including the letters of Origen and Dionysius , bishop of Alexandria . The Antiochene tradition consists of the John Chrysostom 's homily de S. Babyla and Leontius , bishop of Antioch 's entries in the Chronicon Paschale . Most scholars hold that these accounts ultimately derive from Eusebius of Caesarea 's Historia Ecclesiastica ( Ecclesiastical History ) , but some , like Irfan Shahîd , posit that Antioch had an independent oral tradition .
= = = Eusebius = = =
The most significant author to discuss Philip the Arab and Christianity is Eusebius , who served as bishop of Caesarea in Roman Palestine from ca . 314 to his death in 339 . Eusebius ' major work is the Historia Ecclesiastica , written in several editions dating from ca . 300 to 325 . The Historia is not an attempt at a full history of the Church in the classical style , but rather a collection of facts addressing six topics in Christian history from the Apostolic times to the late 3rd century : ( 1 ) lists of bishops of major sees ; ( 2 ) Christian teachers and their writings ; ( 3 ) heresies ; ( 4 ) the tribulations of the Jews ; ( 5 ) the persecutions of Christians by pagan authorities ; and ( 6 ) the martyrs . His Vita Constantini , written between Constantine 's death in 337 and Eusebius ' own death in 339 , is a combination of eulogistic encomium and continuation of the Historia ( the two separate documents were combined and distributed by Eusebius ' successor in the see of Caesarea , Acacius ) .
Five references in Eusebius ' Historia Ecclesiastica speak to Philip 's Christianity ; three directly , two by implication . At 6 @.@ 34 , he describes Philip visiting a church on Easter Eve and being denied entry by the presiding bishop because he had not yet confessed his sins . The bishop goes unnamed . At 6 @.@ 36 @.@ 3 , he writes of letters from the Christian theologian Origen to Philip and to Philip 's wife , Marcia Otacilia Severa . At 6 @.@ 39 , Eusebius writes that Decius persecuted Christians because he hated Philip . The remaining two references are quotations or paraphrases of Dionysius , bishop of Alexandria , a contemporary of Philip ( he held the patriarchate from 247 to 265 ) . At 6 @.@ 41 @.@ 9 , Dionysius contrasts the tolerant Philip 's rule with the intolerant Decius ' . At 7 @.@ 10 @.@ 3 , Dionysius implies that Alexander Severus ( emperor from 222 to 235 ) and Philip were both openly Christian .
= = = = Philip 's visit to the church = = = =
= = = = = Text , sources , and interpretation = = = = =
Most arguments regarding Philip 's Christianity hinge on Eusebius '
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account of the emperor 's visit to a church at 6 @.@ 34 . In the words of the 17th @-@ century ecclesiastical historian Louis @-@ Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont , it is the " la ſeule action en laquelle on ſache qu 'il ait honoré l 'Église " , the " only action in which we know him to have honored the Church " .
In Shahîd 's reconstruction , this event took place at Antioch on 13 April 244 , while the emperor was on his way back to Rome from the Persian front . The 12th @-@ century Byzantine historian Zonaras repeats the story .
Eusebius introduces his account of Philip 's visit with the words κατέχει λόγος ' ( katechei logos ) . The precise meaning of these words in modern European languages has been contested . Ernst Stein , in an account challenging the veracity of Eusebius ' narrative , translated the phrase as " gerüchte " , or " rumor " ; the scholar John Gregg translated it as " the saying goes " . Other renderings are possible , however ; modern English translations of the Historia Ecclesiastica have " it is recorded " or " it is reported " , as in the translation quoted above . The historian Robin Lane Fox , who translates logos as " story " or " rumor " in scare quotes , emphasizes that Eusebius draws a distinction between his " story " about Philip and the other material in the passage .
The substantiative issue involved is the nature of Eusebius ' source ; where " gerüchte " suggests hearsay ( Frend explains that Eusebius ' κατέχει λόγος ' " usually means mere suggestion " ) , " it is recorded " suggests documentation . Given that Eusebius ' major sources for 3rd @-@ century history were written records , Shahîd contends that the typical translation misrepresents the original text . His source here is probably one of the two letters from Origen to Philip and Marcia Otacilia Severa , Philip 's wife , mentioned at 6 @.@ 36 @.@ 3 . Shahîd argues that an oral source is unlikely given that Eusebius composed his Historia in Caesarea and not Antioch ; but others , like Stein and theologian Arthur Cushman McGiffert , editor and translator of the Historia for the Select Library of Nicene and Post @-@ Nicene Fathers , contend nonetheless that the story has an oral source .
Shahîd 's position is reinforced by C. H. Roberts and A. N. Sherwin @-@ White , who reviewed his Rome and the Arabs before publication . That is , that the proper interpretation of κατέχει λόγος is as a reference to a written account . Roberts notes that Χριστιανὸν ὄντα ( Christianon onta , " being a Christian " ) was probably an editorial insertion by Eusebius , and not included in the logos he relates in the passage . Shahîd takes this as an indication that Eusebius did indeed vouch for Philip 's Christianity . Roberts suggested that κατέχει λόγος might be translated as " there is a wide @-@ spread report " , but added that a broader study of Eusebius ' use of the expression elsewhere would be useful . Sherwin @-@ White points out Eusebius ' use of the phrase in his passage on the Thundering Legion ( at Historia Ecclesiastica 5 @.@ 5 ) , where it represents a reference to written sources .
However , because Eusebius nowhere categorically asserts that he has read the letters ( he only says that he has compiled them ) and as moderns are disinclined to take him at his word , some , like Pohlsander , posit that Eusebius did not get the tale from the letters , and drew it instead from oral rumors . Whatever the case , the wording of the passage shows that Eusebius is unenthusiastic about his subject and skeptical of its significance . Jerome and the Latin Christian authors following him do not share his caution .
= = = = = Contexts and parallels = = = = =
For many scholars , the scene at 6 @.@ 34 seems to anticipate and parallel the confrontation between Theodosius and Ambrose in 390 ; Erasmus used the two situations as parallel exempla in a letter written to Francis I in 1523 . That later event has been taken as evidence against Philip 's Christianity . Even in the later 4th century , in a society that had already been significantly Christianized , the argument goes , Theodosius ' humiliation had shocked the sensibilities of the aristocratic elite . It is therefore inconceivable that 3rd century aristocrats , members of a society that had experienced only partial Christianization , would accept such self @-@ abasement from their emperors . Shahîd contests this parallel , and argues that Philip 's scene was far less humiliating than Theodosius ' : it did not take place against the same background ( Theodosius had massacred seven thousand Thessalonicans some months before ) , no one was excommunicated ( Theodosius was excommunicated for eight months ) , and it did not involve the same dramatic and humiliating dialogue between emperor and bishop . Philip made a quick repentance at a small church on his way back to Rome from the Persian front , a stark contrast to the grandeur of Theodosius ' confrontation with Ambrose .
Other scholars , such as ecclesiastical historian H. M. Gwatkin , explain Philip 's alleged visit to the church as evidence of simple " curiosity " . That he was excluded from services is not surprising : as a " heathen " in official conduct , and , as an unbaptized man , it would have been unusual if he had been admitted . Shahîd rejects idle curiosity as an explanation , arguing that 3rd @-@ century churches were too nondescript to attract much undue attention . That Philip was unbaptized is nowhere proven or stated , and , even if true , it would do little to explain the scene : Constantine participated in Christian services despite postponing baptism to the end of his life — and participation in services without baptism was not unusual for Christians of either period .
= = = = Dionysius , bishop of Alexandria = = = =
At 6 @.@ 41 , Eusebius quotes a letter from Dionysius , bishop of Alexandria , to Fabius , bishop of Antioch , on the persecution at Alexandria under Decius . He begins ( at 6 @.@ 41 @.@ 1 ) by describing the pogroms which began a year before Decius ' decree of 250 ; that is , in 249 , under Philip . At 6 @.@ 41 @.@ 9 , Dionysius narrates the transition from Philip to Decius .
At 7 @.@ 10 @.@ 3 , Eusebius quotes a letter from Dionysius to the otherwise @-@ unknown Hermammon on the early years of Valerian 's ( r . 253 – 260 ) rule . In this period the emperor implicitly tolerated Christianity ; Eusebius would contrast his early reputation with his later policy of persecution .
Dionysius is quoted saying that Valerian was so friendly to Christians that he outdid " those who were said to be openly Christians " ( οἰ λεχθέντες ἀναφανδὸν Χριοτιανοὶ γεγονέναι , tr . Shahîd ) . Most scholars , Shahîd and Stein included , understand this as a reference to Severus Alexander and Philip . Because the reference is to a plurality of emperors , implying that Severus Alexander and Philip were both Christians , Stein dismissed the passage as entirely without evidentiary value . Shahîd , however , contends that genuine information can be extracted from the spurious whole , and that , while the reference to Severus Alexander is hyperbole , the reference to Philip is not . He explains the reference to Severus Alexander as a Christian as an exaggeration of what was actually only an interest in the Christian religion . Shahîd references a passage in the often @-@ dubious Historia Augusta 's biography of the emperor , which states that Alexander had statues of Abraham , Christ , and Orpheus in his private chapel , and that he prayed to them each morning . He also adduces the letters sent from Origen to Alexander 's mother Mamaea ( Eusebius , Historia Ecclesiastica 6 @.@ 21 , 6 @.@ 28 ) to explain Dionysius ' comment .
= = = = Origen 's letters = = = =
Origen 's letters do not survive . However , most scholars believe that the letters that circulated in the era of Eusebius and Jerome were genuine . It is also reasonable that Origen , a man with close contacts in the Christian Arab community , would have taken a particular interest in the first Arab emperor . The scholar K. J. Neumann argued that , since Origen would have known the faith of the imperial couple , he must have written about it in the letters listed at 6 @.@ 36 @.@ 3 . Since Eusebius read these letters , and does not mention that the emperor was Christian ( Neumann understands the passage at 6 @.@ 34 to reflect Eusebius ' disbelief in Philip 's Christianity ) , we must conclude that Philip was not Christian , and was neither baptized nor made catechumen . Against Neumann , Shahîd argues that , if Eusebius had found anything in the letters to disprove Philip 's Christianity , he would have clearly outlined it in this passage — as the biographer of Constantine , it would have been in his interest to undermine any other claimants to the title " first Christian emperor " . Moreover , this segment of the Historia is a catalog of Origen 's works and correspondence ; the contents of the letters are irrelevant .
= = = = Views on the Arabs = = = =
Eusebius ' understanding of the Arab peoples is informed by his reading of the Bible and his knowledge of the history of imperial Rome . He does not appear to have personally known any Arabs . In his Chronicon , all the Arabs that appear — save for one reference to Ishmael — figure in the political history of the first three centuries of the Christian era . To Eusebius , the Saracens of the 4th century are direct @-@ line descendants of the biblical Ishmaelites , descendants of the handmaid , Hagar , and the patriarch , Abraham . They are thus outcasts , beyond God 's Covenant with the favored son of Abraham , Isaac . The twin images of the Ishmaelite and the Saracen — outcasts and latrones , raiders of the frontiers — reinforce each other and give Eusebius ' portrait of the Arab nation an unhappy color . He may have been reluctant to associate the first Christian emperor with a people of such unfortunate ancestry .
In his Historia , Eusebius does not identify either Philip or Abgar V of Edessa ( whom he incorrectly presumed to be the first Christian prince ; he does not mention Abgar VIII , who was actually the first Christian prince ) , as Arabs . He does , however , identify Herod the Great as an Arab , thus tarring the Arab nation with the Massacre of the Innocents and the attempted murder of Christ himself . The Christianity of Provincia Arabia in the 3rd century also earns some brief notices : the heresy of Beryllos , bishop of Bostra , and his correction by Origen ( 6 @.@ 33 ) ; the heretical opinions concerning the soul held by a group of Arabs until corrected by Origen ( 6 @.@ 37 ) ; and the heresy of Helkesaites ( 6 @.@ 38 ) . Eusebius ' account of Philip appears amidst these Arab heresies ( at 6 @.@ 34 , 6 @.@ 36 , and 6 @.@ 39 ) , although , again — and in spite of the fact that Philip so often took on the epithet " the Arab " , in antiquity as today — he never identifies him as an Arab . The image of the Arabs as heretics would persist in later ecclesiastical historians ( like Epiphanius of Salamis ) . Shahîd , relating these facts , nonetheless concludes that " Eusebius cannot be accused in the account he gave of the Arabs and their place in the history of Christianity . " The fact that he downplayed the role of Philip and Abgar in the establishment of Christianity as a state religion is understandable , given his desire to prop up Constantine 's reputation .
= = = = Views on Constantine = = = =
In Shahîd 's judgment , the imprecision and unemphatic tone of Eusebius ' passage at 6 @.@ 34 is the major cause of the lack of scholarly consensus on Philip 's Christianity . To Shahîd , Eusebius ' wording choice is a reflection of his own lack of enthusiasm for Philip 's Christianity , which is in turn a reflection of the special position Constantine held in his regards and in his written work . A number of scholars , following E. Schwartz , believe the later editions of Eusebius ' Historia to have been extensively revised to adapt to the deterioration of Licinius in the public memory ( and official damnatio memoriae ) after Constantine deposed and executed him in 324 – 25 . Passages of the Historia incompatible with Licinius ' denigration were suppressed , and an account of the last years of his life was replaced with a summary of the Council of Nicaea . Shahîd suggests that , in addition to these anti @-@ Licinian deletions , Eusebius also edited out favorable notices on Philip to better glorify Constantine 's achievement .
In 335 , Eusebius wrote and delivered his Laudes Constantini , a panegyric on the thirtieth anniversary of the emperor 's reign ; his Vita Constantini , written over the next two years , has the same laudatory tone . The ecclesiastical historian , who framed his chronology on the reigns of emperors and related the entries in his history to each emperor 's reign , understood Constantine 's accession as something miraculous , especially as it came immediately after the Great Persecution . The final edition of his Historia has its climax in Constantine 's reign , the ultimate " triumph of Christianity " . Shahîd argues , it was therefore in his authorial interest to obscure the details of Philip , the first Christian emperor ; hence , because of Eusebius ' skill in narrative and deception , modern historians give Constantine that title .
Shahîd further argues that the facts of Philip 's alleged Christianity would also discourage Eusebius from celebrating that emperor . Firstly , Philip lacks an exciting conversion narrative ; secondly , his religion was private , unlike Constantine 's very public patronage of the faith ; and , thirdly , his reign only lasted five years , not long enough to enact much amelioration of the Christians ' condition . In Shahîd 's view , the insignificance of his reign to the progress of Christianity , Eusebius ' subject , combined with Eusebius ' role as Constantine 's panegyrist , explain the tone and content of his account .
= = = = Vita Constantini = = = =
F. H. Daniel , in Philip 's entry in the Smith – Wace Dictionary of Christian Biography , cites a passage of Eusebius ' Vita Constantini as his first piece of evidence against Philip 's alleged Christianity . In the passage , Eusebius names Constantine as ( in the words of the dictionary ) " the first Christian emperor " .
Shahîd describes this passage as a mere flourish from Eusebius the panegyrist , " carried away by enthusiasm and whose statements must be construed as rhetorical exaggeration " ; he does not take it as serious evidence against Eusebius ' earlier accounts in the Historia , where he never refers to Constantine as the first Christian emperor . For Shahîd , the passage also represents the last stage in Eusebius ' evolving portrait of the pair of emperors , Philip and Constantine : in the early 300s , in his Chronicon , he had nearly called Philip the first Christian emperor ; in the 320s , during the revision of the Historia and the Chronicon , he turned wary and skeptical ; in the late 330s , he could confidently assert that Constantine was the sole Christian emperor . John York argues that , in writing this passage , Eusebius was cowed by the anti @-@ Licinian propaganda of the Constantinian era : as an ancestor of the emperor 's last enemy , Philip could not receive the special distinction of the title " first Christian emperor " — Constantine had claimed it for himself . Perhaps , Shahîd observes , it is not coincidental that Eusebius would paint the Arabs in uncomplimentary terms ( as idolaters and practitioners of human sacrifice ) in his Laudes Constantini of 335 .
= = = Chrysostom and Leontius = = =
John Chrysostom , deacon at Antioch from 381 , was made priest in 386 . As a special distinction , his bishop , Flavian , decided that he should preach in the city 's principal church . Chrysostom 's contribution to the literature on Philip and Christianity is a homily on Babylas , a martyr @-@ bishop who died in 253 , during the Decian persecution . The treatise was composed about 382 , when John was a deacon , and forms part of Chrysostom 's corpus of panegyrics . Chrysostom 's Babylas confronts an emperor ; and , since Chrysostom is more interested in the bishop than his opponent , the emperor goes unnamed . He has since been identified with Philip .
Leontius was bishop of Antioch from 348 to 357 . He is quoted in the Chronicon Paschale , or Paschal Chronicle , a universal chronicle of history based on the paschal cycle , as an authority on the martyrdom of Babylas . The quotation describes Philip seeking penitence from Babylas for the sin of murdering his predecessor .
Chrysostom and Leontius both lived in Antioch , the site of Philip 's alleged humiliation and repentance , and wrote in the mid @-@ 4th century , one hundred years after the event took place . Shahîd takes this , along with the fact that Babylas is not named in Eusebius ' account , as evidence of an independent local tradition . This tradition would have been perhaps partially oral in nature , and far removed from the written accounts in Eusebius ' library at Caesarea . Many other historians trace Chrysostom and Leontius ' accounts back to Eusebius : Hans Pohlsander counts Chrysostom and Leontius ' accounts as later accretions to Eusebius original account , dependent on his Historia for their legendary core ; John Gregg holds that this dependent relationship is most probable ; and Stein claims all three Greeks as contributors to the same gerüchte .
= = In Latin ecclesiastical writing = =
The Latin tradition consists of three authors writing in the later 4th and early 5th centuries — Jerome , Orosius , and Vincent of Lérins . The tradition is represented in Jerome 's Liber de viris inlustribus and Chronicon , Orosius ' Historiarum Adversum Paganos , and Vincent of Lérins ' Commonitorum Primum . Most scholars hold that all of these accounts ultimately derive from Eusebius of Caesarea 's Historia . These authors follow the Greek tradition , and probably takes all of their information from Eusebius , Eusebius ' sources , or Jerome . These authors are more forceful in their claims than Eusebius , as demonstrated by their use of primus , or " first " , as in " first Christian emperor " , when referring to Philip . Jerome is the most important , both since he is the earliest of the three , and because , as the editor and translator of Eusebius ' Chronicon ( Chronicle ) , he is closest to Eusebius .
= = = Jerome = = =
Eusebius ' first version of the Chronicon was written in 303 , and his second in the mid @-@ 320s ; Jerome 's revision , translation and continuation dates to 380 . The original Greek is lost ; it is largely through Jerome 's Latin and through an Armenian translation unrelated to Jerome that the substance of the original survives . Eusebius ' original did cover Philip 's rule — Jerome 's continuation of the Chronicon only covers the period from 325 to 378 — but the sections regarding Philip 's Christianity do not survive in the Armenian translation . In the Armenian , all references to Arabs are omitted . Philip 's celebration of the millennium is preserved , while his supposed Christianity is only implied in the entry on Decius ' persecution . Jerome 's Chronicon is , therefore , the nearest we can get to Eusebius ' early statements on Philip 's Christianity . That Jerome calls Philip primus in the Chronicon thus admits of two interpretations : either he found it in Eusebius , or he added it independently , based on other sources available to him . Shahîd argues that , while the text would offer a strong case for Philip 's Christianity either way , the former interpretation is more plausible . Shahîd believes that primus appeared in Eusebius first version of the Chronicon , but may have been edited out for the second version — by the mid 320s , Eusebius had become Constantine 's panegyrist , and was understandably loath to praise his subject 's ignoble predecessors .
In his Liber de viris inlustribus , written twelve years later , in 392 , Jerome mentions Philip in his chapter on Origen .
The passage contains two important features : first , the statement that the letters of Origen to Philip and his family were still extant in Jerome 's time ; and second , a strong affirmation of Philip 's Christianity . The sentence also contains the false reference to Philip 's mother ( matrem ) as the recipient of a letter from Origen — it was actually Philip 's wife who received it . Jerome probably confused her with Alexander Severus ' mother Mammaea . Bowersock characterizes the whole passage as a " confused copy " of Eusebius ' evidence . Shahîd understands " quae usque hodie extant " to mean that Jerome had read the letters ; that he refers to Philip as primus would thus mean that he either found positive evidence for Philip 's Christianity in them or , at least , that he found nothing to disprove it .
Jerome otherwise had a dim view of the Arabs . His prejudices were those of a native Roman . Born in Strido ( in modern Croatia or Slovenia ) , near Aquileia , and educated in Rome , Jerome was a lover of Latin , Italy , and the city of Rome . In about 374 , he found himself accused in a dream while in Antioch on the way to Palestine : " Ciceronianus es , non Christianus " , " you are a Ciceronian , not a Christian " . In one of his letters , written while he was staying in the desert of Chalcis , he tells of the joy he had when he discovered that his correspondents had written a letter to him in Latin . All he had to hear during the day were the " barbarous " languages of the natives ( that is , Syriac and Arabic ) . From this evidence , Shahîd concludes that Jerome would not honor the memory of an Arab emperor without a strong rationale .
= = = Orosius and the Origo Constantini Imperatoris = = =
To Orosius , Constantine was the first Christian Roman emperor , except for Philip ( he was the " primus imperatorum Christianus , excepto Philippo " ) . He probably took this judgment from Jerome — he had met the author in Bethlehem in 415 , while on assignment from Augustine of Hippo . Although his judgment is thus not independent of Jerome , Shahîd contends that it is nonetheless valuable since Orosius did not have a bias towards either emperor . It presents Philip in the role Christian history merited : as precursor to Constantine . Because Orosius ' Historiae adversum paganos served as the standard manual of universal history during the middle ages , his judgment on this matter was inherited , and generally accepted , by medieval European writers .
Orosius ' wording is echoed by the Origo Constantini Imperatoris , an anonymous work usually dated to the late 4th century . " Constantine was also the first Christian emperor , with the exception of Philippus , who seemed to me to have become a Christian merely in order that the one @-@ thousandth year of Rome might be dedicated to Christ rather than to pagan idols . " ( " Item Constantinus imperator primus Christianus , excepto Philippo , qui Christianus admodum ad hoc tantum constitutus fuisse mihi visus est , ut millesimus Romae annus Christo potius quam idolis dicaretur " , tr . J.C. Rolfe ) The scholar Samuel N. C. Lieu holds that this passage is a later interpolation , designed to give the work 's pagan core a Christian gloss . According to Lieu , this passage , along with others , was probably taken from Orosius ' history and inserted into the Origo Constantini during the reign of Constantine III ( r . 417 – 21 ) , a period that witnessed substantial anti @-@ pagan polemic . Shahîd argues that , since the author of the Origo Constantini was a biographer of Constantine , and not a historian of the 3rd and 4th centuries , his reference to Philip is unnecessary . The conflicting claims of Philip and Constantine to primacy may have been at issue at the turn of the 5th century , when the Origo Constantini and Historia adversum paganos were written .
= = = Vincent of Lérins = = =
In the chapter on Origen in Vincent of Lérins ' Commonitorium primum , Vincent writes : " quos ad Philippum imperatorem , qui primus romanorum principum Christianus fuit , Christiani magisterii acutoritate conscripsit . " ; " with the authority which [ Origen ] assumed as a Christian Teacher , he wrote to the Emperor Philip , the first Roman prince that was a Christian . " Vincent thus unites the commentary on Origen 's letters with Philip 's Christianity , as Jerome had done . It is possible that he was only following Jerome in so doing , but Shahîd argues that his note that the letters were written " Christiani magisterii auctoritate " implies that he has read the letters . Additionally , the variance between his wording and Jerome 's ( Vincent refers to Philip as a princeps , not a rex , and he calls the letters epistolae , not litterae ) , speaks for Vincent 's independence of Jerome .
= = In Zosimus and other secular writing = =
Zosimus , a pagan writing at the turn of the 6th century , wrote a work titled the Historia Nova ( New History ) . Its detailed sections cover the period from the 3rd century AD to 410 . Zosimus , like all secular historians in his era , addressed himself to the governing class of the later Roman empire : officers , bureaucrats , and the landed aristocracy . There was relatively little overlap between the reading audience of secular histories and the ecclesiastical histories of Eusebius and his successors . For most of the period it covers , the Historia is the most valuable — and sometimes the only — available source . Zosimus ' history was written as a polemic , with the aim of establishing that barbarism and Christianity were the essential causes of the decline of the Roman state . Because of these themes , the Historia Nova is considered the first history of what moderns would call Rome 's " decline and fall " . Although skilled in literary rhetoric , Zosimus was a poor historian . He confuses dates and persons , is ignorant of geography , and treats his sources with naive simplicity . For the 3rd century , Zosimus follows Eunapius of Sardis and Olympiodorus of Thebes in Egypt . Since Eunapius ' history began in 272 , where the Chronicle of another historian , Dexippus , ended , Zosimus probably used Dexippus ' Chronicle , and perhaps his histories of the German wars between 250 and 270 . Dexippus , however , was as poor a historian as Zosimus . The surviving fragments of his work show an uncritical author , without strong sources , who prefers rhetoric to fact . ( The secular sources for this period are all quite weak . ) Zosimus , like all ancient secular historians of the era , says nothing of Philip 's alleged Christianity .
Zosimus had no great respect for Philip , and offers an unfavorable judgment on his reign . Nonetheless , he offers a curiously detailed narrative of his reign . He devotes five sections of his Historia Nova to the emperor ( 1 @.@ 18 – 22 ) — more than Alexander Severus , who only gets half a section ( 1 @.@ 8 ) . He even reverts to Philip in the midst of a discussion of the Peace of Jovian ( 363 ) two books later ( at 3 @.@ 32 ) , taking the opportunity to recall Philip 's own " disgraceful " peace with the Persians . In Shahîd 's judgment , Zosimus makes this editorial decision to emphasize his central theme — the decline and " barbarization " of Rome . Zosimus ' views on the latter phenomenon reflect his racial prejudice , and his account of Philip carries anti @-@ Semitic overtones . In Zosimus ' view , Philip was a barbarian operating at the highest levels of power . The unsavory character of Philip is contrasted with his ethnically Roman predecessor , Gordian ( who Philip helped overthrow ) , and his Roman successor , Decius , who wins glowing praise from the historian .
As he disliked both Arabs and Christians , some scholars , such as Bowersock , have taken Zosimus ' silence on the matter as strong evidence against Philip 's alleged Christianity . Others , like historian Warwick Ball , view Zosimus ' evident distaste for Philip as noteworthy , and suggest that Zosimus ' anti @-@ Christian polemic is indirect in his writing on the emperor . Shahîd construes Zosimus ' silence as an argument for Philip 's Christianity . Zosimus , he argues , would never have shown such distaste for a pagan . Septimius Severus was a " barbarian " , an African born at Leptis Magna whose mother tongue was Phoenician and whose wife , Julia Domna , was a provincial from Emesa . But Severus gets a good press from Zosimus ( 1 @.@ 8 ) . Nor would Philip 's assistance in the execution of Gordian be enough : the 3rd century was hardly a stranger to such bloodshed and treachery . Zosimus ' hostility begins to makes sense , Shahîd contends , once we assume that he was aware of the tradition that viewed Philip as the first Christian emperor ( and perhaps even accepted it ) . And it becomes perfectly clear once we understand the importance Zosimus attributes to the Secular Games , and the schematic incongruity he would behold when a Christian emperor was presiding over them .
In 248 , Philip held Secular Games ( Ludi Saeculares ) to celebrate the thousandth anniversary of Rome 's legendary founding by Romulus .
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for Liverpool in the 1995 – 96 season . Recovery and injuries to other left back candidates enabled Bjørnebye to reclaim his place the following season , in which he scored his first goal for Liverpool on 17 August 1996 in a 3 – 3 draw against Middlesbrough . He contributed to the club 's most convincing title challenge since the inception of the Premier League by supplying club strikers Stan Collymore and Robbie Fowler with precise crosses . He was ultimately included in the PFA Team of the Year with Steve McManaman and Mark Wright . The acquisition of Steve Staunton and arrival of Gérard Houllier in the 1998 – 99 season , limited Bjørnebye 's first @-@ team opportunities , leading to his effective marginalisation . Bjørnebye affirmed his recurring determination to stay at Liverpool that season , remarking " If I didn 't have any fight in my stomach I 'd have left Liverpool at least three times before " .
Unable to displace Staunton and Dominic Matteo , Bjørnebye agreed to a loan move to Danish side Brøndby IF in 2000 , who finished second in the Danish Superliga with Bjørnebye on the team . He decided to permanently leave Liverpool after returning from the European Championship , accepting a £ 300 @,@ 000 transfer to Blackburn Rovers that reunited him with former manager Graeme Souness . Promotion to the Premier League was achieved in his first year with Rovers , in the process , Bjørnebye scored his only goal for the club on 11 November 2000 , in a 2 – 2 draw against Portsmouth . His final trophy was gained when Blackburn defeated Tottenham Hotspur 2 – 1 in the 2002 League Cup Final . Successive injuries after the cup victory disrupted and eventually ended his career as a footballer . While preparing for the 2002 – 03 season , Bjørnebye fractured his eye socket in a training accident . He complained of double vision , underwent surgery , and was rendered unavailable for seven months . Further injury inflicted during a League Cup match on 17 December 2002 , in a 2 – 0 win against Wigan Athletic escalated , while Bjørnebye was recovering in Norway , necessitating emergency surgery to avert the possibility of foot amputation . Bjørnebye announced his retirement on 11 March 2003 . Blackburn manager Graham Souness reacted to the decision with a statement :
It 's a very sad day . As far as I am concerned it could hardly be worse for Stig is the consummate dedicated professional . He is as good a professional as any I have worked with , I couldn ’ t name anybody better and he is [ a ] fine role model and a proper , proper human being . Stig has had a wonderful career , it 's a great shame that it has to end with a freak training @-@ ground accident as he felt , quite rightly , that he could have played longer .
= = International career = =
Bjørnebye was capped 75 times by Norway , scoring once – an olympic goal in a 1 – 0 friendly against the United States on 8 September 1993 . Having represented his country at youth , under @-@ 21 , and " B " level , Bjørnebye debuted for the senior team on 31 May 1989 against Austria . The majority of his caps were collected during Egil Olsen 's eight @-@ year tenure as manager of Norway . Under Olsen 's guidance , Norway employed a " long ball " policy that was contingent on the height of Olsen 's squad . The tactic of directing long passes to the tall winger Jostein Flo , principally delivered by Bjørnebye , became popularly referred to in Norway as the " Flo Pass " ( Flo @-@ pasningen ) . Although criticised for employing the long @-@ ball approach and maintaining a defensively @-@ orientated mentality , Olsen secured qualification for the World Cups of 1994 and 1998 . Bjørnebye participated in both tournaments – seven matches in total .
He decided to retire from international football after the 1998 World Cup , intending to focus on his domestic career and family . Bjørnebye unexpectedly reversed his decision after Nils Johan Semb persuaded him to return to the squad for Euro 2000 . Unused in Norway 's 1 – 0 win against Spain on 13 June 2000 , Bjørnebye was first introduced to the competition in the second match of the group stage , in a 0 – 1 loss on 18 June 2000 against Yugoslavia , as a 35 @-@ minute substitute for his Liverpool colleague Vegard Heggem . He retained his place , featuring in the goalless draw against Slovenia on 21 June 2000 , which eliminated Norway from the tournament . His final international match was in a 1 – 1 draw World Cup qualifier on 7 October 2000 against Wales , placing him ninth in the overall record of appearances for Norway as of 2007 .
= = Managerial career = =
Bjørnebye returned to football in a non @-@ playing capacity when he was selected by the Norwegian Football Association to replace Harald Aabrekk as Norway 's assistant manager , subordinate to the newly appointed Åge Hareide . Prior to the announcement , the media in England had reported that Bjørnebye was considering maintaining a relationship with Blackburn by becoming a scout for the club . He vacated his position in 2006 to succeed Tom Nordlie as manager of IK Start . Success was forthcoming in his first season ; the club competed in Europe and Bjørnebye was declared most profitable coach of the year , ahead of his predecessor Nordlie , with an income of almost seven million krone . His appointment lasted two seasons , ending with dismissal in September 2007 , after a series of poor results that placed the club in serious danger of being relegated from the Norwegian Premier League . He was replaced by Benny Lennartsson , who was unable to preserve the club 's premier league status ; Start were relegated to Norway 's second tier .
= = Personal life = =
Bjørnebye is married to the former Byåsen IL handball player Hege Frøseth , with whom he has three children .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = International goal = = =
Scores and results list Norway 's goal tally first .
= = Managerial statistics = =
Source :
= = Honours = =
Rosenborg
Norwegian Premier League ( 2 ) : 1992 , 1994
Norwegian Football Cup ( 1 ) : 1992
Liverpool
Football League Cup ( 1 ) : 1994 – 95
Blackburn Rovers
Football League Cup ( 1 ) : 2001 – 02
= Tylopilus felleus =
Tylopilus felleus , commonly known as the bitter bolete or the bitter tylopilus , is a fungus of the bolete family . Its distribution includes east Asia , Europe , and eastern North America , extending south into Mexico and Central America . A mycorrhizal species , it grows in deciduous and coniferous woodland , often fruiting under beech and oak . Its fruit bodies have convex to flat caps that are some shade of brown , buff , or tan , and typically measure up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) in diameter . The pore surface is initially white before turning pinkish with age . Like most boletes it lacks a ring , and it may be distinguished from Boletus edulis and other similar species by its unusual pink pores and the prominent dark brown netlike pattern on its stalk .
French mycologist Pierre Bulliard described this species as Boletus felleus in 1788 before it was transferred into the new genus Tylopilus . It is the type species of Tylopilus , and the only member of the genus found in Europe . Tylopilus felleus has been the subject of research into bioactive compounds that have been tested for antitumour and antibiotic properties . Although not poisonous , it is generally considered inedible , due to its overwhelming bitterness .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described in the scientific literature as le bolet chicotin ( Boletus felleus ) by French mycologist Pierre Bulliard in 1788 . As the large genus Boletus was carved up into smaller genera , Petter Karsten transferred it in 1881 to Tylopilus , a genus diagnosed by its pink spores and adnate tubes . T. felleus is the type species of Tylopilus , and the only member of the genus found in Europe . Synonyms include Boletus alutarius , described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1815 and later by Friedrich Wilhelm Gottlieb Rostkovius in 1844 , and Paul Christoph Hennings 's subsequent transfer of Fries 's taxon into Tylopilus , T. alutarius . Lucien Quélet placed the taxon in Dictyopus in 1886 and then Rhodoporus in 1888 , but neither of these genera are recognised today , the former having been merged into Boletus and the latter into Tylopilus . Genetic analysis published in 2013 shows that T. felleus and many ( but not all ) other members of Tylopilus form a Tylopilus clade within a larger group informally called anaxoboletus in the Boletineae . Other clades in the group include the porcini and Strobilomyces clades , as well as three other groups composed of members of various genera including Xerocomus , Xerocomellus and Boletus badius and relatives .
A variety described from the Great Lakes region , var. uliginosus , was recognised by Alexander H. Smith and Harry D. Thiers in 1971 on the basis of its microscopic features , a distinction supported by Professor C.B. Wolfe of Pennsylvania State University . However , Index Fungorum does not consider this an independent taxon . Similarly , Boletus felleus var. minor , published originally by William Chambers Coker and A.H. Beers in 1943 ( later transferred to Tylopilus by Albert Pilát and Aurel Dermek in 1974 ) , has been folded into synonymy with T. felleus . Charles Horton Peck described Boletus felleus var. obesus in 1889 , but no record of a type specimen exists . Although some records exist of T. felleus in Australia , their spores are of consistently smaller dimensions and this taxon has been classified as a separate species , T. brevisporus .
Tylopilus felleus derives its genus name from the Greek tylos " bump " and pilos " hat " , and its specific name from the Latin fel meaning " bile " referring to its bitter taste , similar to bile . The mushroom is commonly known as the " bitter bolete " or the " bitter tylopilus " .
= = Description = =
The cap of this species grows up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) in diameter , though some North American specimens reach 30 cm ( 12 in ) across . Grey @-@ yellow to pale- or walnut @-@ brown , it is slightly downy at first and later becomes smooth with a matte lustre . It is initially convex before flattening out with maturity . The cap skin does not peel away from the flesh . The pores underneath are white at first and become pinkish with maturity . They are adnate to the stalk and bulge downwards as the mushroom ages . The pores bruise carmine or brownish , often developing rusty @-@ brown spots with age , and number about one or two per millimetre . The tubes are long relative to the size of the cap , measuring 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) deep in the middle part of the cap . The stalk is initially bulbous before stretching and thinning in the upper part ; the lower part of the stalk remains swollen , sometimes shrinking at the base where it attaches to the substrate . It measures 7 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) — rarely to 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) — tall , and 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide , and can bulge out to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) across at the base . It is lighter in colour than the cap , and covered with a coarse brown network of markings , which have been likened to fishnet stockings in appearance . Described as " very appetising " in appearance , the flesh is white or creamy , and pink beneath the cap cuticle ; the flesh can also develop pinkish tones where it has been cut . It has a slight smell , which has been described as pleasant , as well as faintly unpleasant . The flesh is softer than that of other boletes , and tends to become more spongy as the mushroom matures . Insects rarely infest this species .
The colour of the spore print is brownish , with pink , reddish , or rosy tints . Spores are somewhat fuse @-@ shaped , smooth , and measure 11 – 17 by 3 – 5 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 18 – 25 @.@ 6 by 7 @.@ 0 – 10 @.@ 2 µm . Cystidia on the walls of the tubes ( pleurocystidia ) are fuse @-@ shaped with a central swelling , thin @-@ walled , and have granular contents . They possess sharp to tapered tips , and have overall dimensions of 36 – 44 by 8 @.@ 0 – 11 @.@ 0 µm . On the pore edges , the cheilocystidia are similar in shape to the pleurocystidia , measuring 24 @.@ 8 – 44 @.@ 0 by 7 @.@ 3 – 11 @.@ 0 µm . The hymenium of Smith and Thiers 's variety uliginosus , when mounted in Melzer 's reagent , shows reddish globules of pigment measuring 2 – 8 µm that appear in the hyphae and throughout the hymenium , and a large ( 8 – 12 µm ) globule in the pleurocystidia .
Several chemical tests have been documented that can help confirm the identify of this species . On the cap flesh , application of formaldehyde turns the tissue pinkish , iron salts result in a colour change to greyish @-@ green , aniline causes a lavender to reddish @-@ brown colour , and phenol a purplish pink to reddish brown . On the cap cuticle , nitric acid causes an orange @-@ salmon colour , sulphuric acid creates orange @-@ red , ammonia usually makes brown , and a potassium hydroxide solution usually makes orange .
= = Similar species = =
Italian cook and author Antonio Carluccio reports this is one of the most common fungi brought to him to identify , having been mistaken for an edible species . Young specimens can be confused with many edible boletes , though as the pores become more pink the species becomes easier to identify . Some guidebooks advocate tasting the flesh , the smallest piece of which will be very bitter . The dark @-@ on @-@ light reticulation in the stalk is distinctive , and is the opposite colouration of that on the stalk of the prized Boletus edulis . T. felleus is found in the same habitat as B. badius , though the latter 's yellow tubes and blue @-@ bruising flesh easily distinguish it . B. subtomentosus can have a similar @-@ coloured cap , but its yellow pores and slender stalk aid identification .
Tylopilus rubrobrunneus , found in hardwood forests of eastern North America , is similar in appearance to T. felleus , but has a purplish to purple @-@ brown cap . It is also inedible due to its bitter taste . Another North American species , T. variobrunneus , has a cap that is reddish @-@ brown to chestnut @-@ brown , with olive tones in youth . It has shorter spores than T. felleus , typically measuring 9 – 13 by 3 – 4 @.@ 5 μm . In the field , it can be distinguished from the latter species by its mild to slightly bitter taste . T. rhoadsiae , found in the southeastern United States , has a lighter @-@ coloured cap that is smaller , up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter . The edible T. indecisus and T. ferrugineus can be confused with T. felleus , but have less reticulated stalks . The dimensions of the spores of the Australian species T. brevisporus range from 9 @.@ 2 to 10 @.@ 5 by 3 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 9 μm . T. neofelleus , limited in distribution to deciduous forests of China , New Guinea , Japan , and Taiwan , can be distinguished from T. felleus macroscopically by its vinaceous @-@ brown cap and pinkish @-@ brown to vinaceous stalk , and microscopically by its smaller spores ( measuring 11 – 14 by 4 – 5 μm ) and longer pleurocystidia ( 49 – 107 by 14 – 24 μm ) .
= = Ecology , distribution and habitat = =
Like all Tylopilus species , T. felleus is mycorrhizal . It is found in deciduous and coniferous woodland , often under beech and oak in well @-@ drained acid soils , which can be sandy , gravelly or peaty . If encountered on calcareous ( chalky ) soil , it will be in moist areas that have become waterlogged and have ample leaf litter . Fruit bodies grow singly or in small groups , and occasionally in small clusters with two or three joined at the base of the stem . Fruit bodies have also been growing in the cavities of old trees , on old conifer stumps , or on buried rotten wood . The fungus obtains most of its nitrogen requirements from amino acids derived from the breakdown of proteins , although a lesser amount is obtained from the amino sugar glucosamine ( a breakdown product of chitin , a major component of fungal cell walls ) . The mycorrhizal plant partner benefits from the fungus 's ability to use these forms of nitrogen , which are often abundant in the forest floor . Fruit bodies appear over summer and autumn , anytime from June to October or even November , in many of the northern temperate zones . Large numbers may appear in some years , and none in others , generally proportional to the amount of rainfall . Variety uliginosus , known from Michigan , grows among lichens and mosses under pines .
In North America , it is known from eastern Canada , south to Florida and west to Minnesota in the United States , and into Mexico and Central America . Its European distribution is widespread ; it is relatively common in many regions , but rare or almost absent in others . In Asia , it has been recorded from the vicinity of Dashkin in the Astore District of northern Pakistan , and as far east as China , where it has been recorded from Hebei , Jiangsu , Fujian , Guangdong and Sichuan provinces , and Korea .
The strong taste of the fruit body may have some role in insects avoiding it . The small fly species Megaselia pygmaeoides feeds on and infests the fruit bodies of T. felleus in North America , though it seems to prefer other boletes in Europe . Fruit bodies can be parasitized by the mould Sepedonium ampullosporum . Infection results in necrosis of the mushroom tissue , and a yellow colour caused by the formation of large amounts of pigmented aleurioconidia ( single @-@ celled conidia produced by extrusion from the conidiophores ) .
The bacterium Paenibacillus tylopili has been isolated from the mycorrhizosphere of T. felleus ; this is the region around its subterranean hyphae where nutrients released from the fungus affect the activity of the microbial population in the soil . The bacterium excretes enzymes that allow it to break down the biomolecule chitin .
Fruit bodies of T. felleus have a high capacity to accumulate radioactive caesium ( 137Cs ) from contaminated soil , a characteristic attributed to the deep soil penetration achieved by the mycelium . In contrast , the species has a limited capacity to accumulate the radioactive isotope 210Po .
= = Edibility = =
As its common name suggests , it is extremely bitter , though not toxic as such . This bitterness is worsened by cooking . One specimen can foul the taste of a whole meal prepared with mushrooms . Despite this , it is sold in local markets ( tianguis ) in Mexico . A local recipe from France , Romania and East Germany calls for stewing it in skimmed milk after which it can be eaten , or powdered and used for flavouring . The mushroom is not bitter for those who lack genetic sensitivity to bitter taste , a trait endowed by the gene TAS2R38 ( taste receptor 2 member 38 ) . The compound responsible for the bitter taste has not been identified .
= = Research = =
The mycelium of Tylopilus felleus can be grown in axenic culture , on agar containing growth medium . The fungus can form fruit bodies if the temperature is suitable , and the light conditions simulate a 12 @-@ hour day . The mushrooms are usually deformed , often lacking stalks so that the cap grows directly on the surface , and the caps are usually 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter . There are few Boletaceae species known to fruit in culture , as ectomycorrhizal fungi tend to not fruit when separated from their host plant .
Compounds from T. felleus have been extracted and researched for potential medical uses . Tylopilan is a beta @-@ glucan that was isolated from the fruit bodies in 1988 and shown in laboratory tests to have cytotoxic properties and to stimulate non @-@ specific immunological response . In particular , it enhances phagocytosis , the process by which macrophages and granulocytes engulf and digest foreign bacteria . In experiments on mice with tumour cells , it appeared to have antitumour effects when administered in combination with a preparation of Propionibacterium acnes in a 1994 Polish study . Researchers in 2004 reported that extracts of the fruit body inhibit the enzyme pancreatic lipase ; it was the second most inhibitory of 100 mushrooms they tested . A compound present in the mushroom , N @-@ γ @-@ glutamyl boletine , has mild antibacterial activity .
= Ernest Melville Charles Guest =
Ernest Melville Charles Guest DFC ( May 1920 – 4 October 1943 ) was a Southern Rhodesian Royal Air Force pilot of the Second World War . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross in 1942 having flown more than 1 @,@ 000 operational hours . Posted to South Africa as a flight navigation instructor , he was unhappy and got himself transferred back to England on operational duties . He soon went missing in October 1943 after taking on six Ju 88s while on an anti @-@ submarine sortie .
= = Early life = =
Ernest ' Melville ' Guest was born in Salisbury , Southern Rhodesia , in May 1920 , one of the twin sons of Ernest Lucas Guest , a prominent Rhodesian politician . Before the outbreak of the Second World War , he was nominated by the Governor of Southern Rhodesia to be a Royal Air Force cadet at RAF College , Cranwell . He was granted a permanent commission as Pilot Officer in the General Duties Branch on 9 October 1939 .
= = Career = =
Shortly after he passed out of Cranwell , he returned home on leave to attend the wedding of his elder sister , Gwen , and a telegram addressed to him was included by mistake in the congratulatory telegrams read out at the reception . It read : " Return to England immediately and report to Air Ministry " . He was posted to No. 206 Squadron RAF and flew a number of sorties over enemy territory . When Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands , along with Crown Princess Juliana and other members of the Dutch Royal Family fled to England in May 1940 aboard the British destroyer HMS Hereward , Guest was in the air escort that accompanied her to safety .
He was promoted to Flying Officer on 9 October 1940 and then Flight Lieutenant on 9 October 1941 .
In the meantime , he was posted to the Gambia in June 1941 with No. 200 Squadron RAF , which was formed from a section of No. 206 Squadron . Later , he transferred to
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61 Air School at George , Cape Province , South Africa , as a navigation instructor . He was unhappy at George and soon sought to return to operational duty .
Guest returned to England and joined No. 53 Squadron RAF in 1943 , flying B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers from RAF Thorney Island on anti @-@ submarine patrols over the Bay of Biscay . Soon after arriving in England , on 4 October 1943 , his and another aircraft were sent out on patrol . They were attacked by six Ju 88s . The other aircraft sought the protection of the clouds but Guest decided to fight it out . He did not return . He was pronounced missing in January 1944 .
= = Honours = =
As well as two Mentions in Despatches , he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross in 1942 :
" This officer has now completed over 1 @,@ 000 hours operational flying . His qualities of endurance are phenomenal , his ability as a pilot is exceptional , and his devotion to duty is of the highest order . All his work has been done quietly and efficiently . He has set an excellent example to the younger pilots of the Squadron . "
= = Family = =
Guest married Katherine Mary Hustler of Pannal , Yorkshire in Knaresborough in 1941 . A few weeks after his death on 4 October 1943 , she gave birth to their son , Melville , on 18 November .
= USS West Apaum ( ID @-@ 3221 ) =
USS West Apaum ( ID @-@ 3221 ) was a cargo ship in the United States Navy during World War I. She had been built as SS West Apaum for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) as part of the West boats , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States .
West Apaum sailed on three voyages for the US Navy , two after the Armistice , before she was decommissioned in July 1919 . Though little is available regarding West Apaum 's civilian career , it is known that she was sailing on a New York – Rotterdam route in early 1927 . By early 1929 , West Apaum had been laid up by the USSB , which abandoned her in 1933 . The cargo ship was scrapped in the second quarter of that same year .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Apaum , one of some 24 West ships built by Skinner & Eddy of Seattle , Washington .
West Apaum ( Skinner & Eddy No. 23 , USSB No. 88 ) was laid down on 19 March 1918 , launched on 23 May , and delivered to the Navy upon completion on 19 June . West Apaum was built in a total of 78 working days , 92 calendar days , and was tied with three other ships for tenth place on a list of the ten fastest constructed ocean @-@ going vessels compiled in 1920 . Skinner & Eddy received a $ 25 @,@ 000 bonus for completing the ship early .
The ship was 5 @,@ 537 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 409 feet 5 inches ( 124 @.@ 79 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 m ) abeam . West Apaum had a steel hull and a mean draft of 22 feet 2 @.@ 25 inches ( 6 @.@ 7628 m ) . She displaced 12 @,@ 226 t , and had a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 800 DWT . The ship had a single triple @-@ expansion steam engine powered by three coal @-@ fired boilers that drove her single screw propeller , and moved the ship at a 10 @.@ 5 @-@ knot ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ) pace .
= = Military career = =
USS West Apaum ( ID @-@ 3221 ) was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) on 20 June 1918 with Lieutenant Commander J. S. Gibson , USNRF , in command .
West Apaum departed Bremerton , Washington , on 27 June for Arica , Chile , to take on a cargo of nitrates for the United States . Sailing from there via the Panama Canal , West Apaum arrived at Savannah , Georgia , on 9 September . From there she sailed for Hampton Roads , Virginia , where she arrived on 10 October . Eight days later , loaded with rolling stock , steel rails , and other general cargo for the United States Army , the cargo ship sailed for France . Delayed at Halifax for repairs to her damaged propeller , West Apaum finally entered the harbor at La Pallice on 22 November , 11 days after the Armistice .
West Apaum unloaded her railroad goods , loaded 2 @,@ 214 long tons ( 2 @,@ 250 t ) of Army cargo , and headed for the United States on 13 December . She arrived at Hampton Roads on 3 January 1919 . West Apaum made two more voyages to France under Navy control . On her final voyage , she carried airplane materials to France and returned 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) of Army ordnance to New York on 11 July . On 25 July , West Apaum was decommissioned and returned to the USSB .
= = Civilian career = =
Little is known about West Apaum 's subsequent civilian career . In the first quarter of 1927 , it is known that West Apaum was sailing on a New York – Rotterdam route . While in this service , The New York Times , in one of just a few mentions the ship received in contemporary news coverage , reported on the transfer of one of West Apaum 's crew members to the United States Lines ocean liner Republic at sea . The crewman had fallen into an open hatchway and had fractured his skull . The two ships , located some 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) west of New York , came within 1 ⁄ 4 mile ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) of each other and the injured man was loaded on to a boat from Republic in the heavy seas . The crewman , though successfully transferred to Republic , died several hours later .
By early 1929 , West Apaum had been laid up , and was under consideration by the USSB for the installation of pulverized coal @-@ fired boilers for testing purposes , but lost out on the honor to West Alsek . No further information on West Apaum 's career is available , but it is known that she was abandoned by the USSB in 1933 , and scrapped in the second quarter of that year .
= The Simpsons Spin @-@ Off Showcase =
" The Simpsons Spin @-@ Off Showcase " is the twenty @-@ fourth episode of the eighth season of The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 11 , 1997 . The episode centers on fictional pilot episodes of non @-@ existent television series derived from The Simpsons , and is a parody of the tendency of networks to spin off characters from a hit series . As such it includes references to many different TV series . The first fictional spin @-@ off is Chief Wiggum P.I. , a cop @-@ drama featuring Chief Wiggum and Seymour Skinner . The second is The Love @-@ matic Grampa , a sitcom featuring Moe Szyslak who receives dating advice from Abraham Simpson , whose ghost is possessing a love testing machine . The final segment is The Simpson Family Smile @-@ Time Variety Hour , a variety show featuring the Simpson family except for Lisa , who has been replaced .
The episode was written by David S. Cohen , Dan Greaney and Steve Tompkins , with Ken Keeler coming up with the story and the general idea of intentionally bad writing . It was directed by Neil Affleck , and Tim Conway , Gailard Sartain and Phil Hartman guest @-@ starred . The producers were initially uneasy about the episode , as they feared that the purposely bad writing would pass off as actual bad writing . The episode , however , now figures on several lists of the most popular Simpsons episodes .
= = Plot = =
Troy McClure hosts a television special from the museum of TV and television introducing three spin @-@ off productions , created using characters from The Simpsons . The Fox network only has three filled slots for the next season and so commissions the producers of The Simpsons to create thirty @-@ five new shows . The producers instead decided to create just three new shows .
Chief Wiggum , P.I. is a cop @-@ drama spin @-@ off and a parody of Magnum , P.I. , which follows Chief Wiggum , Ralph and Seymour Skinner . Chief Wiggum and his son Ralph move to New Orleans with Seymour Skinner as Wiggum 's sidekick . Wiggum has proclaimed that he will " clean up the city " of New Orleans , but it does not take long before he meets his nemesis , Big Daddy , who warns Wiggum to stay out of his business . Soon after , Ralph disappears and Wiggum finds Big Daddy 's calling card left behind . Wiggum manages to track Big Daddy 's ransom call to the Mardi Gras , where he briefly runs into the Simpson family , and the two chase each other to Big Daddy 's mansion in the New Orlans bayou ( in reality the Louisiana governor 's mansion which Big Daddy has managed to steal ) . Chief Wiggum then threatens Big Daddy with a gun , but Big Daddy counters by tossing Ralph at his father , then jumping out the window and swimming away ( at
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the meeting , Shea offered his resignation , becoming instead a special advisor to Daniel Goldin . NASA reported that he had resigned due to health reasons . However , The Scientist offered a different interpretation , quoting sources who speculated that the bluntness of his speech , including criticisms of Goldin , may have been controversial in NASA circles .
Shea died on February 14 , 1999 , at his home in Weston , Massachusetts . He was survived by his wife Carol , six daughters , and one son .
= USS Wisconsin ( BB @-@ 9 ) =
USS Wisconsin ( BB @-@ 9 ) , an Illinois @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship , was the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for the 30th state . She was the third and final member of her class to be built . Her keel was laid down in February 1897 at the Union Iron Works in San Francisco , and she was launched in November 1898 . The completed ship was commissioned into the fleet in February 1901 . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) guns and she had a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
Wisconsin served as the flagship of the Pacific Fleet from her commissioning to 1903 ; during this period , she made one long distance cruise to American Samoa in late 1901 . In 1903 , she was transferred to the Asiatic Fleet , where she served as the Northern Squadron flagship . She returned to the United States in late 1906 , where she was overhauled extensively . In July 1908 , she joined the Great White Fleet for the second leg of its cruise around the world , which lasted until February 1909 . The ship remained in service with the Atlantic Fleet until early 1910 , when she was reduced to reserve status .
The vessel was employed as a training ship starting in 1912 , primarily for cadets from the US Naval Academy . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Wisconsin 's training duties expanded to engine room personnel . She was also assigned to the Coast Battleship Patrol Squadron . She took part in a naval review in December 1918 after the war ended . She served briefly with the fleet in 1919 , though by May 1920 , she was decommissioned . The old battleship , thoroughly obsolete by this time , was sold for scrap in January 1922 and broken up .
= = Description = =
Wisconsin was 373 feet 10 inches ( 113 @.@ 94 m ) long overall and had a beam of 72 ft 3 in ( 22 @.@ 02 m ) and a draft of 23 ft 8 in ( 7 @.@ 21 m ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 653 long tons ( 11 @,@ 840 t ) as designed and up to 12 @,@ 250 long tons ( 12 @,@ 450 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 16 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 000 kW ) and eight coal @-@ fired fire @-@ tube boilers , generating a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were replaced by cage masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 531 officers and enlisted men , which increased to 690 – 713 .
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 13 in ( 330 mm ) / 35 caliber guns guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 6 in ( 152 mm ) / 40 caliber Mark IV guns , which were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried sixteen 6 @-@ pounder guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and six 1 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , Wisconsin carried four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck mounted torpedo launchers .
Wisconsin 's main armored belt was 16 @.@ 5 in ( 419 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 4 in ( 102 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had 15 in ( 380 mm ) of armor plating on their exposed sides . Armor that was 6 in thick protected the secondary battery . The conning tower had 10 in ( 250 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
= = = Pacific and Asiatic Fleets = = =
The keel for Wisconsin was laid down on 9 February 1897 at the Union Iron Works in San Francisco . She was launched on 26 November 1898 and was commissioned into the fleet on 4 February 1901 . The ship steamed out of San Francisco on 12 March for initial training in Magdalena Bay , Mexico from 17 March to 11 April . She was back in San Francisco on 15 April for repairs , which lasted until 28 May . She then left for Port Orchard , Washington , arriving on 1 June . Wisconsin stayed there for nine days before returning to San Francisco . Later that month , she joined the battleships Oregon and Iowa , the cruiser Philadelphia , and the torpedo boat Farragut for a tour of the west coast of the United States . They arrived in Port Angeles , Washington on 29 June and proceeded to Port Whatcom , Washington on 2 July , where they took part in Independence Day celebrations . The following day , they returned to Port Angeles and took part in training exercises , which lasted to mid @-@ July .
Wisconsin entered the drydock at the Puget Sound Navy Yard in Bremerton , Washington on 23 July for repairs that lasted until 14 October . She then sailed to Honolulu , Hawaii , arriving on 23 October . There , she took on coal and continued on to American Samoa , conducting gunnery training while en route . She arrived in Tutuila on 5 November , and stayed with the collier Abarenda and the hospital ship Solace for about two weeks before steaming to Apia in German Samoa . Wisconsin left the island on 21 November for Hawaii , from which she continued on to Central America . She arrived in Acapulco , Mexico on 25 December and remained there for three days to coal . She made visits to Callao , Peru and Valparaiso , Chile before returning to Acapulco on 26 February 1902 . The ship then conducted a wide variety training exercises in Magdalena Bay and Pichilinque Bay from 5 to 22 March , before steaming up the west coast of the United States , stopping in Coronado , San Francisco , and Port Angeles . She arrived in the Puget Sound Navy Yard on 4 June for repairs that lasted until 11 August .
The ship took part in gunnery training off Tacoma and Seattle before additional maintenance at Puget Sound on 29 August . Wisconsin departed Washington on 12 September bound for Panama — then still part of Colombia — to protect American interests in the country . She was by this time serving as the flagship of the Pacific Squadron , under Rear Admiral Silas Casey . The Thousand Days ' War was being waged in Panama , and so Casey brought representatives from the two sides aboard Wisconsin for negotiations that ultimately ended the conflict . The ship left Panama on 22 November and steamed back to San Francisco , arriving on 5 December . On the 9th , Casey transferred his flag to the armored cruiser New York . Wisconsin then conducted gunnery training until 17 December , followed by another period in drydock at Puget Sound from 20 December to 13 May 1903 . She was then assigned to the Asiatic Fleet ; she coaled in Honolulu before arriving in Yokohama , Japan on 12 June . Rear Admiral P. H. Cooper , the commander of the Northern Squadron , Asiatic Fleet hoisted his flag aboard Wisconsin on 15 June .
Wisconsin spent the next three years in the Asiatic Fleet ; during this time , her routine consisted of operations off north China and Japan in the summer and in the Philippines in the winter . She visited numerous East Asian ports , including Kobe , Yokohama , Nagasaki in Japan and Amoy , Shanghai , Chefoo , Nanking , and Taku in China . The ship left the Asiatic Fleet on 20 September 1906 when she departed Yokohama , bound for Honolulu . After coaling there from 3 to 8 October , she proceeded to San Francisco , arriving on 18 October . Wisconsin spent a week there before steaming north to Puget Sound , where she was decommissioned on 16 November for a lengthy overhaul that lasted until the end of April 1908 . She then steamed south to San Francisco , where she arrived on 6 May to take part in a naval review there . She was back in Puget Sound on 21 May to have new fire control equipment installed ; the work lasted until 22 June .
= = = Great White Fleet and the Atlantic Fleet = = =
The ship then steamed back down to San Francisco in early July . There , she joined the Great White Fleet , which had departed Hampton Roads , Virginia , the previous year on the first leg of its global cruise . The Great White Fleet then began its crossing of the Pacific , with a visit to Hawaii on the way . Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne , Sydney , and Auckland . After leaving Australia , the fleet turned north for the Philippines , stopping in Manila , before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama . Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November . The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean ; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said , Egypt . The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar , where an international fleet of British , Russian , French , and Dutch warships greeted the Americans . The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909 . There , they conducted a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt .
Wisconsin steamed out of Hampton Roads on 6 March for Portsmouth , New Hampshire , arriving on the 9th . There , she entered the drydock for repairs and modifications , including a new gray paint scheme . After returning to service in June , she was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet , and she joined her unit in Hampton Roads at the end of the month . She immediate steamed back north for Portland , Maine , where she participated in Independence Day celebrations on 4 July . Wisconsin rejoined the fleet in Hampton Roads on 6 August for gunnery training off the Virginia Capes . Routine maintenance was performed at Hampton Roads during this period . In late September , she steamed to New York for the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration . The celebration saw an international fleet of warships from Germany , Britain , France , Italy , and other countries join the Atlantic Fleet to commemorate Henry Hudson 's discovery of the Hudson River . Wisconsin left the ceremonies on 5 October for repairs at Portsmouth , which lasted from 7 October to 28 November . She then returned to Hampton Roads , by way of Newport , Rhode Island , where she embarked sailors assigned to the Atlantic Fleet .
The ship conducted exercises with the rest of the fleet off the Virginia Capes until the middle of December , when she departed for New York , where she would spend Christmas and New Year 's Day . In early January 1910 , she steamed south to Cuban waters for exercises . During this period , which lasted from 12 January to 19 March , she was based in Guantanamo Bay , Cuba . After the conclusion of the exercises , Wisconsin made visits to Tompkinsville , New York , and New Orleans , Louisiana . On 22 April , she arrived back in New York , where she unloaded her stocks of ammunition , before proceeding to the Portsmouth Navy Yard . There , she was placed in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet . She was transferred to Philadelphia in April 1912 and later that year she participated in a naval review , which was held off Yonkers , New York . The ship then returned to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet ; she was placed in ordinary on 31 October 1913 . In early 1915 , Wisconsin was assigned to the United States Naval Academy Practice Squadron , along with the battleships Missouri and Ohio . The three ships made a cruise to the Pacific coast via the recently @-@ completed Panama Canal ; Wisconsin was the third battleship to transit the canal since its opening .
= = = World War I = = =
Wisconsin continued in her service as a training ship into 1917 ; she was in the Philadelphia Navy Yard on 6 April when the United States declared war on Germany , entering World War I. On the 8th , the ship began to receive men from the Naval Militia to flesh out her crew . She was placed in full commission on 23 April and was assigned to the Coast Battleship Patrol Squadron , along with Missouri and Ohio , commanded by Commander David F. Sellers . On 6 May , Wisconsin steamed to the Virginia Capes , arriving in Yorktown , Virginia the next day . From then to early August , the ship was employed as a training ship for engine room personnel in the Chesapeake Bay area . She then took part in squadron exercises from 13 to 19 August ; these included the battleships Kearsarge , Alabama , Illinois , Kentucky , Ohio , Missouri , and Maine . Wisconsin then proceeded to Port Jefferson , New York for additional exercises .
The ship then steamed to the York River in the western Chesapeake in early October , followed by a short period in drydock at the Philadelphia Navy Yard from 30 October to 18 December . She returned to the Chesapeake , where she remained into early 1918 . More repairs at Philadelphia followed from 13 May to 3 June , after which she steamed to Annapolis . While en route , she received orders to
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an " experience " than a game . Ron White of PC World similarly called it " the most relaxing experience I 've ever had that involved a computer " . Durham concluded that Cloud " would set your mind free " .
Chen and Santiago went on to co @-@ found the video game studio Thatgamecompany . Composer Vincent Diamante and Erik Nelson worked for the company on its second game , Flower . Thatgamecompany has considered remaking Cloud as a commercial video game , but has decided to do so only if the staff cannot conceive any other game ideas .
= Nauru =
Nauru ( / nɑːˈuːruː / nah @-@ OO @-@ roo or / ˈnɑːruː / NAHR @-@ oo ) , officially the Republic of Nauru ( Nauruan : Repubrikin Naoero ) and formerly known as Pleasant Island , is an island country in Micronesia in the Central Pacific . Its nearest neighbour is Banaba Island in Kiribati , 300 kilometres ( 186 mi ) to the east . It further lies northwest of Tuvalu , north of the Solomon islands , east @-@ northeast of PNG , southeast of the FSM and south of the Marshalls . With 9 @,@ 488 residents in a 21 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 1 sq mi ) area , Nauru is the smallest state in the South Pacific and third smallest state by area in the world , behind only Vatican City and Monaco .
Settled by native peoples from Micronesia and Polynesia , Nauru was annexed and claimed as a colony by the German Empire in the late 19th century . After World War I , Nauru became a League of Nations mandate administered by Australia , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . During World War II , Nauru was occupied by Japanese troops , who were bypassed by the Allied advance across the Pacific . After the war ended , the country entered into UN trusteeship . Nauru gained its independence in 1968 .
Nauru is a phosphate rock island with rich deposits near the surface , which allowed easy strip mining operations . It has some remaining phosphate resources which , as of 2011 , are not economically viable for extraction . Nauru boasted the highest per @-@ capita income enjoyed by any sovereign state in the world during the late 1960s and early 1970s . When the phosphate reserves were exhausted , and the island 's environment had been seriously harmed by mining , the trust that had been established to manage the island 's wealth diminished in value . To earn income , Nauru briefly became a tax haven and illegal money laundering centre . From 2001 to 2008 , and again from 2012 , it accepted aid from the Australian Government in exchange for hosting the Nauru detention centre . As a result of heavy dependence on Australia , many sources have identified Nauru as a client state of Australia .
The president of Nauru is Baron Waqa , who heads a 19 @-@ member unicameral parliament . The country is a member of the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations , the Asian Development Bank and the Pacific Islands Forum . Nauru also participates in the Commonwealth and Olympic Games . Recently Nauru became a member country of the International Renewable Energy Agency ( IRENA ) .The Republic of Nauru became the 189th member of the International Monetary Fund in April 2016 .
= = History = =
Nauru was first inhabited by Micronesians and Polynesians at least 3 @,@ 000 years ago . There were traditionally 12 clans or tribes on Nauru , which are represented in the 12 @-@ pointed star on the country 's flag . Traditionally , Nauruans traced their descent matrilineally . Inhabitants practised aquaculture : they caught juvenile ibija fish , acclimatised them to fresh water , and raised them in the Buada Lagoon , providing a reliable source of food . The other locally grown components of their diet included coconuts and pandanus fruit . The name " Nauru " may derive from the Nauruan word Anáoero , which means " I go to the beach " .
The British sea captain John Fearn , a whale hunter , became the first Westerner to visit Nauru in 1798 , calling it " Pleasant Island " . From around 1830 , Nauruans had contact with Europeans from whaling ships and traders who replenished their supplies ( particularly fresh water ) at Nauru .
Around this time , deserters from European ships began to live on the island . The islanders traded food for alcoholic palm wine and firearms . The firearms were used during the 10 @-@ year Nauruan Tribal War that began in 1878 .
Nauru was annexed by Germany in 1888 and incorporated into Germany 's Marshall Islands Protectorate for administrative purposes . The arrival of the Germans ended the civil war , and kings were established as rulers of the island . The most widely known of these was King Auweyida . Christian missionaries from the Gilbert Islands arrived in 1888 . The German settlers called the island Nawodo or Onawero . The Germans ruled Nauru for almost three decades . Robert Rasch , a German trader who married a Nauruan woman , was the first administrator , appointed in 1890 .
Phosphate was discovered on Nauru in 1900 by the prospector Albert Fuller Ellis . The Pacific Phosphate Company began to exploit the reserves in 1906 by agreement with Germany , exporting its first shipment in 1907 . In 1914 , following the outbreak of World War I , Nauru was captured by Australian troops . In 1919 it was agreed by the Allied and Associated Powers that His Britanic Majesty should be the administering authority under a League of Nations mandate . The Nauru Island Agreement made in 1919 between the governments of the United Kingdom , Australia and New Zealand provided for the administration of the island and for working of the phosphate deposits by an inter @-@ governmental British Phosphate Commission ( BPC ) . The terms of the League of Nations Mandate were drawn up in 1920 .
The island experienced an influenza epidemic in 1920 , with a mortality rate of 18 per cent among native Nauruans .
In 1923 , the League of Nations gave Australia a trustee mandate over Nauru , with the United Kingdom and New Zealand as co @-@ trustees . On 6 and 7 December 1940 , the German auxiliary cruisers Komet and Orion sank five supply ships in the vicinity of Nauru . Komet then shelled Nauru 's phosphate mining areas , oil storage depots , and the shiploading cantilever .
Japanese troops occupied Nauru on 25 August 1942 . The Japanese built an airfield which was bombed for the first time on 25 March 1943 , preventing food supplies from being flown to Nauru . The Japanese deported 1 @,@ 200 Nauruans to work as labourers in the Chuuk islands . Nauru , which had been bypassed and left to " wither on the vine " by American forces , was finally liberated on 13 September 1945 , when commander Hisayaki Soeda surrendered the island to the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Navy .
This surrender was accepted by Brigadier J. R. Stevenson , who represented Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee , the commander of the First Australian Army , on board the warship HMAS Diamantina . Arrangements were made to repatriate from Chuuk the 737 Nauruans who survived Japanese captivity there . They were returned to Nauru by the BPC ship Trienza in January 1946 .
In 1947 , a trusteeship was established by the United Nations , with Australia , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom as trustees . In 1947 , a United Nations trusteeship agreement between the three countries was approved by the United Nations . Under those arrangements , the UK , Australia and New Zealand were a joint administering authority . The Nauru Island Agreement provided for the first Administrator to be appointed by Australia for 5 years , leaving subsequent appointments to be decided by the three governments . However , in practice , administrative power was exercised by Australia alone .
Nauru became self @-@ governing in January 1966 , and following a two @-@ year constitutional convention it became independent in 1968 under founding president Hammer DeRoburt . In 1967 , the people of Nauru purchased the assets of the British Phosphate Commissioners , and in June 1970 control passed to the locally owned Nauru Phosphate Corporation . Income from the mines gave Nauruans one of the highest standards of living in the Pacific . In 1989 , Nauru took legal action against Australia in the International Court of Justice over Australia 's administration of the island , in particular Australia 's failure to remedy the environmental damage caused by phosphate mining . Certain Phosphate Lands : Nauru v. Australia led to an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement to rehabilitate the mined @-@ out areas of Nauru .
= = Geography = =
Nauru is a 21 square kilometres ( 8 sq mi ) oval @-@ shaped island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean , located 42 kilometres ( 26 mi ) south of the Equator . The island is surrounded by a coral reef , which is exposed at low tide and dotted with pinnacles . The presence of the reef has prevented the establishment of a seaport , although channels in the reef allow small boats access to the island . A fertile coastal strip 150 to 300 metres ( 490 to 980 ft ) wide lies inland from the beach .
Coral cliffs surround Nauru 's central plateau . The highest point of the plateau , called the Command Ridge , is 71 metres ( 233 ft ) above sea level .
The only fertile areas on Nauru are on the narrow coastal belt , where coconut palms flourish . The land surrounding Buada Lagoon supports bananas , pineapples , vegetables , pandanus trees and indigenous hardwoods such as the tomano tree .
Nauru was one of three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean , along with Banaba ( Ocean Island ) in Kiribati and Makatea in French Polynesia . The phosphate reserves on Nauru are now almost entirely depleted . Phosphate mining in the central plateau has left a barren terrain of jagged limestone pinnacles up to 15 metres ( 49 ft ) high . Mining has stripped and devastated about 80 percent of Nauru 's land area , and has also affected the surrounding Exclusive Economic Zone ; 40 percent of marine life is estimated to have been killed by silt and phosphate runoff .
There are limited natural fresh water resources on Nauru . Rooftop storage tanks collect rainwater . The islanders are mostly dependent on three desalination plants housed at Nauru 's Utilities Agency .
= = = Climate = = =
Nauru 's climate is hot and very humid year @-@ round because of its proximity to the equator and the ocean . Nauru is hit by monsoon rains between November and February , but does not typically experience cyclones . Annual rainfall is highly variable and is influenced by the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation , with several significant recorded droughts . The temperature on Nauru ranges between 26 and 35 ° C ( 79 and 95 ° F ) during the day and between 22 and 34 ° C ( 72 and 93 ° F ) at night .
= = = Ecology = = =
Fauna is sparse on the island due to a combination of a lack of vegetation and the consequences of phosphates mining . Many indigenous birds have disappeared or become rare owing to destruction of their habitat . There are about 60 recorded vascular plant species native to the island , none of which are endemic . Coconut farming , mining , and introduced species have caused serious disturbance to the native vegetation .
There are no native land mammals , but there are native insects , land crabs , and birds , including the endemic Nauru reed warbler . The Polynesian rat , cats , dogs , pigs , and chickens have been introduced to Nauru from ships . The diversity of the reef marine life makes fishing a popular activity for tourists on the island , as well as SCUBA diving and snorkelling .
= = Politics = =
Nauru is a republic with a parliamentary system of government . The president is both head of state and head of government . A 19 @-@ member unicameral parliament is elected every three years . The parliament elects the president from its members , and the president appoints a cabinet of five to six members .
Nauru does not have any formal structure for political parties , and candidates typically stand for office as independents ; fifteen of the 19 members of the current Parliament are independents . Four parties that have been active in Nauruan politics are the Nauru Party , the Democratic Party , Nauru First , and the Centre Party . However , alliances within the government are often formed on the basis of extended family ties rather than party affiliation .
From 1992 to 1999 , Nauru had a local government system known as the Nauru Island Council ( NIC ) . This nine @-@ member council was designed to provide municipal services . The NIC was dissolved in 1999 and all assets and liabilities became vested in the national government . Land tenure on Nauru is unusual : all Nauruans have certain rights to all land on the island , which is owned by individuals and family groups . Government and corporate entities do not own any land , and they must enter into a lease arrangement with landowners to use land . Non @-@ Nauruans cannot own land on the island .
Nauru had 17 changes of administration between 1989 and 2003 . Bernard Dowiyogo died in office in March 2003 and Ludwig Scotty was elected as the president , later being re @-@ elected to serve a full term in October 2004 . Following a vote of no confidence on 19 December 2007 , Scotty was replaced by Marcus Stephen . Stephen resigned in November 2011 , and Freddie Pitcher became President . Sprent Dabwido then filed a motion of no confidence in Pitcher , resulting in
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was unimpressed with his new province , complaining that
" ' A villa without order , two presidios , seven missions , and an errant population of scarcely 4 @,@ 000 persons of both sexes and all ages that occupies an immense desert country , stretching from the abandoned presidio of Los Adaes to San Antonio , ... does not deserve the name of the Province of Texas ... nor the concern entailed in its preservation . ' "
Despite his distaste for the area , he increased the number of troops in the interior provinces by 50 % and created units of " light troops " which did not carry all of the heavy gear and could fight on foot . His administration also attempted to build alliances with native troops , and planned to work with the Comanche and the Wichita to wipe out the Apache raiders . The plan was shelved when Spain entered the American Revolution as an ally of the French and the American revolutionaries and money and troops were diverted to attacking Florida instead of exterminating the Apaches . After soldiers in Coahuila aligned with the Mescaleros against the Lipan Apaches , however , Spain was able to sign a peace treaty with the Lipans . The Comanches were also becoming more brazen , attacking Presidio La Bahía in 1781 , where they were repulsed .
After hearing that Englishman George Gauld had surveyed Gulf Coast all the way to Galveston Bay in 1777 , Bernardo de Gálvez appointed a French engineer , Luis Antonio Andry , to conduct a similar survey for Spain . Andry finished his survey in March 1778 , and anchored off Matagorda Bay after running dangerously low on provisions . Over a period of days , the Karankawa lured a few men at a time from the ship with offers of assistance and killed all but one , a Mayan sailor named Tomás de la Cruz . The Karankawa also burned the ship and the newly created map , possibly the first detailed Spanish map of the Texas @-@ Louisiana coast . Several months later , the Indians living at Mission Rosario , near La Bahía , escaped to join the Karankawa , and together they began raiding livestock and harassing settlers . The governor pardoned many of the fugitives , and most of them returned to the mission . The Karankawa continued to cause difficulties for the Spanish , and in 1785 the interim commandant @-@ general , Joseph Antonio Rengel , noted that they were unable to explore in the Matagorda Bay region as long as the Karankawa held it .
The Spanish again arranged for their coastline to be mapped , and in September 1783 , José de Evia left Havana to chart the coastline between Key West and Matagorda Bay . During his journey , Evia gave Galveston Bay its name , in honor of his sponsor , De Gálvez . Evia later mapped the Nuevo Santander coast between Matagorda Bay and Tampico , part of which later belonged to Texas .
= = = Peace with the Indians = = =
For much of the 1770s , the Comanche had raided in New Mexico . They were driven from New Mexico in 1779 by a broad assault led by New Mexico governor Juan Bautista de Anza and redirected their activities to the weakly defended Texas . During the same time period the Apaches , who had been stockpiling guns received from the Karankawas , returned to raiding settlements in Texas , violating their peace treaty . The Comanche promptly declared war on the Apache .
Gálvez became the viceroy of New Spain in 1785 and regained control of the interior provinces . Gálvez ordered that the Indians be encouraged to use alcohol , which they could only get through trading , and that the firearms they were traded be poorly made so that they would be awkward to use and easy to break . His policies were never implemented , as Spain did not have the money to provide gifts such as those to the tribes . Instead , the Spanish negotiated a treaty with the Comanche in late 1785 . The treaty promised annual gifts to the Comanches , and the peace it brought lasted for the next 30 years . By late 1786 , northern and western Texas were secure enough that Pedro Vial and a single companion safely " pioneered a trail from San Antonio to Santa Fe , " a distance of 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) .
The Comanches were willing to fight the enemies of their new friends , and soon attacked the Karankawa . Over the next several years , the Comanches killed many of the Karankawa in the area and drove the others into Mexico . By 1804 , very few natives lived on the barrier islands , where the Karankawa had made their home . In January 1790 , the Comanche also helped the Spanish fight a large battle against the Mescalero and Lipan Apaches at Soledad Creek west of San Antonio . Over 1000 Comanche warriors participated in raids against the Apache in 1791 and 1792 , and the Apache were forced to scatter into the mountains in Mexico . In 1796 , Spanish officials began an attempt to have the Apache and Comanche coexist in peace , and over the next ten years the intertribal fighting declined .
In 1791 and 1792 , Fray José Francisco Garza befriended some of the Karankawa and other native peoples . Their friendship allowed Garza to explore much of the coastal areas that had been too dangerous to visit . The Indians requested that Garza build a mission at the junction of the San Antonio and Guadalupe Rivers , and in February 1793 Mission Nuestra Señora del Refugio opened near Mission Lake at the head of San Antonio Bay . Over 230 Indians lived at the mission initially , but within two years they were forced to move to a less flood @-@ prone site , which became known as Refugio . By the end of the eighteenth century , only a small number of the hunting and gathering tribes within Texas had not been Christianized . In 1793 , mission San Antonio de Valero was secularized , and the following year the four remaining missions at San Antonio were partially secularized .
= = = Comanchería = = =
The Comanches were the dominant group in the Southwest from the 1750s to the 1830s , and the domain they ruled was an empire known as Comanchería . Confronted with Spanish , Mexican , and American outposts on their periphery in New Mexico , Texas , and Coahuila and Nueva Vizcaya in northern Mexico , they worked to increase their own safety , prosperity and power . Their empire collapsed after the Spanish era as their villages were repeatedly decimated by epidemics of smallpox and cholera in the late 1840s ; the population plunged from 20 @,@ 000 to just a few thousand by the 1870s . The Comanches were no longer able to deal with the U.S. Army , which took over control of the region after the Mexican American War ended in 1848 .
The Comanches operated as an autonomous power inside the area claimed by Spain but not controlled by it . The Comanches used their military power to obtain supplies and labor from the Mexicans , and Indians through thievery , tribute , and kidnappings , and the Spanish could do little to stop them because the Comanches controlled most of the horses in the region and thus had more wealth and mobility . Although powered by violence , the Comanche empire was primarily an economic construction , rooted in an extensive commercial network that facilitated long @-@ distance trade . Dealing with subordinate Indians , the Comanche spread their language and culture across the region . In terms of governance , the Comanches created a centralized political system , based on a foraging market economy , and a hierarchical social organization .
= = Conflict with the United States = =
The Second Treaty of Paris in 1783 ended the American Revolution and established the United States of America . The treaty extended the new country 's western boundary to the Mississippi River and within the first year after it was signed 50 @,@ 000 American settlers crossed the Appalachian Mountains . As it was difficult to return east across the mountains , the settlers began looking toward the Spanish colonies of Louisiana and Texas to find places to sell their crops . Spain closed the mouth of the Mississippi to foreigners from 1784 until 1795 despite Thomas Jefferson 's 1790 threat to begin an Anglo @-@ Spanish war over the matter . Americans risked arrest to come to Texas , many of them desiring to capture wild mustangs in West Texas and trade with the Indians . In 1791 , Philip Nolan became the first Anglo @-@ American known to pursue horse @-@ trading in Texas , and he was arrested several times for being within Spain 's borders . The Spanish feared that Nolan was a spy , and in 1801 they sent 150 troops to capture Nolan and his party of 6 men ; Nolan was killed during the ensuing battle . By 1810 , many Americans were trading guns and ammunition to the Texas Indians , especially the Comanche , in return for livestock . Although some chiefs refused to trade with them and reported their movements to Spanish authorities , other bands welcomed the newcomers . A drought made rangeland scarce and stopped the Comanche 's herds from increasing . To meet the American demand for livestock , the Comanche turned to raiding the area around San Antonio .
The Spanish government believed that security would come with a larger population , but was unable to attract colonists from Spain or from
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with the club .
= = Background and pre @-@ season = =
Just over a month into the 2010 – 11 season , manager Martin Foyle resigned with York City fifteenth in the league table . Tamworth manager Gary Mills took over and after pushing for a play @-@ off place the team finished the season in eighth place . Released following the end of the season were Neil Barrett , Chris Carruthers , Leon Constantine , Liam Darville , Michael Gash , Levi Mackin and Andy McWilliams . George Purcell , Michael Rankine , Jonathan Smith , Peter Till and Greg Young also left the club after departing for Dover Athletic , Aldershot Town , Swindon Town , Fleetwood Town and Alfreton Town respectively . Jamal Fyfield , Michael Ingham and James Meredith signed new contracts with York , with David McDermott being retained on non @-@ contract terms .
New additions in defence ahead of the season 's start included goalkeeper Paul Musselwhite from Lincoln City and defender Lanre Oyebanjo from Histon . Midfielders to sign were Patrick McLaughlin from Newcastle United , Adriano Moké from Jerez Industrial ( via a spell at the Glenn Hoddle Academy ) , and Michael Potts from Blackburn Rovers , with winger Matty Blair joining from Kidderminster Harriers . Strikers Ashley Chambers , who had been on loan the previous season , and Liam Henderson signed from Championship sides Leicester City and Watford respectively . Striker Jason Walker was the only player signed for a fee , having cost £ 60 @,@ 000 from Luton Town .
New home and away kits were introduced for the second successive summer , the home kit featuring red shirts with a white ' V ' shape decoration toward the top of the shirt , light blue shorts with white trims on each side and white socks . The away kit included light blue shirts with the same ' V ' shape decoration , white shorts with light blue trims on each side and light blue socks . Pryers Solicitors continued as shirt sponsors for the third successive season .
= = Review = =
= = = August = = =
Walker scored an eighty @-@ third @-@ minute penalty kick and a ninetieth @-@ minute header to give York a 2 – 1 victory away at Ebbsfleet United in the opening game of the season . A second victory came in York 's first home game of the season , a 3 – 1 victory over Barrow , with Walker , McLaughlin and Blair scoring . Former Stockport County winger Danny Pilkington was signed on non @-@ contract terms following a trial with the club . The team 's first defeat of the season came after going down 1 – 0 at home to AFC Telford United , after former York striker Craig Farrell scored an eighty @-@ seventh @-@ minute goal . York responded to this by defeating Kettering Town 5 – 1 away from home , with Boucaud , Walker and Moké scoring in the first half and debutant Pilkington scoring the fifth in stoppage time . Shortly after this game , Kettering midfielder Jon Challinor was signed by York on a contract until January 2012 . York picked up their first clean sheet of the season after drawing 0 – 0 away at Fleetwood Town . A second successive defeat at home came after Alfreton Town won 1 – 0 at Bootham Crescent , with former York player Levi Mackin scoring the only goal with a penalty .
= = = September = = =
Walker scored what proved to be only a consolation after scoring in the eighty @-@ fourth @-@ minute against Tamworth , with York losing 2 – 1 after conceding two penalties , both of which were awarded from fouls committed by Chris Smith . York 's first victory in four games came after Jamie Reed scored an eighty @-@ eighth @-@ minute winner to give the side a 1 – 0 win at home to Bath City . This was followed by a 3 – 0 win away at league leaders Wrexham , with first half goals from McLaughlin , Chambers and Reed handing York victory . York then drew 2 – 2 at home to Darlington ; Reed opened the scoring in the second @-@ minute with a shot into the top corner from the edge of the penalty area , and in the seventy @-@ ninth @-@ minute Walker scored with a curling shot into the top corner to equalise for York . Chambers and Walker scored first half goals as York defeated Luton 3 – 0 at home . After a four @-@ game unbeaten run York were defeated 3 – 2 away at Gateshead , with former York loanee Jon Shaw scoring their three goals , and Walker and a Curtis own goal making up York 's tally .
= = = October = = =
Following defeat to Gateshead , York beat Stockport County away 2 – 1 after Blair and Walker scored second @-@ half goals . York then went on to beat Braintree Town 6 – 2 at home , with Chambers , McLaughlin , Fyfield , Walker and Moké scoring . Chambers scored in the sixty @-@ second @-@ minute with York 's goal in a 1 – 1 draw away at Southport , before the home side scored an equaliser nine minutes from time . Chambers scored an eighty @-@ sixth @-@ minute winner in a 2 – 1 victory at home to Grimsby Town , in which Walker had earlier scored with a bicycle kick for York in the first half . Walker scored twice at home against Cambridge United to give York a 2 – 2 draw , with the equaliser being scored direct from a free kick in the eighty @-@ ninth @-@ minute . York then beat Hayes & Yeading United 4 – 2 away , with Walker , Challinor , McLaughlin and Chambers scoring . York were knocked out of the FA Cup in the fourth qualifying round after losing 2 – 1 away at Conference league leaders Wrexham , with McLaughlin scoring York 's only goal .
= = = November = = =
A second game with Wrexham in eight days finished in a 0 – 0 draw at home , with Ingham making a number of fine saves to preserve the clean sheet . Henderson was signed by fellow Conference side Forest Green Rovers on a one @-@ month loan . York drew 0 – 0 draw away at Barrow , with Walker and Boucaud being sent off during stoppage time . Striker Moses Ashikodi was signed on loan from league rivals Kettering until January 2012 . Reed gave York the lead away at Forest Green after scoring a penalty in the eighty @-@ third @-@ minute , before the home side scored an equaliser in the fourth minute of stoppage time . York defeated Lincoln 2 – 0 at home with Pilkington and McLaughlin scoring in each half .
= = = December = = =
A second successive victory came after a 7 – 0 win at home to Kettering , in which Ashikodi scored against his parent club for his first for York goal . The other scorers were Reed , Challinor , Blair , McLaughlin and Chambers . York were held to a 0 – 0 draw away at AFC Telford , in which Boucaud , Blair and Walker were denied from scoring by opposition goalkeeper Ryan Young during the first fifteen minutes . Challinor scored during stoppage time to secure an FA Trophy first round replay with Conference North side Solihull Moors , with the match ending a 2 – 2 draw at Bootham Crescent . York won the replay away at Solihull 3 – 0 , with Smith scoring his first goal of the season and Blair scoring twice . York suffered their first league defeat since September after losing 3 – 2 at home to Kidderminster . Henderson scored his first goal for York with the equaliser away at Mansfield on Boxing Day , which finished a 1 – 1 draw .
= = = January = = =
York were 2 – 0 down in their New Year 's Day fixture at home to Mansfield until the seventy @-@ seventh @-@ minute when Blair scored , and in the first @-@ minute of stoppage time substitute Fyfield scored the equaliser to draw the game at 2 – 2 . Ashikodi was signed on a permanent contract until the end of the season , having scored one goal in six appearances for the club while on loan . Challinor signed an extended contract until the end of the season , while McDermott was allowed to join AFC Telford after being unable to break into the team . Henderson joined Forest Green for a second loan spell , signing until the end of the season . On the same day , York signed former Fleetwood midfielder Scott Brown on a contract until the end of the season . Blair scored both of York 's goals in a 2 – 0 victory away at Lincoln , which was the team 's first win in five league games . Striker Matthew Blinkhorn was signed on a contract until the end of the season after his contract with League of Ireland Premier Division side Sligo Rovers expired .
York won their FA Trophy second round game away at Salisbury City 6 – 2 , with Blair , Reed , McLaughlin and Blinkhorn scoring the goals . York defeated Ebbsfleet 3 – 2 at home for a second successive league win , in which Blair scored twice and James Meredith scored his first goal of the season . Smith scored York 's goal in a 1 – 1 draw away at Kidderminster with a fifty @-@ seventh @-@ minute header , before the home side equalised in the eighty @-@ fifth @-@ minute . York fought back from two goals down in the following game away at Darlington , with Smith and Chambers scoring in the second half . Transfer deadline day saw the departure of Boucaud to Luton for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 , while Norwegian midfielder Erik Tønne was signed on loan from Sheffield United until the end of the season .
= = = February = = =
Free agents Chris Doig , a Scottish defender who previously played for Aldershot Town , and Ben Swallow , a Welsh winger who previously played for Bristol Rovers , were signed on contracts until the end of the season . Middlesbrough defender Ben Gibson was signed on loan until the end of the season . York progressed to the quarter @-@ finals of the FA Trophy after Ebbsfleet were beaten 1 – 0 at home in the third round , courtesy of a second half Blair goal . Reed and Blinkhorn scored late goals to give York a 2 – 1 victory at home to Stockport , with the visitors having taken the lead earlier in the second half . York suffered
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23 . The storm 's eye rapidly dissipated and the central dense overcast became asymmetric . Forecaster Todd Kimberlain at the NHC referred to the unexplained shifts in strength as " puzzling . " However , as suddenly as the weakening took place , strengthening ensued . Very strong convection formed over the center of the storm , with some cloud tops being as cold as − 86 ° C ( − 123 ° F ) but no eye had reformed by the morning of June 24 . Throughout the day , Celia became increasingly organized , with the eye fully reforming and the structure becoming more symmetrical . Rapid intensification soon followed as the storm reached Category 4 status , becoming one of only a handful of tropical cyclones to do so during the month of June in the eastern Pacific . That evening , the storm further intensified into a Category 5 hurricane , the second storm to reach this strength during June in the Eastern Pacific basin on record . Hurricane Celia attained its peak intensity around 0000 UTC with sustained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) and a barometric pressure estimated at 921 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 2 inHg ) . The storm also displayed a well @-@ defined eye estimated to be 17 to 23 mi ( 27 to 37 km ) in diameter .
During the late morning of June 25 , Celia started rapidly weakening as it began to take a more northwesterly track into a more stable environment with cooler water temperatures and higher wind shear ; all of these conditions are highly unfavorable for tropical cyclones . By June 26 , convection associated with the hurricane had substantially lessened and cloud tops warmed . The storm also began to resume a westward track as it moved into an area of weaker steering currents . Traversing water temperatures estimated at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) , Celia continued to degenerate as it weakened to tropical storm status , by which time it was situated about 955 mi ( 1 @,@ 535 km ) southeast of the southern tip of Baja California Sur . Most of the convection associated with the system had dissipated and the center of circulation became exposed , with a small area of showers and thunderstorms to the north . Throughout June 27 , the system gradually lost its forward momentum over the open water of the Pacific Ocean but managed to maintain minimal tropical storm status longer than initially anticipated .
Intermittent bursts of deep convection kept satellite intensity estimates at 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) through the morning of June 28 . After becoming embedded within a low @-@ level westerly flow , the system began to slowly execute a small counter @-@ clockwise loop . That afternoon , Celia degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low pressure system ; operationally , the system was monitored as a tropical depression for an additional six hours before the final advisory from the NHC was issued . The remnants of Celia continued to drift towards the north before finally dissipating on June 30 , about 990 mi ( 1 @,@ 590 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California Sur .
= = Impact and records = =
Throughout the hurricane 's track , it posed little to no threat to any major landmasses or populated islands . During Celia 's early development stages , it brought moderate rainfall to parts of Oaxaca and Guerrero ; however , no loss of life or structural damage was reported . Beaches in both states increased the number of lifeguards on duty since the threat of rip currents would remain high for several days . On June 22 , the Sistema Nacional de Protección Civil ( National System of Civil Protection ) in the Mexican state of Jalisco raised the alert level to stage two for coastal areas . People were urged to be cautious about venturing out into coastal waters as the storm produced rough seas near the coast . The alert was later expanded upon to include coastal areas of Michoacán and Colima . Although out of the storm 's projected path , a precautionary alert was issued for Socorro Island . However , between June 22 and 23 , the outer bands of the storm brought unsettled weather to France 's Clipperton Island . Since this island is unpopulated , the NHC did not issue any warnings for it .
During the evening of June 24 , Hurricane Celia intensified into a powerful Category 5 storm , further solidifying it as the strongest of the 2010 Pacific hurricane season . At its peak , the cyclone attained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) along with a minimum pressure of 921 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 2 inHg ) . This ranks it as the second @-@ strongest June hurricane on record , as well as the eleventh @-@ strongest in the basin , and the second known Category 5 to develop during the month on record . The strongest and first known storm of this intensity in June was Hurricane Ava in 1973 . Additionally , it also marked the first time on record that two consecutive seasons featured Category 5 hurricanes , with Hurricane Rick in October 2009 reaching this intensity , the second time two consecutive seasons had a category 5 hurricane was when hurricanes Marie and Patricia formed in 2014 and 2015 respectively . In the National Hurricane Center 's monthly tropical weather summary for June 2010 , it was stated that the accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) for the month was the highest on record , most of which is attributed to Hurricane Celia .
= Ala ( demon ) =
An ala or hala ( plural : ale or hali ) is a female mythological creature recorded in the folklore of Bulgarians , Macedonians , and Serbs . Ale are considered demons of bad weather whose main purpose is to lead hail @-@ producing thunderclouds in the direction of fields , vineyards , or orchards to destroy the crops , or loot and take them away . Extremely voracious , ale particularly like to eat children , though their gluttony is not limited to Earth . It is believed they sometimes try devouring the Sun or the Moon , causing eclipses , and that it would mean the end of the world should they succeed . When people encounter an ala , their mental or physical health , or even life , are in peril ; however , her favor can be gained by approaching her with respect and trust . Being in a good relationship with an ala is very beneficial , because she makes her favorites rich and saves their lives in times of trouble .
The appearance of an ala is diversely and often vaguely described in folklore . A given ala may look like a black wind , a gigantic creature of indistinct form , a huge @-@ mouthed , humanlike , or snakelike monster , a female dragon , or a raven . An ala may also assume various human or animal shapes , and can even possess a person 's body . It is believed that the diversity of appearances described is due to the ala 's being a synthesis of a Slavic demon of bad weather and a similar demon of the central Balkans pre @-@ Slavic population . In folk tales with a humanlike ala , her personality is similar to that of the Russian Baba Yaga . Ale are said to live in the clouds , or in a lake , spring , hidden remote place , forest , inhospitable mountain , cave , or gigantic tree . While ale are usually hostile towards humans , they do have other powerful enemies that can defeat them , like dragons . In Christianized tales , St. Elijah takes the dragons ' role , but in some cases the saint and the dragons fight ale together . Eagles are also regarded as defenders against ale , chasing them away from fields and thus preventing them from bringing hail clouds overhead .
= = Origin = =
While some mythological beings are common to all Slavic ethnic groups , ale seem to be exclusive to Bulgarian , Macedonian and Serb folklore . Even so , other Slavic groups also had demons of bad weather . Among East Slavs , this witch was called Baba Yaga , and was imagined as a woman of gigantic stature with a big nose , iron teeth , and protruding chin ; it was believed that she ate children , and her presence brought thunderstorms and cold weather . The term baba is present in customs , beliefs , and toponyms of all Slavic groups , usually as a personification of wind , darkness , and rain . This leads some scholars to believe there was a proto @-@ Slavic divinity or demon called Baba , associated with bad weather .
Traces of beliefs in that demon are preserved among South Slavs in expressions for the bad weather common in early spring ( baba Marta , babini jarci , babine huke , etc . ) . Brought to the Balkans from the ancient homeland , these beliefs combined with those of the native populations , eventually developing into the personage of the ala . The pre @-@ Slavic Balkan source of the ala is related to the vlva , female demons of bad weather of the Vlachs of Serbia , who , like ale , led hail clouds over crops to ruin them , and uprooted trees . A Greek female demon Lamia might also have contributed in the development of the ala . Just like ale , she eats children , and is called gluttonous . In southern Serbia and Macedonia , lamnja , a word derived from lamia , is also a synonym for ala . The Bulgarian lamya has remained a creature distinct from the ala , but shares many similarities with her . The numerous variations in form of ale , ranging from the animal and half @-@ animal to the humanlike concepts , tell us that beliefs in these demons were not uniform .
= = Etymology = =
The demon ’ s name in the standard Serbian , ala , comes from dialects which lost the velar fricative , while hala is recorded in a Serbian dialect which has retained this sound and in Bulgarian . For this reason , it is believed that the original name had an initial h @-@ sound , a fact that has led Serbian scholar Ljubinko Radenković to reject the etymology given by several dictionaries , including that of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts , by which the demon ’ s name comes from the Turkish word ‘ ala ’ ( snake ) as that word lacks the h @-@ sound . The name may instead stem from the Greek word for hail , χάλαζα ( pronounced [ ˈxalaza ] ; transliterated chalaza ) . This etymology is proposed by Bulgarian scholar Ivanichka Georgieva , and supported by Bulgarian scholar Rachko Popov and Serbian scholars Slobodan Zečević , and Sreten Petrović . According to Serbian scholar Marta Bjeletić , ala and hala stem from the noun * xala in Proto @-@ South @-@ Slavic , the dialect of Proto @-@ Slavic from which South Slavic languages emerged ( x in xala represents the voiceless velar fricative ) . That noun was derived from the Proto @-@ Slavic root * xal- , denoting the fury of the elements . A possible cognate in Kashubian language might be hała - " a large creature or thing " .
= = Appearance = =
Dragon or serpent like demon connected with the wind , and thunderstorm and hail clouds . It was believed in the Gruža region of central Serbia that the ala is invisible , but that she can be heard — her powerful hissing resonated in front of the dark hail clouds .
In Bulgaria , farmers saw a horrible ala with huge wings and sword @-@ like thick tail in the contours of a dark cloud . When an ala – cloud overtook the village , villagers peered into the sky hoping to see an imperial eagle emerging there . They believed that the mighty bird with a cross on its back could banish the ala – cloud from the fields . In eastern Bulgaria , ala appeared not in clouds , but in gales and whirlwinds . In other regions of Bulgaria , the ala was seen either as a " bull with huge horns , a black cloud , dark fog or a snake @-@ like monster with six wings and twelve tails " . The ala is thought to inhabit remote mountain areas or caves , in which she keeps bad weather . In Bulgarian tradition , thunderstorms and hail clouds were interpreted as a battle between the good dragon or eagle and the evil ala .
Serbs in Kosovo believed that the ala lowers her tail to the ground and hides her head in the clouds . Anyone who saw her head became instantly insane . In a high relief carved above a window of the Visoki Dečani monastery ’ s church , an eagle clutches a snakelike ala while an eaglet looks on . According to a description from eastern Serbia , the ala is a very large creature with a snake ’ s body and a horse ’ s head . A very common opinion is that the ala is the sister of the dragon , and looks more or less like him . In a spell from eastern Serbia , the ala is described as a three @-@ headed snake :
By a description recorded in the Boljevac region , the ala is a black and horrible creature in the form of wind . Similarly , in the Homolje region of eastern Serbia , the people imagine the ala as a black wind moving over the land . Wherever she goes , a whirlwind blows , turning like a drill , and those who get exposed to the whirlwind go mad . In Bulgaria too , the ala is a violent wind that sweeps up everything in its way and brings havoc :
A belief from the Leskovac region states the ala is a monster with an enormous mouth who holds in her hand a big wooden spoon , with which she grabs and devours everything that gets in her way . One story has it that a man kept such an ala in his barn ; she drank thirty liters of milk every day . Another warns that ale in the form of twelve ravens used to take the crops from vineyards .
In eastern Serbia it was believed that ale who interact with people can metamorphose into humans or animals , after which their true selves can be seen only by so @-@ called šestaci – men with six fingers on both hands and six toes on both feet – though human @-@ looking ale cause houses to shake when they enter . By a belief recorded in the Homolje region , ale that charge to the Moon also display shapeshifting abilities : they repeatedly shift from their basic shape of two @-@ headed snakes to six @-@ fingered men who hold iron pitchforks , black young bulls , big boars , or black wolves , and back .
= = Effect on humans = =
Ale primarily destroy crops in fields , vineyards , and orchards by leading hail storm clouds overhead , usually during the first half of the summer when grain crops ripen . Ale are also believed to “ drink the crops ” , or seize the crops of a village and transport them to another place in their huge ears , thereby making some villages poor , and others rich . This was held as the reason why the Aleksandrovac region in central Serbia was so fruitful : it was where ale transported their loot . The people of Kopaonik mountain believed the local ala defended the crops of the area from other ale . If hail destroyed the crops , it was thought that an ala from another area had defeated the local ala and “ drunk the crops ” . Ale can also spread themselves over fields and thwart the ripening of the crops , or worse , consume the field 's fertility , and drink the milk from sheep , especially when it thunders . Ale also possess great strength ; when a storm uprooted trees , the people believed that an ala had done it . This resulted in a saying for a very strong man : jak kao ala , " as strong as an ala " .
At the sight of hail and thunderstorm clouds , i.e. the ala that leads them , people did not just sit and wait – they resorted to magic . In the Pomoravlje region , this magic was assisted by ala ’ s herbs , picked in levees and the places on a field where a plow turns around during plowing . These locations were considered unclean because ale visited them . In folk spells of eastern Serbia , a particular ala could be addressed by a female personal name : Smiljana , Kalina , Magdalena , Dobrica , Dragija , Zagorka , etc . An expression for addressing an ala – Maate paletinke – is of uncertain meaning . One of the spells that was used upon sighting hail clouds , and which explicitly mentioned an ala , was shouted in the direction of the clouds :
Another spell was spoken by a vračara , a woman versed in magic , while she performed a suitable ritual :
As several other supernatural entities were also held responsible for bringing hail and torrential rains , when the entity is not explicitly named , it is often impossible to conclude to which the magical measures apply . There was , for example , a custom used when the approach of a thunderstorm was perceived : to bring a table in front of the house , and to put bread , salt , a knife with a black sheath , and an axe with its edge directed skywards on the table . By another custom , a fireplace trivet with its legs directed skywards , knives , forks , and the stub of the Slava candle were put on the table .
Another characteristic attributed to the ala is extreme voracity ; in the Leskovac region , she was imagined as a monster with a huge mouth and a wooden spoon in her hand , with which she grabbed and devoured whatever came her way . According to a widely spread tradition , ale used to seize children and devour them in her dwelling , which was full of children ’ s bones and spilt blood . Less often , they attacked and ate adults ; they were able to find a hidden human by smell .
People in eastern and southern Serbia believed that ale , in their voracity , attacked the Sun and the Moon . They gradually ate more and more of those celestial bodies , thereby causing an eclipse . During an eclipse , the Sun turned red because it was covered with its own blood as a result of the ale ’ s bites ; when it shone brightly again , that meant it had defeated the ale . The spots on the Moon were seen as scars from the ale ’ s bites . While ale devoured the Sun or the Moon , many elderly people became depressed and even wept in fear . If ale succeeded in devouring the Sun , the world would end . To prevent that , men shot their guns toward the eclipse or rang bells , and women cast spells incessantly . There was a notion in the Homolje region that , if ale succeeded in devouring the Moon , the Sun would die from sorrow , and darkness would overwhelm the world .
Ale were believed to be able to make men insane ; in eastern Serbia there is a special term for such a man : alosan . When people encountered an ala on a road or field , they could get dangerous diseases from her . Ale are also responsible for dogs ’ rabies , although indirectly : a skylark that reaches the clouds and encounters an ala there goes mad ( alosan ) , plunges to the ground , and so kills itself ; a dog that finds and eats the bird goes mad too .
Traversing a crossroads at night was considered dangerous because it was the place and time of the ala ’ s supper ; the unfortunate person who stepped on an “ ala ’ s table ” could become blind , deaf , or lame . Ale gather at night on the eves of greater holidays , divert men from their ways into gullies , and torture them there by riding them like horses .
Ala can “ sneak ” into humans , gaining a human form while retaining their own properties . A tradition has it that an ala sneaked into St. Simeon , which made him voracious , but St. Sava took her out of him . In a tale recorded in eastern Serbia and Bulgaria , a farmer killed an ala who possessed a skinny man living in a distant village , because the ala destroyed his vineyard . In another story , an ala gets into a deceased princess and devours the soldiers on watch .
A human going into an ala ’ s house , which is frequently deep in a forest , but may also be in the clouds , in a lake , spring , cave , gigantic tree , or other hidden remote place , or on an inhospitable mountain , can have varied consequences . If he approaches the ala with an appeal , and does not mention the differences between her and humans , he will be rewarded . Otherwise , he will be cruelly punished . According to one story , a stepdaughter , driven away from home by her stepmother , comes to an ala ’ s house ; addresses her with the word mother ; picks lice from the ala ’ s hair full of worms ; and feeds the ala ’ s “ livestock ” of owls , wolves , badgers , and other wild animals ; behaving and talking as if these things are quite normal to her , and is rewarded by the ala with a chest filled with gold . When the stepmother ’ s daughter comes to the ala ’ s house , she does the opposite , and the ala punishes her and her mother by sending them a chest of snakes , which blind them . In another example , when a prince asks an ala for her daughter ’ s hand , she saves him from other ale , and helps him get married . But when a girl to whom an ala is the godmother visits the ala with her mother , the ala eats them both because the mother talked about the strange things in her house .
That even a dead ala is bad is seen in the legend explaining the origin of the Golubatz fly ( Simulium colombaschense ) , a species of bloodsucking black fly ( of the genus Simulium ) that can be lethal to livestock . The legend , recorded in the Požarevac District in the 19th century by Vuk Karadžić , tells how a Serbian man , after a chase , caught and wounded an ala , but she broke away and fled into a cave near Golubac ( a town in the district ) , where she died of the wounds . Ever since , her body has bred the Golubatz flies , and in late spring , they fly out of the cave in a big swarm , spreading as far as Šumadija . People walled up the cave ’ s opening once , but when the time came for the flies to swarm , the wall shattered .
= = = Aloviti men = = =
In Serbia , men believed to possess properties of an ala were called aloviti ( ala @-@ like ) men , and they were given several explanations . An ala may have sneaked into them ; these were recognized by their voracity , because the ala , in order to satisfy her excessive hunger , drove them to eat incessantly . They may also have survived an ala blowing on them – an ala ’ s breath is usually lethal to humans . These people would then become exceptionally strong . Alternatively , they could be the offspring of an ala and a woman , or could have been born covered with the caul . It was believed that aloviti men could not be killed with a gun or arrow , unless gold or silver was used .
Like ale , aloviti men led hail @-@ producing and thunderstorm clouds : when the skies darkened , such a man would fall into a trance , and his spirit would fly out of his body toward the clouds as if his spirit were an ala herself . There was , however , a significant difference – he never led the clouds over the fields of his own village ; the damage was done to the neighboring villages . In this respect , aloviti men are equivalent to zduhaći . Besides leading clouds away , an aloviti man could also fight against ale to protect his village . Children , too , could be aloviti , and they fought ale using plough beams . In these fights they were helped by the Aesculapian snake ( smuk in Serbian ) , and for this reason people would not hurt these snakes .
There is a story about an aloviti man , who is described as unusually tall , thin , bony @-@ faced , and with a long beard and moustache . When the weather was nice , he worked and behaved like the other people in his village , but as soon as the dark clouds covered the sky , he used to close himself in his house , put blinds on the windows , and remain alone and in a trance as long as the bad weather and thunder lasted . Historical persons believed to be aloviti men are Stefan Nemanja , and Stefan Dečanski .
In modern Serbian adjective ' ' alav ' ' still signifies voracious appetite .
= = Adversaries = =
Ale have several adversaries , including dragons , zmajeviti ( dragon @-@ like ) men , eagles , St. Elijah , and St. Sava . The principal enemy of the ala is the dragon ; he is able to defeat her and eliminate her harmful effects . Dragons are thus seen as guardians of the fields and harvest , and as protectors
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business differences " that would make him " feel like a complete hypocrite waving and smiling with them at a fake reunion " . The following year , EMI / Capitol settled a decade @-@ long lawsuit filed by the band over royalties , clearing the way to commercially package previously unreleased material .
= = = = 1990s = = = =
Live at the BBC , the first official release of unissued Beatles performances in seventeen years , appeared in 1994 . That same year McCartney , Harrison and Starr collaborated on the Anthology project . Anthology was the culmination of work begun in 1970 , when Apple Corps director Neil Aspinall , their former road manager and personal assistant , had started to gather material for a documentary with the working title The Long and Winding Road . Documenting their history in the band 's own words , the Anthology project included the release of several unissued Beatles recordings . McCartney , Harrison and Starr also added new instrumental and vocal parts to two songs recorded as demos by Lennon in the late 1970s .
During 1995 – 96 , the project yielded a television miniseries , an eight @-@ volume video set , and three two @-@ CD / three @-@ LP box sets featuring artwork by Klaus Voormann . The two songs based on Lennon demos , " Free as a Bird " and " Real Love " , were issued as new Beatles singles . The releases were commercially successful and the television series was viewed by an estimated 400 million people . In 1999 , to coincide with the re @-@ release of the 1968 film Yellow Submarine , a new soundtrack compilation CD / LP , Yellow Submarine Songtrack , was issued .
= = = = 2000s = = = =
The Beatles ' 1 , a compilation album of the band 's British and American number @-@ one hits , was released on 13 November 2000 . It became the fastest @-@ selling album of all time , with 3 @.@ 6 million sold in its first week and 13 million within a month . It topped albums charts in at least 28 countries , including the UK and US . As of April 2009 , the compilation had sold 31 million copies globally , and was the best @-@ selling album of the decade in the United States .
Harrison died from metastatic lung cancer in November 2001 . McCartney and Starr were among the musicians who performed at the Concert for George , organised by Eric Clapton and Harrison 's widow , Olivia . The tribute event took place at the Royal Albert Hall on the first anniversary of Harrison 's death . In addition to songs he composed for the group and during his solo career , the concert included a celebration of Indian classical music , which had significantly influenced Harrison .
In 2003 , Let It Be ... Naked , a reconceived version of the Let It Be album , with McCartney supervising production , was released . One of the main differences with the Spector @-@ produced version was the omission of the original string arrangements . It was a top ten hit in both Britain and America . The US album configurations from 1964 – 65 were released as box sets in 2004 and 2006 – The Capitol Albums , Volume 1 and Volume 2 included both stereo and mono versions based on the mixes that were prepared for vinyl at the time of the music 's original American release .
As a soundtrack for Cirque du Soleil 's Las Vegas Beatles stage revue , Love , George Martin and his son Giles remixed and blended 130 of the band 's recordings to create what Martin called " a way of re @-@ living the whole Beatles musical lifespan in a very condensed period " . The show premiered in June 2006 , and the Love album was released that November when McCartney discussed his hope that " Carnival of Light " , a fourteen @-@ minute experimental recording made at Abbey Road in 1967 , would receive an official release . A rare live performance involving two ex @-@ Beatles took place in April 2009 at a benefit concert organised by McCartney at New York 's Radio City Music Hall , where he was joined by Starr for three songs .
On 9 September 2009 , the Beatles ' entire back catalogue was reissued following an extensive digital remastering process that lasted four years . Stereo editions of all twelve original UK studio albums , along with Magical Mystery Tour and the Past Masters compilation , were released on compact disc both individually and as a box set . Comparing the new releases with the 1987 CDs , which had been widely criticised for their lack of clarity and dynamism , Mojo 's Danny Eccleston wrote , " the remastered vocals are purer , more natural @-@ sounding and give the illusion of sitting slightly higher in the mix . " A second collection , The Beatles in Mono , included remastered versions of every Beatles album released in true mono along with the original 1965 stereo mixes of Help ! and Rubber Soul ( which Martin had remixed for the 1987 editions ) . The Beatles : Rock Band , a music video game in the Rock Band series , was issued on the same day . In December 2009 , the band 's catalogue was officially released in FLAC and MP3 format in a limited edition of 30 @,@ 000 USB flash drives .
= = = = 2010s = = = =
Owing to a long @-@ running royalty disagreement , the Beatles were among the last major artists to sign deals with online music services . Residual disagreement emanating from Apple Corps ' dispute with Apple , Inc . , iTunes ' owners , over the use of the name " Apple " was also partly responsible for the delay , although in 2008 , McCartney stated that the main obstacle to making the Beatles ' catalogue available online was that EMI " want [ s ] something we 're not prepared to give them " . In 2010 , the official canon of thirteen Beatles studio albums , Past Masters , and the Red and Blue greatest @-@ hits albums were made available on iTunes .
In 2012 , EMI 's recorded music operations were sold to Universal Music Group . In order for Universal Music to acquire EMI , the European Union , for antitrust reasons , forced EMI to spin off assets including Parlophone . Universal was allowed to keep the Beatles ' recorded music catalogue , managed by Capitol Records under its Capitol Music Group division . Also in 2012 , the entire original Beatles album catalogue was reissued on vinyl , available either individually or as a box set .
Announced on October 2013 , The estate of John Lennon , Downtown Music Publishing will serve as U.S. administrator for the first two Beatles singles , which consisted of four songs : “ Please Please Me , ” “ Ask Me Why , ” “ Love Me Do ” and “ P.S. I Love You . ” The deal also includes the band ’ s lone post @-@ breakup song , “ Free as a Bird . ”
In 2013 , a second volume of BBC recordings entitled On Air – Live at the BBC Volume 2 was released . December of that year saw the release of another 59 Beatles recordings on iTunes . The set , titled The Beatles Bootleg Recordings 1963 , had the opportunity to gain a 70 @-@ year copyright extension conditional on the songs being published at least once before the end of 2013 . Apple Records released the recordings on 17 December to prevent them from going into the public domain and had them taken down from iTunes later that same day . Fan reactions to the release were mixed , with one blogger saying " the hardcore Beatles collectors who are trying to obtain everything will already have these . "
On 26 January 2014 , Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr performed McCartney 's " Queenie Eye " in Los Angeles at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards , held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles . The following day , The Night That Changed America : A Grammy Salute to The Beatles television special was taped in the Los Angeles Convention Center 's West Hall . It aired on 9 February , the exact date of – and at the same time , and on the same network as – the original broadcast of the Beatles ' first US television appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show , 50 years earlier . The special included performances of Beatles songs by current artists as well as by McCartney and Starr , archival footage , and Paul and Ringo being interviewed by David Letterman at the Ed Sullivan Theater , site of The Ed Sullivan Show .
In December 2015 the Beatles released their catalogue for streaming on various streaming music services .
= = Musical style and development = =
In Icons of Rock : An Encyclopedia of the Legends Who Changed Music Forever , Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz describe the Beatles ' musical evolution :
In their initial incarnation as cheerful , wisecracking moptops , the Fab Four revolutionised the sound , style , and attitude of popular music and opened rock and roll 's doors to a tidal wave of British rock acts . Their initial impact would have been enough to establish the Beatles as one of their era 's most influential cultural forces , but they didn 't stop there . Although their initial style was a highly original , irresistibly catchy synthesis of early American rock and roll and R & B , the Beatles spent the rest of the 1960s expanding rock 's stylistic frontiers , consistently staking out new musical territory on each release . The band 's increasingly sophisticated experimentation encompassed a variety of genres , including folk @-@ rock , country , psychedelia , and baroque pop , without sacrificing the effortless mass appeal of their early work .
In The Beatles as Musicians , Walter Everett describes Lennon and McCartney 's contrasting motivations and approaches to composition : " McCartney may be said to have constantly developed – as a means to entertain – a focused musical talent with an ear for counterpoint and other aspects of craft in the demonstration of a universally agreed @-@ upon common language that he did much to enrich . Conversely , Lennon 's mature music is best appreciated as the daring product of a largely unconscious , searching but undisciplined artistic sensibility . "
Ian MacDonald describes McCartney as " a natural melodist – a creator of tunes capable of existing apart from their harmony " . His melody lines are characterised as primarily " vertical " , employing wide , consonant intervals which express his " extrovert energy and optimism " . Conversely , Lennon 's " sedentary , ironic personality " is reflected in a " horizontal " approach featuring minimal , dissonant intervals and repetitive melodies which rely on their harmonic accompaniment for interest : " Basically a realist , he instinctively kept his melodies close to the rhythms and cadences of speech , colouring his lyrics with bluesy tone and harmony rather than creating tunes that made striking shapes of their own . " MacDonald praises Harrison 's lead guitar work for the role his " characterful lines and textural colourings " play in supporting Lennon and McCartney 's parts , and describes Starr as " the father of modern pop / rock drumming " .
= = = Influences = = =
The band 's earliest influences include Elvis Presley , Carl Perkins , Little Richard and Chuck Berry . During the Beatles ' co @-@ residency with Little Richard at the Star @-@ Club in Hamburg , from April to May 1962 , he advised them on the proper technique for performing his songs . Of Presley , Lennon said , " Nothing really affected me until I heard Elvis . If there hadn 't been Elvis , there would not have been the Beatles . "
Other early influences include Buddy Holly , Eddie Cochran , Roy Orbison and the Everly Brothers . The Beatles continued to absorb influences long after their initial success , often finding new musical and lyrical avenues by listening to their contemporaries , including Bob Dylan , Frank Zappa , the Lovin ' Spoonful , the Byrds and the Beach Boys , whose 1966 album Pet Sounds amazed and inspired McCartney . Referring to the Beach Boys ' creative leader , Martin later stated : " No one made a greater impact on the Beatles than Brian [ Wilson ] . " Ravi Shankar , with whom Harrison studied for six weeks in India in late 1966 , had a significant effect on his musical development during the band 's later years .
= = = Genres = = =
Originating as a skiffle group , the Beatles quickly embraced 1950s rock and roll and helped pioneer the Merseybeat genre , and their repertoire ultimately expanded to include a broad variety of pop music . Reflecting the range of styles they explored , Lennon said of Beatles for Sale , " You could call our new one a Beatles country @-@ and @-@ western LP " , while Gould credits Rubber Soul as " the instrument by which legions of folk @-@ music enthusiasts were coaxed into the camp of pop " .
Although the 1965 song " Yesterday " was not the first pop record to employ orchestral strings , it marked the group 's first recorded use of classical music elements . Gould observes : " The more traditional sound of strings allowed for a fresh appreciation of their talent as composers by listeners who were otherwise allergic to the din of drums and electric guitars . " They continued to experiment with string arrangements to various effect ; Sgt. Pepper 's " She 's Leaving Home " , for instance , is " cast in the mold of a sentimental Victorian ballad " , Gould writes , " its words and music filled with the clichés of musical melodrama " .
The band 's stylistic range expanded in another direction with their 1966 B @-@ side " Rain " , described by Martin Strong as " the first overtly psychedelic Beatles record " . Other psychedelic numbers followed , such as " Tomorrow Never Knows " ( recorded before " Rain " ) , " Strawberry Fields Forever " , " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " and " I Am the Walrus " . The influence of Indian classical music was evident in Harrison 's " The Inner Light " , " Love You To " and " Within You Without You " – Gould describes the latter two as attempts " to replicate the raga form in miniature " .
Innovation was the most striking feature of their creative evolution , according to music historian and pianist Michael Campbell : " ' A Day in the Life ' encapsulates the art and achievement of the Beatles as well as any single track can . It highlights key features of their music : the sound imagination , the persistence of tuneful melody , and the close coordination between words and music . It represents a new category of song – more sophisticated than pop ... and uniquely innovative . There literally had never before been a song – classical or vernacular – that had blended so many disparate elements so imaginatively . " Philosophy professor Bruce Ellis Benson agrees : " the Beatles ... give us a wonderful example of how such far @-@ ranging influences as Celtic music , rhythm and blues , and country and western could be put together in a new way . "
Author Dominic Pedler describes the way they crossed musical styles : " Far from moving sequentially from one genre to another ( as is sometimes conveniently suggested ) the group maintained in parallel their mastery of the traditional , catchy chart hit while simultaneously forging rock and dabbling with a wide range of peripheral influences from country to vaudeville . One of these threads was their take on folk music , which would form such essential groundwork for their later collisions with Indian music and philosophy . " As the personal relationships between the band members grew increasingly strained , their individual tastes became more apparent . The minimalistic cover artwork for the White Album contrasted with the complexity and diversity of its music , which encompassed Lennon 's " Revolution 9 " , whose musique concrète approach was influenced by Yoko Ono ; Starr 's country song " Don 't Pass Me By " ; Harrison 's rock ballad " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " ; and the " proto @-@ metal roar " of McCartney 's " Helter Skelter " .
= = = Contribution of George Martin = = =
George Martin 's close involvement in his role as producer made him one of the leading candidates for the informal title of the " fifth Beatle " . He applied his classical musical training in various ways , and functioned as " an informal music teacher " to the progressing songwriters , according to Gould . Martin suggested to a sceptical McCartney that the arrangement of " Yesterday " should feature a string quartet accompaniment , thereby introducing the Beatles to a " hitherto unsuspected world of classical instrumental colour " , in MacDonald 's description . Their creative development was also facilitated by Martin 's willingness to experiment in response to their suggestions , such as adding " something baroque " to a particular recording . In addition to scoring orchestral arrangements for recordings , Martin often performed on them , playing instruments including piano , organ and brass .
Collaborating with Lennon and McCartney required Martin to adapt to their different approaches to songwriting and recording . MacDonald comments , " while [ he ] worked more naturally with the conventionally articulate McCartney , the challenge of catering to Lennon 's intuitive approach generally spurred him to his more original arrangements , of which ' Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite ! ' is an outstanding example . " Martin said of the two composers ' distinct songwriting styles and his own stabilising influence :
Compared with Paul 's songs , all of which seemed to keep in some sort of touch with reality , John 's had a psychedelic , almost mystical quality ... John 's imagery is one of the best things about his work – ' tangerine trees ' , ' marmalade skies ' , ' cellophane flowers ' ... I always saw him as an aural Salvador Dalí , rather than some drug @-@ ridden record artist . On the other hand , I would be stupid to pretend that drugs didn 't figure quite heavily in the Beatles ' lives at that time ... they knew that I , in my schoolmasterly role , didn 't approve ... Not only was I not into it myself , I couldn 't see the need for it ; and there 's no doubt that , if I too had been on dope , Pepper would never have been the album it was . Perhaps it was the combination of dope and no dope that worked , who knows ?
Harrison echoed Martin 's description of his stabilising role : " I think we just grew through those years together , him as the straight man and us as the loonies ; but he was always there for us to interpret our madness – we used to be slightly avant @-@ garde on certain days of the week , and he would be there as the anchor person , to communicate that through the engineers and on to the tape . "
= = = In the studio = = =
Making innovative use of technology while expanding the possibilities of recorded music , the Beatles urged experimentation by Martin and his recording engineers . Seeking ways to put chance occurrences to creative use , accidental guitar feedback , a resonating glass bottle , a tape loaded the wrong way round so that it played backwards – any of these might be incorporated into their music . Their desire to create new sounds on every new recording , combined with Martin 's arranging abilities and the studio expertise of EMI staff engineers Norman Smith , Ken Townsend and Geoff Emerick , all contributed significantly to their records from Rubber Soul and , especially , Revolver onwards . Along with innovative studio techniques such as sound effects , unconventional microphone placements , tape loops , double tracking and vari @-@ speed recording , the Beatles augmented their songs with instruments that were unconventional in rock music at the time . These included string and brass ensembles as well as Indian instruments such as the sitar in " Norwegian Wood " and the swarmandal in " Strawberry Fields Forever " . They also used early electronic instruments such as the Mellotron , with which McCartney supplied the flute voices on the " Strawberry Fields Forever " intro , and the clavioline , an electronic keyboard that created the unusual oboe @-@ like sound on " Baby , You 're a Rich Man " .
= = Legacy = =
Former Rolling Stone associate editor Robert Greenfield compared the Beatles to Picasso , as " artists who broke through the constraints of their time period to come up with something that was unique and original ... [ I ] n the form of popular music , no one will ever be more revolutionary , more creative and more distinctive ... " The British poet Philip Larkin described their work as " an enchanting and intoxicating hybrid of Negro rock @-@ and @-@ roĺl with their own adolescent romanticism " , and " the first advance in popular music since the War " . They not only sparked the British Invasion of the US , they became a globally influential phenomenon as well . From the 1920s , the United States had dominated popular entertainment culture throughout much of the world , via Hollywood movies , jazz , the music of Broadway and Tin Pan Alley and , later , the rock and roll that first emerged in Memphis , Tennessee .
Their musical innovations and commercial success inspired musicians worldwide . Many artists have acknowledged the Beatles ' influence and enjoyed chart success with covers of their songs . On radio , their arrival marked the beginning of a new era ; in 1968 the programme director of New York 's WABC radio station forbade his DJs from playing any " pre @-@ Beatles " music , marking the defining line of what would be considered oldies on American radio . They helped to redefine the album as something more than just a few hits padded out with " filler " , and they were primary innovators of the modern music video . The Shea Stadium show with which they opened their 1965 North American tour attracted an estimated 55 @,@ 600 people , then the largest audience in concert history ; Spitz describes the event as a " major breakthrough ... a giant step toward reshaping the concert business " . Emulation of their clothing and especially their hairstyles , which became a mark of rebellion , had a global impact on fashion .
According to Gould , the Beatles changed the way people listened to popular music and experienced its role in their lives . From what began as the Beatlemania fad , the group 's popularity grew into what was seen as an embodiment of sociocultural movements of the decade . As icons of the 1960s counterculture , Gould continues , they became a catalyst for bohemianism and activism in various social and political arenas , fuelling movements such as women 's liberation , gay liberation and environmentalism . According to Peter Lavezzoli , after the " more popular than Jesus " controversy in 1966 , the Beatles felt considerable pressure to say the right things and " began a concerted effort to spread a message of wisdom and higher consciousness " .
= = Awards and achievements = =
In 1965 , Queen Elizabeth II appointed Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Starr Members of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) . The film Let It Be ( 1970 ) won the 1971 Academy Award for Best Original Song Score . The recipients of seven Grammy Awards and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards , the Beatles have been awarded six Diamond albums , as well as 24 Multi @-@ Platinum albums , 39 Platinum albums and 45 Gold albums in the United States . In the UK , the Beatles have four Multi @-@ Platinum albums , four Platinum albums , eight Gold albums and one Silver album . They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 .
The best @-@ selling band in history , the Beatles have sold between 600 million and ( at EMI estimates ) over 1 billion units worldwide . They have had more number @-@ one albums on the British charts , fifteen , and sold more singles in the UK , 21 @.@ 9 million , than any other act . In 2004 , Rolling Stone ranked the Beatles as the best artist of all time . They ranked number one on Billboard magazine 's list of the all @-@ time most successful Hot 100 artists , released in 2008 to celebrate the US singles chart 's 50th anniversary . As of 2016 , they hold the record for most number @-@ one hits on the Billboard Hot 100 , with twenty . The Recording Industry Association of America certifies that the Beatles have sold 178 million units in the US , more than any other artist . They were collectively included in Time magazine 's compilation of the twentieth century 's 100 most influential people . In 2014 , they received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award .
= = Members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Original UK LPs
Please Please Me ( 1963 )
With the Beatles ( 1963 )
A Hard Day 's Night ( 1964 )
Beatles for Sale ( 1964 )
Help ! ( 1965 )
Rubber Soul ( 1965 )
Revolver ( 1966 )
Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1967 )
The Beatles ( " The White Album " , 1968 )
Yellow Submarine ( 1969 )
Abbey Road ( 1969 )
Let It Be ( 1970 )
When the above albums were reissued on CDs in 1988 , the American Magical Mystery Tour album ( 1967 ) and the double @-@ CD compilation set Past Masters were included so the full set would contain every track commercially released in the band 's lifetime .
See also
John Lennon discography
Paul McCartney discography
George Harrison discography
Ringo Starr discography
Collaborations between ex @-@ Beatles
= = Song catalogue = =
Through 1969 , the Beatles ' catalogue was published almost exclusively by Northern Songs Ltd . , a company formed in February 1963 by music publisher Dick James specifically for Lennon and McCartney , though it later acquired songs by other artists . The company was organised with James and his partner , Emmanuel Silver , owning a controlling interest , variously described as 51 % or 50 % plus one share . McCartney had 20 % . Reports again vary concerning Lennon 's portion – 19 or 20 % – and Brian Epstein 's – 9 or 10 % – which he received in lieu of a 25 % band management fee .
In 1965 , the company went public . Five million shares were created , of which the original principals retained 3 @.@ 75 million . James and Silver each received 937 @,@ 500 shares ( 18 @.@ 75 % of 5 million ) ; Lennon and McCartney each received 750 @,@ 000 shares ( 15 % ) ; and Epstein 's management company , NEMS Enterprises , received 375 @,@ 000 shares ( 7 @.@ 5 % ) . Of the 1 @.@ 25 million shares put up for sale , Harrison and Starr each acquired 40 @,@ 000 . At the time of the stock offering , Lennon and McCartney renewed their three @-@ year publishing contracts , binding them to Northern Songs until 1973 .
Harrison created Harrisongs to represent his Beatles compositions , but signed a three @-@ year contract with Northern Songs that gave it the copyright to his work through March 1968 , which included " Taxman " and " Within You Without You " . The songs on which Starr received co @-@ writing credit before 1968 , such as " What Goes On " and " Flying " , were also Northern Songs copyrights . Harrison did not renew his contract with Northern Songs when it ended , signing instead with Apple Publishing while retaining the copyright to his work from that point on . Harrisongs thus owns the rights to his later Beatles songs such as " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " and " Something " . That year , as well , Starr created Startling Music , which holds the rights to his Beatles compositions , " Don 't Pass Me By " and " Octopus 's Garden " .
In March 1969 , James arranged to sell his and his partner 's shares of Northern Songs to the British broadcasting company Associated Television ( ATV ) , founded by impresario Lew Grade , without first informing the Beatles . The band then made a bid to gain controlling interest by attempting to work out a deal with a consortium of London brokerage firms that had accumulated a 14 % holding . The deal collapsed over the objections of Lennon , who declared , " I 'm sick of being fucked about by men in suits sitting on their fat arses in the City . " By the end of May , ATV had acquired a majority stake in Northern Songs , controlling nearly the entire Lennon – McCartney catalogue , as well as any future material until 1973 . In frustration , Lennon and McCartney sold their shares to ATV in late October 1969 .
In 1981 , financial losses by ATV 's parent company , ACC , led it to attempt to sell its music division . According to authors Brian Southall and Rupert Perry , Grade contacted McCartney , offering ATV Music and Northern Songs for $ 30 million . According to an account McCartney gave in 1995 , he met with Grade and explained he was interested solely in the Northern Songs catalogue , if Grade were ever willing to " separate off " that portion of ATV Music . Soon afterwards , Grade offered to sell him Northern Songs for £ 20 million , giving the ex @-@ Beatle " a week or so " to decide . By McCartney 's account , he and Ono countered with a £ 5 million bid that was rejected . According to reports at the time , Grade refused to separate Northern Songs , and turned down an offer of £ 21 – 25 million from McCartney and Ono for ATV Music . In 1982 , ACC as a whole was sold to Australian business magnate Robert Holmes à Court for £ 60 million .
Three years later , Michael Jackson purchased ATV for a reported $ 47 @.@ 5 million . The acquisition gave him control over the publishing rights to more than 200 Beatles songs , as well as 40 @,@ 000 other copyrights . In 1995 , in a deal that earned him a reported $ 110 million , Jackson merged his music publishing business with Sony , creating a new company , Sony / ATV Music Publishing , in which he held a 50 % stake . The merger made the new company , then valued at over half a billion dollars , the third largest music publisher in the world .
Despite the lack of publishing rights to most of their songs , Lennon 's estate and McCartney continue to receive their respective shares of the writers ' royalties , which together are 33 ⅓ % of total commercial proceeds in the US and which vary elsewhere around the world between 50 and 55 % . Two of Lennon and McCartney 's earliest songs – " Love Me Do " and " P.S. I Love You " – were published by an EMI subsidiary , Ardmore & Beechwood , before they signed with James . McCartney acquired their publishing rights from Ardmore in the mid @-@ 1980s , and they are the only two Beatles songs owned by McCartney 's company MPL Communications .
= Kusumoto Ine =
Kusumoto Ine ( 楠本 イネ , 31 May 1827 – 27 August 1903 ; born Shiimoto Ine 失本 稲 ) was a Japanese physician . She was the daughter of Kusumoto Taki , who was a courtesan from Nagasaki ; and the German physician Philipp Franz von Siebold , who worked on Dejima , an island foreigners were restricted to during Japan 's long period of seclusion from the world . Ine was also known as O @-@ Ine and later in life took the name Itoku ( 伊篤 ) . In Japanese she is often called Oranda O @-@ Ine ( " Dutch O @-@ Ine " ) for her association with Dejima and its Dutch @-@ language Western learning . She was the first female doctor of Western medicine in Japan .
Siebold was banished from Japan in 1829 but managed to provide for Ine and her mother and arranged for his students and associates to care for them . Ine 's reputation grew after she became a doctor of Western medicine , and she won the patronage of the feudal lord Date Munenari . She studied in various parts of Japan under numerous teachers , one of whom impregnated her — likely having raped her — resulting in her only daughter ; she never married . She settled in Tokyo after the country ended its seclusion , and assisted in the birth by one of Emperor Meiji 's concubines in 1873 . Since her death Ine has been the subject of novels , plays , comics , and musicals in Japan .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Shiimoto Ine was born on 31 May 1827 in the city of Nagasaki . The surname Shiimoto came from a Japanese rendering of the surname of her German father , the physician Philipp Franz von Siebold , who was living on Dejima , an artificial island off Nagasaki to where foreign trade was restricted during the more than two centuries of Japan 's near @-@ total self @-@ seclusion from the world . There he played a role in introducing Western medical techniques to Japan . Ine 's mother was Kusumoto Taki , a courtesan sent at 16 from the Nagasaki pleasure district Maruyama in 1823 to be Siebold 's concubine .
Ine lived with her parents on Dejima until Siebold was banished on 22 October 1829 for allegedly exporting restricted information illicitly gathered from the geographer Takahashi Kageyasu . He was accused of smuggling items including maps which it was believed could fall into the hands of Japan 's enemies , such as Russia , which posed a threat on Japan 's northern borders . Taki and the two @-@ year @-@ old Ine were not permitted to leave Japan ; they waved him goodbye from a small boat in the harbour as his ship left . Taki soon after married a man named Wasaburō .
The wealthy Siebold left Taki and Ine with a stockpile of valuable sugar to support themselves and arranged for his associates to watch over them . He sent Ine books of Dutch grammar , important for Western studies at the time in Japan , and students of Siebold 's contributed to her education . An apocryphal story tells of Ine running away at age 14 or 15 to study medicine with one of them , Ninomiya Keisaku , in Uwajima Domain , where he had been placed under house arrest for his involvement in the Siebold Affair .
= = = Education and early career = = =
Ine 's medical training got an official start in 1845 when she began studying obstetrics in Okayama Domain under another of Siebold 's students , Ishii Sōken , through the introduction of Ninomiya Keisaku . She cut her studies with Sōken short when in 1851 he impregnated her . She returned to Nagasaki , where she gave birth in 1852 to a daughter , whom she named Tada , meaning " free " , symbolizing that heaven had granted her this child " for free " . Her account of her mother 's life is amongst those that assert Ine 's pregnancy resulted from Sōken having raped her , though hard evidence is lacking . Ine was to rebuff Sōken 's attempts to become involved in Tada 's life .
Ine continued her studies in Nagasaki under Abe Roan . In 1854 she left Tada with her mother and went with Ninomiya Keisaku 's nephew Mise Shūzō to study under Keisaku in Uwajima , whose lord , the daimyo Date Munenari , enthusiastically promoted Western learning . After he suffered a stroke in 1856 , Keisaku returned to Nagasaki with Ine and Shūzō .
Japan 's seclusion came to an end in 1854 and in 1859
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ic communities . It disturbs ( bioturbates ) the sea floor , releasing nutrients into the water column , encouraging mixing and movement of many organisms and increasing the patchiness of the benthos .
Seal tissue has been observed in fairly significant proportion of walrus stomachs in the Pacific , but the importance of seals in the walrus diet is under debate . There have been isolated observations of walruses preying on seals up to the size of a 200 kg ( 440 lb ) bearded seal . Rarely , incidents of walruses preying on seabirds , particularly the Brünnich 's guillemot ( Uria lomvia ) , have been documented . Walruses may occasionally prey on ice @-@ entrapped narwhals and scavenge on whale carcasses but there is little evidence to prove this .
= = = Predation = = =
Due to its great size and tusks , the walrus has only two natural predators : the killer whale ( orca ) and the polar bear . The walrus does not , however , comprise a significant component of either predator 's diets . Both the orca and the polar bear are also most likely to prey on walrus calves . The polar bear often hunts the walrus by rushing at beached aggregations and consuming the individuals crushed or wounded in the sudden exodus , typically younger or infirm animals . The bears also isolate walruses when they overwinter and are unable to escape a charging bear due to inaccessible diving holes in the ice . However , even an injured walrus is a formidable opponent for a polar bear , and direct attacks are rare . Walruses have been known to fatally injure polar bears in battles if the latter follows the other into the water where the bear is at a disadvantage . Polar bear – walrus battles are often extremely protracted and exhausting , and bears have been known to forgo the attack after injuring a walrus . Orcas regularly attack walrus , although walruses are believed to have successfully defended themselves via counterattack against the larger cetacean . However , orcas have been observed successfully attacking walruses with few or no injuries .
= = Relation to humans = =
= = = Conservation = = =
In the 18th and 19th centuries , the walrus was heavily exploited by American and European sealers and whalers , leading to the near extirpation of the Atlantic population . Commercial walrus harvesting is now outlawed throughout its range , although Chukchi , Yupik and Inuit peoples continue to kill small numbers towards the end of each summer .
Traditional hunters used all parts of the walrus . The meat , often preserved , is an important winter nutrition source ; the flippers are fermented and stored as a delicacy until spring ; tusks and bone were historically used for tools , as well as material for handicrafts ; the oil was rendered for warmth and light ; the tough hide made rope and house and boat coverings ; and the intestines and gut linings made waterproof parkas . While some of these uses have faded with access to alternative technologies , walrus meat remains an important part of local diets , and tusk carving and engraving remain a vital art form .
According to Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld , European hunters and Arctic explorers found walrus meat not particularly tasty , and only ate it in case of necessity ; however walrus tongue was a delicacy .
Walrus hunts are regulated by resource managers in Russia , the United States , Canada , and Denmark , and representatives of the respective hunting communities . An estimated four to seven thousand Pacific walruses are harvested in Alaska and in Russia , including a significant portion ( about 42 % ) of struck and lost animals . Several hundred are removed annually around Greenland . The sustainability of these levels of harvest is difficult to determine given uncertain population estimates and parameters such as fecundity and mortality . The Boone and Crockett Big Game Record book has entries for Atlantic and Pacific walrus . The recorded largest tusks are just over 30 inches and 37 inches long respectively .
The effects of global climate change are another element of concern . The extent and thickness of the pack ice has reached unusually low levels in several recent years . The walrus relies on this ice while giving birth and aggregating in the reproductive period . Thinner pack ice over the Bering Sea has reduced the amount of resting habitat near optimal feeding grounds . This more widely separates lactating females from their calves , increasing nutritional stress for the young and lower reproductive rates . Reduced coastal sea ice has also been implicated in the increase of stampeding deaths crowding the shorelines of the Chukchi Sea between eastern Russia and western Alaska . However , there are insufficient climate data to make reliable predictions on population trends .
Currently , two of the three walrus subspecies are listed as " least @-@ concern " by the IUCN , while the third is " data deficient " . The Pacific walrus is not listed as " depleted " according to the Marine Mammal Protection Act nor as " threatened " or " endangered " under the Endangered Species Act . The Russian Atlantic and Laptev Sea populations are classified as Category 2 ( decreasing ) and Category 3 ( rare ) in the Russian Red Book . Global trade in walrus ivory is restricted according to a CITES Appendix 3 listing .
= = = Culture = = =
The walrus plays an important role in the religion and folklore of many Arctic peoples . Skin and bone are used in some ceremonies , and the animal appears frequently in legends . For example , in a Chukchi version of the widespread myth of the Raven , in which Raven recovers the sun and the moon from an evil spirit by seducing his daughter , the angry father throws the daughter from a high cliff and , as she drops into the water , she turns into a walrus – possibly the original walrus . According to various legends , the tusks are formed either by the trails of mucus from the weeping girl or her long braids . This myth is possibly related to the Chukchi myth of the old walrus @-@ headed woman who rules the bottom of the sea , who is in turn linked to the Inuit goddess Sedna . Both in Chukotka and Alaska , the aurora borealis is believed to be a special world inhabited by those who died by violence , the changing rays representing deceased souls playing ball with a walrus head .
Because of its distinctive appearance , great bulk , and immediately recognizable whiskers and tusks , the walrus also appears in the popular cultures of peoples with little direct experience with the animal , particularly in English children 's literature . Perhaps its best @-@ known appearance is in Lewis Carroll 's whimsical poem " The Walrus and the Carpenter " that appears in his 1871 book Through the Looking @-@ Glass . In the poem , the eponymous antiheroes use trickery to consume a great number of oysters . Although Carroll accurately portrays the biological walrus 's appetite for bivalve mollusks , oysters , primarily nearshore and intertidal inhabitants , in fact comprise an insignificant portion of its diet , even in captivity .
The " walrus " in the cryptic Beatles song " I Am the Walrus " is a reference to the Lewis Carroll poem .
Another appearance of the walrus in literature is in the story " The White Seal " in Rudyard Kipling 's The Jungle Book , where it is the " old Sea Vitch — the big , ugly , bloated , pimpled , fat @-@ necked , long @-@ tusked walrus of the North Pacific , who has no manners except when he is asleep " .
= Jerry Voorhis =
Horace Jeremiah " Jerry " Voorhis ( April 6 , 1901 – September 11 , 1984 ) was a Democratic politician from California . He served five terms in the United States House of Representatives from 1937 to 1947 , representing the 12th Congressional district in Los Angeles County . He was the first political opponent of Richard Nixon , who defeated Voorhis for re @-@ election in 1946 in a campaign cited as an example of Nixon 's use of red @-@ baiting during his political rise .
Voorhis was born in Kansas , but the family relocated frequently in his childhood . He earned a bachelor 's degree from Yale University ( where he was elected to the academic honor society Phi Beta Kappa ) and a master 's degree in education from Claremont Graduate School . In 1928 , he founded the Voorhis School for Boys and became its headmaster . He retained the post into his congressional career .
In the House of Representatives , Voorhis was a loyal supporter of the New Deal and compiled a liberal voting record . His major legislative achievement was the Voorhis Act of 1940 requiring registration of certain organizations controlled by foreign powers . After being re @-@ elected by comfortable margins four times , he faced Nixon in 1946 in a bitter campaign in which Voorhis ' supposed endorsement by groups linked to the Communist Party was made into a major issue . Nixon won the Republican @-@ leaning district by over 15 @,@ 000 votes and Voorhis refused to run against Nixon in 1948 .
During a writing career spanning a half @-@ century , Voorhis penned several books . Following his defeat by Nixon , he retired from politics and worked for almost twenty years as an executive in the cooperative movement . He died in a California retirement home in 1984 at the age of 83 .
= = Early career = =
Voorhis was born in Ottawa , Kansas , on April 6 , 1901 , to Charles Brown Voorhis , of Dutch descent , and Ella Ward ( Smith ) Voorhis . Jerry was the grandson ( and future biographer ) of Aurelius Lyman Voorhis , who had " ventured out to the frontier in western Kansas " as merchant , land agent , and self @-@ taught lawyer , and had scraped to send his son to college until he was forced , halfway through , to give his son the only two dollars he could spare and advise him to get a job . Charles Voorhis took work in an investment company and as a semi @-@ professional baseball player and rose to become an executive of the Kingman Plow Company . When that company dissolved , Charles Voorhis became an executive of the Oakland Motor Car Company , which became the Pontiac division of General Motors , and finally of the Nash Motor Company before his 1925 retirement . Jerry Voorhis began school in Ottawa , but also attended school in Oklahoma City , Peoria , Illinois and Pontiac , Michigan . He attended The Hotchkiss School , an elite boys ' boarding school in Connecticut with close ties to Yale University , and subsequently attended Yale , graduating in 1923 . Voorhis was elected as a member of Phi Beta Kappa , was president of the Christian Association , and was greatly influenced by the Social Gospel movement .
Voorhis resisted all encouragement toward a business or management career , much to his father 's disappointment . While attending Yale , he came to believe that " the Christian Gospel is to be taken seriously , and that needless poverty and suffering on the one hand and special privilege and inordinate power on the other are entirely contrary to its precepts " . He later stated that he lacked the faith in his own judgment to leave Yale and get a job in " the real world [ which ] lay beyond the college walls " . However , once he graduated , Voorhis engaged a room at a boarding house and went to work as a receiving clerk , a job he soon exchanged for one as a freight handler . Later in 1923 , he was laid off . In 1923 and 1924 , he served as a traveling representative for the YMCA in Germany , though his stay was cut short by illness . Suffering from pneumonia , Voorhis spent six weeks recovering in a London nursing home .
Charles Voorhis 's job with Nash had taken him to a new home in Kenosha , Wisconsin ; Jerry Voorhis joined his parents there on his return from Europe . As part of his recovery from his illness , he spent several weeks in northwestern Wyoming , working on a ranch . In Kenosha , he met a social worker named Alice Louise Livingston and married her on November 27 , 1924 , in her hometown of Washington , Iowa . Resuming his blue @-@ collar career after his marriage , Voorhis moved to North Carolina with his wife and went to work in a Ford plant in Charlotte until being offered work as a teacher in an Illinois school for underprivileged boys , teaching three grades , coaching sports , and giving religious talks in the school 's chapel each morning . This was followed by a year in Laramie , Wyoming , where the Voorhises founded and ran an orphanage for boys .
In 1927 , the now @-@ retired Charles Voorhis offered his son an opportunity to found a boys academy near the elder Voorhis 's home in Pasadena , California . Jerry Voorhis responded by moving to California . In 1928 , he founded and became headmaster of the Voorhis School for Boys in San Dimas , California , a post he retained after his election to Congress . In addition to academic tutelage , the Voorhis School 's boys received training in farming , mechanical work , and other manual vocations . Charles and Jerry Voorhis would put much of the family fortune into the school . After Voorhis 's election to Congress , the school would be closed down , with the land and buildings donated to California State Polytechnic University , Pomona ( Cal Poly Pomona ) , later serving as the university 's Southern California campus until it moved in 1950 to Pomona . Voorhis remained in close touch with his school 's alumni .
Voorhis also involved himself in the local community . He organized cooperatives among the local ranchers and farmers . When strikes occurred , he would walk the picket lines with the workers . Voorhis gave lectures at Pomona College from 1930 until 1935 . He began publishing articles , writing in 1933 , " We could produce plenty for all , but we don 't do it ... we will do it only when all producing wealth is owned publicly . ... Incidentally , we would then be living in the kingdom of God . "
= = Political career = =
= = = Congressional service = = =
Voorhis was a candidate for the California State Assembly in 1934 , changing his registration from Socialist to Democrat , but was defeated by popular incumbent Herbert Evans despite receiving the backing of writer and Democratic gubernatorial candidate Upton Sinclair . Two years later , he challenged incumbent John Hoeppel for the 12th district Democratic nomination . Hoeppel was weakened by a recent conviction for attempting to sell a nomination to West Point and Voorhis won the Democratic nomination , with Hoeppel finishing in third place . Running as a " Progressive Roosevelt @-@ Democrat " , Voorhis easily defeated Republican nominee Frederick F. Houser in the general election .
Voorhis was reelected to Congress four times and had one of Congress 's most liberal voting records . He supported New Deal initiatives , including Franklin Roosevelt 's controversial court packing plan .
In January 1937 , Voorhis 's first legislative initiative was to propose a dramatic increase in spending for the Works Progress Administration in order to increase employment . While this effort was unsuccessful , Congress , faced with an economic downturn the following year , increased WPA spending beyond the level which Voorhis had sought . While the 75th Congress had in excess of 300 Democrats , many of them were conservative , and Voorhis emerged as a leader of a progressive caucus of some 50 representatives . Voorhis advocated the purchase by the Federal Government of the stock in the Federal Reserve Banks , which was held by the member banks , as a way of financing government expenditures and briefly got President Roosevelt to support the measure until the President 's advisers caused Roosevelt to change his mind . Voorhis later allied with future House Banking Committee chairman Wright Patman to force Federal Reserve Banks to pay most of the interest they earned on federal securities to the U.S. Government , rather than to the bank stockholders .
In the run @-@ up to World War II , Voorhis urged neutrality . He proposed enactment of a law which would require a national referendum on whether to go to war . According to Voorhis , laws banning the sale of munitions to foreign nations and forbidding Americans from making loans to other nations for war preparations would keep the United States out of war . In September 1939 , when interviewed by The New York Times for his reaction to the President calling Congress into special session to consider amendments to the Neutrality Act , Voorhis stated that a special session should quickly increase relief to the working poor . In early November 1939 , however , Voorhis announced his support for repealing the arms embargo mandated by the Act , at the same time urging that the country remain neutral . Voorhis also opposed a peacetime draft , and supported " lend @-@ lease " legislation .
Once war was declared , Voorhis supported the internment of Japanese @-@ Americans , though he suggested that the evacuations be done in as voluntary a manner as possible and that officials be appointed to administer their property to avoid forced sales at bargain prices . During the war , Voorhis advocated more efficiently taxing higher incomes and war profits , planning against postwar unemployment , and planning for the nutritional needs of Americans . Voorhis also opposed dominance of big business in the war effort . Congress , for the most part , ignored Voorhis 's pleas .
Voorhis often opposed the petroleum industry , questioning the need for the oil depletion allowance . In 1943 , he was told by a Pasadena attorney that the Navy Department was planning to grant Standard Oil exclusive free drilling rights in the vast Elk Hills naval reserve in central California , then thought to be the richest oil reserve outside the Arabian Peninsula . The congressman in a speech from the House floor in May 1943 exposed the deal , which was soon cancelled . The Washington Post hailed him as a hero , and House Naval Affairs Committee Chairman Carl Vinson of Georgia stated that Voorhis had performed " the greatest kind of service " . However , the Los Angeles Times suggested that Voorhis had harmed the war effort by depriving the people of California of gasoline . In 1945 , Voorhis fought a bill which would have given oil companies offshore drilling rights . The petroleum industry journal Second Issue blamed the defeat of the bill on Voorhis . Nixon biographer Roger Morris suggested that these stands led oil companies to give Nixon substantial , but surreptitious , financial assistance during the 1946 campaign against Voorhis .
= = = Record and campaigns = = =
Voorhis " temperamentally and philosophically loathed " Communism . He sponsored the Voorhis Act of 1940 , which required political organizations which were controlled by a foreign power or which engaged
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